A LOOK AT MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH
AS RELATED TO. THE FOOD lNDUSTRY

Thesis for the Degree of M. A
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

J. Barrett Mc lnerney
1958

 

 

L I B R A R Y L
Michigan Scam“;
. University f

 

A LOOK AT MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH AS

RELATED TO THE FOOD INDUSTRY

by

J. Barrett Mclnerney

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College ofMBusiness and Public Service
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration
Curriculum in Food Distribution

1958

2

J. BARRETT MCINERNEY ABSTRACT

The desire on the part of business and marketing
interests to know more about the individual consumer and
the explanation behind his behavior has brought the social
scientists into the field of marketing research. A need
for better and more reliable marketing information has
given rise to a new phase of marketing research that is
popularly called motivational research. Through the use
of behavioral science techniques the relatively new research
seeks to draw out and explain the underlying motivations
responsible for consumer behavior.

Motivation research‘does not displace the older
techniques and methods of market research, but rather
serves to augment and strengthen the latter. Motivational
analysis is a qualitative approach to marketing research,
while market research is a quantitative or statistical
approach. Both seek answers to the matter of human be—
havior, but market research is restricted to the conscious
response of the consumer, while motive analysis deals in
large measure with the subconscious and unconscious levels
of human awareness. Behavioral scientists maintain that
attitudes, impressions, and prejudices stored in the sub-
conscious and unconscious mind largely determine and con-
trol human behavior. Therefore, to obtain greater knowl-

edge of consumer behavior marketing interests are probing

3
J. BARRETT MCINERNEY ABSTRACT

beneath the conscious level of human response through
motivational research.

This thesis attempts to look into the background
and development of the new research, discuss its techniques,
procedures, and adherents, point out some of its accomplish-
ments, and illustrate two actual studies that-have been
performed. The writer places particular emphasis on
pointing out some of the accomplishments of motivational
research as it relates to the food industry. Much of the
work that has been performed in this area up to the present
time has been done on products, services, or operational
problems that are directly related to the food distribution
field. Motivational research has already made valuable
contributions to this industry and holds promise of greater

contributions in the future.

"The Food Distribution program at Michigan State
University is under the sponsorship of the National
Association of Food Chains."

A LOOK AT MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH AS

RELATED TO THE FOOD INDUSTRY

by

J. Barrett McInerney

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Business and Public Service
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration
Curriculum in Food Distribution

1958

i '7 _"

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his sincere appreciation
and indebtedness to the management and executive staff of
the Scott Paper Company, Chester, Pennsylvania, who made
this year of advanced study possible.

Grateful acknowledgment is accorded to Dr. Edward A.
Brand for his interest and guidance throughout the year.
His counsel and assiStance have proven an invaluable aid
and will always be gratefully remembered by the writer.

Special acknowledgment is due George L. Almond for
his advice and valuable assistance in the preparation of
this thesis.

Finally, the author wishes to express his deepest
appreciation to his wife, Marilyn, whose interest, assis-
tance, and personal devotion throughout this year of

graduate work are due special recognition.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose of this thesis. . . . . . . 9

Reason for this study . . . . . . . 9

Approach to this study. . . . . . . 11
Definitions . . . . L . . . . . 13

Methods of study. . . . . . . . . 14
Limitations of the study . '. . . . . 1h

II. MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH. . . . . . . '. 16

History and development of motivational
research. . . . . . . . .' . . l7

Motivational research concepts and

objectives . . . . .. . . . . . 2O
Techniques and procedure . . . . . . 27
Utilization of motivation research. . . 27
Effectiveness of motivation research .1 . 3O

Prominent researchers and their approaches 31

Noteworthy motivation research study . .. 34‘
III. MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH CONTROVERSY. . . . 38

External controversy . . . . . . . 38

Internal motivation research controversy. A8

Trend of the motivation research conflict 53

CHAPTER
IV. MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH FINDINGS PERTINENT
TO FOOD DISTRIBUTION.
quneral studies.
Greater insight into consumer behavior
ahead A
V. MOTIVATION RESEARCH STUDY OF COLOR IN
HOUSEHOLD PAPER PRODUCTS
Key findings on color in general
The power of color.
Color and toilet tissue
Color and facial tissue
Color and.napkins . . . . . . .
Color and paper towels .
Current status of color in Scott paper
products
VI.. CANNED MEAT STUDY.
Purpose
vResearch methods and techniques
Principal findings and evaluation of the
study
The stereotype: canned meat.
Relation of canned meat to other
convenience foods.
Consumption of canned meats by varying

income and occupational groups

iv

PAGE

56
69

73

75
77

79
81

84
87
89

91
93
93

9A

9A
94

97

99

CHAPTER _ PAGE
Acceptance and use of seven canned meat
products. . . . . . . . . . . 100
American pattern of consuming fresh meats . 107
Shopping habits in connection with fresh
meat and meal planning . . . . . . lO7
Meal planning habits and specific meal
planning. . . . . . . . . . . lO9
Importance of cooking fresh meats to the
housewife . . . . . . . . . . llO
Prevailing product image of canned meat. . 110

Major suggestions for increasing canned

meat consumption. '. . . . . . . . 111
Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . 112
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY .- . . . . '. . . . . . . . . 123

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Study of marketing research in our country reveals
that this phase of business activity is less than fifty

years old.1

The statistical approach to obtaining marketing
data is a relative newcomer to the business scene. The
attention of American businessmen from the time of the
industrial revolution until the close of the nineteenth
century, was production, rather than market centered. Their
major problem during this period was one of satisfying the
demand for goods and services. This was an-era of tremen-
dous physical expansion for the nation, and the demand upon
our productive capacity produced a long run sellers' market.
The generally high level of income and the limited avail~
ability of goods made selling a relatively simple task.
Consumers could not afford to be too critical or demanding
in this period, and manufacturers and producers did not
have to concern themselves particulary with product differ-
entiation, or with creating a demand among consumers. Only

when the production of manufactured and agricultural pro-

ducts began to increase faster than the rate of growth of

 

AStewart H. Rewolt, "Michigan Business Studies," Econ-
omic Effects of Marketing_Research, XI, No. A (Ann Arbor:
UniversityTOfWWichigan Press? July, 1953), p. 9.

 

 

2
our population did American business have to turn attention
to marketing. At the close of the nineteenth century the
nation's production was growing rapidly, while the nation‘s
markets were growing at a pace that was less rapid.
America's productive capacity was increasing at a more
rapid rate than was the nation's population. The buyer at
last assumed a role of importance, and a buyer's market
came into existence.2

With-the development of the buyer's market the con-
sumer became more discriminating in purchases of goods and
services, and forced upon manufacturers and producers an
awareness of the importance of marketing information. It
was only at this point that businessmen began to realize
that in their haste to avail themselves of the fruits of
the industrial revolution they had lost contact with the
consumer. In the growth from little shops and small pro-
ducing units serving a community to large factories and
vast producing units serving national or international
markets, they had lost direct contact with their customers.

The blacksmith of a century ago had no serious prob-
lem in keeping his products and services in line with the
desires of his customers. He served a limited market and
dealt with the consumer directly, and was generally abreast

of his market's needs and demands. The blacksmith had no

 

2Lewis K. Johnson, Sales and Marketing Management
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Ific.:'l957), pp. 3:6C

 

3
marketing problem such as that faced by a large steel firm
that grew up during the nineteenth century burdened by the
broad separation of producer and consumer and serving a
world market.

The production emphasis of business management during
the nineteenth century is well documented. Management's
change of emphasis and gradual awareness of marketing and
its importance is also well recorded in our industrial
history. But the change was not an easy one, nor was it
a welcome one among many of the rugged individualists
operating American industry at that time. Recognition of
the importance of the consumer was as objectionable to
many industrialists as was the rise of organized labor.
Realization that they suddenly had to woo the customer if
they desired to sell their products was a new approach to
business for which they were entirely unprepared. Henry
Ford's often quoted statement to the effect that the
American public could have any color car they desired as
long as it was black, just about conveys the attitude of
businessmen toward the general public at the close of the
nineteenth century. However, the pendulum had swung in
the consumer's favor, and business organizations had to
meet the demands of the changed situation, or perish in
the new competitive market structure.

This new consumer influenced economy paved the way

for modern advertiSing, and gave birth to marketing

11
research. Manufacturers and producers faced with the task
of impressing the consumer, had to discover and develop the
tools with which to accomplish the task. Manufacturers
created formal marketing departments, and took some initi-
ative in the sale of their products to the ultimate con-
sumer, rather than leaving complete control of supply and
demand in the hands of the middleman or wholesaler.3

Advertising, sales management, and control of dis-
_tribution became the important concerns of manufacturers
and producers in the early part of the twentieth century.
Business effort was turned to the building of brands,
product differentiation, trademarks, packaging, and sales
promotion to gain prestige for the producer and build sales
volume. Businessmen became aware of the fact that to
compete effectively they required greater knowledge of the
marketing and distribution processes, and the consumers
within their markets.

This is the atmosphere into which marketing research
was introduced in this country. The year 1911 found the
Curtis Publishing Company establishing the first marketing
research department,“ Curtis Publishing saw the need for
a more scientific approach to marketing, and took a
revolutionary step to meet that need. Business in general

needed more elaborate and more detailed information about

all phases Of marketing to serve as a guide in marketing

 

Vfi —v fiv w v a

3Ibid., p. 8. 4Rewolt, op. cit., p. 11.

decisions. A tremendous demand had grown for information
about consumers and consumption patterns, and the intro-
duction and development of market research met this
previously unsatisfied need. The establishment of marketing
research departments within manufacturing organizations
spread rapidly. By the close of World War II, thirty-eight
per cent of all United States manufacturing companies had
'a marketing research department of some sort, and this
figure does not include firms having market research done
by outside organizations.5

Marketing research, as it became established, supplied
business organizations with the much needed information
required to conduct marketing activities on a more scien-
tific basis. Some of the major areas in which market
research made the greatest contribution are in the appraisal
of sales opportunities and performance; appraisal of dis-
tribution; distribution methods and advertising; and econ-
omic, product, and consumer studies. The march was on to
take the guess work out of marketing through the effective
use of market research, and a great deal has been accom-
plished in a relatively short space of time.

Market research, through the use of experimental and

statistical research, has supplied vast quantities of

 

5William H. Heusner, Charles M. Dooley, Gordon A.
Hughes, and Percival White, "Marketing Research in American
Industry," The Journal of Marketing, XI, No. A (April,
1947), 339.' ' ' TI

 

 

6
information to guide business management in their marketing
decisions. It has proved invaluable in gathering statistics
on specific questions, and forecasting future events based
on these statistics. In the area of human behavior the
market researchers have been able to carefully document
‘"what" people do and ”how" they do it. However, market
research has not been able to supply the all important
third leg to this triangle on human behavior in the form of
"why." The methods and procedures of conventional market
'research are not designed to get at the motivating force
behind human behavior. Rather, they are concerned with
what people have done in the past, and how they have done
it as a basis for explaining what has already taken place,
and forecasting what should take place in the future.
Within the confines of their experimental and statistical
approach to market problems the market researchers have
made very substantial contributions to the field of
marketing.

However, the pressure by business for greater under-
standing and knowledge of markets, and particularly of the
consumer, has increased with the passage of time._ The suc-
cess enjoyed by marketing research in adding to our store
of marketing knowledge has served to merely whet the
appetite of the businessman, rather than to satisfy the
.hunger. Management is keenly interested in the third leg

of the triangle that conventional marketing research is not

7

equipped to handle. Business leaders today are interested
in the "why" approach to human behaVior to gain a complete
understanding of their customer. They realize that they

do not have full command of their marketing activities as
long as they do not understand the motives and reasons
behind the behavior of the consumer. Without the knowledge
of the'"why" behind consumer_actions and behavior, marketing
management is forced to operate without the complete knowl-
edge they desire.

The pressure of business interest for a more exact
understanding of consumer behavior and answers to the
question of the "why" behind consumer behavior has brought
social and psychological scientists into the field of
marketing. These scientists have sought to apply techni-
ques from the field of clinical psychology to advertising
and marketing research. They seek through the use of the
techniques borrowed from clinical psychology the explanation
behind consumer behavior. The assumption is that to get at
buying motives, research must probe both the conscious and
subconscious levels of human awareness to get at the real
motives behind consumer behavior.

This relatively new form of research as it has been
applied in the area of marketing by psychologists and
other social scientists has become known as motivational
research. .The two areas of scientific endeavor have drawn
upon their own fields for techniques and procedures to

apply to solution of marketing problems.

The entry of the social scientists into the area of
marketing has been met with mixed emotions by industrial-
ists, advertising people, students of marketing, and edu—
cators who are interested in the study of human behavior.
Their work has been lauded by prominent representatives
of each group and soundly condemned by highly regarded
members of eachof these areas of endeavor. Motivational
research has even produced partiSanship on the issue of
ethics and legality within churches and the government.

As a legitimate form of research it is assailed by some

on the basis of techniques, by others on procedures, and
many on findings. People interested or active in marketing
fall in several different categories when questioned on
their opinion or evaluation of this new arrival on the
marketing scene. Some reject motivational research and all
that is involved in it entirely, more see it as an aid in
solving marketing problems, but tend to be somewhat skep-
tical of motivational research findings. Another group

see this new form of research as a valuable part of the
over-all market research approach to problems, and a rather
small group view motivation research as the real key to
marketing issues. Somewhere between the extremes of these-
opinions rests the truth about motivation research which

a number of talented people are now working very hard to

find and prove.

Purpose offithis Thesis

 

The objective of this thesis is to examine the im-

. portance and place of motivational research in the area

of marketing, and its relationship to the field of food
distribution. 'An effort will be made to evaluate the role
of this form of research in the marketing structure, and
to point out both failings and accomplishments in the
undertakings of motivational research practitioners.
Emphasis will be placed on research that is directly re—
lated to the field of food distribution, and a presentation
made of the findings from motivational research studies
that have not been published or released to the general

public.

Reason for this Study

 

A study of motivational research and its relationship
to the food industry is undertaken because of the recent
emphasis this research has been given in the development,
advertising, and promotion of products being sold through
supermarkets. Many new products recently introduced and
now being marketed through food stores have a motivational
research background.

Motivational research shows promise of giving us new
understanding of the consumer and consumer behavior that
is vital in increasing our marketing efficiency. AFindings
to date indicate that motivational research may in the

future take much of the guess work and gamble out of the

lO
manufacture and distribution of all types of products.
At the very least, it promises to give us a better under-
standing of the consumer that will sharpen business judgment
and be an invaluable guide in the making of marketing
decisions at all levels of sales and distribution..

The demand for greater efficiency in the field of
food distribution, due to rising costs and shrinking profit
margins, makes motivational research of particular interest
in this area of business activity. Better understanding of
the consumer, and a more specific knowledge of consumer
buying motives will pave the way to greater efficienty in
all phases of the food industry. Such knowledge can take
much of the guesswork and gamble out of buying, advertising,
and merchandising of products by supermarket interests, and
enable their suppliers to design, package, and promote
products in such a way that they are pre-sold to the con-
sumer.

A study of motivational research is an interesting
undertaking for anyone seeking knowledge of the marketing
processes. However, such a study is fascinating to a stu-
dent of food distribution because of his awareness of the
complexity of the problems faced by the food industry today
and the very significant role this industry plays in our
economy. Knowledge of the tremendous volume of goods that
must be handled within the framework of our food industry

builds an appreciation of how motivational research may be

ll
of tremendous value to food processers, handlers, and
merchandisers in serving efficiently our economy and con-

tributing to its growth.

Approach to this Study

 

The following chapters of this thesis will be devoted
to a developing and understanding of motivational research,
the function of this type of research in marketing, and its
relationship with the food industry. Chapter II will set
forth the history of motivational research, some of the
discipline in this phase of research, techniques, appli-
cations, and some pertinent findings from actual studies.
In Chapter III the study will deal with a discussion of the
controversy that has arisen over the application of moti-
vation research to marketing problems. Much of what has
been written on motivation research dwells more heavily
on the controversy than on an effort to prove or disprove
its value.

Chapter IV will set forth a collection of the findings
developed from motivational research studies that apply to
'the food industry. A vast majority of the studies that
have been reported to date are concerned with products
that are-sold through food outlets and consumer shopping
behavior at the food store level.

Unpublished findings of motivational research studies
on household paper products will be set forth in Chapter V.

The results of these studies were made available by the

12
marketing department of Scott Paper Company. This company
ranks among the earlier national concerns to use motiva-
tional research techniques in its marketing research
activities.

The work done for Scott in the area of color dynamics
by the Institute for Motivational Research, Incorporated,
does much to explain the current and growing preference of
consumers for color in all forms of processed and manu-
factured products. However, the studies also show that
color has negative psychological aspects which anyone
utilizing color must understand and take into consideration
in all planning concerned with color. Its use must be given
the same careful research as is given to the product or
undertaking of which it is a part.

Chapter VI covers an unpublished study done for the
National Meat Canners Association. It deals with consumer
reaction, purchasing habits, and opinions in relation to
canned meats. This study gets at some long unanswered ques-
tions about general consumer indifference to, and low
consumption rate of canned meat products. The findings
and resulting recommendations indicate some very definite
steps that can be taken to increase canned meat sales by
making canned meat products more desirable, and presenting
them to the consumer in a more tempting fashion.

The second phase of the canned meat study as reported

in this chapter centers on research done in the area of

13
consumer shopping habits in relationship to fresh meats,
and an investigation of meal planning and preparation.
Researchers conducting the canned meat study saw a neces-
sity of understanding consumer reaction to fresh meat in
order to properly evaluate the findings on canned meat.
Their findings, through use of motivational research tech-
niques, are a valuable contribution to the knowledge of all
who are interested in the marketing of meat and meat pro-
ducts. A summation of specific findings and the recommen-
chtions of the researchers on the matter of increasing
canned meat consumption are set forth in this chapter. The
researchers were able to give particular emphasis to many
of their findings, which they were able to relate to a
quantitative market study conducted prior to the motiva-
tional analysis.

The final chapter, VII,sets forth a summary of the
material presented in the body of this thesis, and the
writer's conclusions about the value, application, and role

of motivational research in relation to modern business.

Definitions

 

To assure clarity and continuity in this paper cer-
tain terms are used as having the following meaning.

Motivational research is the application of certain
social concepts and techniques to business and marketing
problems with the objective of determining underlying

reasons for human behavior.

1A

Market research is a quantitative approach to the
obtaining of marketing data,and utilizes the experimental-
statistical approach in seeking the'"what" and "how"
explanation of behavior.

'"Marketing research is the gathering, recording, and
analyzing of all facts about problems relating to the
transfer and sale of goods and services from producer to

6

consumer."

Method of Study

 

The information presented in this thesis has been
drawn through research in books, periodicals, and news-
papers containing articles or material pertinent to the
subject. Additional material was derived from a group of
unpublished motivational research studies made available
to the writer by Scott Paper Company, George A Hormel and
Company, and the J. Walter Thompson Company. These sources

were augmented by personal interviews with executives and

personnel in the fields of marketing and advertising.

Limitations of the Study

Motivation research is a relatively new phase of
marketing research, and'many of its basic techniques have
not been validated, nor findings entirely substantiated.

The successes attributed to this phase of research have

-------

 

6Editors,'"Report of the Definitions Committee,"
Journal 23 Marketing, XIII, No. 2 (October, 1948), 210.

 

15
been Jell publicized, but there is no clear cut evidence
that motivational research was entirely responsible, since
the other marketing factors such as advertising, distri-
bution, and market programming, have not been isolated and
evaluated. In instances of conflict between the findings
of one motivational study and another, there appear to
have been no experiments to reconcile the differences or
prove one over the other. Finally, motivation researchers
are in conflict among themselves as to methods of con-
ducting motivational studies, and techniques to be used,
and thereby tend to challenge one another's findings,

causing a certain amount of confusion in the field.

CHAPTER II
MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH

Motivational research, for the purposes of this study,
is considered that form of research using the theories and
techniques of the social sciences to discover and interpret
the "why" behind consumer behavior. A common distinction
made between this type of research and conventional market
research is that the former is a qualitative approach,
while the latter is quantitative.. Both seek to develop a
greater understanding of human behavior, but utilize dif-
ferent methods and cover different areas of explanation.
Motivational research uses psychological techniques to get
at the "why" behind human behavior, while market research
uses statistical methods to learn the "what" and "how"

1 So the distinction between

involved in consumer actions.
these two forms of research, now being used by business to
learn more about the consumer, is well drawn. Since moti-
vational research is the newer form of research, it seems

appripriate to look into its background.

 

v—v—v

1Robert J. Williams, "Is It True What They Say About
Motivation Research?," The Journal of Marketing, XXII, No.
2 (October, 1957), 125.

 

 

17

History and Development of Motivational Research

 

Inquiry into the earliest use or practice of moti-
vational research fails to turn up conclusive evidence as
to who were the pioneers in the field, and what were the
first studies. It is quite possible that obscure social
scientists might have made studies many years before the
earliest recorded study without publicizing or recording
their efforts, which would now be classified as motiva-
tional research. The earliest recorded study that seems
to be properly documented is a business problem worked on
in 1932 by Drr Henry C. Link, of the Psychological Corpor-
ation, for the Towle Manufacturing Company. Towle wanted
to know why its advertising of sterling silver was not
getting better results, and Dr. Link used the technique
that is now called "depth interviewing" to obtain the
answer and to serve as a basis for some sound recommen—
dations. He established the fact that silver selection
was a very romantic and emotional process, which gave Towle
new insight into its advertising appeals and pattern
designs. From the study, he was able to show the company
that they were not reaching the right audience with the
magazines they were using.2 Although he did not call his
work motivational research, this was very genuinely a

motivational research study.

 

2Lydia Strong, "Motivational Research-~What‘s In It
for You?," Dun‘s Review and Modern Industry, 69, No. A

(February, 19575; 52. I'7

 

18

Professor Dale Houghton of New York University con-
ducted studies during the 1930's of "common human irritants,
such as dirty teeth, constipation, cough, etc."| These he
endeavored to show brought to a person's mind certain
specific product images that might offer them relief.
During the same decade the J. Walter Thompson Company, a
leading advertising agency, called upon a noted behavorist
psychologist John B. Watson to apply social science tech-
niques to one or more problems3

Two men actively seeking honors as the originator
of motivational research are Dr. Ernest Dichter,1uxni of
the Institute for Motivation Research, Incorporated, and
Louis Cheskin, a noted director of Color Research Institute
of America. Each man claims to have been using motivational
research techniques since the mid-nineteen thirties, and
Dr. Dichter claims credit for the terms "motivational
research" and "depth interviewg"u- To whom the laurels
actually belong seems to be an almost unanswerable question,
on the basis of the evidence submitted to date, but both
men are widely recognized as pioneers in the field. They
have figured prominently in motivational research activities
and have been cited as authorities ever since the new

research gained its first publicity.

 

3Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1957), p. 26.

41bid., p. 25."

 

19
In l9A6 the Institute for Social Research undertook
a study of war bond buying. They were commissioned to
survey bond buyers and determine what were the successful
appeals. The Institute personnel utilized motivational
research techniques in the conducting and evaluation of
their survey and established that personal solicitation
was the most effective method in getting people to buy
war bonds.5
But motivational research did not gain much attention
nor arouse interest until the late forties. In 19A8 a
paper prepared by Mr. Cheskin entitled "Indirect Approach

to Market Reactionsy‘ a discussion of motivation research,

was published in the Harvard Business Review. Two years

 

later the Journal of Marketing included four articles in

 

the April 1950 issue that dealt with motivation research.6

As the official publication of the American Marketing
Association, these articles held great significance in
business recognition of motivational research activities,
and may well have triggered the numerous articles that
followed in marketing and avertising publications.
Advertising agencies now began to seriously investi-
gate motivational research and evaluate its applications.

Leading agencies began adding psychologists and social

 

5Strong, op. cit., p. 65.

6Packard,~op. cit., p. 26.

2O
scientists to their staffs and even creatingspecial depart-
ments to handle motivation research. The highlight in the
form of official recognition came with the establishment
by the Advertising Research Foundation of a special com-
mittee on Motivaional Research, and named a prominent
psychologist and advertising research man, Dr. Wallace
Wulfeck as chairman.7

Motivation research was now on the move. It had
achieved a certain desired air of respectability, and
despite opposition and internal and external controversy,
could move forward in the field of marketing. The records
show a certain evidence of advertisers and agencies climbing
aboard the band wagon by dressing up their activities with
motivational research terminology without utilizing quali-
fied researchers or motivational research techniques. But
in general, there was an impressive and definite movement
by many advertising firms and marketing organizations to
put the new research approach into uSe. One Chicago adver-
tising agency is reported to have obtained the services of
eight social scientists to evaluate the appeals of a
battery of sponsored programs and their commercials.8 The

agency hoped to gain greater insight into what makes for

 

71bid., p. 28.

8Fairfax M. Cone, "Advertising Is Not a Ploty"
Atlénticflpfifihly: Vol- 201, NO- 1 (January. 1958). 73.

 

21
success in television shows and what is involved in effec-
tive commercials. Their procedure was to have the scien—
tists spend a full twelve hours watching television in a
hotel room. This was a direct effort of that agency to
avail themselves of the new and much publicized wonders of
motivational research. The scientists rewarded the agency
with some keen psychological and sociological evaluations
of program and commercial appeals.

Today motivational research is a well established
and generally respected research tool in the fields of
advertising and marketing. The title ”motivational
research" and the techniques utilized by this branch of
marketing research offer new hope of marketing gaining
recognition as a science. In advertising and marketing
circles motivational research is generally viewed as a
means of getting at previously unobtainable information
about consumers, and as a key to a more scientific approach
to the transfer of goods between source and consumer.
Advocates see motivational research's "why" objeCtive as
the best means to gain sufficient information about the
consumer to assure efficient marketing of our constantly

increasing industrial and agricultural production.

Motivational Research—~Concepts and Objectives

 

Dr. George Horsley Smith in his book Motivation

 

Research £9 Advertising and Marketing suggests that "Why

 

Research" might be more accurate and less misleading than

22
the present title. Such a title, he feels, would focus
on the entire range of inner feelings and conditions which
play a vital role in a person's buying decision in re-
sponding to communication.9 The title is a direct state-
ment of this researcher's purpose in getting at why people
behave as they do in relation to a particular advertising,
marketing, or communication stimulus.

The effort is to relate behavior to underlying proc-
esses, such as, people‘s desires, emotions, and intentions.
Therefore, there is a variance from market research that
only describes a situation or enumerates persons who have
behaved in a given way.

Today's research is person-centered. Statements are
made about events from the point of view of the person or
persons who are experiencing the events. The basis is an
assumption that what people do is intimately related to
their private feelings and.perceptions. Consequently, the
motivation researcher seeks to reinterpret product features
and communication material through the eyes of the consumer.

The motivation researcher is interested in deter-
mining the motives that are operative in the individual
when making a choice or buying decision. He utilizes tech-
niques to probe the subconscious or unconscious mind

because these are largely the areas in which preferences

 

9George Horsley Smith, Motivation Research in Adver-
tising and Marketing_(New York:TRMcGraw4Hill Book Co., Inc.,

1554) . p. 5'.

 

 

23
are determined by a store of attitudes, images, prejudices,
beliefs, and perceptions, of which the buyer may not even
be conscious. Therefore, the researcher getting at these
underlying motives is interested in three levels of human
consciousness. At the first or rational conscious level
the consumer is aware of what is and can explain his actions
and reasons for them to the degree that he understands
these actions. The second level, variously known as the
preconscious or subconscious, is that area where the in-
dividual may vaguely know what attitudes, feelings, or
prejudices govern his actions, but he is unwilling to
express them. The third is the unconscious level which
contains attitudes and feelings of which the individual
is unaware and would not express openly even if they were
known to him.10

Dr. Smith points out that when a researcher encounters
a man who dislikes milk, he wonders about the man's back-
ground. He is interested in the childhood experiences of
this man and his present picture of himself to determine
what makes milk objectionable. The housewife who will
not serve instant coffee offers a similar area of interest.
The researcher wishes to know how she perceives the product
in relation to her role as a wife and mother.11

Motivation research focuses on what happens to a

person between the time a stimulus is applied and a response

.....

 

v—v V w aw

loPackard, op. cit., p. 25. 11Smith, op. cit., p. A.

2A

is made. This stimulus may be in the form of an ad, a
product, a store display;—or perhaps a corporate symbol,

or television commercial. The point of concern is the
response which takes the form of accepting or rejecting.
This is the actual decision to buy or not to buy. To
anticipate the response and fully understand it we must
know what is going on inside the person.

The motivation researcher is actively seeking knowl—
edge of the basic gratifications involved in the consumption
of toilet soap, pasteries, and liquor. He wishes to learn
the real satisfactionS'gained from the use of automatic
laundry and kitchen equipment. The right answers to these
questions and many more like them are worth millions of
dollars to all who are involved in the distribution of
goods and services. Armed with this information, these
interests may bring both products and appeals in line with

consumer desires.

I In evaluating the consumer, the researcher is looking
for beliefs and assumptions that are often tacit and unver-
balized.' To fully understand why the consumer acts as he
or she does, the researcher must determine the consumer's
frame of reference. He is reaching for the underlying
assumptions and beliefs that the consumer may not be fully
conscious of when questioned about a purchase or decision.
Underlying attitudes or frame of reference often lead the

consumer to act in a manner he could not readily explain.

25

Frame of reference and attitudes are two very common
references in the field Of motivational research. Frame
of reference is defined as refering to behavior tendencies
and is a personality trait. Frame of reference supplies
a means to the researcher to classify people, as a step
in making predictions as to their behavior. Attitudes have
to do with the making of value judgments. Attitudes are
expressed when a person approves or disapproves of a piece
of advertising, or a rare steak. Knowledge of these atti-
tudes is important to the researcher because it tells him
what people will accept and reject, and how a product or
an idea can be presented to them.

Attitudes can be used to classify people into homo-
geneous groups. Accomplishing this, the researchers can
then probe more deeply for motivational factors.

In determining why a consumer failed to select a cer-
tain brand of product when shopping, the researcher can
start with attitude research. The question is whether the
customer actually dislikes the brand. If rejection is due
to dislike, then there is an attitude problem which the
researcher must probe.

Further investigation of motivation research takes
us deep into the field of psychology. A product study to

determine why a particular consumer purchased Maxwell House

 

coffee leads into the area of sensations, images, and

feelings. One researcher on this brand of coffee failed

26
to be productive until he asked the consumer to visualize
her last purchase. After due visualization she stated
that she guessed she liked the beautiful blue color of the
can.12

A woman being interviewed about soap preferences
said, "I enjoy the sensation of my skin being gently
fondled;"13: Certainly no quick assumptions can be made
about such a statement. Psychological evaluation and
probing is essential to determine the full significance of
such a statement.

Motivational research requires an understanding of
all of the psychological stimuli. It carries the researcher
into the areas of motives, gratifications, identification,
and empathy. He must know, understand, and be able to work
with these inner motivations. There are many other aspects
that the investigator wIIl deal with, but those already
discussed are base essentials in any psychological study.
Knowledge of these inner variables is helpful in increasing
the power to predict actual behavior in a specific situ-
ation. They are a legitimate part of marketing information.

Understanding of these inner variables, and the
relating of them to practical advertising and marketing

issues is the motivation research function. It can readily

 

12Ibid., p. 9.

M

l3Ibid.

 

27
be seen that high-level professional training is required
to formulate a research problem and properly interpret the

1A
findings.

Techniques and Procedure

 

I Techniques used for getting the desired information
are through interviewing, testing, and special study tech-
niques, such as content analysis, sociometry, and others.
Each approach has many facets and alternatives for proce-
dure. Interviewing, as an example, may be of the depth
type, free association, non-directive, or projection.
Research based on testing may utilize word association,
sentence completion, Thematic Apperception pictures, or
the Rorschack ink blots test of personality. Other tech—
niques include personality inventory, direct observations,

and hypnosis.15

Utilization of Motivation Research

 

This new scientific approach to marketing research
is a plus factor. Motiyation research does not replace
conventional market research, nor is it a substitute for
creative inspiration, or sound business judgment. This

research technique is concerned with the "person-centered"

 

a fififi‘w

l“Ibid.. p. 17.

15Editors of Fortune, The Amazing_Advertisin
.Business (New York: Simon and SRuster, I957}, p. E9.

 

28
point of view, and has special methods of investigation.
The result of these investigations is additional insight
into marketing problems. The thing to be determined is
the usefulness of this plus information to advertisers
and business organizations.

The need for psychological research methods is mani-
fested when standard market research seems inadequate for
a particular assignment.' Often the complexity of the prob-
lem to be solved will indicate a need for research beyond
the scope of conventional investigation. At other times
psychological techniques must be utilized, due to the
actual failure of regular research to produce an answer to
a specific problem or question. Psychological research
has proven to be of particular value in developing hypothe-
ses that suggest areas and factors that should be
researched.16 ’

Motivation research is often resorted to when all the
. usual data have been assembled, and those responsible for
decision making are not satisfied with the evidence. Often-
times the dilemma arises from the subtleties of the human
factors involved in the problem that management is handling.
Here is the circumstance under which a resort is often made
to psychological research. The motivation researcher digs

into the underlying and hidden elements of the questions

 

15Editors, "The $000 Billion Question-~What Makes Her
, Buy," Printers"Ink, Vol. 261, No. 3 (October 18, l957),37.

 

29
that were beyond the regular market researchers. When
management is satisfied that they have exhausted all possi-
bilities of investigation, and submitted the subtle human
factors to experts for evaluation, they can more readily
come to a decision. The new science is now being used to
test advertising copy and evaluate sales campaigns.

A survey by the Advertising Research Foundation in
1957 revealed that of 105 of their members, fifty-seven
had engaged in motivational research. All major adver-
tising agencies now maintain full time motivational research
staffs. "Along Madison Avenue, there is scarcely an agency
without its motivation research team," states a recent

Business Week article.17

 

Another application of this form of research is the
study of brand loyalty. Investigation of impulse pur—
chasing and the developing of new appeals for an estab-
lished product offer a challenge to the researchers.
Psychological studies are frequently the basis when devel-
oping new products, planning sales promotions, determining
the appropriateness of advertising, or designing packages.
The identification of opinion and style leaders within a
specified sales area, and the suggestion of advertising
approaches to reach them, are another area of concentration

for motive research men. Obtaining and evaluating the

 

l7Editors,-"What Sways the Family Shopper," Business
Week, No. lA7A (November 30, 1957), A6.

3O
psychological implications of colors, and various shades of
each, to the consumer, to guide business in the effective
use of color, has proved a full time occupation for many
motivational researchers. All of these areas have been
probed by conventional market research men without achieving
wholly satisfactory answers. Motivation research has the
tools that may open up new vistas of knowledge and under-
standing.

This new research tool has already proven of immense
value and importance in many instances where it has been
used. It can be justified and considered a valuable con-
tributor to an organization if it produces new knowledge.
It is contributing subStantially if it does any of the
following:

1. Provides new leads

Clarifies and systematizes knowledge
Confirms hunches

2
3
A. Supplies the "why" behind what is really known
5 Gives the "why" behind what is already known

6

Serves as a negative, pointing out areas of

18

doubt or weakness in a proposal.

Effectiveness of Motivation Reseagch

 

Psychological research is not always of equal value

on every marketing problem. The effectiveness of this type

 

fi 1 fififi—V

18Smith, op. cit., p. 217.

31

of research will vary from one problem to another, just
as is true of conventional market research procedure. There
is no way to definitely determine the possible effectiveness
of motivational research in advance. The only solution to
this dilemma is a little exploratory work uSing psycholog-
ical research. Such an experiment will often indicate
whether a more costly study would prove worthwhile.

Motivational research is still in the development
stage, and much remains to be learned about the application
of this new branch of marketing research. New discoveries
are being made that improve the effectiveness, and many
more will be made. As long as we are gaining new knowledge
and insight into the field of psychology, motivation

research will progress.

Prominent Researchers and Their Approaches

Dr. Ernest Dichter, president of the Institute of
Motivational Research, ranks among the most prominent of
motivational research practitioners. Dr. Dichter was born
in Vienna and studies under Dr. Paul Larzarsfeld, a well
established Viennese authority on motivation research,£nui
Associate Director of Columbia University's Sociological
Research Bureau. He is a devotee of the Freudian school
of psychology, which is often reflected in his findings.
Dichter submits the depth interview and projective tests,
which form the basis of his approach to motivational

research, to psychoanalytical interpretation. His findings

32
are often startling, and tend to make him a highly contro—
versial figure, even in motivational research fields, but
his clients almost invariably find that his studies develop
worthwhile results.

Pierre Martineau, the director of research for the

Chicago Tribune, is a prominent figure in the psychological

 

research field. A recognized authority on the new approach
to marketing research, he utilizes the services of Social
Research, Incorporated in Chicago to conduct studies for

his paper. He is generally recognized as having contributed
substantially to the advancement of motivational research,
and has gained recognition for this form of research.
Sociology and the sociological approach taken by Social
Research, Incorporated to motivation studies are strongly
advocated by Mr. Martineau.

The head of Social Research, Incorporated is Dr.
Burleigh Gardner, who was a well known social anthropoligist
before establishing his motivation research firm. He
stresses the sociological, as well as psychological, ape
proach to motivation studies, and has enjoyed noteworthy
success in his various consumer motivation studies stressing
the social pressures upon behavior.

Representing the advertising agencies among these
prominent researchers is Dr. Herta Herzog, vice president
and director of research for McCann Erikson in New York.

Dr. Herzog, like Dichter, was a student of Dr. Paul Lazars-

feld and has gained a reputation for being the most thorough

33

of the motivation researchers. She has been working in
this field since the late nineteen thirties, and applies

a combination of conventional research, psychological tech-
niques, sampling by means of a structured questionnaire
designed for psychological evaluation, and pretesting of
ads to predict their drawing power.19 When pursuing
motivation studies, Dr. Herzog utilizes depth interviews
and projective tests.

Among the early entrants into the field of motivation
research and a claimant for the honor of being an originator
of this brand of research is Louis Cheskin, director of the
Color Research Institute in Chicago. Mr. Cheskin's organi-
zation has distinguished itself in color studies and package
-testing and evaluation. He describes his method of proce-
dure as the indirect technique or unconscious level testing
whereby his respondents are motivated by factors of which
they are completely unaware. Association type tests and
indirect preference tests have proven very effective tools
in the hands of Mr. Cheskin and his staff, and have produced
some of the most famous and successful motivation studies
reported to date.

Another leader in the application of psychological
techniques to marketing problems is James Vicary, head of

the firm bearing his name, James M. Vicary Company in New

 

19Perrin Stryker, "Motivation Research," Fortune,
LIII, No. 6 (June 1956), 225.

3A
York. Mr. Vicary is a social psychologist who has enjoyed
remarkable success in determining the connotation and under-
lying significance of words, titles, and trademarks through
word association tests. His firm has been called on by
some of the nation's leading organizations to assist in
naming new products, to check on the consumer's impression
of their trademarks, and to spot check the psychological
significance of key words in their advertising copy.

There are a number of other prominent researchers in
the motive research field, but these are the recognized
leaders. They have between them been responsible for
bringing motivation research from the obscurity of early
experimentation to national prominence. All have had to
work hard to gain recognition for their theories and ap-
proaches to motivation research, and all have made signifi-
cant contributions in various studies they have conducted.
Each has his own particular approach and personal theories,
but all gather together in the support of motivation

research as a proven marketing research tool.

Noteworthy_Motivation Research Studies

In the early nineteen fifties Chrysler Corporation
set out to give the American public the car that they pro-
fessed a desire for, according to the company's market
research studies. This entailed manufacturing a smaller,
more compact car, with greater emphasis on utility, rather

than on flashy appearance. Chrysler built the cars that

35
seemed to be called for, and lost its market. In 1952 the
company had twenty-six per cent of the automobile market,
and by 195A they had only a thirteen per cent share of the
market.20

Chrysler had to do a quick "about face," and in 1955
they brought out a high style line of long, low cars. How-
ever, they realized they must rebuild a new image in the
consumer's eyes that would be compatible with the cars they
sought to market. It fell to the motivations research group
at McCann Eriksen, who handled Chrysler's advertising, to
come up with such terms as the "forward look" to overcome
the conservative image held by consumers of Chrysler and
its products.21 The story of Chrysler's success and come-
back in 1957 is well known to all of us.

General Electric found that it was having a consid-
erable amount of difficulty marketing its direct current
motors. In spite of aggressive promotion and the seeking
out of the best applications for the motors, General Elec-
tric (G.E.) had very limited success in stimulating the
interest of potential buyers. Finally, management turned
the problem over to a motivation research group for study.
The motive researchers found that potential buyers of direct

current motors associated them with the old trolley car

motors. They had an image of something old fashioned and

 

2O 21

Packard, op. cit., p. 11. Ibid., p. A3.

36
outmoded when they thought of direct current motors. On
the basis of the findings, G. E. was able to attack the
problem directly in its advertising and sales techniques.22

James Vicary was commissioned by the Socony Vacuum
Oil Company to test a proposed trademark, SOVAC. His
findings showed that the trademark suggested Soviet Russia
to an impressive percentage of his sample, and he therefore
recommended it to be unsuitable for use. The company
quickly acted on his suggestionand adopted a more acceptable
trade name, Socony Mobil Oil Company.23

Dichter, asked to probe why men looked at converti-
bles and bought sedans, gave full vent to his Freudian
tendencies. His findings indicated that convertibles set
married men daydreaming of youth,adventure, and mistresses.
Such daydreaming drew men in to look at convertibles, but
when they bought they realized they could not gratify the
desire for a convertible anymore than they could gratify
the desire for a mistress, so bought the sedan. It is this
study that is reported to be responsible for the develop-
ment and introduction of the very popular hard-top convert-

ible. Many scoffed, but Detroit listened, took action,

and reaped the reward.

 

22Editors,'"A Look at Motivational Research," Iron
Age, Vol. 180, No. 5 (August 1, 1957), 67.

23Edith Efron, "Brand New Brand Name," New York
Times Magazine, July 7, 1957, p. 1A.

 

 

37

These are simply a few of the many studies that have
brought motivational research into prominence in business
circles. This new phase of marketing research has brought

forth many successful studies to date, and shows promise

of many-more.

CHAPTER III
MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH CONTROVERSY

Motivational research has been rather widely publi—
cized in recent years, and so often acclaimed in what has
been written on the subject, that the controversy still
raging over the new research may tend to be forgotten. Less
notice is being given by the nation‘s press to the attacks
on motivation research than to the findings and general
activities of this phase of marketing research. But lack
of publicity of the opposing views does not mean that moti-
vation research has gained full recognition, nor that the
opposition has been won over to the cause and its misgivings
been quieted. The debate over the value and the validity of
motivation research as a marketing research tool still rages,
but is reported primarily in marketing and advertising pub-

lications that have a somewhat limited audience.

External Controversy

One of the very vocal opponents of motivation research
as it is presently being utilized is Mr. Irvin Penner, a
vice president of the A. J. Wood Company of Philadelphia.
Mr. Penner, speaking before the Toronto chapter of the
American Marketing Association, is reported to have said

that this new research is a failure since, "it does not

39

count; and it does not accurately and precisely tell us
how many; and this leaves all of its findings hanging in
the air."1 He Suggests that motivation research findings
are valueless if they have not been substantiated quanti-
tatively and a thorough cross checking made of both the
qualitative and quantitative data. Motivational research
as conducted by Dr. Ernest Dichter, Louis Cheskin, or James
Vicary is worthless in his eyes because the findings are
not substantiated. A

A similar view of motive research was expressed by

Dr. Stewart H. Britt, editor of the Journal 93 Marketing

 

and a professor of marketing at Northwestern University
when speaking before a conference of the American Marketing
Association. Dr. Britt warned his listeners, "to be wary
of motivation research practitioners" because motivational
research and its potentials are being over-sold by people
capitalizing on their "doctorates” to confound the business-
man.2 There is little doubt left by his statements that
he has only contempt for tRe leaders in this new develop-
ment in marketing, and no faith in their practices.

Another prominent motivational research detractor is

Alfred Politz, head of a marketing research firm that bears

his name. Mr. Politz who has made outstanding development

...........

 

lEditors,'"Because 'Imprecise' Motive Research Mis—
leads, Penner Tells Marketers," Advertising Age, Vol. 29,
No. 1 (January 6, 1958), 69.

2Editors,‘"Be Wary of Motive Researchers,’
Age, Vol. 29, No. 7 (February 17, 1958), 68.

 

Advertising

 

A0
and contributions to statistical market research procedures
is a very vocal opponent of motivation research as practiced
by Dr. Dichter and his contemporaries. He has gone so far
as to dub it a'"psuedo-science'"3 and denounce Dichter
because of his failure to utilize quantitative techniques
to validate his findings. So vehement is Mr. Politz in his
opposition to Dichter and similar researchers that it comes
as a surprise to learn that he employs a staff of psycho-
logists, and utilizes some motive research in the prelimin—
ary stages of developing some of his questionnaires. How-
ever, the bulk of his reSéErch is based on a quantitative
approach, and all of his findings are quantitatively sub-
stantiated.

Dr. Robert J. Williams, a project director for Politz,
and a writer and speaker in the field of marketing, regu-
larly takes issue with the procedures and findings of the
motivation researchers. He maintains that we do not have
to delve into the unconscious mind to determine how to
properly advertise and market the fruits of the nation's
production. In essence, he feels that many of the findings
which motivational research turns up are a "so what" matter
and of no genuine use to the marketer, even if they are
accepted as true. He goes so far as to state that many of

the facts developed by the motive practitioners are a

 

3Stryker, op. cit., p. 222.

Al
hinderance to the advertisers because they deal with pro-
duct or industry information, rather than specific brand

information. Knowing things that are true of all products
in a class, or true for a given industry, does not aid the
advertising firm in developing a message to distinguish
its brand in the eyes of the consumer, according to Dr.

A In so saying he seems to give no weight to the

Williams.
importance of knowing more about the product or industry
as it is viewed by the consumer.

In answer to the staunch advocates of quantitative
research, Dr. Dichter points to his own work as qualitative
research which has often gotten to the root of consumer
motivations and behayior that quantitative research has
never reached. He stresses the fact that his findings are
substantiated by controlled experiments, cross-checking of
the findings, and by various forms of analysis and tests to
which they are subjected. He readily offers, as do most
other motivation researchers, to conduct any amount of
quantitative research his client deems desirable, so long
as the client.assumes the costs. However, he normally
recommends that such work be taken to a conventional market

research firm, desiring to keep himself and his staff free

to conduct motivation studies.

 

uEditors,‘"No Brand Fixations In Motivation Data
Williams Tells AMR " Advertising Age, Vol. 29, No. 7
(February 17, 1958), 3. '7

A2

A partial answer at least to Mr. Williams‘ criticism
about the type of findings the motive researchers develop
and their value to the advertiser can be found in a pilot
study of advertising readership conducted by a graduate
student at the University of Chicago. The student made a
study of the readership value of soap advertising evaluating
first a series of advertisements based on conventional or
accepted appeals, and a second series that was based on
suggestions drawn from a motivation study of laundry and
cleaning. The student was assisted in his study by a social
scientist and a statistician at the University which gives
his results additional significance. His conclusion was,
'"that there is evidence, that the application of motivation-
research findings can have value for increasing the reader's
attention to advertising."5 This does not appear to be a
conclusive study, by any means, but it is much more soundly
based and better documented than Mr. Williams‘ charges which
appear to be largely a matter of personal opinion.

The most spectacular and best known of the voices
raised in opposition to motivation research belongs to Mr.
Vance Packard, a free lance writer, who has climbed to fame

with a book about motivation research called The Hidden

 

Persuaders. Mr. Packard, professes to see great danger in

 

 

5Franklin B. Evans, "Motivation Research and Adver-
tising Readership," Journal 2f Business, XXX, No. 2 (April,
1957), 146. '

A3
the mass manipulation of American consumers as a result of
making available to advertisers and marketers a knowledge
of man's basic motives derived from motivational research.
He succeeds in bringing to light a very legitimate question
about the ethics of using knowledge drawn primarily from
man's subconscious or unconscious mind to make the consumer
do something that he might not otherwise do. Mr. Packard
questions whether this is not an infringement on the rights
of the individual, and if there is not a tampering with the
natural processes of free will. However, in reading his
book, the writer had the feeling that Mr. Packard did not
genuinely feel quite the alarm that his writing suggests,
but rather felt the question of ethics and possible dangers
of such researCh should be raised for thoughtful consid-
eration.

Fairfax M. Cone in an article for the Atlantic Monthly
answers many of Mr. Packard's inferences about advertising
and motivation research. He rejects Mr. Packard's sug-
gestion that the advertisers seek to manipulate the con-
sumer by appealing to hidden motivations he cannot control.
Pointing out that motivation research is a method used to
ferret out the underlying elements that determine choice
in specific instances, he explaind that the resultant
knowledge permitted the building of products and designing
of services and advertising that met consumer desires. Mr.

Cone stressed the fact that better knowledge of the consumer

AA

and consumer behavior would enable the forces of marketing
and advertising to serve better.6
Elmo Roper, a prominent opinion researcher, commenting
on Mr. PaCkard's concern about motivational research main-
tains that the techniques borrowed from the social sciences
are "not that good, nor the public that naive" that there
is any cause for concern.7 He feels that motivational
research is just another development in the evolution of
marketing research which will make a contribution to
marketing knowledge, but will not be able to answer all
the questions troubling marketing men.
The question of ethics in the use of motivation
research findings has been raised by clergymen and various

representatives of church groups from time to time. An

article in The Christian Centnry suggested that scientific

 

curiosity could be, "Peeping Tomism, game playing, and
reputation seeking, as well as a serious pursuit of truth."8
At the same time this article suggested that perhaps church-
men might learn a great deal about people from motivation
research, if the new science were properly conducted. The

writer seemed to feel that perhaps this new research might

 

6Cone, op. cit., p. 73.

7Elmo ROP€T,'"HOW Powerful Are the Persuaders?,"
Saturday Review, XL. No. Ac (October, 1957), 19.

8Editors, "Motivation Research Requires Review," The
Christian Century, LXXIV, No. 1A (April 3, 1957), A12.

 

 

offer the church a means of improving its approach and
accomplishing its mission among men. But the question of
ethics of such probing of men's minds was left unsettled or
without any definite trend to the writer's feelings. He
seemed to be very much undecided in the issue, and left it
to the reader to make himself aware of the issues involved,
.and draw his own conclusions.

The apparent fear among churchmen is similar to the
same fear that Vance Packard dwells upon in his book. This
is the mass manipulation of people and the fear of misuse

of the findings. -An article in Dun's Review tells of a

 

tractor manufacturer who learned through a motivation study
that tractor operators had a deep seated fear of a tractor's
upending and overturning on them when going up a hill.- It
seems that this is not unlikely when the tractor motor is
raced on a hill because of the uneven distribution of
weight. The manufacturer's answer in attacking the oper-
ator's image was to Change the basic tractor design to make
it appear to have a more evenly distributed weight over the
entire body. Actually there was no change in the weight
distribution and therefore the accident potential remained
unchanged. The article questions whether this was an
ethical use of motivation findings or a solution to a prob-

9

lem revealed through a motive study. The answer should be

that this is not a proper utilization of motivation

 

w fi a

9Strong, op. cit., p. 53.

A6
research, since the manufacturer is attempting to gloss
over a soundly based fear, and to literally deceive the
consumer in his approach to the problem. (But this may be,
cited as the exception, rather than the rule. Motivation
research findings, like the findings of any other research
can be misused. As long as there are unscrupulous people
in the world there will be such abuses as the tractor case,
but the good that can be developed through motivation
research Should hardly be sacrificed to prevent the abuses.

In the professional area, motive researchers are
assailed by conventional market researchers and by repre-
sentatives of the social and psychological sciences.

Market researchers who are devoted to the statistical pro-
cedures of their trades take issue with the new researchers
over the size of the sample they use in obtaining their
findings. Theywmaintain that the small samples used by the
motive researchers make the findings unprojectable, and
that what is found to be true among fifty or one hundred
people cannot be projected as true of a large market or

‘an entire nation.

The motivation researchers justify their small samples
'by pointing out the fact that they are looking for absolutes
of motivation which are the same for everyone. They call
attention to the fact that their objective is not to count
people nor deal in percentages, but to isolate and inter-

pret facts about human behavior. Motive researchers cannot

A7
see that either of these goals would be served by increasing
the size of the sample.

Another criticism is that motivation researchers
select their respondents on the basis of cooperativeness.

To the market researcher this immediately suggests biased
results and they see in motive work the possibility of the
extrovert being heavily represented in all data collected
by motive researchers. However, motivation personnel indi-
cate a desire to get the facts without fear of bias and
overweighting of any type of respondent. In seeking motives
they are not governed by the same limitations and restric-
tions that apply to the statistical researchers who are
interested in numerical reporting.

Finally the market researchers accuse motive research
findings as being a projection of the researcher's person-
ality. They maintain that in the use of small samples,
the researcher's personality is dominant and the biasing of
the findings cannot be avoided. To this line of reasoning
G. D. Wiebe of Elmo Roper Associates, takes exception, by
pointing out professional competence, scientific background,
and discipline of the researcher militate against such a
possibility as the market researchers describe.lo This

accusation can and has been made against market researchers

 

v

106. D. Wiebe, "Is It True What Williams Says About
Motivation Research?," Journal pf Marketing, XXII, No. A
(April, 1957), Alo-A11.""" ' '

 

A8
on the same basis, but has no more foundation in one case

or another.

Internnl Motivation Research Controversy

 

Within the sphere of motivational research there are
three major approaches to motivation research. The first
area relies heavily on depth interviews and projective
techniques to draw information from consumers to be sub-
mitted to psychoanalytical interpretation. Dr. Dichter
is the leader of this type of motivation research, and he
draws heavily on Freudian psychology in interpreting the
information he acquires through interviews and projective
tests. His main interest is the qualitative research ap-
proach to marketing problems, and he believes that moti-
vation research can get at truths without calling on quanti-
tative research techniques.

A second brand of research gathers together psycho-
logists and social scientists who believe that study of
group behavior and the impact of culture and environment
on the consumer is the key to learning and interpreting
underlying motives. ,The exponents of this approach are as
opposed to Dichter's methods as are the market researchers
who challenge him. Their methods and procedures are not
unlike Dichter's, but the emphasis is of a social and group
nature. To this school belong a number of the country's

foremost educators in the social science fields.

A9
The third approach to motivation research is the
brand practiced by Doctor Herta Herzog who has been dis-
cussed previously in this paper. She is the prominent
middle of the road figure who utilizes both quantitative

and qualitative techniques to solve marketing problems.

.~._

Dr. Herzog has made clearher feeling that motivation
research has limited uses and that conventional market
research should be used to verify all motivation research
findings. Although she does not openly challenge Dr.
Dichter's approach to motive research, she suggests her
disapproval by her own emphasis on matching qualitative
research with quantitative.

A very vocal opponent of Dichter and all other "depth
interview" enthusiasts is Louis Cheskin, head of the Color
Research Institute in Chicago. Mr. Cheskin openly condemns
the depth interview as an ineffective technique. He claims
that his opinion is based on considerable experience with
this technique, but does grant that it may be a worthwhile
technique in the hands of an astute analyst such as Dichter.
However, this dependence of the technique on the skill of
. the interviewer makes it an impractical tool, says Mr.
Cheskin. Another weakness, he feels, is the fact that the
person being interviewed.can rationalize his feelings and
establish defense mechanisms that bar the interviewer from

getting at the truth.

50

Mr. Cheskin's criticisms of the depth interview are
well founded, but investigation shows that this technique
has been used successfully by Dichter and others since the
introduction of motivation research. The depth interview
has at least as good a record for dependability as any
other technique currently being used by motivation re-
searchers and has withstood a number of attempts to dis—
credit it as a technique. u“-

Educators in the field of psychology and the social
sciences come forward from time to time to poke at the weak—
nesses of motivation research. The major issue of concern
to the educators is that none of the techniques borrowed by
the motivation researchers from clinical psychology and
sociology have been validated. Dr. John Dollard, professor
of psychology at Yale University, speaking before a confer-
.ence of the American Association of Advertising Agencies,
explored at length the validity of the techniques presently

11 The essence of Dr.

being used by motivation researchers.
Dollard‘s statements was support for the charge that moti-
vational research techniques have not been validated, and,
therefore, leave the value of motivational research findings

open to question.

 

llJohn Dollard,'"The Motivation Problem Seen From the
Viewpoint of Campus and Clinic" (paper read before the
Eastern Annual Conference, American Association of Adver-
tiséng Agencies, Inc., New York, October 19, 1955, pp.
1-1 . '

51

Dr. Dollard in dealing with the validity of projective
techniques, sights research that was conducted by well
qualified scientists to test the validity of the RorSchack
ink blot test. He directed one scientist to undertake the
proof of Rorschack validity, and the other to attempt to
disprove the validity of this ink blot test. Both studies
showed negative results against the validity of the Rors—
chack instrument. The remaining projective tests, such as
Thematic Aperception, were not tested by Dr. Dollard, but
he points out that to date they have not been validated.

On the subjects of Freudian psychology, psychoanaly-
sis, and current sociological theories, which figure promi-
nently in motivational research undertakings, the professor
feels that they can only be~regarded as a group of valuable
hypotheses. However, he indicates that motivational
research undertaken with full knowledge of the weaknesses
involved in the methodology, and with findings viewed aS'
possible insights, rather than conclusive facts, is a legi-
timate undertaking. Dr. Dollard.seeks not to discourage
the sincere motive researcher, but to point out the weak-
nesses of which the researcher and supporters must always
be aware.

There seems little point to take issue with Dr.
Dollard's evaluations and findings about motivation research.
His comments are of a purely constructive nature and all

who are interested in the field of motivation study should

52
welcome his words. Only full awareness of the inadequacies
involved in this form of research will stimulate the re-
‘searchers to seek better techniques and view their findings
more critically: Greater effort for improvement and a more
critical approach to motiVe research can only prove benefi-
cial to this new research. A

An article in the October 1957 issue of the Journal

.pg Marketing sets forth the belief of three Northwestern

 

University staff members that conventional marketing
research practices could be sharpened to produce the same
findings now being developed by motivational techniques.12
Two of the writers are from the University's department of
marketing and one from the department of psychology. They
attempt to illustrate how studies they have conducted using
a specially designed, structured questionnaire, such as is
commonly used by market researchers, turned up very similar
findings to motivation research studies. However, the
authors are forced to recognize in their conclusions that
they were able to build their approach on findings that
were already developed by motIHe research. Secondly, they
3 had to allow that the similarity of findings tended to

validate the use of small samples by motivation researchers.

 

w

12Ralph L. Westfall, Harper W. Boyd, Jr., and Donald
T. Campbell, "The Use of Structured Techniques in Moti-
vation Research," Journal pf Marketing, XXII, No. 2
(October, 1957), 13A-l39. - r

 

53

The motive men developed their own body of theory, tested
it by use of clinical techniques on a limited sample of
consumers, and developed findings that were merely verified

by the quantitative studies of the Northwestern educators.

Trend of the Motivation Research Conflict

 

With each passing.day the motivation research debate
becomes less heated and extremists on both sides of the
issue tend to give ground. Alfred Politz, the very promi-
nent market researcher who has been loud in his charges of
deceit and fakery against the motive researchers, now
utilizes motivation techniques to a limited degree in his
firm. Dr. Williams of the Politz firm, who has had so much
to say against motivational research points in an article

in the Journal panarketing to the similarities between

 

motivation and market research.13 From his article it
titative and qualitative research as advocated and practiced
by Dr. Herzog of McCann-Erickson.

The middle of the road approach taken by Dr. Herzog
appears to be gaining popularity among many motivational
research practitioners and enthusiasts. As motivation re-
searchers add the quantitative approach to their research,
they tend to quiet the biggest objection of the market

research forces to the new techniques and its findings.

.......

 

1
3Williams, op. cit., pp. 125-133.

5A
Researchers taking the broad approach to motivational work
are giving the research dignity and stature that it has
previously lacked. Motivation research findings are now
being publicized in a more scientific, less spectacular
manner, and many prominent motivation researchers are
actively seeking to avoid the sensationalism that has
aroused much of the controversy surrounding their work..

A seeming majority opinion as expressed by the accum-
ulation of articles dealing with the new research in current
periodicals indicates that motivation research is more than
just a passing fad. A majority of writers who have made a
study of this new phase of marketing research and have
delved into the controversy seem to agree that motivation
research has made genuine~contributions to knowledge, and
is gaining ever increasing respect in business and profes-
sional circles.

The internal controversies about motivation research
are largely a matter of value and validity of the various
techniques and approaches. Dr. Dollard, whose views have
been set forth in this chapter, has stated that he believes,
""motivation research is not a fad and that it will not dis-
appear," but instead indicates that it will improve and
become more valuable as time passes.lu As for those who

argue one technique versus another, it may be said that

 

1A
Dollard, op. cit., p. 2.

55

they are not necessarily making the best use of their time,
nor their talents. It seems to be pretty generally agreed
among the experts that there is no single method or com—
bination of methods that is right. Various procedures will
produce results when utilized by properly qualified experts.
Each technique now in use has served successfully in adding
to the store of knowledge about consumer behavior, and in
so doing has justified its Continued use.

Motivation research as a whole appears to have a
bright future, in spite of current controversy. The deep
desire on the part of businessmen, advertising, and
marketing researchers to obtain greater understanding of
human behavior gives promise of the expansion of moti-

vational research activity.

CHAPTER IV

MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH FINDINGS PERTINENT

TO FOOD DISTRIBUTION

The purpose of this chapter is to set forth a col-
lection of motivational research findings that are pertin-
ent to the field of food distribution. Many of the most
interesting and valuable motivational research studies that
have been made to date have centered around products,
services, and consumer reactions that are significant to
all who are involved in supermarket merchandising. Moti-
vational research has in a very Short space of time devel-
oped some interesting findings which should contribute to
greater efficiency on the part of the manufacturer, adver-
tiser, distributor, and retailer in anticipating and
satisfying consumer needs and demands. More exact knowledge
of consumer motives gleaned from.motivational research
studies may aid in reducing some of the managerial guesswork
in marketing, advertising, and product decisions that has
thus far made genuine effiCiency an almost unattainable
goal.

Many of the studieS“reported on the following pages
were made at the direction of a manufacturer or for an

advertiser, but knowledge of the findings is valuable to

most anyone who handles the product between source or
consumer. Many of the findings set forth are directly
aimed at advertising policy, but the information can often
be easily interpreted to the advantage of the retailer.
From the data can be drawn merchandising, display, and
feature ideas that are new and different, but keyed to the

buying motives of the consumer.

Motivation Studies of Food Store Products

The manufacturers of Ry-Krisp submitted their product
to the researchers for evaluation. The analysts learned
that Ry-Krisp was viewed by the consumer as a food that was
good from a health standpoint, but not desirable. The con-
sumer had a self-punishment image when thinking of Ry-Krisp.
Consumers not in a self-punishment mood avoided Ry-Krisp.
Motivation analysts recommended a change in advertising
emphasis from dietary appeal to advertising the product
in connection with tempting foods. This change of adver-
tising emphasis doubled Ry-Krisp sales.1

The Proctor and Gamble Company looks to motivation
research to build personality for its products. Compe-

tition in this field is so keen, and products are so

similar, that they must exhaust every possibility to gain

 

lVance Packard, "The Ad and The Id," The Reader's
Digest (reprinted from Harper‘s Bazaar, August, 1957),
Vol. 71, No. A27 (November, 19577: 120.

 

58
an edge on competition. One of the maJor functions of
notivation research is to see that a product has the right

personality to gain a competitive edge. Thus, Tvory Soap'

 

is identified with purity, and Camay with glamorous women.2

Dr. Smith in his book Motivation Research in Adver-

 

tising and Marketing tells of a number of studies made on

 

various products. He has drawn upon the agencies and firms
that have conducted these studies and developed a very
interesting body of data. One such study undertaken to
determine feminine attitudes toward food mixes revealed
that women liked such mixes for their efficiency and econ-
omy and felt that they were in keeping with modern living.
However, women interviewed gave evidence of a.guilt feeling
about using mixes because they suggested poor housekeeping,
are a threat to a woman‘s reputation as a cook and, there-
fore, rob her of a source of praise, and are an unnatural
and easy way out of work.

The researchers recommendations based on the findings
were to stress the positive aspects and direct advertising
to women interested in good, efficient, and well-planned
homemaking. They further pointed out that advertising
stressing ease and quick preparation would simply reinforce
the negative attitudes.3

A study of instant coffee made in 19A9 by the Bureau

of Applied Social Science at Columbia indicated similar

 

r we Vi

21bid., p. 121. 3Smith, 0 . cit., p. 223.

59

attitudes existed about this product as those reported for
food mixes. Positive consumer impression of this product
_ was that it stays fresh longer, and that it is healthier,
~more efficient, and useful in preparing iced coffee. The
negatives centered on the issue that instant coffee is an
imitation, lacks aroma and taste satisfaction, indicates
bad housekeeping, and threatens the housewife's reputation
as a cook.

Here again, the recommendation was to stress the
positive appeals in advertising and promotion.“

Research undertaken on flour showed that women con-
sider this staple a symbol of purity and cleanliness and,
therefore, demanded white flour. Negative feelings seemed
to be limited to a distaste for dark flour. The advertising
recommendation was to highlight whiteness, purity, careful
processing, and vitamin content.5

Prunes, when subjected to a motivation study, were
found to have highly negative connotations for the consumer.
Prunes were thought of chiefly as a laxative, and associated
with older people. The_recommendations in this case were
to build an advertising campaign around a happy theme. The
product should be identified with brightness and sunshine,
stressing the energy building qualities and high vitamin
content. This approach is reported to have worked for

6

California packers, and sales soared.

 

“Ibid. 51bid., p. 225. 61bidu, p. 226.

 

60

A study by the Richard Manville Research firm cen-
tered around a dessert that was intended-for infants and
growing youngsters, but seemed not to be getting a
reasonable share of the market. The reason was determined
to be that mothers were not feeding it to their children.
Information obtained from respondents showed that the
advertising stressed it as a baby food and women did not
'feel that growing children needed the dessert. In this
case the advertising was too specific and the baby emphasis
had to be changed in order to broaden the market.7

Research into the subject of spices showed that women
fell into distinct categories according to their attitudes
on spices. The largest such group indicated genuine fear
of using spices because they felt that they lacked the
skill required to use them effectively. They tended to buy
spices, but primarily for appearance‘s sake and not for use.
However, respondents representing certain ethnic groups use
spices liberally and with no fear of the consequences.
Prestige and'social status were found to have a bearing on
the use of spices. These findings indicate a need for
advertising of an educational nature to inform the house-
wife how to use spices and in so doing build a demand.

A study done for the National Tea Bureau revealed
that tea was associated with effeminacy. The general

consumer image of tea was that of a drink for women. The

 

7I'bid'. Bibi-d. , p. 228.

61
Bureau's advertising up to the time of the study had been
stressing tea as an answer to "nervousness." After the

motivation study they undertook to build a new image for

.u9

such slogans as: "Make mine hefty, hale, and hearty.
Motivation findings on soup showed that housewives
serving frozen or canned soup were plagued with guilt
feelings. Here again women felt they were taking the easy
way out and not being fair to their families. Campbell
Soup Company attempted to attack these feelings in their
advertising by showing a homey type of woman cutting and
preparing soup ingredients in the traditional way.10 The

effort is to associate Campbells with the, so-called, old

 

fashioned goodness and thus relieve the housewife's guilt
complex.

Social Research, Incorporated, of Chicago,fbund among
women a serious brand disloyalty in the purchase of deter-
lgents. The explanation appears to be that women look upon
laundering tasks as distasteful and sheer drudgery. She
sees in this work no source of family praise, and therefore
no reward for her efforts, and evidently builds no partic-
ular brand loyalty due to this attitude. These findings
brought forth a recommendation to change the advertising-
theme to one indicating family appreciation she might gain

through her cleaning efforts using a particular product.11

 

98tryker, op. cit., p. iu5 lOIbid.
llIbid., pp. 225-226.

62

General Foods Corporation submitted their Sanka
Coffee to motivation analysis and learned that their adver-
tising theme had a tendency to alienate coffee lovers.
Emphasis on the nerve-Jangling and sleep-robbing qualities
of regular coffee was found offensive to people who were
really coffee fiends and resented any such reference to
their favorite drink. Sanka‘s promotional team changed the
advertising emphasis to the "beverage that lets the con-
sumer drink all the coffee he wants without losing sleep."12
This approach proved innocuous to the coffee fiend.

Motivation studies done on cake mixes have brought to
light the fact that women prefer a mix that permits them to
add ingredients. This gives them an outlet for their
creative instincts and enables them to feel less guilty

13

about using a mix. They feel a sense of contribution to
the finished cake and gain a sense of satisfaction derived
from a genuine accomplishment. Therefore, the mixes re-
quiring the addition of milk, an egg, or some similar in-
gredient would seem well planned to meet the housewife‘s

psychological needs.

Dr. Dichter, reporting on a study of Quaker_gats,

 

maintains that this cereal has a virtuous character in the
eyes of the consumer. The product is emotionally associated

by the consumer with idealism, virtue, and a time of

 

w v—V

12I‘b'id'. , pp. 226-228.

l3Editors, "Psychology and the Ads," Time, LXIX, No.
19 (May 13, 1957). 52. '“““

63
sacrifice.14 Evidently the consumer associates this
pioneer among breakfast cereals with home and the attri-
butes of family life.

A study to determine the consumer's image of igllg
revealed that the housewife considered the product a simple,
everyday dessert. The advertising at the time the study
was made had been stressing igllg as a glamorous dessert
for special occasions, with hope of increasing its con—
sumption. Finding that the consumer's image of the product
and the advertising were incompatible, General Foods revised
their advertising to meet the image already held by the
housewife.15

A submission of Snowdrift shortening to a motivation

 

study brought to the attention of the manufacturers that
the swirl on the top of the shortening inside the can was
a marketing asset. The swirl suggested the qualities of
purity and fluffiness to the housewife which she partic-
ularly prized in a shortening. To capitalize fully on
this feature the manufacturer added the swirl to the label
on the outside of the container.16
Studies conducted by Louis Cheskin 0f the Color

Research Institute on margarine prior to the change of law

 

luStryker, op. cit., p. 228.
15"The $000 Billion Question," op. cit., pp. 35-36.

16Ibid., p. 36.

6A
permitting processors to add color showed that lack of
coloring was the hinderance to consumer acceptance of this
product. His findings seem to be well substantiated by
the fact that prior to the law permitting addition of color
to margarine, twice as much butter was sold as margarine.
Today margarine is pressing butter closely for sales leader-
'ship.17
A major milk producer had a study made some years ago
to determine why dry-milk was not gaining public favor.
The motive study turned up the facts that people associated
dry milk with poverty, since it was given by the government
to people on relief during the depression. A second assoc-
iation for many males was with the product in wartime where
it was used in areas where milk was unobtainable. Both
were unpleasant associations and hampered sales of this
product. The researchers recommended an advertising cam-
paign stressing dry-milk's high nourishment value and low
fat content, its versatility, and ease of storage, with
only casual mention of the product‘s low cost. Since the
time of the study dry-milk sales have undergone an enormous
increase which may very well be directly related to the new
advertising emphasis.18
McCann Erickson advertising agency utilized both con-

m

ventional market research and motivational research to find

 

17Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, op. cit., pp.lH5-146.
18Ibid.

m

 

65

a solution to the promotional problem of a distributor of
kippered herring. Conventional research established that
two out of five respondents who claimed not to care for
the taste of kippered herring had never tasted this fish
product. Motivational research developed the fact that
women when questioned about kippers were not reacting to
the taste, but to the name which suggested something for-
eign, different, or unconventional to them. To solve the
promotional problem the agency recommended a campaign to
build an image of a normal, everyday American dish by
associating kippers with foods such as scrambled eggs,
served in a typical American setting.19

Mr. Louis Cheskin has used motivation research advan-
tageously in the study of color and packaging. A study
made by his firm on detergents showed that the color of
the package had a direct effect on the housewife‘s opinion
of the product. To test the theory his researchers gave
housewives various colored boxes of detergents each con-
taining exactly the same product. After using the deter-
gent on a trial basis the women were questioned about its
effectiveness in getting their clothes clean. The house-
wives reported that the detergent in the bright yellow
box was too strong and damaged their clothes. On answer
to questions about the blue box they said that the detergent

was too weak and left their clothes dirty looking. As to

 

vi v—r

19Strong, op. cit., p. 53.

66
the third box, which was a package Color Research Institute
had selected as having the best balance of colors and '
design, the housewives reported favorably on the results

20 A

obtained in using the detergent in this package.
similar test on coffee by Color Research Institute showed
comparable results in terms of a strong, weak, and satis-
factory blend.

Another Color Research Institute study was made for
Marlboro cigarettes which was seeking a new package to
change its consumer image from feminine to masculine, as a
result of motivational research recommendations. In the
packaging study, respondents voiced a liking for a package
with a cork tip cigarette pictured on the front, in prefer-
ence to one with a crest. However, when undergoing testing
of a depth nature, respondents.indicated favorable associ-
ations for the package featuring the crest.21 Marlboro
cigarettes have climbed to new sales heights with their
new consumer image and crest marked package.

A motive study on the subject of cat food informed
the researchers that cat owners tend to transfer their own
evaluation of food needs to their cats. They feel their
pet should have a well balanced diet of easily digested

foods. Fish is thought to be a cat's natural food, but

 

Vfi—vi

20Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, op. cit., pp. 16-17.

 

21"The $000 Billion Question," op. cit., p. 36.

67
they seem to feel he should have variety?2 The manufact-
urer and retailer desiring to please cat owners must em-
phasize nutrition and offer a variety of foods for the pet.

Swift and Company submitted their baby meat adver-
tising to motivational research and learned that they were
overemphasizing nutrition. Researchers found that women
took the nutritive value of baby foods for granted and were
more interested in hints on how to feed the baby the foods
that were being advertised.23

Moth preventatives are among the products that have
received attention from the motive researchers. Findings
of a study indicated that women feel insecure about moth
preventatives because they are not sure that they will
succeed in discouraging moths. They like strong odors
in moth preventatives because they believe the stronger
odor will be more active in discouraging moths. Housewives
prefer crystals to sprays because they feel that crystals
give wider-dispersion of protection. Sprays are felt to
be less desirable because the user cannot be sure that every
spot has been covered and as a result, women often use

24

several preventatives to protect the same articles. This

study offers many interesting avenues of attack to gain the

 

v fi‘V

228mith, op. cit., pp. 230~2301.

23"what Sways the Family Shopper?,“ 22i_£i£n: 9- 50°

24Smith, op. cit., p. 230.

68

housewife's attention and promote moth preventatives more
effectively.

Columbia university‘s Bureau of Applied Social Science
developed some interesting facts about cosmetics, denti-
frices, and soaps through a motivational research study.

The researchers found women are so serious in their search
for beauty that many of them will purchase one product

after another with little regard for brand loyalty. How-
ever, women's loyalty can be sought on a logical basis by
giving them full information about the product and its use,
what it will specifically do for them, and realistic evi-
dence of its effectiveness?5

LXEBEk a very well known and long established product
in the disinfectant world has undergone a complete packaging
andfcontent change as the result of a motivational study.
Researchers learned that some housewives punish themselves
with hard work as a means of battling their environment.
Such women like a strong disinfectant that seems capable
of fighting dirt and bacteria and psychologically satisfies
their aggressive tendencies. However, another type of
woman who is better adjusted to her environment feels no
need to punish herself with unnecessarily hard work. There-
fore, she desires a milder and more feminine disinfectant.

To reach the latter type the manufacturers of Lysol have

.....

 

25Ibid., p; 223.

69
'modified its odor and repackaged the product in smart,
hour-glass shaped container.26
The aggressive attitude of women toward their cleaning
tasks figured prominently in the findings of a motive study
to determine why women buy brooms. In a period when there
are so many substitutes for the humble broom, this question
proved a puzzle to broom manufacturers. Preliminary
findings revealed that women bought brooms because they
were inexpensive, easy to use, and not subject to break-
downs. From deeper probing of the subject the researchers
learned that brooms symbolize to women an aggressive ap-
proach to dirt and permit them to be assertive and master-
ful in the performance of the sweeping motion.27 To the
broom manufacturers the study suggests a continued growth

in their market for brooms in relation to the increase in

population.

General%Studies

 

' Motivation research in the food field has not been
restricted to the products sold in stores. James M. Vicary
made a special study to determine why young women avoid
service type markets. He seemed to feel there was more

behind the shift to the supermarket than convenience,

 

a V Vi

26Editors,'"You Can Gauge Customers' Wants,

Nation's
Business, Vol. 46, No. 4 (April, 1958), 82.

27“Consumer Motivation,‘

Consumer Report, Vol. 22,
No. 6 (June, 1957), 299-300. ' 'fifi '

 

70
prices, and variety. His investigation showed that young
housewives were afraid of revealing their ignorance about
cooking to store clerks. This study was borne out by a
'midwestern grocery chain that determined this fear partic-
ularly involved meat clerks. The chain took immediate
steps by urging meat men to cater to and demonstrate
patience with young women, and thus increased sales through-
out their organization.28 Today‘s supermarket move to self-
service meat departments eliminates the problem.

A Dichter study on the general preference for super~
markets pointed out that women can leisurely inspect mer-
chandise, read labels, and handle luxury items without
embarrassment. The presence of a clerk limits their activi-
ties and forces them to behave in a manner they feel
.acceptable in the eyes of the clerk.

Jewel Tea Company learned through a motive study that
women in a'"just-for-the—heck-of-it" mood will spend as
freely on a luxury food item as they will for a hat. To
capitalize on shoppers in this mood Jewel set up "splurge
counters" in many of their stores.29

Vicary's word association procedure applied to the
word season turned up some valuable information about the

consumer. His findings show that for women there are

- t v .—

 

28Packard, The Hidden Persuaders, op. cit., p. 57.

 

291bid., p. 95.

71
psychological seasons and a calendar season, and that the
length of psychological seasons varies considerably from
calendar seasons. The study showed that women are concerned
with spring from January 13th to June 6th, a period of five
months. Summer is a three month season dating from June 7th
to September 6th. Autumn has a two month span from Sept-
ember 7th to November 16th, with winter the shortest season
from November 17th to January 12th.30 Vicary recommended

to Family Cirgle magazine, who requested the study, that

 

they adopt thejpsychological seasons in their promotional
appeals to women.
Mr. Cheskin points out in his book How pp Predict

what People Will pr the importance of the psychological

 

aspects of color in display work and merchandising of pro-
ducts. Color can either aid or camouflage the display,
detract from, or enhance its appeal, and attract customers
to the display or repel them. In food merchandising Mr.
Cheskin points out that clean light yellows, orange-reds,
and browns have a psychological association with food, in
the eyes of the consumer. Low preference rating is shown,
however, for certain greens, cool reds, and many shades of

31

blue, when related to food.

 

fi a

30 ’
Strong, op. cit., pp. 62-63.

 

31Louis Cheskin, How to Predict What Peo 1e Will Bu
(Niw York: Livright Publishing Corporation, 1557), pp, 3 ,
15 .

72

Studies by Mr. Cheskin on the matter of pricing
indicate the importance of submitting pricing policies on
products to motivational analysis. He stresses the fact
that the consumer associates price psychologically with
quality, and that the consumer's image of the product,
packaging, and competition must be psychologically evaluated
when establishing prices on merchandise.

Dr. George Gallup makes a similar point in discussing
the psychological factors in advertising. ‘"The consumer,"
he states, "may not necessarily equate piggy-bank with
money saving, rhinocerous with toughness, or a feather with

lightness.“32

In taking such analogies for granted the
advertiser may completely miss the target at which he directs
his message.

Motivational research work by Monsanto Chemical Com-
pany on color preferences promises to be of substantial
benefit to manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers. By
determining consumer color preferences and forecasting them,
Monsanto has aided manufacturers in planning production of
colored products, and wholesalers and retailers in their
ordering and control of inventories. Their forecasting
to date has proven remarkably accurate, which is demon-
strated by their designation of pink in 1955, turquoise in
1956, and lemon in 1957, each one being the volume seller as

their researchers had predicted.33

 

32"Consumer Motivation," op. cit., p. 300.
331bid., p. 301. '

73

A current field of interest to motivation researchers
is the importance of men in consumer buying. Dr. Dichter
claims that since World War II men have been assuming
greater responsibility and influence in the purchase of
food, cars, and appliances. According to Dichter, a man‘s
natural curiosity and desire to explore new fields makes
him a greater impulse buyer than women. He indicates that
men can be more easily stimulated to make an unplanned
purchase than women if thewappeal and presentation of the
product is psychologically right. If men are gaining im—
portance in the matter of buying, advertisers,and retailers
must acquire new knowledge of the American male in order

to take full advantage of his patronage.34

Greater Insight Into Consumer Behavior Ahead

From the studies that have been cited, it seems
reasonable to say that a considerable amount of progress
has been made by motivational researchers in getting at the
basis of the real consumer buying motives. They have
already developed a body of data which should prove to be
of considerable value when utilized by those engaged in the
manufacture and distribution of consumer products. Their

research has succeeded in pointing out the fallacy in many

 

4
3 EditOPS:'"Why.Men Buy on Impulse: €A Billion Dollar
Challenge;" Printers' Ink, V01- 262, No. 6 (February 7:

1958). 7A. ‘

 

74
previously accepted assumptions about consumers, and
shedding light on consuming motives that had never been
considered by marketing people before this new research
brought them to attention. The progress of motivation
reSearch has been impressive, and the future of this form
of marketing reSearch appears to be bright. There is a
wealth of understanding yet to be tapped about consumer
motivation and behavior, and motivational research shows

promise of being able to ferret out the facts.

CHAPTER v .

MOTIVATIONAL RESEARCH STUDY OF COLOR IN
HOUSEHOLD PAPER PRODUCTS

Scott Paper Company, the world's largest manufacturer
of household paper products, is one of the major national
concerns that has made use of motivational research for
some time. The company has long been a paper industry
leader in both physical and marketing research, and Scott
management is convinced of the importance of continued
research emphasis to the firm‘s growth and prosperity.

This is the farsighted policy that placed the organization
among the earlier users of motivation research and possibly
the first member of the paper industry to utilize the new
technique.

The firm has made use of motivation research in a
number of instances with perhaps a study of color and its
relationship to paper products the most extensive moti-
vational analysis that Scott's management has authorized to
the present time. Scott started selling colored toilet
tissue in test markets early in 1955 after a number of
years of extensive market research, devoted to learning as
much as possible about consumer interest, reactions, and

preferences for color in paper products. Based on the

76
findings and evaluations of the quantitative data, Scott
entered test markets with a four color assortment in their

luxury tissue line-~Soft-Weve. Management was convinced

 

that there was.a great deal more to be known about color
than the quantitative studies showed before they intro-
duced the product nationally. Firmly convinced that color
was to play a very important role in the future of house-
hold paper products, the executive group decided that

they must not overlook any potential source of color infor-
mation.

Management felt that it had quite thoroughly probed
the conscious level of consumer response through market
research activities, and turned to motivation research to
probe the subconscious and unconscious motivations of the
consumer. The Institute for Motivational Research, Incor-
porated,headed by Dr. Ernest Dichter, was selected to
undertake the color study. The assignment was to study
the significance of color in household paper products with
emphasis on four product classes: toilet tissue, facial
tissue, napkins, and towels:—

Scott was manufacturing at the time of the study
three brands of toilet tissue: Waldorf, a 650 sheet roll;

Scottissue, a thousand sheet roll; and Soft-Weve, a BOO

 

sheet roll of two ply tissue. Waldorf and Scottissue were
manufactured in white for the national market and in four

pastel shades of color for two test markets. Scottie

77
facial tissues were manufactured in white and packaged in
two sizes, a 200 sheet package and a MOO sheet package.

The Scotkin paper napkin was a linen finish two ply paper
napkin available only in white in a luncheon and a dinner

size. Scottowels were manufactured in a 150 sheet roll and

 

a 250 sheet roll in white only.

These are the products that Scott presented to the
Institute for Motivational Research for analysis on the
basis of the advisability of marketing them in color. The
Institute, using a variety of motivational research tech—
niques, undertook the study and came up with some good
insights on the use of color, and'specific recommendations

on the manufacture and marketing of colored paper products.

 

Key Findings on Color in General

The Institute‘s major finding was first, that Scott
should manufacture and market toilet tissue and facial
tissue in color. Their researchers found that color was
not just a fad in these two product areas, but a deeply-
rooted emotional trend within our culture. They identified
the consumer desire for color as a growing and vital trend
that was taking on increasingly greater significance in the
consumer preference for toilet and facial tissue. They
identified the trend as crossing all income levels among
consumers and about equally strong among single ply, and

two ply tissue users. Thereby, pointing out that all three

 

of Scott's toilet tissues, Waldorf, Scottissue, and

78

Soft-Weve should be made available in color. However, they

 

further pointed out that color was seen by the consumer as
a symbol of extra value and would indicate that Sqft-Weve,
the company's luxury tissue should be introduced in color
first.1

The importance of shade over color was stressed by
the reseachers in their evaluation of data drawn from
respondents. Researchers learned that certain shades and
colors were rejected as unsuitable for use in paper products
because they were considered "cheap" and "gaudy." Such
colors were found to undo the general acceptance of paper
as a substitute for linen by calling undesired attention
to the product by the user. Findings revealed that the
housewife in purchasing napkins, towels, facial, and toilet
tissue felt that she was expressing to some degree her
taste and interest in home, family, and guests in a product
that would be on display. She, therefore, wants fine,
subtle, and unusual colors that are a means by which she
can express her refinement and the care and attention that
she expends on her home and family. The manufacturer who
fails to offer her shades of color that meet these require-
ments is seen by the housewife as insulting her refinement.

However, products in shades that meet her tastes are seen

 

vw— v

1Institute for Motivational Research, Inc., "Executive
Summary of Motivational Research Findings on Color in Scott
Toilet and Facial Tissue" (New York: Institute for Moti—
vational Research, Inc., October, 1955), p. 5.

79
as an expression of the manufacturer‘s belief in and appre-
ciation of the consumer.2

Actual color preferences were found to be very
individual and based on individual experiences and home
decor, but a preference for pastel shades that would blend
easily became evident from the study. Soft pastel shades
were seen by respondents as expressing softness and purity,

no matter what their individual color preferences were,

and these shades were credited with maximum blendability.

The Power of Color

 

The study gave emphasis to the dynamic nature of
color in our society. Color was found among the respondents
to be able to mobilize emotions, stimulate senses, to say
something about the respondent to herself and to others,
distort product perception, change product frame of refer-
ence, and match or clash with brand personality. Individ-
‘ual colors vary in the degree to which they can accomplish
these things, but possess some degree of power to alter
emotional connotations of products and settings.

Researchers at the Institute have set up their
findings on the principal color dynamics and classified
them under three categories of positive, negative, and

mixed, depending on the direction of the change.

21bid., pp. 3-4.

I“

80

Positive Color Dynamics--Have the capacity to shift
the emotional connotation

 

From ‘29

 

Utilitarian and Puritanical Esthetic and Hedonistic

Old-Fashioned Modern
Anonymous Individual
Uhappetizing Appetizing
Monotonous ' Adventurous
Self-Oriented Other-Oriented
Ordinary . Luxurious

The first four factors seem to be especially
operative in the field of paper products.

Negative Color Dynamics-~Have the capacity to shift
the'emotional connotation

 

 

From 23
Modest Gaudy
Thrifty Extravagant
Orderly Riotous

The first two factors seem to be most operative in
relation to paper products.

Mixed Color Dynamics--Have the power to shift the
emotional connotation in either of two directions,
depending upon the specific color and the specific
shade. These include the ability of color to convey
an impression in the direction either of:

 

Quiet or Loud

Pure or Impure

Soft or Harsh

Sober ' or Cheerful

Masculine or AFeminine

Socially Socially
Acceptable or Unacceptable

Strong or . Weak

Tense, or Relaxed

Cold or Warm

The first six factors seem most significant in paper
products.

 

3
Ibid., pp. 13-15.

81
The study's findings on the importance of shades in

the use of color and the above cited breakdown of the
dynamics of color was the information Scott Paper Company
was seeking. It served to confirm theories about the im-
portance of the selection of the various shades to be used
in the products and the need for keeping abreast of color
developments. Further, it emphasized the fact that errors
in the marketing of colors might be even more serious than
a marketing disappointment or complete failure in that it
could seriously damage the company‘s reputation. Manage-
ment armed with a knowledge of the psychological impli-
cations of color was better prepared to deal with decisions

concerned with color.

Color and Toilet Tissues

 

The specific study of color gave further substanti-
ation to the increasing consumer interest and trend to
color am0ng both the buyers of luxury tissue and those who
purchased less expensive tissue. It was viewed as adding
to the value of the tissue and changed the consumer's frame
of reference from a purely utilitarian item to a bathroom
accessory. Respondents also indicated that color made
toilet tissue more individualistic, modern, feminine, and
luxurious. Color held promise for the respondents of making
tissue disappear into its background and become less con-
spicuous, making women interested in color that would blend,

rather than shades that stand out from their background.

82

To achieve the desired blending of color into the setting,
pastel shades proved to be the choice of respondents. Such
shades would be subdued ahd at the same time suggest purity,
softness, daintiness, and luxury which are all highly
prized characteristics in toilet tissue. These same charac-
teristics were found equally desirable to both single and
two ply tissue users.)4

One major negative factor brought to light by the
motive study was the question of purity of a colored
toilet tissue. Respondents gave indications about feeling
less secure in regard to purity and wholesomeness of a
colored tissue than they did about the traditional white.
A number of respondents conveyed to the researchers a
desire for reassurance about the purity of colored tissue.

Based on their findings, the researchers made specific
recommendations about the use of color in toilet tissue.
They recommended producingtoilet tissue in close to white
pastel shades that would connote softness, daintiness, and
the desired blendability. Colors, they advised, should be
keyed to those most commonly found bathrooms. ‘The same
shades in all three S ott brands of toilet tissue should be
used since color psychology was found to be the same among
both single and two ply users. However, to capitalize on
the added value concept of color which the study revealed,

color should be added in the Soft-Weve first, then to

 

 

Scottissue) and finally to Waldorf.

 

“Ibid., pp. 18-19.

83

To reassure the housewife of the purity and whole-
someness of colors, the researchers recommended providing
symbols aimed at the unconsdibus level of awareness that
would convey psychologically the equivalent of purity,
freshness, and sunshine. On the rational level, they urged
a straightforward campaign to assure the housewife that all
color used in Scott‘s family of tissues was color-fast and
color-pure. Dramatizing Scott's quality control to the
public they felt would be a major step forward in reassuring
-the consumer of the purity and safety of colored tissues.

Suggestions for advertising campaign approaches were
drawn from the entire range of findings. The basic theme
suggested was to convey to the consumer that Scott really
understood what she was looking for in colored toilet
tissue. '"Blendability" was suggested as a major theme with
emphasis on both the ability of colored tissue to merge with
a background, and the idea of harmony with decor. The
added luxury connotation the researchers felt had to be
handled with care, in order not to suggest extravagance.
-The luxury connotation of color they suggested would be
best handled in advertising as an "everyday luxury" you can
afford. Moral permission for the housewife to indulge in
the luxury could be given by picturing the colored tissue
in representative American homes.

Researchers felt that the advertising tone should be

feminine and designed for Women, but that an attempt be

84
made to win masculine acceptance by developing ads showing
men approving of their wives' desire for colored toilet
tissue.

Finally, specific recommendations were made on the
selection of color names, symbols, and design of the pack-
ages for colored toilet tissue. Stress was placed on the
application of blendability and inconspicuousness, purity,
softness, daintiness and femininity, cheerfulness, and
naturalness as criteria when selecting names, packages, and
symbols. Softness was considered of utmost importance,
and the recommendation called for its being conveyed both

in the sense of touch and mood.5

Color and Facial Tissue

 

Evaluation of the data on facial tissue established
that women were very receptive to color in this product
and that more women liked colored facials than bought them.
The addition of color to facial tissues changed the frame
of reference of tissues from menial and utilitarian to one
of being decorative and cosmetic. Women felt that colored
facial tissues were more personal, feminine, modern, and
appealing. They were found to haVe their greatest appeal
among narcissistic women, teen-agers, and children.

Women reacted most favorably to pink and to yellow

in facial tissue colors. Preferences for shades proved to

.....

 

5Ibidg, pp. 19-20.

85
follow the same pattern as in toilet tissue. Soft pastel
shades proved to be the preference and this was directly
related to their connotation of softness, purity, femininity,
daintiness, and luxury. Although only a minority of respon-
dents kept facial tissue on display in their bathrooms,
there was seemingly spontaneous interest in facial tissues
matching toilet tissues. Respondents indicated a decided
preference for a single color of tissue to a box in prefer-
ence to a mixture of colors.

The negative findings on color in facial tissue
centered around purity, price, and mixed preferences for
color within family units. The question of whether colored
tissues were as pure as white was the major barrier to
general acceptance of colored facial tissues. Price was
the second issue that was raised when a number of respon-
dents objected to the prevailing higher price of colored
facials, which made them seem an extravagance. The third
major objection to colored facial tissues was the fact that
there existed in some families differences in preferences
for colored and white tissues that posed a problem to the
'housewife.

From their evaluation of the assembled data, the
motivation analysts recommended that Scott Paper Company
should undertake the manufacture of colored facial tissues
in soft pastel shades matching their toilet tissues. The

same psychological values that applied to the use of pastels

86
in toilet tissue applied also in facial tissues. They
advised proceeding with confidence in producing Scotties
facial tissue in pink and in yellow, but to carefully test
blue and green before their introduction.

Recommendations on advertising called for emphasis
on the cosmetic and decorative mood of colored facials with
full use of the psychological aura of softness, purity,
daintiness, and femininity. Modernity and tastefulness
were sighted as sound appeals for an advertising approach,
and appeals based on feminine vanity were sighted as par-
ticularly appropriate in the advertising of facial tissue.
The same recommendations were made for advertising appeals
as were made for toilet tissues. The conscious and uncon-
scious levels of consumer awareness should be assured of
purity in these products. Warning was given not to make
tissue appear’txx>luxurious.for fear of robbing them of
their acceptance as a product for general use.

Special campaigns were suggested to reach teen-agers
and children. A campaign directed at children could build
an image in the eyes of the housewife of a company that is
aware of her problems and is assisting her in teaching
youngsters sanitary habits. The teen—age market was iden-
tified as fertile ground for building interest and support
6

for colored facial tissues.

..........

 

6Ibid., pp. 23-26.

W

87
The study of facials succeeded in identifying a color
trend and preference for color in this product, as well as
identifying the positive and negative attitudes involved
which had to be dealt with in marketing a colored facial

tissue.

Colorfiandeapkins

 

Motivational research findings on paper napkins and
the application of color“to this product showed that paper
napkins held the greatest degree of ego-involvement for the
consumer of all paper products studies. Respondents spoke
of paper napkins and their use in terms of satisfaction and
pride, and indicated that they regarded them more as a
decorative than a utilitarian item. Napkins were perceived
as a symbol of social status, and color had an influence
on this symbolism. Housewives involved in the study
registered diesatisfaction with colored single-ply paper
napkins then available‘on the market on the basis of quality
of the product and dissatisfaction with the colors. They
indicated a willingness to pay slightly more money for more
attractive paper napkins.

White napkins were perceived as being most closely
identified with actual linen. A majority of respondents
*gave voice to a preference for white'"linen-like" paper
napkins for dinner use and formal entertaining. Close to
white pastel shades in napkins were next in preference for

dinner use.

88

Analysis of the results showed that women were recep-
tive to color in paper napkins, but that use of color would
be largely governed by the nature of the occasion. Soft
pastel colors were seen as most acceptable for formal use
after white. A majority of respondents showed favorable
association with using colored napkins for luncheon, in
preference to use at dinner. ‘While they objected as a
group to the use of gaudy colors, they were found very
receptive to the use of deep-toned napkins for parties.

As a group, they idéfitified colored napkins with
informality, festivity, outdoor fun, and modern, casual
living. A major asset of colored napkins was cited to be
their contribution to table decorating and the enhancing
of appetite.

From the findings of this section of the study it
appears obvious that while there is a desire and certain
_ amount of preference for color in paper napkins, that the
subject is more Complex than in tissue. The findings indi-
cate that colored napkins'are somewhat restricted in their
use and that properly satisfying the potential of the
colored napkin market would involve a greater number of
color and shade variations than required by either facial
or toilet tissue. The linen or cloth-like symbols were
established as having the most appeal to women in napkin
buying. White has the strongest identification with linen

89
and soft pastels are a second choice, in preference to

gaudy shades.7

Color andpPaper Towels

 

Investigation of the use of colored towels revealed
that women were subject to some strong psychological con—
flicts in relation to this product. While they indicated
a liking for colored towels, they showed concern over the
purity of the product when used in relation to food, and
extravagance in the use of a colored product for purely
utility purposes. While white towels suggested purity to
women in connection with food, color was seen as unappe-
tizing. Associating colored towels with food, women
visualized them as having a“soiled appearance when soaked
with grease or water. Color in towels also intensified
the luxury connotation of paper towels and made the house—
wife more conscious of their use for purely utility pur-
poses as a waste and an extravagance. She gave evidence of
viewing the role of kitcken towels as two products in one.
She perceived it as a handtowel and as a utility towel and
was receptive to color in the former, but not the latter.

A majority of reSpondents indicated that they re-

stricted the use of paper‘towels to the kitchen. When

 

TInstitute for Motivational Research, Inc., "Executive
Summary of Motivational Research Findings on Color in Scott
Napkins and Towels" (New York: Institute for Motivational
Research, Inc., October, 1955), pp. l-3.

| 90
questioned on the use of the product in the bathroom, a
majority voiced feelings of waste, coarseness of product,
and objection to keeping waste baskets for disposal of paper
towels in the bathroom. However, these objections proved
to be primarily associated with the use of white paper
towels in the bathroom, and respondents proved decidedly
receptive to colored paper towels in the bathroom. They
viewed colored paper towels for bathroom use as decorative,
soft, and modern, with possible work saving features for
young mothers troubled by children's smudging of cloth or
linen towels. I

In the area of color preferences, the respondents
showed a desire for soft pastel shades in both kitchen and
bathroom. In the kitchen they sought color harmony with
walls and furnishing and saw pastels as less repugnant for
use with food. For bathroom”uSe the respondents indicated
pastel shades would be less suggestive of public washrooms
than white paper towels and more suggestive of cloth.

These women also made known a desire to have paper towels
match their toilet tissues.

Based on the findings of the towel portion of the
study, the Institute for Motivational Research recommended
that Scott produce colored paper towels in soft pastel
shades that would suggest purity. In the selection of
colors they advised careful consideration of the towels'

appearance after saturation with grease or water and the

9i
promotional value of using shades that match Scott's
colored toilet tissue.

In the area of advertising, the researchers suggested
emphasis on themes and symbols that suggest purity, de-
signed for both the rational and the unconscious level of
consumer awareness. Promotion directed at the use of
colored towels in the bathroom was felt to have excellent
potential for introducing colored paper towels and broad—
ening paper towel sales. Desirability of paper towel use
by children was suggested as a promising theme to interest
mothers in placing paper towels in the bathroom. Recom-
mended copy appeals were decorativeness, cheerfulness,
individuality, and modernity with a warning to avoid stress
upon‘"luxury" because of the misgivings it arouses about

8

waste when associated with paper towels.

Current Status of Color in ScottfiPapeprroducts

Scott Paper Company, at the present time, is marketing
colored paper products in all four product classes that
were submitted to motivational research. The company is
now manufacturing and distributing nationally Waldorf toilet
tissue in white and three colors, pink, yellow, and aqua.

Scottissue and Spft-Weve are both being marketed in white

 

 

and four pastel shades: pink, yellow, blue, and green.

 

8Ibid., pp. 4-8.

92

Scottowels are now available nationally in pastel pink and

 

yellow, as well as the traditional white, as are Spotties

 

.facial tissues. The newest member of the Scott line of
products is a new single ply napkin with a linen-like em—
bossing which is being marketed in pink, yellow, and white.
This last mentioned product is limited to specific markets
at the time of this writing, but should be in national dis-
tribution by early 1959. Only the company's two ply linen
finish Scotkin napkin has been left untouched by the firm's
adoption of color for paper products. The reason appears
to center around the fact that up to the present time the
demand for colored two ply napkins has not been sufficient
to justify adding color to the Scotkin napkin. However,
the demand for colored products is dynamic, as the study

points out, and Scotkins will be made available in color

 

as soon as consumer demand appears strong enough to support
the product in color.w

Scott Paper Company found this motivational research
study of great value in undertaking the addition of color
to their established line of products. It tended to sub-
stantiate many assumptions and theories that the firm's
management had developed about color. The study proved of
further value in supplying some new ideas about color and
its uses, explaining consumerpmptivation in regard to color,
and suggesting important advertising appeals that were

directly related to the findings.

CHAPTER VI

CANNED MEAT STUDY

Early in 1957 a psychological market research study
was undertaken for the National Meat Canners Association
of Chicago, Illinois. The study was conducted by the
research department of Batten, Barton, Durstine, and
Osborne, Incorporated of New York and directed by Victor F.

Himmelwright, Ph. D., a consulting psychologist.

Purpose
This study was undertaken to specifically determine

the nature and scope of human behavior in relation to the
purchasing, preparing, serving, and consuming of canned
meats. The researchers included all opinions, attitudes,
feelings, emotions, and motivations related to canned meat
under the heading of behavior.

A secondary purpose of the study was to obtain the
same information about fresh meats for analysis and inter—
pretation. Such information, it was believed, would be a
valuable source of suggestions for increasing canned meat
consumption.

The report is restricted to thg industry level,
rather than to individual companies or brands. This ap-

proach makes the report more valuable because it deals with

94
the entire question of canned meats, rather than a mere
phase, as might have been true in an individual company
study. But the researchers find it necessary to point out
that firms should augment the study with psychological
studies at the brand and product level to complete a full

psychological view of the consumer.

Research Methods and Techniques

Nondirective group interviews, directed depth inter-
views, and projective techniques were used in this study.
All such interviewing was conducted and analyzed by profes-
sional clinical psychologists and psychiatrists. Each of
these men had an established private practice, had served
on the staff of a reputable hospital, and were eminently

qualified to conduct this study.
Principal Findings and Evaluation of the Study

The stereotype: canned meat. The housewife views

 

canned meat as a "fringe" food acceptable for secondary,
users, but not an equivalent substitute for fresh meat.
Her impulse to buy canned meat comes into conflict with
her traditional and cultural preferences for fresh food.
She has acquired an unfavorable attitude from her mother
and grandmother against canned meats and has difficulty
overcoming her prejudice. There is a genuine conflict of
older traditions and modern conditions which the housewife

cannot easily resolve. Early home tuition has given her a

95

set of moral values and responsibilities that are not nec-
essarily in tune with our ever changing pattern of life

and standard of living. She views as a prime virtue being
a good cook who takes care of her family by preparing
nutritious and delicious home made meals. At the same time
she finds a constantly increasing demand upon her time by
activities outside the home which interfere with her tradi-
’tional role of good cook, wife, and mother.

Canned meats offer the housewife an easy solution to
the increasing demand upon her time and energy, but they
are not viewed as a really satisfactory solution. She can-
not escape a guilt feeling when preparing and serving canned
meats. The study reveals that the housewife experiences
this guilt initially when she purchases canned meat and
again while opening, cooking,.and serving canned meat to
her family. Emotionally, she feels she has no identifi-
cation with the meal and has sacrificed what credit would
normally be due her for preparing a good meal.

From the standpoint of quality she looks upon canned
meat as inferior. She associates canned meats with mixtures
of meat. A mixture of anything is never considered as
desirable as the pure product.1 This mixture impression is

heightened by the presence of fat in all canned meats, and

 

lVictor F. Himmelwright (ed.), "Canned Meat--U.S.A.fl A
Psychological Market-Research Study (New York: Batten,
Barton, Durstine, and Osborne, Inc., May, 1957), p. 23.

96
the number of canned mixtures of meat and vegetables. When
buying canned meat products the family shopper often feels
'cheated by the presence of things other than meat in the
can. This is pointed out even in the instance of canned
ham which is packed in jellies and liquids. This tends
to fortify in the shopper's mind that canned meats are
inferior.

Interrogation on the matter'cd'purchasing habits
revealed that canned meats are purchased on impulse, served
sporadically, and stored to relieve guilt feelings. When
in the store the housewife is attracted by the convenience
and advantages of canned meat, but she appears to be over-
whelmed by guilt in using the products. The respondents
gave various replies in this area of questioning, but
revealed a common desire to use canned meat for convenience,
although few actually did so. Many reported storing canned
meats for long periods and then throwing them out because
they feared they were too old to be used.2

When asked for recommendations on the improvement of
canned meat the respondents talked in terms of making them
more comparable to fresh meat. They seemed to feel that
canned meat should be made more like the fresh counterpart
in size, shape, appearance, and taste. There was a demand
to be able to see the product, for larger pieces, and for

minimal pre-cooking so that the meat can be served rare or

 

‘ V —v—__

2Ibid., p. 24.

97
according to the family preference. Canned meat lacks the
red color that is a vital aspect of the "consumer's mental
image of meat.’"3 .

Investigation of the canned meat stereotype revealed
that the average consumer is subject to a number of psycho-
logical conflicts in regard to canned meat products. She
rationalizes her failure to serve or properly utilize can-
ned meats by assuming canned meats are inferior, and by
using any variances between canned and fresh meat to fortify
this position. So common is the belief that canned meats
are inferior that a majority of respondents stated that

4

they always apologized when serving canned meat.

Relation of canned meat to other convenience foods.
Convenience foods in terms of this study are deemed to be
all commercially packaged items that are partially or wholly
prepared food products. This definition covers all frozen
foods, canned items, and instant packaged products.

Study of housewife reaction to other convenience
products revealed a much more ready acceptance of a product
that was a supplement to the meal, but was not the main
course. Respondents indicated considerably less feelings
of guilt in serving a canned soup as a preliminary course
and canned vegetables as a supplement to the main course,

than serving a cannedmeat.5

 

j V V W

31bid., p. 28. 4

Ibid., p. 7. 51bid., p. 38.

98

The housewife seemed to feel that her reputation as
a cook rests primarily on the main course, which is normally
a meat course. It is on this course she normally expends
her greatest skill, and feels is most closely identified
with her talents.

Surprisingly, the housewife does not feel the same
threat to her reputation as a cook when using canned fish
as a main course. Canned fish has more of a traditional
acceptance than canned meat and is often preferred by some
consumers to the fresh product. On the other hand, canned
or frozen soup which is used freely as a preliminary course,
induces the same guilt feeling as canned meat when served
as a main course.

Cake mixes and instant beverages are products that
meet with greater acceptance because they are supplemental
meal courses. An added plus for cake mixes is that they
require a certain amount of preparation and attention on
the part of the housewife, and the end product resembles in
taste and quality the home made item.

Canned meats encounter the greater marketing problems
than other convenience foods because of the varying degrees
of importance placed on various parts of the meal. The
main course, for which canned meats are best suited, is the
most important to the housewife and members of her family.
This course must be a success if the meal is to be a success.

As long as canned meat is not the equivalent of fresh meat

it will not be considered a desirable main course.

99

Consumption of canned meats bypvarying income and

 

occupational groups. Canned meat products are consumed at

 

all income levels and by all occupational groups examined
in this study. The variance seems to come in the fact that
at the lower income level there is greater consumption of
standard canned meat products such as corned beef, hash,
stews, and chili con carne. Higher income level groups
tend to consume larger amounts of the special or luxury
canned meats. Special canned meats are identified as:
deviled ham, Vienna sausages, boned chicken, meat pastes,
and canned hams. In the luxury class the study places such
items as: canned whole pheasants in wine sauce, pate de
fois gras, and the more exotic varieties of canned meat.6

By occupational classes the study points to manual
workers as large canned meat consumers, whereas businessmen
and salesmen consume small quantities by comparison. The
latter are also identified as exerting a "negative influ-
ence upon their wives and families in connection with
serving canned meats for dinner.‘"7

Age is pointed to_haying an influence on canned meat
consumption. Infants, children, and adolescents are iden-
tified as heavy consumers, young married couples as moder-
ate, and older couples as limited consumers of canned meat.

The point is made that the industry should attempt to

a a a ,

 

V —vw ff

6Ibid., p. 40. 7Ibid., p. 53.

100

The matter of variance in tastes and attitudes between
the two sexes were probed by the researchers to determine
their relationship to canned meat consumption. Women were
found to favor hot meals while men prefer food warm or at
room temperature.8 This fact about women brought to light
another underlying source of their seeming objection to
canned meats. It seems the housewife is unable to heat
canned meat to a temperature she desires because she be-
lieves that as a precooked item she will rob the meat of
its remaining flavor. 'This means she serves the meat at a
temperature that is not palatable to her. The respondents
indicated, on the other hand, that their husbands liked
canned meat when served warm or at room temperature. This
introduces just one more dilemma into the serving of canned
meats. A solution to this problem is again a matter of
consumer education. The industry must make the public
fully aware of how to handle canned meats properly, and
how to protect their flavor appeal and nutritive value.
The industry must attack the prejudices and prevailing

attitudes by means of an educational process.

Acceptance and use of seven canned meat products.

1. Canned corn beef hash was found to have very wide

 

acceptance by housewives and their families. A major factor

behind this proved to be that so many users had little or

 

fiw "Vfifi a

8
Ibid., p. 51.

101
no experience with real corned beef. Negative responses
were based on the fact that the product was a mixture which
suggested inferiority and an objection to color and odor.9

Primary appeals for this product are economy and ease
of preparation. Strongest consumer acceptance of the pro-
duct was found to be in the East, enjoying considerably
less popularity West of the Mississippi River.10

2. Canned meat stew was the second product area con-

 

sidered in the study.- Here they found that the use of
canned stews had to compete with the housewife's compulsion
to use leftovers. She feels guilty about throwing out
meat scraps, and therefore, frequently utilizes them in
making various types of stew. Stews are made with suffici-
ent frequency to give the housewife and her family definite
taste patterns related to stews. The preference for home
made stew is rationalized by saying that it tastes better.
This rationale drives women to "doctor" canned stew when
they do serve them in emergency situations. Conscience
seems to compel them to "doctor" stews and they frequently
complain because the gravy in most canned stews limits the
degree to which they can change the product.11
The housewife deems canned stews to be inferior on

'a number of counts, with the primary objection being that

they are a'"mixture;" Other objections take issue with

 

w—w

lO 1

9Ibid., p. 61. Ibid., p. 66. llbid., p. 66.

102

the limited quantity of meat, small size of the pieces of
meat, taste and quantity of the vegetables, and the amount
and quality of the gravy.12

This product was viewed as a cheap meal in comparison
to buying all of the necessary ingredients for a home made
stew. However, it was viewed as an extravagance when uti-
lized in preference to making a stew in the home from left
overs and meat scraps. The most common justifications
given for use were an emergency meal, children's lunches,

and special circumstances like camping expeditions.13

3. Canned chili con carne suffers seriously in the

 

eyes of the respondents on a basis of taste and quality.
As a highly seasoned dish there are wide variances in taste
evaluations which cannot be easily satisfied by a standard
canned product. As a mixture, the product suffers a psy-
chological assumption of inferiority assigned to all canned
meat mixtures when considered by the respondents. The
consumer finds it easy to rationalize her over-all feeling
that the canned chili con carne is inferior because the
product is a mixture and lacks an appealing appearance.
Consumers who like this dish find it simple to pre-
pare at home and are better satisfied because they are
sure of the contents and can control the spiciness. Although

preparation of the dish is simple to prepare in the home,

 

1”Ibid., p. 70.

“

lEIbid., p. 66. l31bid., p. 67.

103

the housewife gains a good deal of psychological satis-
faction in the preparation and serving of this dish.

Chili con carne as a food has some major limitations.
The high degree of seasoning makes the dish unacceptable
to a large portion of consumers and causes it to be viewed
as an undesirable food for children and elderly people.

Greatest consumer acceptance of canned chili con
carne is in the Southwest where the dish originated. Con-
sumers in two northern urban centers (New York-~Chicago),
however, complained that the canned product was not as
'"hot" as a genuine Mexican chili con carne.15

4. Canned luncheon meats' competition is found in

 

fresh cellophane wrapped luncheon meats available in local
stores." Both the canned and fresh products are viewed as
inferior because they are mixtures, rather than a single,
pure meat substance. However, canned luncheon meat
receives the poorer rating because of the conspicuous
presence of fats and liquids when the can is opened. Few
housewives know or understand the meat mixture used in
canned luncheon meat, but rationalize lack of knowledge by
assumptions that they contain scraps and inferior grades
of meat.16
Canned luncheon meats were most generally used by

respondents as an occasional novelty at lunches or as a

meat at breakfast. The rather pronounced taste common to

 

fl j w

15Ibid., p. 71. 16ibid., p. 76.

W

”r- 104
most canned luncheon meat was suggested as a factor limiting
frequent use.

Here, again, the housewife generally looks upon this
canned meat product as a cheap substitute for fresh meat.
She is best satisfied with canned luncheon meat if she
is able to "fix it up" in some way or utilize it as an
ingredient in a main dish.

Non-users of canned luncheon meat stress the fact
that it is not pure meat, and they believe the product is
unwholesome and lacking in nutritive value.

5. panned deviled ham is a canned meat product that

 

was viewed by correspondents on the basis of merit, rather
than emotion and underlying attitudes and feelings. The
respondents knew of no comparable fresh meat item, and
therefore accepted or rejected the canned deviled ham on
the basis of taste and appearance. In addition, this pro-
duct enjoys the advantage of being considered a pure meat,
which builds prestige and appeal in the eyes of the con-
sumer. Respondents did indicate that they felt the product
was very expensive, too spicy for frequent use, and best
suited for hors d'oeuvrescnran occasional sandwich.l7
Researchers seemed to feel that for many respondents
the statement that canned deviled ham was too expensive

was a rationalization. They suggest that many respondents

seemed to feel it necessary to rationalize their limited

.......

 

17Ibid., p. 79.

105
acceptance of this canned meat which had more attributes
than the products previously covered.18

6. Canned Vienna sausages are generally considered

 

by respondents to be a whole or solid meat. In the cases
where this was true, the conpumer has a very favorable
image of the product. Acceptance of this canned meat was
aided also by the lack of any home made product or com-
parable fresh meat. In spite of the favorable image, re-
searchers found that housewives tended to limit their use
of the item because it was canned meat. Again they tended
to rationalize their limited use by attributing it to
expense of the product, which seems to be a superficial
'reply. However, they do seem to limit product use to
cocktail parties, snacks, and an occasional breakfast.

Respondents, aware of the fact that canned Vienna
sausages are a mixture, tended to reject the product. All
of the emotional prejudices toward mixtures in canned meats
were attributed by these better informed consumers to
canned Vienna sausages.

Men were found to be strongest in their preferences
for canned Vienna sausages. The red color of the sausage
and the fact that they appear solid seemed to make the
greatest impression upon respondents favoring the product.

7. Canned'ham held a surprise for the researchers

with the discovery that most housewives do not consider

 

18I'b'ld‘., p. 80.

106
canned ham as canned meat. Questioning showed that respon-
dents did not consider canned ham to fall into the canned
meat category at all. This points up the fact that con-
tents share at least equal importance with the container
in the building of the consumer‘s product image.19

The canned ham appears to offer the housewife every-
thing she seeks in, and cannot find in, other canned meat
products. She finds them to be at least equivalent to its
smoked, boiled, or newly processed competitors, and, in
some cases, better. The canned ham has the expected appear-
ance, enjoys the virtue of being big, lacks nothing in
taste or flavor, is desirable for company and party meals,
and can be prepared and served in many ways. The canned
ham offers to the housewife the same opportunity to individ-
ualize and identify herself with the meal, as does the
regular ham.; She is abie to contribute as much effort to
the preparation and serving of canned ham as she desires,
yet when it arrives on the table it has all the appearance
of the "fresh meat equivalent.'"20

The researchers indicate that housewives rejecting
the use of canned ham do so from basic prejudice against
canned meat. Evaluation of respondents' statements that
the product is too expensive, or objection to the "jelly"
in the canned ham are mere rationalizations of their basic

prejudices.21

 

"V vfi

lglEl§-: P- 85- 201b1d.. p. 92. 21Ibid., p. 93.

107

American Pattern of ConsumingFresh Meat

 

The second phase of the canned meat study is an in-
vestigation of the patterns of fresh meat consumption among
Americans. This phase of the study was undertaken in the
belief that the findings could be utilized to develop
ideas and approaches for increasing canned meat consumption.
At the very least, it was felt to be a source of better
understanding and knowledge of canned meats' real compet-
itor--fresh meat.

To obtain a complete picture of fresh meat consumption
.the researchers undertook an inveStigation of consumer
shopping habits,meal planning and cooking, and their rela-
tionship to fresh meat. Research directed at these three
areas gave them a reasonably complete and comprehensive view
of the importance of fresh meat to the American consumer and

the satisfaction derived from its use.

Shopping habits in connection with fresh meat and

meal planning. Meat and grocery shopping of today's middle

 

class housewife is primarily done at supermarkets with a
majority doing the bulk of their buying on one weekly trip
to the store.of their choice.' This has been made possible
'by the extensive use of the automobile for transporting
food purchases and the widespread possession of electric
refrigerators and home freezers permitting purchase and
safe storage of large quantities of food. However, this

bulk buying has divided meal planning into two phases:

108
an over-all meal planning before and during a shopping trip
and specific meal planning prior to each day's major meals.
Middle aged and older women were found to do this planning
and shopping with confidence based on long experience,
while younger women were found to be in need of assistance
in both of these activities.22

Fresh meats were found to be the central theme of
all meal planning, and henpe, were usually given the
greatest emphasis in the shopping function. Respondents
indicated that fresh meats were usually the first purchase
they made when shopping, and that they were influenced in
their fresh meat purchases by color, appearance, price,
weight, and specific characteristics of the meat under
consideration. Beef proved to be the most popular meat
among respondents and was viewed as a "standard" by which
other meats were judged.

Questioning on the matter of shopping assistance for
the housewife showed that middle class men are taking a
greater part in food store shopping than has been true in
the past. Respondents indicated, however, that fresh
meat purchases were primarily the housewife‘s prerogative
and husbands and children were more active in decisions on

supplementary meal courses.23

 

fivw rvv iv

22Ibid., p. 117.

2BID-bid, p. 118.

109

Meai planning habits and specific meal planning} Data

 

drawn from meal planning revealed that breakfast is viewed
by the middle class housewife as a hurried meal, allowing
little time to plan or prepare, and offering no challenge
to her initiative. Meat is not generally served by these
housewives except on weekends or holiday breakfasts.

Luncheons were viewed by these same women as a nec-
essary evil, but presented an opportunity to use left-over
meat. Respondents thought of lunch as a light meal, unless
guests were being entertained, in which case they would be
apt to make it elaborate. For a guest-luncheon, meat was
considered an essential, and great care and effort was
justified in meal planning and—preparation.

Dinner was the meal that respondents seemed to feel
was a challenge to their respective talents and worthy of
a housewife's efforts. It was identified as the most
important meal of the day because all of the family gen-
erally ate together and this is the most leisurely'meal of
the day. The presence of the entire family unit and the
.fact that there is time to enjoy the meal challenges the
housewife to put initiative, imagination, and planning to
the preparation of this meal.24

As for the specific demands of meal planning, respon-

dents conveyed an understanding that nutrition should be

 

11
2 Ibid., p. 136.

110
uppermost in their thoughts, but revealed that eye appeal
was considered the most important single factor. Beyond
.this they gave emphasis to variation of menus. Dieting
was identified as a current factor in meal planning that
is taking on growing importance. For'a specific meal,
planning is done around the inventory of meat and food-
stuffs on hand. Meat serves as the theme from which the
rest of the meal planning is developed, since both men and
women consider fresh meat as their primary source of energy,

vitality, and health.25

Impprtance of cooking fresh meats to the housewife.

 

Cooking was found by the researchers on this study to be
the most rewarding of all the household chores that a
woman performs. She finds in cooking her best means of
winning the approval, gratitude, and affection of her
husband and children. As a household task it has become
a measure of a woman's femininity and an outlet for her
creative talents. Although cooking is a demanding task
of both time and energy,7respondents indicated that they
saw cooking as a means of making a genuine contribution

to the welfare of their families.

Prevailing Product Image of Canned Meap

 

In this study, respondents indirectly related the
following overall product image to canned meat by
their descriptions of the type of people who use
canned meat.

 

251bid., p. 137.

lll

Canned meat was seen as appealing to:

1. People who hate to cook and who do not know how
to prepare meals.

2. .Lazy, careless, uncreative people with no taste
whatsoever, and who are satisfied with anything.

3. Working people in lower income brackets who
cannot afford fresh meat.

4. Busy, working mothers who cannot take time out
to care for their families.

5. People who live alone and who have not had too
much "good," "fresh" meat.

6. People who cannot shop frequently.26

Major Suggestions for Increasing Canned Meat Consumption
I. Undertake a comprehensive and fundamental edu-

cational program to counteract and eliminate unrealistic
emotional prejudices against canned meat. Emphasis of
such a campaign should be on proving the nutritional value,
demonstrating the economy, and building the prestige of
canned meat.27

II. Market canned meat products that permit the
housewife to make a greater personal contribution in the
preparation and serving of these foods. The meats should
be subjected to minimal precooking to reassure the house-
wife of their nutritive value and permit her to prepare
them to suit the family taste. Young housewives can be
most easily influenced in the use of canned meats when

given straight forward and simple meal planning advice

and cooking guidance.28

 

fi fi a fi

2 61pm. , p. 15277 27

281bld.; pp. 154, 156, 158.

*—

Ibid., pp. 147-148.

112

III. Concentrate on aiding the housewife in meal
planning. ,Offer meal and recipe suggestions in all adver-
tising, product labels, and point of sale merchandising to
satisfy her search for variety. Capitalize on her desire
for meal planning help and her desire for variety by con-
stantly showing her new and novel ways to utilize canned
meat.29

IV. Consider the marketing of a line of prestige can-
ned beef products. Beef is by far the most popular meat
product in the United States. "Beef was the overwhelming
preference of 96% of the respondents in this report.“30
Consumer acceptance of a prestige line of canned meat pro-
ducts would be beneficial to overcoming prejudices against
canned meat in general, and tend to build acceptance of
canned meat items. Such a prestige line of beef products
should be prepared and packaged with recognition of the
consumer's desire for minimal precooking and large, solid

pieces of meat.

Summary and Conclusions

 

The canned meat study is a very broad and compre-
hensive report on the canned meat issue, and only the high-
lights have been touched upon in this paper. However, a
clear picture is drawn of the problems faced by the industry

in increasing consumption of its products. The study

 

Vi w

29Ibid., p. 161. . 301b1d., p. 167.

113

clearly shows that much of the resistence to canned meat
is of a psychological, rather than purely rational, origin.
The consumer's natural tendencies are thwarted in many
instances by underlying prejudices, emotions, and attitudes
that must be recognized and dealt with if the industry
desires a greater share of market. ‘These prejudices, atti-
tudes, and feelings are brought to light and analyzed
throughout the study. On the basis of the findings, the
researchers offer specific recommendations for action.
Procedures are outlined on how the industry can counteract
the harmful, and capitalize on the advantageous, psycho-
logical influences related to canned meats.

This study is a good illustration of the application
of motivational research by an industry-wide association
to obtain information that will be beneficial to all of its
members. The findings of this particular study are clear
cut, and suggest some very concrete approaches that may be
taken by the canned meat industry to win greater consumer
acceptance for all canned meat products. Examination of
the study shows that the~prejudices against canned meats
are so deep-seated and so widespread that only an industry—
wide campaign appears to hold much promise in changing
these prejudices. Using the findings of this study and the
recommendations of the researchers, a very sound adver—
tising and merchandising campaign can be built to break
down the canned meat stereotype and associate them more

closely with freSh meat.

CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Motivational research is a relatively new phase of
marketing research that borrows from the techniques and
procedures of social science to get at the "why" behind
human behavior. Pressure of business interests to obtain
greater knowledge about the consumer at the turn of the
century paved the way for the introduction and development
of market research. Market research proved successful in
ferreting out answers to the'"what" and'"how“ questions in
relation to consumer behavior, but proved incapable of
determining "why" people, and specifically, consumers,
behave as they do. Continuing pressure by business inter-

'"why" behind consumer behavior attracted

ests to learn the
the social scientists into the realm of marketing research.
Their studies, which were focused on determining the under-
lying motives that they believed to be responsible for
consumer decisions and action, brought to their activities
the title of motivational research.

One of the earliest motivational research studies
that has come to the attention of the writer was performed

in 1932. Whether this was the first motivational research

study has not been clearly established, but it does serve

115

to point out that this form of research is at least twenty—
five years old. Two behavioral scientists who are partic-
ularly active in the field trace their motivational
research work back to the mid-nineteen thirties and vie for
the honor of having originated this approach to marketing
research,

Motivational research, as practiced today, is largely
a postwar development. It did not gain any recognition
in business publications until 1948 when an article by
motive researcher Louis Cheskin appeared in the Harvard

Business Review. The April 1950 edition of the Journal 2:

 

Marketipg carried four artiCles dealing with motivational

 

research which tended to be the first significant recog-
nition of the new research by the publication's sponsor,
the American Marketing Association. From this point on,
motivational research received a considerable amount of
attention from both public and business press. In the past
eight years it has been widely publicized in commercial
publications, served as subject matter for a number of
books, and gained recognition as a branch of marketing
research from the Advertising Research Foundation, which
is a prominent organization in the field of advertising.
Use of motive research has been spreading quite
rapidly among business organizations in recent years.
The techniques borrowed from the social sciences have been

utilized by a number of leading national concerns to gain

116
insight on the subject of consumer motives and behavior.
. Motivational research studies have been performed for such
concerns as Chrysler Corporation, General Electric, General
Foods, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, Scott Paper
Company, and other leaders in their respective industries.
It has been utilized for product studies, brand loyalty
analysis, investigations of impulse buying, evaluation of
sales techniques, development of advertising appeals, new
product development, product and package design, advertising
copy analysis, and many other phases of business activity
and interest.

There are varying techniques and procedures used by
motivational researchers, but all are aimed at developing
knowledge of the motives behind human behavior. There are
three prominent approaches to motivational research and
each has exponents who are recognized leaders in moti-
vational research circles.

This form of research is being conducted by moti-
vational research firms, marketing research organizations,
advertising agencies, and in some caSes, by qualified per-
sonnel within business organizations. There are no limi-
tations on the type of organization that can perform moti-
vational research, as long as the organization has properly
qualified personnel to conduct the research.

The growing popularity of motivation research among

business organizations is largely due to the publicity

117
given to successful studies performed for a number of major
companies. The findings of studies performed for General
Foods, General Electric, Jewel Tea Company, and others
that have been widely reported in business publications
tend to suggest that this form of research could be benefi-
. cial, in some degree, to most any organization. Results
to date seem to indicate that motivation research has
potential for any organization interested in the hidden
motives behind human behavior.

Serious controversy exists, however, over the actual
value of motivation research. This controversy over the
new research rages both externally and internally. The
external controversy centers around the value of quali-
tative versus quantitative research, motivational research
as a marketing tool, the validity of motivational research
findings, the ethics of this type of research, and the
legality of it. The internal controversy centers around
the differences of opinion over approaches and techniques
used by various motive researchers, and over the validity
of the techniques used by motivational researchers to
obtain information and draw conclusions. There are promi-
nent individuals of recognized ability representing each
phase of opinion involved in the controversy.

In-spite of the controversy, motivation research
has been moving forward and building a valuable body of

data about human motivations and explanations of human

118
behavior. The studies reported in Chapter IV of this
thesis are limited to a number of research findings that
apply to the field of food distribution. However, they
are sufficient to illustrate the contribution being made
by motivational research to one specific phase of the
economy.

The color research performed for Scott Paper Company
is a sound illustration of motivation research performed
_for a specific company and largely limited to product
information as it relates to the company. In the canned
meat study there is a good example of the use of moti-
vational research for an industry-wide study. Motivation
research is equally valuable in both instances, and has
been successful in developing insights that will enable
the sponsors in both cases to tailor their products,
marketing, and sales promotion efforts to the desires of
the consumer.

Within this thesis motivational research has been
largely viewed in relation to its activities and under-
takings that are pertinent to the field of food distri-
bution. This approach-to motive research was taken first
because of the writer‘s interest in the field of food
distribution, and secondly, because this new form of
research has performed some of its most productive work
in this area.

Motivational research, in the opinion of the writer,

is destined to grow in importance and receive a more

119
general recognition as a vital part of marketing research.
Marketing functions are directed to the satisfaction of
human wants, and motivaticnal research has proved to be
the most successful method, to date, of determining those
wants and developing and understanding them. Marketers
are no longer satisfied with how and what explanations of
human behavior, as supplied by quantitative market studies,
but wish to know the "why" behind human behavior. The
answers to the question'"why" are found through the quali-
tative approach to marketing research that has become known
as motivational research.

The interest of marketers in obtaining greater under-
standing of human behavior is becoming more widespread
with the passage of time. Greater knowledge and under-
standing of consumer motivations appears essential if our
economic system is to achieve its full potential in serving
people effectively and efficiently. This stress on the
importance of understanding the consumer is sufficient
reason in itself to promise motivational research growth
and influence in the future_of marketing. However, moti-
vation research has already made impressive advances in
adding to our store of marketing knowledge, and supplying
valuable insights about consumer behavior and reactions.
Although a relatively new phase of marketing research,
it has had a very productive record. Motivational research

has successfully solved many marketing problems, turned up

120
new marketing ideas, aided in the development of new adver-
tising approaches, and performed many more valuable services
and functions for business in general. Genuine accomplish-
ments cannot be overlooked, and motivational research has
an impressive list of accomplishments to its credit.

The most important phase of the current controversy
over motivational research in marketing circles is the
charge that motivation researchers depend entirely on quali-
tative research and fail to utilize quantitative research
to substantiate their findings. Devoted market research
interests find it hard to accept the new research or its
findings, due to a tendency by motive researchers to ignore
established statistical procedures in pursuing their
studies. However, a current school of motivation research
led by Dr. Herta Herzog of McCann Erickson Advertising
Agency combines both qualitative and quantitative research
in motivational work. This appears to be the trend which
motivation research will follow in the future. Firms now
devoted entirely to the qualitative approach will add
quantitative research procedures to their undertakings.
Similarly, firms now devoted entirely to the statistical
or quantitative approach will add social scientists to
their staffs to round out their research activities. As
this transition takes place, the debate over the value
of motivational research versus market research should die

a natural death.

121

Only the passage of time will quiet the fears and
misgivings about the possible misuse of the new research
tool. However, publicity created by the concern over this
issue will serve to warn the public of the dangers, and
enable them to recognize and guard against abuse of moti-
vational research findings.

Educators will continue to debate the validity of
the techniques used by the motive researchers until their
techniques have been thoroughly proven, or more acceptable
techniques have been developed. However, close scrutiny
by members of the academic field should serve as greater
incentive to the social scientists interested in motive
research to sharpen and impppye their techniques and devel-
op more acceptable procedures for their profession. Their
efforts to make motivational research acceptable by edu-
cational standards should result in a more exact science
that will be of even greater value to marketing in the

future.

..-._-

The current progress and utilization of motivational
research shows indications of a closer relationship between
the social sciences and marketing interests in the future.
The desire on the part of marketers for improved knowledge
of human wants, and the ability of the behavioral scientists
to obtain this information will bring a closer union between

the two areas of endeavor. Continued cooperation and

122

merging of the interests of the two groups holds promise
for better products, better marketing programs, and im-
proved services, based on greater understanding of the

consumer and his actual wants, needs, and desires.

_ BIBL I OGR APHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Cheskin, Louis. How pp Predict What Pepple Will Buy.
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Newman. Motivation Research and Marketing Management.
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Packard, Vance. The Hidden Persuaders. New York: David
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Smith, George Horsley. Motivation in Advertisin~ and
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Periodicals

 

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'"Consumer Motivation,‘ Consumer Reports, V01- 22’

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125

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Dichter, Ernest. '"What Can Make People Buy in 1957;"
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Felsten, Benjamin. "Opportunities for Marketing Research,"
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Heusner, William W., Charles M. Dooley, Gordon A. Hughes,
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'3557777

Newman, J. W. '"The Future of Business Lies in Understanding
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126

Packard, Vance. "The Ad and the Id, " The Reader's Digest
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Roper, Elmo. '"How Powerful Are the Persuaders?," Saturday
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Rothwell, N. D. '"Motivational Research Revisited," Journal
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Strong, Lydia. '"Motivation Research--What's In It for
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Stryker, Perrin. "Motivation Research, " Fortune, LII, No.
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Tyler, William D. "The Image, the Brand, and the Consumer,"
Journal of Marketing, XXLL, No. 2 (October, 1957),
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Wells, William D. "Is Motivation Research Really an Instru-
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(October, 1956), 196-199.

Westfall, Ralph L., Harper W. Boyd, Jr., and Donald T.
Campbell. "The Use of Structured Techniques in
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Wiebe, G. D. "Is It True What Williams Says About Moti-
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(April, 1957), 408-

 

Williams, Robert J. "Is It True What They Say About Moti-
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(October, 1957), 125-133.

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(January, 1956), 262- 268.

 

 

Miscellaneous

 

Cole, Robert H. '"Consumer Behavior and Motivation;"
Marketing Symposium, University of Illinois Bulletin,
October, 1955.

Lucas, D. B. "Motivation Research--Its Promise and Its
Limitations," Frontiers in Marketing Thought. Con-
tributed papers of Conference of the American
Marketing Association, December 27, 1954, Detroit,

 

 

127
Michigan. Stewart H. Rewoldt, editor. Bloomington,

Indiana: Bureau of Business Research, Indiana
University, 1954.

Newspapers

 

Anon. '"Advertise Philosophy Not Just Food: Dichter,"
Supermarket News, Vol. 7, No. 22 (June 2, 1958), 37,

 

Efron, Edith. "Brand New Brand Names," New York Times
Magazine, July 7, 1957, pp. 14, 30. '

 

Unpublished Material

 

Dollard, John. "The'Motivation Problem Seen From the View-
point of Campus and Clinic. Paper read before the
Eastern Annual Conference, American Association of
Advertising Agencies, Inc., New York, October 15,

1955

Himmelwright, Victor F (ed.). '"Canned Meat-~U.S.A;" A
Psychological Market-Research Study. New York:
Batten, Barton, Durstine, and Osborne, Inc. May, 1957.

Institute for Motivational Research. ‘"Executive Summary
of Motivational Research Findings on Color in Scott
Toilet and Facial Tissue;" New York: Institute
for Motivational Research, Inc., October, 1955.

Institute for Motivational Research. ‘"Executive Summary
of Motivational Research Findings on Color in Scott
Napkins and Towels;" New York: Institute for
Motivational Research, Inc., October, 1955.

Personal Interviews

 

Arney, Richard D. Vice-President, George A. Hormel and
Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, April, 1958.

Graham, B. D. Vice—President in charge of Marketing,
H. J. Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
April, 1958.

Hughes, Gordon A. Director of Marketing Research, Scott
Paper Company, Chester, Pennsylvania, January, 1958,

g: I“? p 7" a in '

 

 

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