116
208

 

THS_

NATURE OF DECAY IN WOOD

DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD FOR
MEASURING THE RATE OF DECAY IN WOOD

Burton 0. Longyeat
‘ 925

THESIS

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I. The Wature of Decay in Wood

II. Development of a Xethoi for
measuring the Rate of Decay

in Wood {ai-
o H“
by Burton 3. LcaneLr
*

*

A Thesis Submitted to the
Graiuate Faculty for the Degree
of

Hester of Forestry

Michigan Agricultural College
1095

 

THESXS

 

 

The Extent and Into taupe of Wood Peony

The deterior1tion of wooi due to decay is on the whole of
enormous extent. It affects either directly or irlirectly
practically every wood-using iniustry. Beginning with the
forest itself decay takes 1 heavy toll of the timber crop sni
reduces the quality of the hsrveet. Especially is this the
case in vir3in s ands of over-mature tim er of both softwood
and hardwood species and to a lesser degree in second growth
stands not under eilvi cultural min1 ement. This the amount of
decay going on in the forests of the United States is a matter
of great importance in the 103rin3 eni lumcering industry.
Although considerable 1ttention is new bein
diseases and careful studies of timber rots h1ve been made for
certain species in particular regions, the losses iue to decay

in this country ere sc1rcely estimshle with the rresent r1ther

Investigations of the erount o: dec1y in severtl in::ortxnt

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snecies of the Pacific northwest 1re firesentei: D(m1aljs -ir, (2)
of ,. -~
-’ f,“ kari I;

Fir

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I

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20—50fl; Western TIN te Pine (43) 7f Incense Celer (L) 31-

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rreste

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sometimes rnuch Western Ilenlc ck (44) 87-31f; Whit

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(37) similar to Incense Cedar. In the Southern P sky Hountwin

2

region the drier cl instic coniitions determine 1 somewhat lower
percentage of loss due to decey. Thus for [cisepole Pine (23)

, 4 .
losses r1n3e from 7-le with occasio n11 1rezs with losses of

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:23

15-20%. Western Yellow pine in the same region suffe
-1-
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average loss for 111 merch1nt1hle sizes of 4.54 (33).
From the shove it is 1:7 irent tint the pines are com—
paratively low in losa iue to leggy while in certain so-ciliei
"infe rior spec e3
inferiority of such species, from the lumber n3 st1niroin

often lar gely iu to their suscentihility to 1ec1y.

\ -‘ n g ‘ ’ ' h fiv‘ ' ,"'I ‘- r'. i y" r‘\ ' v ‘ w W‘.
the amount of 1e01y in the forest 10 even mufe neibie.

of the publications, which the 11thor hue ex1ninei, th1t 1e1l

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contain only sue:
decay are often very high." ;Le los.ses in white pins in Vermont

due to one c1use alone, accorii n to the investig1tions of one

(4:9

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1" -.’ . .— A
author, equal 8}, or spruce 3p, 1ni in 1 red conifers 3,, (l).

Decay varies 3 1y not only hetueen erecies out 1130

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Within the species unier differeht soil uni cliustic ccniitions,
and especially between stands uni inciviiuuls of different ages.
Thus Jack pins 1 t

extent of only b-i.. (45) While 8 cu hern Sh rtleef pine V1rie s
from a little 0 er 8f in st1nis 60— 15 ye1rs old to s tot1l of
more the 17% of all logs in stands 170 years 011 (34).
Southern Bald Cyrress is "alacst norn1lly" affected with 1

from of decay commonly known as "“e°<ines 'which, while it
does not usually destroy the wool for some rurp see, c1uses
deterioration est ims ted 1t 50¢ of the tots supyly of this
species. (33)

Among the h1r1roois definite st1tements of the LreV1lence

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of decay are especially lacking. Studies 0 the he1rt rots

of hardwoods in the Us rk National For est and elsethere have

" up to 65% in ne case where fires

shown "amounts very great,
were prevalent. (10) “hi te he1rt rot is named by one
authority to be the o'use of losses in certai n br oadle1f
species amounting in many cases to 11-95% of the entire stand
which would otherwise be rue c1.1nt1b 1e. (38) Another euthor
states th1t it is almost impossible to finl he11thy groves of
aspen of any consider1hle age ir the New England states, in
Colorado and in New Hexico th1t 1re not boily dcc1red by "i1lse
tinder" heart rot ani the s11e is true of m ture st1nis of
beech in Texas and Louisi1n1. (39) The forest products
'laboratory circular (1933 st1tes th1t the 1n2u1l deterior1tion
in pulpnooi iue to fungous infection is now estim1ted st
$5,ooo,ooo. (13)

Statements re o1ri n3 tne tot1l vnlue of he timber
destroyed by;bcay are, for the most pert, indefinite. In one
case the general st1tement i" th1t "millions of lollars worth
of wood has rott e1 in the log in every state in the Union."
Another writer roughly estimates the ennu1l losses due to this
cause at nearly $100,C9”m 300. for the wlole count ry. ‘From the
most recent estimate ( 984) th tot1l losses of wood in this
country, due to decay, are about 16% f the totel cut or the
astonishing amount of 3. 5 billion cubic feet. (49) This is the
equivalent of over nine billion board feet of sewn lumber and
is valued at over $800,000,050.

Decay in the m1terial cut from the forest may soon follow

-3-

the harvest. In some cases this consists of the continuation

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of the decay processes already under way in tie tree when out.
Saw logs, tie timbers, posts, poles, bolts and fuel wood are all
subject to such deterioration unless attention is soon given

to proper storage and to rapid seasoning, or unless they are
manufactured into lumber or other finished proaucts. The rate

of deterioration varies with the species, the clinatic ani
seasonal conditions ani the size of the material. he available
published information dealing with this phase of the subject

is again meagre and largely indefinite in quantitative statements.
Investigations of the deterioration in felled Western Yellow

pine in southern Oregon and northern California, chiefly due to
decay, have shown 13-18% injury during the first season; 63—75%
for the second season, and by the eni of the seventh season

little or no merchantable value remained in the legs. (4)

Even in the manufactured products sucn as lumber, ties and
fuel wood, decay is an ever present menace unless preventive
measures are at once taken. In this connection the means
employei may consist of proper air seasoning, use of the dry
kiln, storage under shelter, and the employment of chemical
preservatives by dipping. (48) Deterioration stuiies of Sugar
and Yellow pines and of Douglas Fir lumber in California have
shown depreciation in value amounting to from 3-10% largely

of the nature of decay. (27)

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Decay of wood and timbers luring the p: 101 0 service is

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often very great. In fact the period of usefulness c“

is in many cases largely depenient upon the resistance cfferei

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sees in which the 3001

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to decay. This is particularly true of
is subjected to the elements and especially when it is used in
contact with the soil. Literature of deterioration of building
timbers due to decay in this country offer only general state-
ments as to total losses but indicate that in certain cases, as
in paper mills, textile mills and canning factories, it may be
a very important factor of cost in carrying on these industries.
Similar conditions may also determine in large measure
service period of timbers and wood used in farm buildings,
residences, factories, bride es and trestles, railways, WhirVES.
fences, telephone and other electric lines, in mines, vehicles,
farm machinery and in a host of lesser ways in which wood is
employed.

A grand total of all loss es in the tiruer resources of the
nation from the forest to the end of the period of service, due
to decay cannot be even approximately stated with any degree of
assurance. One thing is clear, however, and that is that it
would be impressive if definitely known. It has been roughly
estimated to be the equivalent of nearly eight billion board
feet of lumber for the whole United St ate3. (30)

In European countries where more thorcush studies of decay
losses? ave been oarriel on over a long period of time it is
still a matter of uncertain amount are ept in cer +ain cases.

Due to the greater care in forest hygiene, shorter rotations,
the closer utilization of forest mater a1 an the extensive use
of wood preservatives Eu rope ean loszes are undoubtedly much lover

than ours. In spite of these -'ays of reducing the amount of

timber decay in these countries, he ever, the losses are stated
to be heavy--that from one cause alone, according to Holler,

being about $350,000. oer year for the Prussian Government fine

vv

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forests. (25)
The Causes of Decay in Wood

Ever since man began to employ wood for any purpose its
tendency to decay has probably been noticed. A clear understand-
ing of what decay is, however, has been but recently acquired.-
According to ancient Greek and Roman ideas all matter consisted
of four elements: Earth, air, fire, and water. The readiness
with which a certain kind of woo' decayed depenued upon use
relative proportions of these elements in its composition. Thus
the kinds of wood which contained a large proportion of lire
decayed readily while those kinds which contained more earti were

durable. (11)

J

The invention of the compouni microscope by Jan:sen in 159C,
followed by its improvement ani use by Hocke (1635-1703),
Selligfi? and Chevalier (1835), Amioi (1887), and by-Lister,

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u odussure and nouseinadult,

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a scientific basis, by such men as

with later refinements by the investigations of Sachs and

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Pfeffer. For a time, however, the indings of Liebig (1803—1873)
in Agricultural Chemistry had a deterrent effect unon an under-
standing of the real nature of ylant disease. Thus it was

assumed that flant'iiSEdSBS were due to an absence of, or an

excess of .he necessary mineral constituents of the soil required

for normal plant growth. Decay of wood was helieved to be due

-5-

to chemical changes of a destructive nature induced by moisture
and warmth and the oxygen of the air. The term "ereracmayie"
used by Liebig referred to what he celievel to be a kind of
slow combustion in the presence of "cisture and the oxygen of
the air and was indepenier t of the action of fun;i which might
be present.. (47)

D ‘1 ‘ w w. " . "t.’ v s‘ a I 3-. ‘. '. '\ "* ’ '
~G.Veer he Jeers ‘ ' uni i884 the investigeticne of

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. . _ w .. . , ,. ., . n . -, -.
DeBary, Bernele', Tuliene, Kuhn and Ti:teur lei; the trLe

substances. From 1993 to the Tresent time the nurhcr of in-
igatcrs alcnFr these lines has greatly increus ed ind incluie s

t
workers in bot“ the :"etemetic and the pathologic fields.

 

 

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#11. t , q ,. - .. - . 1.‘ . , \ ~..- - ... ‘\
the factors echoerneu with the iecey of noel nay re cl
as:

l. Tnvironwentul

a. Bicti:

The envircnrentil fuctors concern no stggeJ oxvren, (iiT),
errera ; e and food. The hiotic fa ctor 3 involve the rr esence

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of living organisms, in this case certain Eggteriu ani juggi.

In this the "laN of the minimum" holls true tith scwe moiifica—
tion. Thus, while a reduction of eny environmental factor

ray cause a corre ego ozitling reduction in the rate J41 yrogress of
decay the presence or ehsenoe of the nrorer organisms positively
determines whether or not any decay takes fluce. Accordingly,
the envir: nmentil factors alone cannot cause decay but they

merely furnish the conditions unier which the organisms can

-7-

function. In other words decay, as in wool, is

the life processes of certain

orgixmi :1s 11 obta

\: r“ . fi‘ -
nine nourishment

whereby the wood is relucei to the conlition characteristic of

rotten wood.

 

 

a general knowledge of the ctr

Gen ’1‘ FL]. Charact

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13.01.-

ILL

t};e process of wooi decay involves

ucture, composition and other

properties of wool. Due to the fact th the chie

ducing trees of the worli occur in the

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trees characteristic of tress
sidered here.
Timber trees are roughly

into two classes:

1. Softwools
2. Hardwoods

The principal parts of a tree

roots, trunk and branches. The older roots anl the
branches are covered with bark.

layers-—outer bark anl inner bark.

temperate

"ones the

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timber pro-

zones will be the only ones con-

liviiei in the lumber

(Gymno sperms)

(Dicotyleione, unier

in the above clas

es

iniustry

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e38 Angiosperms)

cnsist of

trunk and

Bark consists of two yrincipal

Outer bark on the trunk of

older trees is composed largely of corky cells which rrotect

the inner bark from drying, from mechanical injuries

the attacks of parasitic insects and fungi. Th

e

consists of cells of various kinds sore of which

photosynthesis to a.moierate extent wherever the

cl...i fr Gm

inner bark

oirry on

cuter bark

sfllowa light to renetrate, as in the thin bark of

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i s and

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young trunks and in crevices in the thick bark of olier trunks.

Another portion, the innermost,

consists of t? .e phloem elements

of the vascular system through which the elaborated food from
the leaves is carried downward and distributed to the 3roJin3
parts of the plant.

Between the phloem of the inner bark and the outernost
ring of wood lies the Cambium layer. This consists of a few
rows of thin-walled cells which are capable of cell division

q

and growth in such a way as to build new phloem cei s on

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ve
outerside, next to t1:e inne rbark, and of wood or xylem elements
on the inner side. In this way the cambium builds a new ring
of wood each year outside of those previously formed, the first
ring being formed during the first year around and in contact
with the pith.
The wood of a tree shoWs three different sectional vie.vs:
1. Transverse
2. Padial
3. Tangential
In the transverse or cross section of a tree trunk the Wood
appears to be made up of rings concentric around the pith.
These are the annual or growth rin3s formed by tne activity of
the cambium layer during each 3rowin3 season. Each 3rowth ring
usue lly sr owe two more or less dis ti ct nortions, the early
wood and the late wood. These two 1:0rtions 3e ner=.!lly iif
from each other in color, texture, and density. In some woods,
as the soft woods, the difference is largely due to the differ-
ence in size of the cells and the thickness of their walls, the
early wood consistin3 of larger, thinner walled cells than

the late wood. The change or transition from early to late

wood may be gradual, as in he soft pines, in spruces and most

firs; or abrupt, as in hard pines, larches and douglas fire.

In some of the hardwoods the early wood contains a band
or line of relatively lar3e pores which are replaced here or
less abruptly in the late wood by much smaller pores, (e.3.
Quercus, Ulnus, Fraxinus and others). These are known as ring—
porOus woods. In other species of hardwoods the early and the
late wood are scarcely if at all di:.tin:uishable as the pores
are small and quite uni; ”ormly distribute d th .routhut th
growth ring, (e.3. Johns, Acer, Tilia, Liriodendron, etc.).
Such woods are known as diffuse porous woods.

In addition to the 3rowth r.in3s all species of our woods
show more or less distinct lines which run in a radial direction
from the pith outnar d to the bark. These are the medullary or

pith rays. In the softwoods the wedullary rays are comparatively

indistinct While in some of the “a ard" oo11s, e.3. the oaks, they
are very nrominent. Most species-of both softuoois and hard-

woods show in the older trees two quite distinct fortions

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1 ‘ c v a O n . f'
ned as sangggi (alhurnun) and es r;3_ood

comm nly di “ti 3uis

 

(duramen).
The sapwood forms an encircling hand of varying width just
inside the bark and usually differs from the heartuood in the
followin3 re snects:
1. It is nearly always liqhter in color than the
heartwool. '
2. It has a somewx at low

are
3. Its water content is greats
4. It is mostly less durable t

cific gravity when dry.
r in the livin3 tree.
han the heartwood.

The relative amounts of sapwood and heartwood vary a 3ood deal

-19-

according to the species, the age of the tree and the condi-

tions under which it grew. The yerc- ntag e of sarwooi to the

total volume of the stem may be as high as SEC (Pinus tseia)

to as low as 13?: (Robinia pseuiacacia). In some species no

heartwood is formed until tile tree has reached the age of

50-10? years, (Pinus ponierosa), While in others the last formei

one or two annt al rings alone are sapwood, (Elaeagnus

angustifilia). The sspt ooi cont :zins the only living cells of

the wood, all parts of the heartnool consists of deal cells.

The darker color of th e heertwood is due to the accumulation

within it of guns, resins, ani coloring matter of various kinls.
The raii:tl section of a loe or of a piece of wool is

obtained bv cutting le ng t‘wise of the grain, or longitudinal

axis of the trunk, and parallel with the neiullary rave. This

section shows the annual rings as parallel lines across which

the meiullary rays extend at right angles,each rev showing as

a darker or sometimes lighter glistening streak or ribbon.

The tangential section is t:Lken also lengthwise of the grain

but at a tangent to the circles formed bv the growth rings.

It is therefore at right angles to the nedullarv rave, at least

in part of the section, which thus apreer in cross section.

Wood, like all other farts of the plant, consists of
cell elements, or their walls, of more or less diverse character.

w . \ -‘ I r‘ A 'N C ‘ " '\ r‘ .
wnen examined under the high power of a comgounl microscCCe

the cell wall appears, in cross section, to consist of three

Illllllll I Ill

quite distinct layers. The miiile layer, or nilile lanella,
represents the original or prinarr cell Wall upon WhiCA t1 e

secondary layers have been lili down drrinr rest. in thickness.

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The miidle lamella, being of some”
position from the seconiary livers, may he liesolvei hf certiin
chemical rearents so as to cause the wool to become relucei to
a pulp. The cells* or elements of ch ch wool is composed may
be Jrou e1 in three trincital clisses:
o p r -
l. Parenchymatous
2. Ficrous

. 3. Vascular,

Parenchggitous Flenents

 

The cells of this class

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are t_1Mic:l vthin-wallei, the
three dimensions are not widely iiffe"ent and the? are apt to
be filled with living contents ani stored fool raterixls. The
bith'of the stem is sholly of t"zical parenchyma and thrt part
of the inner bark next to tie corky layer is also 1:1r5e1y of
the Stime CT ar30t3

i itself two forms of parenchymatous elements
are founi: (1) R1" rarerchvra, (8) .001 parench3ma. The first
~for? constitutes the bu k of the neiullary rays while the
latter occurs intermingle i with the other wood elements in
the rardwocds. In both kinds livinr 1Hro 0: la: 3721c contents

starch and other res erve food materials are to be found in the

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sapwood. In the change from sapwcoi

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o irtwoci the rrotoplasm

dies and the other substances may‘he re; e1

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or disorm»*r.i'e

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I"(The term cell as here usei, affilies chiefly to the cell walls.)

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wholly or in :ert.

 

The fibrous elements consist of thick-wrllel greltly
elongitei cells with tspering, overlsprinb enis sn' are mostly

without cell contents 8. They comprise the chief strensthenin
elements of tee hardwoods uni the to.2 3“-1ening, fihro2s rsrt of
the bark in all species.

Vascul'r Fleme ent

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The vascular 'lem-nts are of two types: (a) Tracheiis,
(b) Vessels or iucts. TLe former consist of elongated cells

with closed enls uni walls markel With borierei nits; and
sometimes wit 11 stiral thicke nines. The bulk of the wool of
softwoois onsists cf t"scheiis; one form, the wool trecaeils,
lying lenbthw se of the stem and another fCI'I.';, r1. tracheiis
when present, l3in3 narsllel with the meiullsry :iys. Vessels

-b

_ .. '2 2 - m- —. 9
or sects are normally n . (restly e1onbltei uni 3:8 citen C1

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wide lisneter. They LJVG open ends where the V adjoin GJCh ther

IQ J , 1 - . 'fi . ‘ ‘- L g .3 \ 4 3.5 .n v.“ +‘. . f . ‘ I M"
in ver ticsl ser1es pers1lel b0 tne brl-n o1 the ”col. -ney
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co listit;te tee ;ores in tne naridoois. 1ney are rs ‘ ei in

~ -. - ‘2 ... ‘F ' 7-: , 1 .--~-_, - 1 ..o‘_- J 4.1 , 3
various Nays escordnb to t-.e 1114.11.22: in ...-...31 “1.33:: .;_,,11.5 3TB
vqf“

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tniCKe 1-181 Q‘JrL n'f 01.0” Us. 0 Loihg’ t-‘ef .7113, US 11.5. LI L4\Jut’ £3 34.53-33wu‘3’

t «- 4- ‘ T \ \ s I. - ‘ ‘- 1 ‘- ,
scslsriform and 3.1r41 izl charscter. les1els 1o:m the o ief

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an --.- ‘1 4- 4-7. . - -
connon u: n e wool o1

Re S in ill-3 t "
certain 5e1ier¢ cf conifers (e.r. Pinus, Larix, Pices, Pseuictsugl}.

‘

They arise as interoellullr, lon:itulinll ar1i rslill clsnnels

-13-

surrounded by yerenchymatous cells which secrete resin into
the yessage way.

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Gymnosperms Dicotvleions

True vessels absent. True ve2sels present.

Hood tracheids present and Tracheids preseL1t or absent;
formi ing bulk of wool. always cu>oiiinete.

Ray tracheiis present or absent. $~¢y truczxeiis up 59 at.

Wood fioers acsezit. col fisers Ire we1-t.

Wood parenchyma yrecma +(excelm Teoi 3crencLym.i1resent; often
in Taxaceae) but suaoriinste. conscicu: us.

Ray parenchyme present. . sy perenchyz u yresent.

Chemic cl Comzos i‘tio of flood

 

‘CLemicelly, woods of various kinds differ but little in
their composition. Dryxi vc:i sutstence consists of: Carton EC,
hydrogen 6, oxygen 43. 7, nitrogen 0.3 parts by weight. Cellulose
(C5H1005)N and ligsin (035353073) are he chief constituents of
wood, the former being a carbohydrate wLile the latter is con—
isiiered by some chemists to be e mi x ure of at least four other
substances. Hadromel, a substance of uncertain comeosition,
was obtained by Czepek from wood and believed by aim to be the

lignifying substance. Others as

0

cell walls to the presence of coniferin, venillin, uni *ossibly
ct her substances. Liguin is known as woolz sutetggge, the

lirnifzing substgic* anl the incrustin; substggqe. Cellulose

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is soluble in Schweitzer 's resgent \dmIOLlecel sclut
cupric oxide) from which it may be precipitated in a gelatinous
form b7 treatment with acids. Lignin may be removei from the
cell walls of we oi b'3r boiling in a solution of csustic sole

-14-

or of calc um sulphate when the cellulose is left behin1. This
process is extensively swigal yei in the manufacture of paper
pulp by means of the so-c1lle1 scla pr ce;s.

The mineral matter wuich rertins as sh when wool is nu; nei
consists chiefly of salts of potash, so11,m15pesium, mang1rese ,
ferric oxide and calcium oxiie combinei w th silicic, phosphoric,
carbonic, acetic, pomnic and citric acile. These cc Hou 1s
penetrate the woci in all 1irections as a delicate mineril
skeleton. The percent of ash in wooi diff ere ccnsi1m1b1y depeni-
ing upon the species, age of the part anl of the tree ani the
nature of the soil in which the tree grew. The ash.ccntent
varies from O. 2- 5. 01. In 111ition to the cell wall, substances
and the ash content wool may ccntain otie r a1terials within the
cells of certain tis m3. 5 or cell elements.‘ Thus the ray and
wood parenchyma ce ells of the sapwood may contain reserve starch
during autumn an 1 winter ceei 1es ‘rctOplasmic materials. Eu 1r,

dextrin, and tanr in are 0th substances also to be foun1 in

wood, especially the sapwcci, of living trees or in those

J

recently cut. Resin or pitch is a characteristic proiuct of

cf

conifers an1, in species possessing resin 11cts in the 1001, i
may often permeate the wood more.or less thoroughly, as in re-
sinous pieces of pine.

Physical and M ch;nical Properties of Wood

 

_g§cific cravitv (Density, specific wei.ght This is
determined by comparing the weight of a unit vcluxne of oven
dried wooi, (100° C) with an equal volume of water at 40 C.
(Sp.gr. ==wt. of cry woo1 ner cu. ft.)

63.43 lbs.

-15-

Wood sub ste noe its elf has a $3.5r. of 1.55; regardless of
the species from which it is taken; nenoe tlte nifferer es in
weight between different species must be due to the relative
amounts of wool suostanoe in nroportion to the air space in
the wool. The denser woods have thicker cell walls than the
li5hter ones, therefore are harder ani stron5er. Tr0pical

t

woods show the widest variations in sp.5r., ne ran5e hein5

U

for cocus and violetwoo l 140 to Hermiriera l5. The former

 

species will sink quickly in water. Any wool from which the
air is removed either b7 boiling or 3y pr olcngei soaring will;
also sink readily. I

Hoisture Content of Wool

 

 

 

Freshly cut timber contains on the average from 45—52% of
its weight of water. 'Contrary to popular opinion a tree in
winter or early sprin5 contains much more water than it does
in midsummer. his is due totie rapil loss of water from the
leaves by transpiration in the 5rowin5 season. Different parts
of the same tree also vary in their water content. Thus the
heartwood of 5reen timber is relatively drier t1 an the sapwood,
e.5. Pinus pilustris, one inch from bark 50% water; two inches
from bark 35% water; and heartwood 20% water. Air-dry wooi
contains 15-30% of moisture and even when dried at a temperature
of boiling water, still retains 3.3% of moisture. Air-dry
wood is quite safe from the attacks of wool destroying fungi
if not exp osei to atzosphere of hi5h relative humidity for
rrolonged periods. Wood that cont ins not more than lCfi of

moisture is perfectly immune tn such attacks. The rapid season-

in; or drying of wood 5enera lly cxuses the form tion of checks
and cracks which may later offer favorable places for th
entrance of the fungi of decay in 105s, and sawn material.
Strength and Ifarlness

The term strength may be generally consider ed as referr ing
to the ability of a material to resist stress. The yrinoipal
associated properties are stiff nes-, tou5hness, hardness;
tensile, compressive, bending and shearin5 strength. hardness
is closely_related to crushing stren5th an i transverse shearing
is th e aoilit" of the material to resist indentation. These
properties vary greatly between species an id consiude raoly among
the individuals of a species. All these mech'nical properties
in wood are also influenced by the moisture content, the
temperature and the soundness of the material wlm en te est .
Thus the crushing s.ren5th of kil n-di ied wood, which still cen-

rxf

tains 3.5 up moisture, may be increased from 2.7 times in lonrleaf

pine to 3.7 times in spruce as compared with green wood. (39)

in even sli5ht derre ee, has a narked

cf

Decay, when presen
effect upon the n 3 hanical properties of wood, as shown in
the experiments by the writer. Thus, in transverse bendin5
tests upon small pieces of Populus acuminata a decrease in
'Weight of 10%, due to decay, caused a falling off of 74% in
strength. In an aivanced stage of decav the wood elements nay
lose their cohesive p "ers to such an extent as to make it
11fficult to handle the wood without its fallin5a1ar .fron its

own weight.

-17..

r. q -‘. - ‘ ”' e
The Orrin ems I LeCtV in ~QQ£

_———————‘—

 

2592.233
It is now well established that bacterra are the direct
cause of plant dise‘s es in a number of cases. Fire or tri“
bli5ht of apple, pear, and ¢uince3 crown 5111 of reach, plum,
and apple; oacteriose of nui-er7v; Pseuiomo as hlimht of Tnglish
walnut, are sore e:anfles of bacterial diseis es 03 trees.
As to the :art which bacteria play in the decay of wood, however

‘1‘ . r v. . . .- - q z 'I' j ' ~ + e -
there dpgears to es nore uncertainty. .hile inve .2 iglticns

have shown that certain hacteri: are Jflplhl of iissolving
cellulose they are not considered as lflfC3fdnt factors in mood

decay under natural conditions. A

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( \
H
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’4‘.
:3
”‘5
d
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Schmitz the addition of cultures of cellulose-dissolving
bacteria to cultures of certain wool-deatroying fungi hastened

the rate of decay in some cases to a consid oracle de5ree. (34)

Tunri

A

.-

By far the nest important agents of decay in wood are found
among the fungi. Fungi, being destitute of chlorophyll, are
unable to utilize the raw food materials of earth and air as do the
green, chlorophyll- bexr in5 :la.ts. They are, therefore, dependent
upon the organized substznoes of the latter class of plants for

their subsistence as much as are animal organisms. Two sonezha

ct-

indistir ctly s at rable class as f funci are rec ,5.i/a‘le de~'
in5'up on their node of life:

A. Parasitic fun i.
3.2.;“71'or‘nvtic fang—”i.

- O l .4

Parasitic fun i 5ain tneir eu=ten :ane frcz, and at the

H
UH
. ;
,J

(D

‘ , A--.: .... m~ . ~ a c . .. . 1.. . '1.
CI living organisms. .ney are tne cui - cause of the true plant

(D

diseases. SaprOphyt c fun5i ere cewsble of living only upon

(J

I:
’D

H)

H
Lb:

0

H,

the tissues and substincea of used ore; isms
vegetable ori5in. The Y: w-iestreyins fungi celon
entirely to his class, a few only being parasitic an. these
fin sh the work of lecey as surrophytes.

Life FiStCFX Of ‘-'P0943~-1_8C_.L‘.f 771.1:“1

 

 

Two princirsl st;

. 4.. 5 1 c ‘- a, . 'F .-- r
5 5c: in the rite cycle of d lunrus ere

recognizable:

l. The ver.

”‘15.
8. ‘5‘

:3 or etc:-
In its ve5etative steze a scoi-lecny fungus consists of
delicate tubular branching threads of microscopic fi;eness which

grow into eni throu5h the cell walls, enter n5 and sometimes

llin5 up the cell cavitie 3 an; extractinf such substances as
are needed for sustenance uni 5ro:t1 of the fungus. ;*is part
of the fungus is hnown as the nvcelium or syswn uni its ini —
visual branches as 53:555. In certain cases 5r e-it numbers of
hyphae interlace and 5705 to
sheets or strsnis of funsous tiss“e v ion may eccupy crzc K3 eni
o; nin5c in the weed or air even syreei over or trwve rse the
exposed “if ace of the wool.

Two general clss es of wood-rottinr fun~i ire reco5nizei
based upon the synesrence which they froiuce at the co mwrzlet. Cn
of the decay rrocess, uni which is due to the way in which the
woody tissue is a fe ctei. These are:

l. The deli5nifyin5 or white rots.
2. The carboni"‘nd or brown rots.

’3'
(L
d-
(D
o)
(D
'5
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In the delignifying or white rots the rycelium sec

-19-

which dissolve chiefly the li5nin of the cell Aills leaving
the li5h t colored or colorless cellulose oeh nl. Joni effectei

hy such rots usually shows numerous flecks uni rite or cavities

(u

lined. with whitish fibers although in some 011.895 the woci i
uniformly ec:2"ed snl consists finally of only a mass of
whitish fibers.

or brown rot fun5i sissolve enl remove

chiefly the cellul ose part of the cell walls and leive tie li5nin

.p

C)

behini. In these rot s the wool may be decayed in the iorm

cavities or pockets surrouniei by sound wool enl fillel with

y.

oftened wood which breaks up into smell blocks or cuhicwl nieces,

0“ the rot 51v extend uniformly thrcushout the sf fectei are1.

L o“.o
.

I'- l)
cf

0 enei mess of fibers.

CT.

In other cases the wool is left as s uuch
The characteristic colors of the lecayed wood is reddish,
purplish, yellowish or brownish in the initiul ste5es ini its
texture is crumbly or granular in the final stu5es. (46)

The frvitinr state of a fun5ue follox"s the est1tblishment

and growth of the 5vceliu . In some cases s confsrutively short

\D

time elsp ‘ es oetW en the two stages; in others a year or rcre
may pass before fruitinc occurs. Fun5i, such as moles and mildews,
often begin bearing spores (renroiuctive boiies) within a few
hours of the formition of e mycelium.

In the case of most woci— rot ing fun5i, however, the
rycelisl or vegetative 3ts5e become.3 extensively develovei and
its accumulation of reserve food material abundant before the

ent reserve food

*1.

fruiting stage is sttenrtei. Tien s ffic

0n—
H»

material has been soguirei hy the myoelium fruitin5 hoiies,
sprophores, may ujpeer. The fruitin5 solies usuilly aris

at some favorable external point on the decaying tree, log or
piece of ti her by the concentration uni union of numerous
hyphae into a mass of tissue. Tiis mess of fun5ous tissue
may at first assume the form of a stall knot or knoh which by

continued 5ro th becoves the mature frui ti n5 boiy or storpphg:§,

The fruitin5 holy of eich en cies of fungus is c

(D

insi forms ti e o ief he sis for the classification of the
Thus they may take tle form of s.elf or brsck ket-like out"ro"tcs,
sometimes of consiierable size, end weigh several ounizs. In

er upon the

V
4

others the fruiting pert is spresd out in a thin luv
substratum of decaying wood uni in still mtler cases the fruitin5
bodies are umbrella—shepei.

The texture of the fPllt n5 belies may varv free soft eni

(J

fleshy in so e ere i s to hard snl scaly in others Wille their

(D

duration is from i few lays, in soue,-to a number of years in
others. The office of the fruitin holy is the yroluction o:
gpores or reproductive hoiies. Precedin5 the yrooess of srcre
production a hyggglyg_or store-bearing layer is first formed
upon some part of the fruitin holy. Thus it ney‘be spre sl over
a sore or less plane surf ce, it m=y cover the surface of t in
plates or 51115 or of spines or tooth-like yrojections, or it nay
line the interior of tubes or pores in the under su rfece of

the fruiting holy.

The following clasJificetion shows the wrest or major

5roups of the true fungi:

MYcelium continuous ("ithCLt cross walls).

Class I. thcomvcetoc—uTbe Lover or A1;:

A.-
---_..J

 

Mycelium dis continuous (diviiei by cross walls). Spore

U)

borne in sac-like structures (asci).
CldSS II. M m cetes——Tne Sac Fungi
Spores borne usually in fours upon spec‘alizei hyphee
(basiiia).
Class III. Basidiomycetes--Besiiium Fungi
Class III, The Btsiiiomycctec, contains all of the fun
capable of causing ieCiY in the henrtwoci of trees. Abow‘
e,OOO specie<.3 of fun :i are kilowna ebel on3in ftc tkis close.

-.-. \4 .-

.A -- . - . . 2 ., .. . ,. ,. p
A"ong them are our common tonistool en' min.-0‘r -urgi, many I

'

ahich are edible rbil

(D

-’ uu' - > \ r 4-, 1 L C . . ‘
a 13: ere t,untei exong ole rest ieally

of poisonous plents.

:5

One order, The Hynenic es, co tiins practically all of the

 

fungi concerned with the rotting of wool uni is usually divided

into the follOWin 3 finilies based upon tbe iisnosition of the

44-. u

hymenium or snore-bearing layer:

Hymenium superficial; flat, shell-shared, unri3o‘ or

‘u u

branched, le Ht ery-texturei funji, 'nmily-—Thelephorncese.

H.menium superficial uron cylindrical, Mun-:L sped or
branched shrub—l ike erect forms of ostly leathery fung- .

F 1" i-L:r""C11L‘/E:Lriace;4.o

Hymenium S“:erficial uyon wnrt- like, sri ne—like or

tooth like rwrojecti n8 from tne lei+lorv or wooiy fruit
boiy . Pauuily-—I{y;l::i.:iceie

Hymenium lining he in+e rior of tubes, roree or fits

Within tie fleshy, leatrery or wooiy fruit boiy. .
Family-~Polyporaoeee

t“) I)

Hymenium upon the sides of rediatinm gill—like plates
upon the under surface of the commonly onyitete, fleshy or

ledthery fruit body. Family—~13er1cacede

In the fungi of the order H" enic.es tLe spores are uni-

 

cellular bodies of minute size dzi soneant varied shapes. Two

forms of spores are known to occur in the funci of this order:

1. Besidiospcres.
2. Secondary store" (Oidid, .ilnmydospores).

my.

ine ma 3° rity of the 'iynz. enilles have been found to be without

secondary stores and in tie cases where trey lo occur ttev are
Afferently of minor imrort.;nc in the yropngstion of the funqus
in nature. (38)

asidic: pores eris e dftar the hymeniil ldyer has reached
the rroper state of develorment. The hymenium itself consists

of the erect cell— like ti“s of th uiierlyir 3 nyphse olo~s ely

or wded together to form a definite layer. Two kinds of “11

are present:

 

 

l. Sterile cells, 231;: 3113332 3.

2. S176.‘-:e-‘oc.=1.r7'.n'r cells, t1—”:3§_jid.
Each b38111?“ usudl l'r rrojects J little beyor tie :LrL1."sec
and'bedrs uyon or nedr the dyer a grou; of sfiores, cidrtcteristic:
1y four in number, etc; spore being attached to the besiiiun b"

 

a short stalk-like projection.or sterism .

Egoiuction 3p} Cestin: f V'1'dio cfore3

 

 

..., 1 ,1; 1., - c. , --.-..
As soon es tne hymenlun of tne eTOLCETO re or a fun3Us ids
developed our

Casting of srores bexins and may continue in sore cdses for

0T8

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.‘LTLO TOT;

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3

hour.

v.17
VI

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consiiersble yer

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destrcyed tv

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('57)

V91.

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t yelre befor«

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4-

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various

 

in" are

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3119:7271 01.1 3

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3! (3?" t ‘3
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soility in

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“lishment

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on ghe ~

"flo
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of V'

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of the mycel ium.

owl

8

kinds,

many cases

1

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3

the entrance

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nei b

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u

v h=st

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I' (31
V

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Joetles is evilentl

The rerii decay of

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ode in t;

18 m

g

C Clunne

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id.

gs a:

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158111111

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into

tpores

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of

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one

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54

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of Polypcr*

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aw «a so Du e mxv. 7.). nL. 8‘ «a .1 “.w W .~ W. :4 lo ... .5
T C .. .T. ( r C .u e u m 3 .. . _--.. S
3 r o f 3 X \/ 8 e m u a... : l a. . C q... .4
C .1 . .3 e e . . r.-. . i t 1 l .1. 3 Q a
r 3 .3 o .. F C . . 5 l . S G C a t n .. t
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..._. u C a . o .. . O O t . t s .a o W "J n C l
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a-.. .1 5 a p. . P, e . .1 . t 3 . u ”l C ... A.“ B .. v 8
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a. 3 14 fi .1 v... .1. V w.“ a l. .l 3 .. L .o
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and unis:

xi
Ind

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1053 in the woods and from psur .el or oroken tvegehes may
furnish sufficieit moisture in tiny cases for ervre germination

1‘ . .O *- QFI -c q" In' H T- 4‘ fi - ~ . \ -. - ‘ . D \ J. ‘<- «-
end inieotdrx. o- the ~uoju JJlalil oise.u lusooetly, .uxa"resenoe

b a ‘- . - u.-.‘ . .v.\' - «u - -‘. -a 1n , a
i. Cep.ere or iieeclvei in .Me .iter obi?03h.ifig the store..
a . c" -4. 4.1. ' - 4. c
Tue preoence o- nutrient neiii .zvo‘* .ue erulddaiofi c-

the spores of IfiCtiCJlly all the Easiiiomyoetee. Cone,
however, are able to germinite even is distillei titer. (p).

Tne inzluence of sunlirht upon secre—

- gerVinition of the
Busiiiomyoetes ajje :3 fig be 5e3erilly injuri‘uv rhile iiffzeei
light ioes little or no harm Juving tEe 5e? ti n preoee-.
The viibility cf basiiiooycfes exioeei to Jirect sunligit his

The retention of viaEilitv under fLVOr1313 coalitions of eta“ige,
as et a temperature of 13—150 C. (54—530 F.) and a relative
humidity of 43-50fl have shown in some oeees the aullitv of

spores to live from 51x montus in some cases to three eni even

six ye era in others. (37)

N- .a 1 41' . H
ufOJ A 0. fine geelium

 

 

The mvoelium ori? in ates

h
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oontiruei
d°velmeent of the :erm tube from a germinitin; spore. T‘is
332m tube having geinei entriuoe to the wooiv tieoues of the
tree, leg or stick of timber suited to its growth continues to
extend by temzir‘ .ul gr .. and extensive ‘rsrz‘ucl‘ .ing. The 55.11:.e
conditions of heat, Lei sture and air are eeeential t3 this as

w'ere necee=sary for s?ore-germirmticn nhtzle the wood itoelf

from a dec;rin3 niece of pool miy exteni its opersticns to
sound Wool with which it mi‘ come in contact. This is oon‘ocrly
the cise zfli n pilei lumber -gere the foundation tivbers ere
infected and from which the mycelium may extend into sound tooi
piled upon th em. (16). In-tne some way, too, the lower tier

of cloc‘s in a stack of fuel wool may be infectei by m celium

growing in the surface livers of the soil, especiallj i

«In
:3
'o
O

p.

yeris. re wool refuse is apt to be‘plentiful, snl in forest
litter in the Wcois. Log files may :econe infectei in the smze
manner if left for severil seasons in the forest on he lend n3.

Under coniit one often founi in buildinxs Loving unventil “tel

Fl.

(3
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air spaces under flo ‘rouni, the nycelium

of certiin fungi may form extensive rsuifvins strsnds or sheets
of fungcus tissue w ioh any traverse conside"eble distances
over the soil, the foundation supports uni the timbers f the
structure. In one such instance unier the observation of the
author a woolen floor in a basement room had to be replaced
three times within a period of about twelve years due to the
extensive growth of the dry rot fungus, (merulius lschrvmsns),
in this manner. Posts, t e“, lumber ani sewn ti‘m‘ers cut from

1
trees in which deosv is alresdy established viy continue to

decav retidly after cuttin? unl\.:

J:
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tde growtn uni spread o the rvcelim‘ nt the sound wood 0‘

the 1m ectei pieces uni to other pieces witn w ich they may

1
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oe in cozituct.

*3
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y.

Dv‘n ~-‘
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-ec in on

 

Following the entrance of the mvcelium into the woody

tissues, either by spores or by mvcelin from the soil or from

H

decaying wool or cthe rmeiim, the process of deer:v is more
or less ripilly extenlei to adjacent areas. Through the
agency of excreti one, known as enzymes, the hynhue of the

mycelium are able to bore their way ttrough the cell walls.

This is brought about cy t’e solvent notion of tfie enzymes
upon the various cell-will substances u211 unon the contents of
9113 wnic“ ccntoi“ reserve food niteriels. A number of
different enzymes have been re005nized in the funri Which
cause wool decay. The following table gives the principal
enzymes found in such fungi together with the cell wall sub—
stances upon ahich they act as solvents:
Li ninase (he romnse) - -‘ -Effects the solution of lignin.
Cellulose - - - — - — - — ~Effeot3 the solution of cellulose.

Hemicellulose ~ - - - — — —Effec ts the solution of
himicelluloses.

Po 3 tinase - - - - - - - — —F:”ects tLe solution of tke
midile lumelln and other
Iwecti is sn~~+che

Tne follodv n5 enzymes, which not chiefly upon cell contents,

have also been is tec te

(p.
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* fungi: Esterase
maltose, lactase, sucrese, raffinase, diestase, inulsse,

N ‘-

ucosidese, urease, rennet, emulsin, cataluse, lipase, tennase,

UT

'3

unidase, ani some others. These attack uni remove the stored

ENarch, protoplssm oni other cell contents that may be premm

k4 v.4.

Co

Iz‘l

..‘

 

 

in the meiullury rays and tool perenchyme. not all of these
enzymes are founi in every wool-1e thle” fun3us Tnts some
fungi excrete enzymes 31131 1issolve t1;e lQ nifiei tortions cf
the cell walls while ot‘n ere attack the oellulos nor ions.

3. -0 ‘

Still others are caynble of renoying 1r3t t e lL'niiie1 porti

0
r3
m

and later the remaining cellulose.

The notion of tiese enzrmes regrires the presence of water
in sufficient amounts to bring the rro1ucts of t eir action
into solutions capable of being aosorbe1 by the fungcus hyphse.
Thus it will be seen that tne nrocess 'e one of 1Q eetion

.L ,
abSorption and assimilation by the mycelium i: which the 3001

furnishes the fool materiils. That the amount of water

(1'

naturally yresent in the 3133001, when living ree s are cut,
is ample for the action of these enzymes is clee rly shown in
the rapid decay of such tinker when left lyins on the groun
in the forest or when it is too clo3el: 1:ile1 fo‘ the meter

content to evaporate res.i ily.

Free oxygen, from he 11?, is an essential factor in the

pros 33.3 of W0 01 lecay. Buller in discussing his investig i013

'ww ’1 fl 1‘ I3 - R 0‘ A \
Upon the biolofly cf goryncrus s , mos 33 stetes that in the

 

Q

utiliz1tion of csrwohy1r1tes by the fznrus in resyirstion it
Seems that most of the c:1roon is united" tn oxygen from the
air to form carton dioxide. The hyircgen and cxyzen of the

carodhydr1tes, hcv ever, eviiently comb ne to form water. (7).

Zeller (1918) in his stuiies in the yhysiol©3y of _e_n",tgs

<r 3, discusses sonerhnt the rele tion of utmospl eric

 

 

etr1tum but can conluct it there from the outer air. In
most cases, hotevec, a certain, unieterninei amount of free

oxygen is essential to the

(D

xten-zion ani actiiitj of the

mycelium. The higher density of the late Wood of the 1nnu1l

ring seems to cve its :renter resistance to iecev largel‘,

if not wholly, to its re1uoe1 oxygen content in ocntr1et with
(

.. ,.. . .1 1 . - . 1 .w ,
the nor poro us early arc-:1. SC) . Any coniition wlieh tentxs

t: exclude at mosnherio on y :en, wholly or in pert, therefore

A.‘
may corresr niingly ret1ri the 1eo3y. Even the scoumuletion

of carbon 1ioxiie, the re 3lt of resgir1tion of the funsus,

I"

might inhibit growth simply thrw.31 the exclusion of oxygen.
'The relation of the 1lk1liriit y or acidity of the
substratum to funrous growth bus b.en notei in sever1l cases.
f

Zeller thus found that the

 

to grow upon cert1in oultur

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alkaline resction. When the reaction was ohmngei to a

slightly 1011 reaction the 5128 meii1 susteinei 1 profuse
growth of the fungus. After 1 fungus has gained some he11W1y
in ' dsuhstrstum, might not tie rrocess of resiiretion h"inr

‘out a more favorable reaction 1ue to the absorption of

O

02 and the hyirogen—ion-oon ceritreti on in t‘ae free W14 ter

'6
H

esent? This yrocess wouli seem to mznlein in nsrt the fsct

&

1!. I N
t ‘t fun3i often continue grortl unier oon1itions Where there

‘-

18 no reeiy outlet for the yroluots of resrirstion, us in

-30-

t . :1. ‘1,.‘
culture tubes ini iiiens.

 

 

 

 

In addition to he Iroiuction of com as u result of the
respiration of the mycelium of wood—destroVing _un
are often Irciucei, as hy—yroiuots of the iecav :rcoess,
certain dirk colored ooWIounis \::ioh are at first in a liquii
conditions. These liguii substances are brednish in color

ani, heir. 'bsorhei by the woody tissues in divance of the
myceiXium, often leei to the formation of blackish or Jerk
colorei zones or lines just heyozi the iecaying areas.

Von Schrenk, (lQCO), in ”esorihing the rot of conifers

‘ m ‘ ww- A w v- w“ \ " "N ' ~
due to ;rmmetto ,idi, oonside red the Lro n SUOotJL

-.----——

 

c
“ - I

belofleins t0 the "humus ox‘c“~ 2." (holes, \1918), in hi

etuiies in the hioicfy of “olvoorus ~mrrxwonno has ieecrioei

ntouni in the wood of several brcaileef species.

H
O
O
N

a simile

\

His an lyees lei him to much the sax conclusions uni to

the recognition of humic acii dgd humin as the corIonent

subs tanoes.

The aocurulstion and concentration of this homus compound

in the outlyint3 port 10-3 of ti: evzooiy tissues, where hear-Ly

is Irogressing, is e3iriei by the ahove authors as result if:
in the limitation of the rate of syreii of the myoelium. In
his way the formation of pockets, which sometimes become
entirely empty, m3 ry be acoouotei for, t‘

a sense shut itself in hy its own by—Drciuctd. (11)

. . . . n .. «a 1-.1 . “no
Disoolcru tione an; etlins in eel sue to r nfi

 

 

Abnormal coloretio: s in .cci m-iy in most cases be due
either to chemiCil changes in the organic cell contents,

tnrOU3h oxiiit on, or to e activity of.certein fungi. in

JJ

the fotmer ceses the stein does not extenl below the surface
layers and the wool -ice 3 not lose in strength. In the latter,

1 ’ _. ‘ . L. 9. n.~ , --' ‘x ‘q .‘A . J- A I..." ,3,
However, the liscoloriticn nuv extent t roe “out tee slvpoci

‘ - ‘ .. A - .- L ‘ v 3." -— ‘ I“, as --~ 1 -\ .- ‘ 7‘
LSe the aisoulorations cc Moll Known w_ say-stain. Hue

+.
‘ O #1 2. ‘. . .Li-. W . . 1.. 4' w .,
use idot test .se? oo.sume o ieily the cell contents of
,_ . a g . . ,. .. a -3 . A m~_ ‘
“fie JZLEHCOL they 10 not miteriilly seizen the wood. ine most

cmn1n<311 colors iniicative of sap—stain are hluish or blackish,
mot rnréy're dlish. (5).

.he conditions favorihle to the Iroiuc tion of esp-stein
are 1:1:f3 same as those f:r the develoIment of us cc", viz.
moistrlere, air and warmth. These are the coni tions whicn
often. ggrrevsil'in sticks of recently sewn lumber in warm
WeaLie,:E'. Sup-stein may-also occur in recentl." cut 103s or
hIStLLITLJlng timber killei hv insects, by fir e or by firdling.
Thus tj21<3 bluin; of the wool of frellow pine in the west usually
fbllm” :5. ‘the killini cf the trees by the pine bark beétle. (43).

Al though the Iresence cf sup stain does not materially

af . . ,
fart 1ihe mecninical Iroperties of t:e wood or its usefulness

int ‘ .
hfie 'EDIiilling iniustries yet it is in_inlicstion of conii-
tions '

-O
-L Etvorsble to the 3rowth of the true w oi—iestroying

fling-1 ‘. l.
“ "Pflich miy econ follOJ if the conlitions remiin the same.

This
j~ ES illustrated by he anteardnce of t“? TEL rOt in

7 (fl
-8. Q-

[Flynn l

 

 

 

 

conifers follow n3 lml no in insect-ki‘lel ti her of western
yellow pine. (43 .
fits Ein--ti;L Fun;_

The chief c is of tTe ””“e—SIp—stxin in tiiVer is due to
the *roI l of t e nyceliur of sever*l funri helonsin3 to the
genus Ceretqg-te“elle. A nurb r of other genera, olissei as
mOl-l fungi, which c*use surflce iiseoloritions of gree tinber,
have been listed as follorv° ulte"nlrii, Stichohotrys Aspar—

4.

U

gillue, °te oni

1:3,

Get

a.

g I
‘1 4.1.x o as ‘ Y?“
I; “cs-O " -.-\l "J l LIA.- ’

52ftYV3Uyces, Clcocstichye, HuIlC31aI;L1uL Loni. ii, Vucor, “41
01.111222. (14).
Eleoently the heart lni ooi stmin of the hotelier has
has referrei to the 'i'un:fu3 F‘JS't‘Z'iUU’. "Iecunii m 07"" This

L.‘a\lJ--'J.
~—-——

 

 

 

 

‘ - -" " H". . . (w
funrru censes a. hri"1 tor 1.1 to 1.3-ine rel -tw.i.i 1.1m:- is o
4’ , _ . -, 1—: . a .- 4; .,. .I
«r.4uieer.tly Ireseut in tlis .Iecles oi ree is to L ve it
‘ .- ‘. ~~ -\ ’ Q ‘. ' ‘, r M 5“ O fl
consi_;juemehle liaJanti3 ville in iienti;v r_ this 'oci. (i ).
A" I " N‘r‘\. ‘I \“--v~. < h .I »
I I. I‘nvelow nt of :3. et .i of roi.wr1.3 t.‘.e .. fee we.
I : V\1‘--- ’ \ ”.—
Cttfe o- ie¥123 in foo;_
-Q—. a 3 3 _ 1 .I- . '
11"“ has douotlees often been natioel t‘“t ”cei.wfiioh is
171 ‘3?‘\ _ . ., - ' " '
‘ ~u selnlvuncei stage of decaf i“ such 1 3hter 'ne: dry the
a 31* ‘1
3.- , . -‘ ‘1 ', - - . ‘\ ~ \
.‘1._n.;r w: 08 in souni.oonlition. Thus wartig often 'Bfltlp“:
in CO“ c H \ ‘I ‘
~A Clect10.1 wit-:11 54 .13 16001 \le’V-‘QY 171:1“:1‘13 45313 " t: e . cfi
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vaOrqe. .5 n P
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~:- li hter. (lo). uOftCLaS, s.on3 inegs sni 105s of
huf- ‘
§ 0 - *‘ r ‘ . \I .\'—. fl ‘ - .
x: '-I1 are al so :ev 1o-.e:1 in t.e nine 0 :.r.ectio‘-.1 by various
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relaflon bet

elapsed.
iue to
in

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fieoes of ti"Lcr were “are?” 31331 out of Loo“s 1“1 Teft for
oLsePVJtion curing 1 :etiet c1 two "311”. Tueir fi;“res
inlioete "‘he Ierce‘taoe of ti bars J1Cd L-ich 'lout~ of Idu-i
were 3rouinj n1 ' ‘3: 'ere c‘vicwclf 1e01"el to a .rextz“ or
less extent." Tgese eXIer. Lu+a ie"ons 1tei t‘zt e ”Iool
deccvs more rspii tit; Tenrtrooi, that "inter—cut rcci was

:3
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:‘5

' - —-A :- ~11 ‘5‘ "2‘- I i a
ececsirily Lore -‘rsole teen tnat out in ch uzer ini

thit the slower-frcuinj till oak was no: durable than the

. . 3 N r (

33v 4 'p ' . (VI *- x f r l -

I.“ .L ilBr-Uro.' il$_-’ 1: t VIVl‘A \Ju‘t. (‘43)
'\ O‘ ' (q ,3 (‘1 4 w.. ‘ 4 ‘l‘ ‘ +1 ~ 11 an" *1 "A ' ' '. “‘0‘ .L f‘ c -' I“ 1“ . "A N '3 r M
51-19: .1cc; mentions .Ue eu.er eL ”t c- UuVJQJ IJVin3

blocks which were lesiyei in Eirmin*"w, anlani, b th
fungus (Lentinus lepileus) but describes no taste to determin
loss of r:ei :ht. (39).

Rowe (IGFS) descrites in detail the construction and
operetion of a culture ro'x. for te "ti-n» the inrutility of
Wood by the nae of different Kooi—rotting fun
largely from lirections suyj‘liei by S; sulj-inr, pats-claim
of the Shrew of Flint T;;-iu-.gt-'.‘y, ‘.".'~.'a.s‘nin3ton, D. C. (53).

Abbott (1912-1913) oarriei on cultcre tests uzon souli
Wood of syruce, Iine .emlock, tiuarack, bilesm, birch eni 01k.
Culture blocks were filicei in test tubes upon a layer of
Wet cotton, the tubes were then flug3ei 11th cotton ani
Sterilizel. hey were inoculated with a pm: C‘ltt

rieet ini anl kept at room tempereture in the dark for a
Fe 1101 of six months. Cr ushin3 and breaking tests were t‘en

Carriei on to iete rm'ne the 103: of stre‘

-35-

 

 

1

clock in cchsr son with scunl ti aer. (1).

In 1913-1914, HurILr ey, at t.e forest :r01ucts Ls: or story,
Usiiscn, Wisconsin, oer ed on tests to deternine th
durebilitr o? greenhesrt, (T ctsniris :viisei), by reins of
laboratory tests. Test specinens in tLe rotcm of blocks of
both 5&3 sni of Leirt cod Were cven-lriei at n te ‘ers.ure

of ICC-1050 C tN Jent

s.

for 1/ hours sni then wei3lze

then placed

singly in ler3e test tubes, partly fillei With

moist ssni, t03e her with culture blocks of sIruce or circa,
ani were covered with s layer.of wet spns3num. Ester w s
sliei to saturate the ssni, uni the tubes were “lurrei ith
absorbent cotton and terilizei one hour st tJelve Icunis
steam pressure. After cooling tte tubes each "as in culstei
with a moci-iestroying fungus, a iifferent sIecies of fun3us
bein3 usel is: sick tube. T‘e tubes, with one exceyticn,
were se“t at room te‘Iersture for one yeir after t] ch they
were Openei, the “locks reiriei as bef1ra, and wei3Le . The
loss of «eight vrss taken to regresent the extent of secs‘.
The loss of weight veriei fr . ”—37%, Lezzites traces “rovin
tTee most destructive of all the fan-"i em‘loyei (17).

In 1914 t‘c ssre investigator begin a sel’ies of similar

tests upon twenty—eight sIecies of native A"el icen
The test Elocks were cut 5/8" x 5/8" 8" and were

to s c qstsnt Weirtt, Weighed, placed in t'o liter
a bed Cf J'SO rbent cctt on togeth er with s n“v“er 0
culture tlocks of hemlock. The flssks were Irefsr

oven-iried

a.

" fi ': N" w
L [WULD

on

S

cakei

ei in

tr tpliCdte and ufter steriliz ti n, all were inoculnted xith
the :3dme fun3u3, Lentinu3.1epideus. The Irovress of decay

was determined 12
Spec cixeszst intervals of three, six, and twelve mor+l<s. (19).

AUa.‘

Zeller (1916): entions the use of ' bout 33C? cultire
lilocks in.studyin3-the i:flue:oe of resin uzon the growth op
the rzmy elium of Lenzites saerisriu. After one year the
dizfiinisb ed weight of the :1 cks was deterrinei uni used as

the index of decay. (SC).

«4-3
Jbv arn

 

hemlock sawdust emploving Foxes 1:1nicolu in association with
cert -3in cellulose- dissolvin3 ‘Mz teris. The Irorress of deouy

‘."as determined oy los of weight of tie sew dust after u jeriod

(a

of four months.f so . The Simé author in 1913 publisned an
account f studies in wood decay in the laboratory 1n w~ich
Western coniferous srecies were testei for dursrility in
culture flasxs using pure cultures of.severzl wood-destroying

fungi and rating the decay bv loss of weirht of the test

blocks. (35).

J

.r

n -, — . J: 4.1., ' '1
.node 3 in L15 studies c1 tne bioiorv

 

ner3ine nus (1913) mentions the flJCifiT of Elects of wooi in
culture flasks and chumbers but does not record any tests
upon the rate f decsv nor the strength of he materiul. (5C).

Ksuffman and Derbe (193:) record crushing tests upon
sound and dice 3331 locust wood in their stuiy of the white-ienrt
rot of thut srecies. (19). In none of the work, so fir as

known by the writer, hnve the twotests, loss of weight and

(ll 0|. ill-In. .iJI

I:

 

 

' ‘ fl “ '.‘ ' -‘ I .1 ‘i' . ’ L T . 1" ~‘ an, ,
loss of etren5 n, _een ioeuritei" :e'relioei 1n tne enie

investigation.

_ C‘ A .1 II, 1»-‘.. W . 3 . N 'a I .
During the ye 1' ldla the '.rite:, “nine exmmiain5 4 :1836
9 . . ,4. 0 3 ‘ . _ - .. q '!
oi timber in an alvwficei Dante c- laoty, Leedve inlreaoel
, ~ 5 1-‘ , ‘ ,.. , 1- 4;. .- . 1- . ‘, .. .1‘.
mite ite lightneee in neig t. In crler to vine a some.;;t

\ I \A -. ' - : J-‘l VIII - “ ,‘ ' V ‘ c ‘ Inf - - -. - r
exact conyerieon oi Unis witn sound '01 o; tee as"? ejecies
l 5- f" ' \ r ‘ I W - ‘ J " I . ' Q ~
two ,iecee 3f ens. cl egptl volume hi in air er] co;iiticr

were preparei and weiyhei. It V18 feral tilt tue :ouni wool

‘ .‘ L“ ‘. s 1‘ V ‘1‘ v ‘

"'81::i31’ io‘ d LS 3-34.33, GL-zo1hlq t! lee (4,_3 1.1“ 3 k5, J b ‘e 41":“1': (3‘1
5, I ( ' - 1‘”, I .- H

pie 8; a lo"; of t‘::CAl”4 ely bur in one litter.

C
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loss of weignt as in index or the yrc5rewe oi “near in ”C91

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specimens all of one ereciea ani eich of eaug vc‘Hpe r?*on
wouli 1e: :nit cf °<u‘ini ion at the eni of set jeriols of

ttte. Tie relition of laser to at: n

+‘ , ' .‘ . - A ‘. \ (\y‘ ' . I *II-
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L \ $ ‘1’ ' \"‘ P... . \J n .
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:3 . . 4- . . _ ,. ‘ ' 4. 4 . .. ., c" .. ‘
iron 3 recentlv out tree. ;.e bylio ties ea L~fi~ llfu+ wir-

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placei in tne 1411 UHoli neLr .Le cr~xz ng 1eint c: the
Q- \ C-i‘n .- a. - .. '- 1
test ciece afte dnich I? eini was che-tl-v
\“ I , ‘1" I 1} Q ,m‘. w ,1 I a ' s. -. ‘ ,
corn .L te t-;e test. T..e total Weill-it “Uo‘tdihtil “1 toe piece

at the 1“Maurie” yoint W15 then ieterninei by weighing the

3311 ani its 3 ntente.

Gruyh ii; 5r an 30. I shows the reenlte “f tEic grelirirury
test, the percentage loeeee in both'neiglt ini st ength for
sap nn' heartwooi eeyiretely; T233413 the-nest striki;g
feature shown in this chert e the pronoencei loss of etrergth

whicn a comraiatively slall 085 f weifkt :rcntcee. -ne

greatest lose in wei5it of any one yiece was 55.7C; the

I
greatest loss in breaking strength was 97f, at the eni of 217
days. In sore cases tfie jieces of wool were removed frcr tLe
soil with ccneileratle iifficnlty iue t= the "re”tly ecftenei
and fragile conditicn when set. The evernre teirht in TTZHS

\/ 5’ -J

cf each fiece ale as cllove

S,,:-:‘iiol:lo 00.0-00.0... 6. I}? {32:18.
I‘IBLirt-VOOL-1:o:'.. coco-on... 60,20 Sues.

The average load-carrying capicity to the treikius faint

SwL-‘znc‘ 1.1.5“, 67,7 1‘34. (Ilv. of 3 }
Hetrtfiooi...... 70.3 lbs. (nv. 1f i y

M". _ .. ,4“; - . 4 ~, ., .e. ~4- a.‘- I . «.1 .. n4. -,.n.. A:
LLB Lair. polo}. ”Titer. v.3; .. (3 ;9315 I31" treater H'el'»:113 ui

J-‘L- , .U. .. - 5' ‘ . ‘ , . ‘ ‘. wk . .5
we 3&1 N061 any 1osei‘rly be me to it.) ni ner_ccnte-Lt-of

reser e food materials which‘m :nt be licking in tie keertrcoi

of tne eHvaooi from the trrrik of a tree cut in Decenber,

he e? r 1 'VLCH treated

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'Jith totes-emu] iotii ie- iciine, tiltizourjl; t‘f~.'iP‘.s mi well
tranchee were found to Hi
an. oil glctules.

oov.- L , ‘ J-‘q \ * +‘,- , i ,‘ 01-. 4 ‘~ .. fl 4- . ‘ ,
It "in note; .ne. the Liecee union more left in tne

.1 .3 b- 3 a. u. -, .- . J. - . 4.
until the clone of tie tee. nere usu:Llly iecayee rare in
the top erLi tnLn at tue cotton en‘. T‘ie “13 eViie‘tl; i

to the better ierution at tte eurche cf the soil uni roe

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wuion had no eir {reinare. Fig. l D.

nfimfir KW mu m pm fir?"““
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tions of iec13 luring rericis of 30, 15?, uni 817 days

reep tively. Fig. 10

I, ‘\

At the eni of 30 days tte fieoee o- :otn eiy uni cf
heart-wool were strongly iiscclcrel, tLe forme er e‘ifutl
more turn the lLtter. The prevailing color of the iriei
pieces wzu3.1 very I} firt elate—ezwqr or almo et a.nrn13e colc

With here and there reint ourrlish—rei tints or StT?Jk8.

few umber-brown streaks ani flecks ileo .csnr rrei “ere cnl

..

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Tie tool of “0*“l3c acggiLet e, the wool ueei in the

- .'~ , .. , .: - :9 -. .. ..

exceriment, is d4 exce lest exemtle c- e liLLzlse— .‘rous .ocl.
d o .

The.iescrirtion o: tne comm\n cottonwood, Pcvulus Ieltcigee,

as tgiven in the Guilerook for tie iient ficltion of w;cls

usei for Tie; snl Tirtere. (Kcehler, 1317), ayilies ;rite

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reserbles tth of Yellom birch as ie.c ri‘ei hv Fr eels. (37).
Thus the cell walls of the fieiwllsry rays and of the vessels

show the strongest liLHLLioltiox, thile the t rtiary ard

... _ A 1, ' ,.. D 4.1. ,. J." . . . ,. L- A a.
seocnierv t;iokenin s oL tie weal Liter Hells re roni strelgly

'

With the cellulose reaction, as einkitei in the blue to

- . L r‘ .' t L" I: D \.' ‘ n a av -
violet colorlticn. LxlrinLt on oL tre :ar tly leoived moo“

“15 ' ' IFL : “ c 1 ' n ‘ n - . 1' 1‘ ‘ fl -‘~ f"
oscvei .“et tue tertiir; eni secaultrv livers of these elenent:

are the first t: be i'.ssolvel while the middle lemelle uni

the vessel uni rev cell walls yiell but slo vlv. Even in t
belly deoevei Hcoi the letter elements were cti ll intact to
a oonsilerable extent.

The rafii decline in strength of the wool, in coefarimo.
With the loss in weight, evidently is ice to the early e 'er
in; of the rrcsen chgrme or riher elefieht" - It errelr
the iecev-prolvoinr fwngi Whicl first utteokel the Tool in
this exterivent vere lergelv cellulosg—ileeolvirg f rf’ 3n

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Softrczls H4;4':;4:
Juniferu: ecc lcrtn Ace: ne;un4o
Pica“ En Delm4nni C4t4l;4 spec 1054 .
Pinue center 4, tic lots ' 2143 4 nus 41;:ustifclie
Pinue toeleroe4 7:444444 144ceol4t4
sellotevge t4xifcli4 Gle4it414 triec41thos
Se4uoia sen ervirens 4uglzn; L102
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point were all reo orie l at th”

As flrthe r we rk is needed to oomtlete the rooori of tile

5 . - c- -- .s I‘ ‘~ r s--\ N " '<‘~ ’ " a '1 I “
xperiment, as a Jgole, tad trement tiger dell; July 31th

the results securel from th teat dita uron the Lanceleaf
cottonwood (Populue dCULiLAt&), nL'e; is the elue 51e Hi
wloyed in the 1:: imillry experiment.
The following lots of eyeoiwer .s of tfis Wool ere 1re-

pared ani tee tei:

A n V! o '
Lot (1). one hu::;;e1 enloue (101) pieces %" x l" x
1

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1" x 8" planted i. the ieoey box indoors. Purpose: To

the relation between eize lei efilpe of the tie-

. e 1 , 4.", 4. - _ 4. - -. ' ‘,
woouen box, w oLOUq top or cc.tom, fillel Jltu
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in the first experiment.' It is believed, however, th‘t the

‘ “v -l" \ ‘ M ‘ \ ' ‘ 1' Iv
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riece

.0
l.

eiape c

91—.

cing table reveals
-53-

and

“ram
4.

the f0.
ize

D

A etuiy oi

 

 

decay: The decay ratios, ootuinei by liviaing the wercent
of loss in lot (1) by togt in lot (

sees the rate is on the overage 1.38 times

.. . .. 1 ‘ 4.‘ r .. m: 4.: 4. J:
~meller vieces tiln in .ne .-ger cues. .uue t.e c.-e o-

-1 - ' I I ‘ . “ A 1A 1 \ ' ;\ "\- .\ .
lecey is inversely as tee size or tee L see, or of¢ll 119c3r

decry more r piily than large' neg. The weight-ratio (OuUiVi~
184t to volume in this case), of souni wool, obtained ty
iiviiing the average weight of the rieces of lot (3) by that
of the pieces of lot (1) shows that tLeljieces of lot
are twice as lerwe as those of lot (1).

The surface ratio, obtained by iiviiin: the surface.

4' J- '2 1., p .: 9". a.
of a ; see c. 1 t (u) 57 tslt o. a r ace 0. lot (1), snows

surface as those of lot (1) while they contain tWice as much
‘Joca ov volume en; weia t. TPis is much closer to tFe decay
rate than is the weight-volume ratio. If egual weigfits,
(volumes), of wood from lots (1) “21 (8) are corrared it is
eviient tfiet tte surfuce fee or is the important one in
asterminiug the rate of decay rather tban the weiwht (volume)
factor alone. Ttis result also accorls with the evidence
showing that decay of souni wood berins at tie surface uni
extends inwuri in a more or less regular uanner. Thus it
appelrs that rieces of tivher subjected
such shape as to exzose the least possiole uwount of surface

in proportion to volume. Cylindrical posts, on account of

their exuosing the least relative surface to t2 noticn of the

(D

factors of iecav, are to be preferred to tfiose of square or

-53—

)

1 313.1 ,

l-

rectlngular form while those relucei to semi-cvlin1*
or triangulo- forms, either “y sewing cr srlitting, are
the least jesiritle in share. Season cxecks, cracks and
holes Key serve to incrcsse the eur ice creL errosei to
decay and permit t to exteni rariilv to interior portions
Of the titfber.

Lot (5). The most fronounced result in t‘is test is
the influence of season uyon the rate cf lectv. Thus free
J‘ne first to fictoler first of the first "ear tFe rate of

.. ., . ._~. 4.x....° . .7 A
deowy was most rt:1i lei exceeie .“r. in the loci? tcx

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of tie “pieces we re _l.-...nte_i 1; the green or tulse..eone.l .J’W“. —-

+ifi'f‘ "‘.“".) 4'1- -\+“- m ‘7" 34-1 " 4 A ~' 1" m ‘a-t’. 3 7‘ ' --
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for loss of W'irfit Lt soveWVAt rerullr ‘rtervalc “Fa -mw

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,;;it luring decay in wool

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'7 q 'fi 0 r . "V a . .M ‘ - --.Q "\4- - '7‘" n '-

- iuence CL cecir upon the unantiic11 piece-ti:g

9 .1 , .. . 4. . 11,5 . - . , ' ‘1 3, 4.
cl ween mey be reelily leueruine Lf cXLSTlmeuto 51h i143 .

3. A comyare Mi ely simlle me t;m nee ceen engloyei as
describe 1, wherehy other relitione effecting the rate of decay
may be investi5etel, such as:

a. T118 rate of 5:r0"th of a species.

H

b. The climatic and coil conlitions under w)
Ire'f I

c. The influence c1 seeeoning.
,. The influence of relative yoeition in the 3011.

size uni 3 eye of the :iece.

n,

6. inc influenc o

f. The influence of soil texture end corrosition and
water content.

5. The influence of tenperet ure.

5

h. The influence of ;re. rvutive treetwente.

U)
G)

l

-\ a

4. The accuracy of tne oeterminatione iepeni: largely

J

upon t} e numce r of test pieces employe: and their uniformity
in size an; ehcge, at least ten pieces of a kind :Louli be
testei at each intervnl in orie“ to secure better averages.
5. Out—loor tests may ce carriei on with very little
expense for eguipment ctie: then for a suitable drying oven,

n5

F).

pair of fairly ielicete balances enl for some form of te ct
device for strength determinations.

5- A 1t&ole decay chamber forsxteneive experiweits

-59..

is dell described in reference (33). f? is i cluies e zeins of

~artificiellv heetin» the soil on tie shelves or benches to

the oytimum temperature, about SCOF. for most fungi. It is

iesirible, Whatever form of decay chamber is employei, thit

the temnereture as e 310yel so as to
.

.. 3.1 ,, .1 .c .. . ...,‘w v.~,, ",1. - .,
secure .ne ”lgueot rate c. deco; cm“; to mine ,ossiole the

v~ "R -' p - a n \-» ~" ,
continusnce or errerinents unier unif orm conliticns over lon5

. One criti3ism f the rethoi as followel, thct mijht be

offered, is thet there is no definite assurance of the gzesence
of the proper fungi for the naturil innoculstion of each erecie;
of wool employei. It is true that no atte.3t use male to
innoculete tile piece e of wool other then by the use of e 3ortitn
of field soil mixed with the send in the Jecev box. It is

‘ ’ _ fl“ ,_ ‘ 1 ’ _ I A l' A 4 '1
not; ble, however, tnit in no oise oil the lifterent Tinis of
'l . " ‘ " 1" ' ‘v . - , l .‘i . v ..\ .' ‘
JOOJB employel fail to s on some eviiences of cecew. T.is

*. -... '. 4,..'. , '1- _‘
wouli seen to iniicite the elm

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nature of the org; isms of decay. It is believed, however, that
the aiiiticn of onlture3 o? the various decay fungi, cher—
ecteristically essocietei with the decay of the woods testei,

is desirable in cases where all uncerte int;r is to be avoided.

In the experinents cerriei on by the writer t wee the

purpose to test the wools all unier the seme

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epenience for infection by decry cr5iniew3 yleoei wholly

upon natural neins, as would he t‘e case out—oI-icors in

everyeiy uses.

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Lumphrey C. J.
1317, Timber storige cogiit10115 in tLe Puntern dni
isuthern States with refererce tc ; --" rrcblene.
U. S. Dayt. Agr., bur. P143t Inius., Sui. 51C.
33.3.;1‘211‘31', C . J .
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Ke1103, R. 5.
19 S, Lumber anl its usvs. Seconi edition.

Koeh er, Arthur
1917, GL iiebook for the iientification cf weeds use.
for ties er timoe re. 1. 8. Dept. of Agri., For. Ser'
For. Prci. LdC., X;iiev., Vibecnein, Xisc. FL.-l

Lon», W. H.
A prelim. 1?? re ‘ort on the occurrence of weste n
rel—rot in Finn: 1:011erosa. R. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Plcmt 1111115., T7111. 4.”.

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lGCQ, ”in; o k 0: Ti “e? Fre:0"v4tinn, Chicago, Ill.

331-110k,1':.
1338, ZInuil of Fore try, Vol V.

Schmitz, Henry
1919, Stuiiee in t1 e physiolojr of he fungi VI. Tl.e
relmtion of Ezeterii to cellulose fermentation iniucei
by fungi 3 th speciil reference to the 193;? of ‘eci.
Annals OF the Ho. L:t3n.31ri. 6: 93-156.

Schmi‘cz, Iez‘r
13ml, Studies in Wool decay I. Leb02¢tory tests on the
reletive iur bility of gene western conifercuv woods
With fartieular reperenc t those 5;ewinfi in Ilahc.
. w a H v‘ - ~_ Y—~ '7‘
Cancel a : reett", Jniv. of Ilene, LJl. i1.

Schmitz jenry
13.31,E1dvne acticri in Polrrorvs volvatas. Peek. anl
Fovee ignii'IiUS (L) Cillette. Jud}... yen. PI‘Veiolu
Jilljf SC, Devi-310 V001 ITI; :ICO e.

Snell, ”. K.
18~3, Stuiiee of certLin fun:ri of eccnomin injertance
in the lec-7 Cf 15:13 irig inter). U. S. Veyt. Agr.,
Bur. Pl nt Inlue., Pu1.1055.

Stevens & Hill
1913, Diseases of E3 cnomic Plants; p. 41%.

‘“H1 Sc:renlu Eire nnn 1.5V:u31ii::j, Perley.
1939, Dieenses of deciduous forest tre U. S. Deyt.
Of Air. , 13111.0 Plcitllt I..LdUSo LL11. 1480 I

Von Sehrenk, :ermenn
1399, A lieease of TaxcdiV* kno n a' peckineee ileo 1
similar Lieeeee C1 Liboceirue leetrrene. Eleventh
Ann. Fe“. 30. Vet Ga: en.

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