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ABSTRACT

AUTOMATION IN THE BROADCAST INDUSTRY

BY

James Horace Stone

Few, if any, industries have been able to claim immunity from
technological change. In reality, few have wanted to do so, for most
generally technological change has brought new and improved ways of
accomplishing old and trite tasks. The evolution of change has brought
with it a multiplicity of industrial concepts. None has been more
potentially revolutionary than that concept which is described by the
term ‘automation.’

It is usually agreed that automation describes a process of manu-
facture which entails automatic assembly of the product from one stage of
development to the next with minimal human intervention. Such arrange-
ments of automatic equipment are known as systems.

As initially conceived, automation systems were most frequently
applied to the manufacture or control of mass produced, tangible
products. However, subsequent development, particularly in the field of
systems application, has rendered automation desirable to those indus-
tries whose products are of an intangible nature.

The broadcast industry is among those latter-day industries
which are turning to an automated concept of product production.

Broadcast equipment manufacturers have created automatic equipment

James Horace Stone

capable of assembly into systems which are able to perform most routine
tasks associated with radio and television programs. Automated systems
for broadcast use can be subdivided and grouped by their respective
functions. These subdivisions include automatic devices for monitoring
of transmission equipment, those automatic devices used in production of
programs, and automatic data processing equipment for office tasks.

‘Ubile a system approach may be considered the most efficient form
of automation, many broadcasters have adapted the procedures of automa-
tion through a building block approach, wherein a system which will
adequately serve all departments of the broadcast stations is acquired
over a period of time.

Regardless of the rapidity of acquisition, the success of auto-
mation techniques in the broadcast service ultimately depends upon a
number of variables. Capital availability, employment costs, individual
atations' standards of excellence, and adequate planning are all impor-
tant considerations relative to adoption of an automated broadcast
mystem.

A perspective on automation or any subject is usually sharpened
through a thorough review and analysis of current authoritative informa-
tion. ‘Unfortunately, even manufacturers' descriptive materia1.may often
lag behind the lightning fast pace of technological advancements. 1s a
result, compilations of basic material relative to such specialized areas
as broadcast automation are scarce. It is toward the fulfillment of this

information void that this thesis is directed.

I.

AUTOMATION IN THE BROADCAST INDUSTRY

By

James Horace Stone

ATHESIS

Suhitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Television and Radio

1968

Accepted by the faculty of the Department of
Television and Radio, College of Communication Arts,
Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the Master of Arts degree.

Q/J/o Hfl/L/ '21

Director of Thesis

 

ii

ACKNMEDGMENTS
The writer wishes to acknowledge the guidance, interest, and

assistance given to him by Leo Martin, Chairman of the Department of

Television and Radio, Michigan State University.

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historical‘Development of Automation .

Hhat Is Automation?. . . . . . . . . .

AUTOMATION~IN BROADCASTING . . .

Remote Control Controversy . .

Automatic Transmitter Logging

Program Automation e e e e e 0

Employment Problems Created by Automation .

Pace of Broadcast Automation .

Availability of capital

Automation's pace as related

RADIO PROGRAM AUTOMATION . . .

Audio Switching Methods
Metal paint or foil .
End of tape or record

Light-sensitive devices

Til. Mtching e e e e e

Silence switching . .
Tone switching . . . .
5“.” e e e e e e e

Pregram Control Methods

iv

to wage

rates

PAGE

10
13
15
16
20
20
21
2h
26
27
27
28
28
28
29

31

CHAPTER
Sequentialsystems............
Insertion system . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Random select system . . . . . . . . . . .
Detailed Description of System's Components
Datacards................
Key punch-card reader . . . . . . . . . .
Automatic typewriter printout . . . . . .
Make-up of Special Automation Tapes . . . .
Make-up and Handling of Music Tapes . . . .
_IV. TELEVISION PROGRAM AUTOMATION . . . . . . . .
Basis of Television Program Automation .>. .
Directing'residue" ...........
Automating the break period . . . . . . .
Automatic Switcher Descriptions . . . . . .
Pre-setswitcher.............

Lapsed time capability .

Computer-type switcher . . . . . . . . . .

V. AUTOMATED DATA PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . .
Fundamental Office Routine . . . . . . . . .
Electronic Data Processing . . . . . . . . .
Application of Electronic Data Processing .

VI. AUTOMATION'S FUTURE IN RADIO AND TELEVISION .
Remote Control of Television Transmitters .
Automatic FM Transmitter . . . . . . . . . .

Ruote Controlled Studio Camera . . . . . .

PAGE
31
32
33
h2
h2
1:3
1:3

he
51
51
5h
56
S7
S7
58
61
83
83
88
89

.97

99
100
101

CHAPTER PAGE
Automatic Check-out of Color Television Cameras . . . . . . lO2
Centralized'Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10h
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

B1 BLIO m Y O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 108

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I. ‘utOI‘tionz In Tarna Of Human Aeti'ities e e e e e e e e e e 7
II. Weekly and Yearly Wages of Non-supervisory Broadcast
Employees e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 22

III. A Cmparison of Departmental Function According to the

Typ. Of Office Rantine Utilized e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 87

vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE PAGE
1. DiagramofDataCardandProgramLogs............ 39

2. Simplified Block Diagram of a Computer-type System

Arrangement......o....o............ 6s

3. Channels ef Interdepartmental Communication . . . . . . . . . 86

1111

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The call today is for new ideas to cope with an old force-~that
of technological change. Technological change is nothing new in the
history of civilisation. It has been suggested that:

Man as a thinking being is also a deep-always looking to
improve. Sometimes he is motivated by the econanics of a situation:
suetimes by an innate laziness that leads him to conceive labor-
saving techniques; and sometimes by a simple urge to find a better-
than-usual way of doing things.1

Historical Development of Automation
To see technological change in its proper perspective one should
take a look backward toward its beginning-almost to the beginning of
civilisation itself. The following list provides some landmarks which
tell approximately when and where iaportant steps of technological
change were made:

3.0. 13000 Rollers; handles on tools; simle levers and prys; oxen to
haul sleds.

B.C. 3500 wheeled carts in MesOpotamia.

3.0. 500 Pulley in ”Co

3.0. 250 Archimedes improves use of pulleys, levers, screws.

A.D. 250 Hheelbarrows in China.

A.D. 300 Horse-collar in China, enabling horses to haul heavy loads.

A.D. 1800 Stan power in Mgland and Europe.

A.D. 1900 Internal-cabustion engine; electric power.2

 

llichard A. Beaumont and Roy B. Belfgott, Mane went, Automation,
25! Peale (Brattleboro, Vermont: The Book Press, Ififi}, pp. h-S.

2Walter Buckingham, Automation: Its act on Business 333
Pegle (New Iork: Harper and Brothers Pub'fl'séer, 1931') , p. I.

l

In every century since 1650, men has roughly doubled his knowl-
edge of the world. There has been more technological knowledge gained
in the last fifty years than in all.previous history, and the growth
'appears to be accelerating.3

Time has been telescOped by technology. The gap between theory
and invention was fifty to one hundred years in the Renaissance. Mow it
is more nearly seven years.h A century elepsed between Newton's princi-
ples and Matt's steam engine, but it took only ten years to go from the
Arte-b to the B-bomb. In the past quarter century, the productivity of
the average man has doubled. If the same trend continues in the next
quarter century, the average family income could go to 31h.000 a year
instead of the 1963 average of $7,000.5 This impinges upon vast auto-
mstic machines, brought by technological change, capable of extending
the physical capabilities of man.

The term |'technologica]. change. is an extremely broad term. To
better understand it, one should understand its relation to the term
I'science."

Science is knowledge, formulated to discover general truths;
technology is science applied. It has been suggested that “while
science is concerned with understanding, technology is concerned with

practical uses."6

 

31mm, p. 2.

hJohn Peschon (ed ) Disciclines and Techni es of Sygt
e , __ m3
Control (Mew Turk: ' Blaisdell {56333 fi—Igflmy, , p. vi.

5Tale Brosen, Automation: The Ignact of Technological Change

(Washington: Alerican nnurp se I'n-s-t'itute, afich, 3 , p. 2.
6Buckingham, 32. £13., 1:. 2.

 

"

I.

What Is Autouation?

The word 'autmation' was first used in 19146 by D. S. Harder, a
vice-president of the Ford Motor Company. He uployed it to describe a
specific type of machinery. Since then the term has come to be used in
a variety of ways and there is much semantic confusion regarding it.7

There are he divergent views on automation. One group sees
autuation as it relates to the use of electronic feedback devices which
make machines self-setting and self-correcting. This group refers to
autuation as a process whereby electronic devices replace human Judg-
ment in industry. Those who see autaation in this light include
John Diabold, president of the mebold Group of Managuent Consulting
Cupanies. Mr. Diebold stated before the Subcmittee on Automation and
mergy Resources in 1960 that automation meant

. . . a basic change in production philosophy. . . . a means of
organising or controlling production processes to achieve optima:
use of all production resources—mechanical, material and hm an.
halter Reuther, testifying before a Congressional cumittee in 1955,
represmited this same point of view when he stated:
Automation makes a completely new development in the technological
process because automation, in addition to substituting mechanical
power for hnan power, begins to substitute mechanical judgement for
“an Judg-entuthe machine begins to substitute the thinking

process on a mechanical basis for the thinking process which hereto-
fore was done exclusively by the bass mind.9

 

7Tncmas Kennedy and Frank D. Plant, Automation Funds and Dis-
edMorkers (Boston: Harvard UniversitquHsIon omearch,
keg date 535001 of Business Administration, 1962), p. 2.

80.8., Congress, Joint room-1c Cumittee, Mew___g Views on Au__t_o_-
.‘um’ 86th CM‘e, 2nd S...e’ Dept. 1152, pa 8!}.

9(1.8., Congress, Rearing, Subcuittee on Economic Stabilisa-
tion of the Joint Oe-ittee on e Iconmic Report, "Autmation and
Technoloucal Change,“ 1955, p. 121.

I.

Professor'walter Buckingham implies a similar view when he shows how
mechanization (the use of machines to perform work) has been a natural
development from changing technology. Automation, however, he sees as a
major phase in the advancement of technology. He states:

Mechanization extended man's muscles; automation extends his
brains.10

Another authority who takes the similar view that automation is different
from earlier technological change is Professor Charles C. Killingsworth
of Michigan State University. His views as advanced in 1963 before the
United States Senate Committee on Labor and Public‘Uelfare were that
It is important to distinguish automation from earlier kinds of
mechanization, technological change, or economic change, although a
great.many people use all of these expressions interchangeably.
. . . my definition of automation is “the mechanization of sensory,
thought, and control processes.‘

A second group uses the term automation more broadly and looks
upon automation as simply an extension of mechanization. This position
is expressed by Don C. Mitchell, chairman and president of Sylvania
Electric Products. He states:

. . . Automation is only a more recent temm for'mechanization which
has been going on since the industrial revolution began.12

Former Secretary of Labor James P. Mitchell is quoted as saying:

Automation produces a fear of change. In a technical sense t a work
represents technological change, which surely is nothing new. 3

 

1OEdward L. Cushman, Gerald G. Somers, and Mat‘weinberg (eds.),
Adgusting to Technological Changg_(New Iork: Harper and Row, Publishers,
a PO

11Charles Markham (ed.), Jobs, Egg and Machines: Problems of
Automation (Mew Tort-London: Frederick A. Praeger, 193h), p. 25.

12Kennedy and Plaut,-lgg. git.

 

13'Impact of Automation,“ MonthlzlLabor Review, Bulletin
No. 1287 (November, 1960), 21.

Also included in the second group is Dr. Cledo Bruneti, director of
hgineering Research and Development of General Mills, Incorporated, who
has said:

Antuation is a newly coined word to describe an old old process.

. . . Autmation s in truth but a phase of our continuing techno-

logical advance.

A third group might use the term still more broadly to describe
virtually any change which results in greater productivity per man-hour.
This view suggests that the term autuation means the application of
cost-reducing machines and techniques. Kennedy, in Automation 2319!. 93
applaud Workers, adopts the term automation is this broad sense. He
believes that «non usage of the term automation in herican industry
suggests a broad eatinitiom.15 Under such a broad definition, automation
is a blanket term which includes any device, however aimle, which helps
the worker get things done better than previously. Three aspects are
usually .phasised when the term autuation is used in a broad sense:

1. Getting more done.

2. with less effort and thought.

3. With greater accuracy.“

Regardless of which philosophy one accepts for the term auto-
mation, there have been distinct steps is automation'a development.
Laird suggests that the development of automation is ”roughly analogous

to has activities, progressing from simple motor-skill tasks to the

 

“Ibis.
”Kennedy and Plant, 92. git“ p. 3.

16Donald a. Laird and neanor c. Laird, Route 935 Alon with
auto-nation (Mew Iork: MoGraw-Hill Book ooapaoy,‘T§6E)', p. BE'J

’-

more duplex activities of the nind.17 An illustration of this theory
is shown in Table I.

From this chart, it is apparent that the first three divisions
are mere extensions of the hunan being's physical capabilities, i.e.,
muscle exertion, dexterity, and sensing. Those technological advance-
ments which occurred prior to the twentieth century fall into one of
these three categories.

The last three characteristics of automation involve at least a
degree of the hen being's mental capability. mess characteristics
such as simple 'head work," the capacity for creativeness, and poten-
tially the capacity for social and moral cognizance make autcnaticn
unique to other technological advancements. These higher senses of
autuatien are accomplished through the use of computers. The cuputer
has become to automation what the human brain is to the body.

Benn A. Simon, Professor of Adainistration and Associate Dean of
Carnegie Institute of Technology, has said:

A dozen or more cuputer progrus have been written and tested
that perform one of the interesting synbol-manipulating, problem-
solving tasks that humans can perform and that do so in a manner
which simulates, at least in some general respects, the way in which
huans do these tasks. Cawputer programs now play chess and
checkers, find proofs for theorens in geometry and logic, compose
music, balance assembly lines, design electric motors and generators,
m-erise nonsense syllables, form concepts, and learn to read.18

Ouputer technology research on new cuputer designs has created

enormous pessibilitiea for future cuputer applications. One such

 

17Ibid.
18‘uartin Greenberger (ed.), Hans and thec Cmter of the
Future (low Ierk: 11.1.1. Press and 735%33’ ass—a, Inc., 33627,—

97.

 

 

 

TABLE I

AUTOMATION: IN TERMS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES"
Mme. OF MACHINES THAT
AIDS in HAN HUMAN ACTIVITIES REPLACE HAN

 

Levers, rollers,
wheels, pulleys,
grease and oil, sharp
or handled tools

Muscle exertion

 

I (Carry, lift,'
push, turn, walk,
bend, squeeze)

Motors, engines,
conveyors, horses,
wind, water

 

 

 

machine, cash
register

figure, remember)

Dexterity
Tweezers, most hand Self-feeding, assemblyfi
tools, linotype, sew- II (Hand and finger and transfer machines
ing machine, type- skill)
writer, some jigs,
fixtures and assembly
lines

Sensing
Eyeglasses, micro- Photocells, gauges,
scape, amplifiers, III (See, hear, smell, pressure switches,
stethoscOpe, indicat- touch, taste) feedback devices
ing gauges, radar

Simple ”head work“

Tickler file, abacus, Computers, tape-
slide rule, adding IV (Read, write, controlled machines,

adding machine, cash
register, automatic
typewriter

 

Information, logic,
motivation

Creativeness

 

solve problems)

V (Plan, anticipate,

Some computers to
some extent

 

Codes, laws, training

 

Social, moral

VI (Human relations)

 

 

 

None

 

 

 

*nonaid A. Laird and Eleanor c. Laird, I191 to'Get Alon with
McGraw-Hill Book Comparw, 1531.75. {:3

Automation (New York:

 

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notable achievement occurred in 1961 when the International Business
Machines Company developed a computer so versatile that it needed a
battery of satellite computers to feed it enough data or information to
keep it busy solving problems of business and government.19

Feeding data or information to a computer is called programming.
In l9h7, Dr. John von Neumann of the Institute for Advanced Study at
Princeton University devised a way to program a computer for a particular
Job by nerely putting a punched card or tape of instructions into it.
This greatly simplified the programming task of computers. The task,
however, remains a complex one with punched cards.20 But it is now
thought that it will be possible soon to instruct a computer verbally by
.means of audio (voice) translation, meaning that conversing with the
computer will be simplified still further. This refinement will open
still more fields for the intellect of computer-controlled automation.

Each year more cmaputers are brought into worldwide industry.
As a result, computer'manufacture is extremely profitable in the United
States. The year 1967 saw American manufacturers construct and deliver
an estimated 11,855 business computer systems, bringing the total built
to date in this country to approximately Sl,h6h, valued at some $11;
billion dollars. The output in 1967 alone accounts for some $h billion
dollars. Authorities predict an annual 20% growth rate for the data

processing industry in general for the next several years.21

 

19Robert E. Cubbedge,‘!hg Needs Peeple? (Washington: Robert B.
Luc., Ines’ 1963), p. 70

20Laird and Laird, 32. 513., p. 1.9.

21"EDP Boom Keeps Rolling Along,“ Business Automation, XV
(January, 1968), h2-

 

f.

{s

[I

CHAPTER II
AUTOMATION Ill BROADCASTING

A trend toward automation has begun in the broadcasting industry
as it has in other industries. The first autuatic devices to be
upleyed by the broadcasting industry were transcription changers such
as one now may find on home record-playing equipment. The only advantage
to such a device was that it played one recerd after another without an
operator's help in placing the stylus er recerd playback needle in the
reeerd groove at the start of each transcriptieu. These machines were
inflexible in their application and consequently were not used exten-
sively by the broadcasting industry. '

A more important technological advancumlt used in the broad-
casting field was the audio tape recorder. Regarding the develoment of
tape recerding, the ups: Cerporatien, an outstanding manufacturer of
tape recording equipment, reported:

There is no definite beginning to the history of magnetic
recording but we can be certain that credit for building the first
magnetic recorder belongs to Bald-er roulsen. This Danish tele-
phone engineer who is often referred to as the “Father of Magnetic
Recordinga designed the microphonograph which was an invention of
great scientific significance. . . . By using this device a conver-
sation could be permanently recorded for reproduction at any time.

In the early 1900's many scientists were attempting to use
magnetic tape in preference to the earlier idea of wire. About 1927
a German inventor named Pfleuer was experimenting with powdered
coatings on tape. So far as we know he did not use magnetic oxide
but coated his tapes with powdered metallic materials. Development
continued and finally about the year 1939 the Germans produced a
tape using a durable plastic backing. This began a new era in the

9

 

10

improvement 3f magnetic tapes, culminating in the superior fidelity
we all know. 2

The transcription changer and tape recorder were classified as
automatic machines. But as has been suggested by the chart in Table I,
page 7, automatic machines by themselves do not constitute automation.
At best, these two technological advances in broadcasting would be
classified under 'sensing' or 'dexterity' machinery on this chart.

Other technological advances have followed the transcription
changer and tape recorder. Another notable advancement of recent.years

was the use of remote control equipment for broadcast transmitters.

Remote Control Controversy

In 1952, the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB)
petitioned the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to relax its
rules and regulations relating to remote control of broadcast radio
transmitters.23

Prior to 1952 all commercial radio stations, regardless of their
output power, were required to maintain an FCC licensed operator at the
transmitter site every hour the transmitter was on the air. Before 1952,
every station had a minimum of two licensed technicians; some stations
which were on the air twenty-four hours per day used as many as ten of

these license holders.

 

22‘The Development and Theory of Magnetic Tape Recording,“ £5235
Manual (October, 1959). h-lO.

23This proposal suggested amendment of sections 3.66, 3.27h, and
3.572 of the Federal Communications Commission's Rules and Regulations.

re

11

In essence, what the NAB proposed in 1952 was that all these
stations in the low-to-medium power class (loss than 10,000 watts output
power) be allowed to operate their transmitters by remote control.
Remote control meant that the transmitter could be turned on and off the
air nd supervised during broadcast hours by studio personnel who might
be several, miles away from the transmitter site. The ruote control
principle was not very technically cuplox. It consisted of an actuator
mechani- which responded to electrical cmamds fru the studio. The
studio and tron-itter were linked together by telephone lines. When
the studio unit sent an electrical impulse to the actuator at the trans-
mitter end of the line, the actuator converted the electrical impulse
into mechanical energy which turned the broadcast transmitter's main
power switch on or eff. In addition, various meters could bo'read at
the studio. These corresponded to those meters on the transmitter which
monitored the current and voltage values. In terms of Table I , page 7,
those ruote control systus would be analogous to an extension of the
bass sensing facilities and a third-stage step toward full autuation.

In 1953, the FCC ruled in favor of the 1952 RAB petition, thus
giving permission fer all mall and media power radio stations to
qloy r-ote control of their transmitters.2h

In 1956, the National Association of Broadcasters again peti-
tioned tho 100. This time, further relaxation of the rules was

 

21‘0 .s., Federal Communications Col-ission, Federal Conunica-
tions Oo-ission #orts, Decisions and Reports of Word: Co-unica-
Hon Omission o the United States, flashington, D.C., July 12, 1957, to
December 27, 1957, Vol. mu, Docket lo. 10211. (Washington: 0.5.
Government Printing Office, 1959). P. 1:58.

I.

g.

12

requested pertaining to remote control operation of radio transmitters.

Pertaining to this petition, the FCC reported the following:
The Mission has before it for consideration its notice of pro-
posed rulomaking released April 12, 1956 (FCC 56-323) and published
in the Federal Register on April 18, 1956, in response to a peti-
tion filed by the NAB proposing amonhonts of the Coos-ission's rules
to authorise the ruoto control operation of all standard and PM
broadcast stations.25

The 1956 petition requested that the FCC allow any station,
whatever its siso, the privilege of remote control of its tranmaitters.
This petition included the 50,000-watt clear channel stations and the
directional stations. The clear chanel stations are these stations
which have exclusive use of their broadcast frequencies and are conso-
quontly free of interference fr. other stations. The clear channel
stations transmit with the maximum allowable power of 50,000 watts.
Directional stations are those which must rely on complex and sensitive
phasing devices to control or "been” their radio signal strength. Those
directional operations are «cessitatod wherever stations may interfere
with each other.

The technical unions, representing engineering personnel in
broadcasting, opposed the FCC adoption of the 1956 petition on technical
grounds. The unions were the hericu Co-unications Association (10A),
the International Brotherhood of Electrical Iorkors (mad), and the
lational Association of Broadcast hplqoos and Technicians (IABET).

The unions did not oppose the petition a grounds that such action could
cause s-o men mubers to lose their Jobs. The only mention of

econuie factors one in one opposing erg-out by the “BET:

 

251mm, Docket No. 11677, 11. list.

‘L

13

The RABET notes that one of the grounds for the decision in

docket 10211: [rotar- to 1953 decision] which authorised rmsote
control for stations with less than 10 kw power and nondirectional
antenna was the claim of NAB that relaxation of the rules was
necessary so that the small stations could survive in their cu-
petitive struggle with the larger stations and argues that the same
null station's economic base will be undergut by granting their
powerful cupetitors the one concessions.2

In reply to lABET's allegation that a grant of the 1956 proposal
would destroy the basis of the 1953 decision, economic assistance to low-
power stations, the NAB argued:

. . . that the major portion of the competition to the small station
does not come fr. the larger station but from other cupeting media
such as newspapers and television and therefore authorisation of
ruoto control operations for high-power stations will not materially
affect the oconmuic status of the low-power station, nd the it is
the larger stations that are now feeling the economic pinch.

On September 19, 1957, the FCC ruled in favor of acceptance of
the MAB proposal.28 The only stipulation made by the FCC was that all
directional stations and stations with output power over 10,000 watts be
considered on an individual basis at the time they would apply for remote
control of their respective transmitters.

With the closing of the remote control question in 1957, another
automatic device had found a use in the broadcast industry and another
basic 'heed'of automation had been approved-”that of electronic sensing

and electronic control.

Automatic Transmitter Logging
In 1960, the lotional Association of Broadcasters, representing
radio station management, petitioned the FCC for a relaxation of Part 3
of the FCC Rules and Regulations. If approved by the FCC, it would allow

 

261b1d., p. 1.58. 27Ihid., p. 1.60. 281bid., p. hSh.

,‘

1h

radio stations unrestricted use of an automatic device to log trans-

mitter performance.”

The automatic logging question pertains to Part 3, section 3.111b
of the FCC Rules and Regulations wherein each broadcast station is
required to maintain an operation log. The section under consideration
states:

3.111 Logo. The licensee or permittee of each standard brood-
cast station shall maintain progr- and operating logs and shall
require entries to be made as follows:

(b) In the operating log:
(1) An entry of the time the station begins to supply power
to the antenna, and the time it stops.
(2) An entry of the time the program begins and ends.
(3) An entry of each interruption to the carrier wave, its
cause, and duration.
0:) An entry of the following each 30 minutes:
(i) Operating constants of last radio stage (total
plate current and plate voltage).
(ii) Antenna current.
(iii) Frequency monitor reading.
(5) Any other entries required by th instruent of
authorisation [station license]. 0

Ordinarily a person must be uployed to prepare the operating
log. Iach half hour the information about the trannitter's operation
must be recorded as set forth in section 3.111. Because of the routine
nature of such a Job, the EAR petition suggested that this Job could be
done automatically through the use of the automatic logging device. The
device would be hooked to the various voltage and current meters on the

transmitter and would record on graph paper every novuent the meters

 

. 39a. Prose Walker (ed.), NAB In eerin Handbook (low Iork:
Mcaraw-Rill Book sugary, Inc., 1960)"?‘TJ, so. «1:. 11587“

3"Federal Cunnications Omission Rules 529. Regulations,
Part 3’ “Otim ofifie

15

made during the broadcast day. In the event that the operating voltages
were to swing out of operating tolerance, then devices such as lights or
bussers would sound signals calling for human help.

Automatic logging equipment is currently on the market and is
gaining widespread use. The FCC uended its rules Septuber 20, 1967, to
allow digital meters and print-out devices to be used to monitor opera-
tional par-eters on broadcast transmitters .31 Reretoforo only conven-
tional analogue-type meters such as might be found monitoring the fuel
level in any automobile were used. By contrast, a digital meter would be
cupsrablo to those found on a gasoline pump which read out in numerals
the amber of gallons pumped and nount of money due. The use of digital
printout on outdatic logging equipment facilitates easier analysis by
maimtnanoe personnel and the log data are in a form more compatible with
other electronic equipment, such as cuputers, which might be used to
help analyse trannitter performance at an extended period of time.

Progr- Autuation
Simultaneous to the development of the automatic log and remote
control equipment, radio as well as television stations have experimented
with Pm automation. For radio station use , program automation
essentially consists of pro-recording music to be used on the air and
them cubining this recorded music autuatically with recorded announce-
nests which are produced by the station's staff of announcers. Because

 

31-roc Appreves nigital Meters for Trusmitters,‘ Broadcast
Manamat/Enggeoring, III (November, 1967), 8.

16

the n-ber of routine tasks is reduced, the announcers can have more
opportunity to create new program material.

The automatic program switchers have the added advantage of
being more accurate in their switching functions than a human being
would be day after day. Because of this, the automatic program
uitchers are able to increase the quality of station programing.

qu recorders, remote control equipment, and program switchers
are automatic devices which are now in general use in the broadcasting
industry. By th-solves, they do not constitute out-ation. It may be
recalled that Table 1, page 7, suggested that in order to have true
autuation the automatic devices must be integrated and work as an
entity nch as the human body does, with the brain in control of the
physical m-bers of the body and the physical m-bers reporting back to
the brain on their execution of commands received from the brain. To so
qualify, the broadcasting industryneeds control machinery for all of
its autuatic machines such as the automatic logging equipment. For
this reason, computers are beginning to enter the broadcast field. This
is particularly true in the areas of accounting, program scheduling, and
audience research. Computer applications for radio and television
station use are described in Chapters IV, V, and VI of this thesis.

hployment Problems Created by Automation
The introduction of out-etion has created much concern over its
possible effects on uployment. As in all controversy, there are two
sides to be considered. On one side of the dispute studs organised
labor. 0n the opposite side is industrial management. Sandwiched

between these opposing forces are economists, government committees, and

17

agencies who busily analyse the ever-changing economic picture of the
United States economy and assist in the solution of those disputes which
arise fru the unrest which surrounds the advance of automation.

The Joint Economic Committee of Congress, in its analysis of the
unemployment situation between 1957 and 1960, explained that higher
un-ployment rates during this period revolved around two major theoret-
ical approaches-u-tho aggregate d-and theory and the structural trans-
formation theory.

The aggregate d-and theory maintained that:

The unemployment rate has been quite high since mid-1957 because the
rate of growth ia final demand [of finished products] has been low
relative to the actual and normal rates of growth in potential
supply made pggsible by increases in capital stock, labor force, and
productivity.
In other words, according to this theory the un-ployment probl. could
be solved by the economic growth of the country and the economic daand
for the finished products.
. . . higher employment has been due not to inadequate final
d-and . . . but rather to technological changes which are
curreggly reshaping the American econm at an unusually rapid
pICO.

Industrial manag-ont sons to favor the aggregate duand theory,
while organised labor tends to support the structural transformation
theory. The gover-ont-sponsored Joint Econcmic Committee concluded in
1960 that there was not enough evidence for the structural theory and

rec-ended the aggregate demand theory instead.3h The President's

 

32Richard A. Beauont and Roy B. Relfgott, Mans enent, Auto-
nation, 93 Pegple (Brattlebere, Vermont: The Book Press, 1961:), . 22.

33Ihid. 351hid.

‘7‘

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18

Council of Economic Advisers also favored the aggregate d-and theory.
Their analysis of the unuployment problem, using the aggregate demand
theory that unmnploymcnt is caused primarily by a lagging growth rate,
became a basis for President Lyndon B. Johnson's emphasis on a large tax
cut as the top priority it. in a progru to stimulate the economy.35
The Johnson Achinistration won support of the tax cut measure. Thus, in
effect, government ruled in favor of the aggregate demand theory as a
measure to slow unuployment.

Between 1960 and 1965, unemployment went into a decline.
Business Automation editorialisod in 1965:

I The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that since the first
quarter of 1961, four million Jobs have been added to the national
economy, while the number of unuplcyed persons declined by one
million. . . . The BIB finds that the nation's unuploymont rate
had dropped tree a May, 1961, figure of 1.1: to a level of 5.1: in
luv-her of 196h.3 36

In spite of stadstics, organised labor upholds the structural
transformation theory that technological change is to blame for un-pley-
ment. Professor Charles Killingsworth agrees that there is credence in
this theory. Be states that "automation, particularly in its more
advanced form: [cantor-controlled] , fundamentally changes the man-
machine relationship.'37 Be believes that advanced autuation has be
major results in the Job market. The first result is a reduction in the

amber of simple, repetitive Jobs where all that is required are five

 

3SCliarles Markh- (ed.), Jobs, Men, and Machines: Pro__b___l-s o__f
rate-nation (low Iork: Frederick ITTrae‘Tfir,'I§6ET—36,._- p.

”Richard B. rsrshles, (Editorial), Bannes______s_ Automation, :11
Web, 1%5)’ 760

37hr”!- (.do), Re 23520, p. 88o

f.

,5

I.

(.

DC

(I

(e

19

senses and an untrained nind. The second result is an increase in the
nuber of jobs that are concerned with designing, engineering, and
adninistering auto-atic production systans. Killingsworth substantiates
this shift in the labor structure in the following quotation:
Between 1957 and 1962, nonproduction workers, a scnewhat unflattering
way of referring to white-collar workers in industry, increased by
about a third of a nillicn, while production workers decreased by
233’3‘60'131'122' "1“ '33::‘i232c3r3‘f33u “°""‘ °‘ ‘W
a up 0!- 8
Professor Killingsworth concluded that when the effects of autonatien and
the effects of this change in consmer spending are combined, the result
is a tr-endous increase in the denand for highly skilled people and a
reduction in the hand for relatively unskilled people. In an economy
where so naw patterns are changing rapidly, statistics which "shew
hread averages and grand totals nay conceal nore than they reveal,"39
according to Professor Killingsworth. '
Binilarly, since 1960 the lotional Association of Broadcast
hpleyees and Technicians Union has carried its case to the Federal
Cc-anicaticns Culission. In its argunent, “BET has cited the person-
nel problens caused by autuatien in the industry. It was reported that
fun 1955 to 1962 there was a 151 reduction of technicians in the uploy
of the broadcast industry because of autonation."O
In wary, there are two opposing viewpoints as te the basic

cause ef “Icy-eat. Industrial management, using the aggregate

 

”Ride, 1). ”e
39Mde, ’0 fie

196 ) 620'!!ch Good Is htomated Radio? MIR. Radio (March 26,
2 , .. , .___

20

denud theory, suggests that unenploynent stone from slow nation-wide

economic growth. Organized labor upholds the structural transfornation
theory which suggests that technological change is a basis of unemploy-
nent. Both sides have presented convincing evidence as to the validity

of each of the theories.

Pace of Broadcast intonation
A survey node by gonna/1.3. Edie nagasino in 1962 indicated
that the trend toward actuation in the broadcast industry had been
slow.“
The speed with which autmation noves into any industry depends
on two factors, according to Broaen. In a research article written for
the herican Enterprise Institute, he stated:

new rapidly we [industry] actuate depends upon the availability of
capital and the rapidity of the rise in real wage rates. 2

If the broadcast industry is analysed on the basis of these two criteria
as suggested by Brosen, the relatively slew-paced advancuent of auto-
nation into the broadcasting industry is sore understandable.

Availabilig 2f Cgital
It is natural that the larger corporation has nore capital
available which can be used for experimentation with autuation than does

the non ceQany. however, the maxi-en corporate siae which is allowed

 

5193., p. 65.

”m. Brosen, Intonation: The Eact of fochnolo Cl]. Chang!
(Washington: herican Eta-prise Institute, 1953). p. 5.

h /—

21

in the broadcast industry is closely guarded by federal supervision. To
preserve cupetition in radio and television, the FCC is directed by law
not to grant licenses to applicants when, by doing so, cupetition would
he substantially reduced or cuerce restrained. The Co-ission has
ruled that not nore than one AM, one Ill, and one TV station serving the
she listening area nay be licensed to the sense applicant. This is
known as the ‘duopoly' rule. lo nero than seven as, seven m, and seven
1" (five TH! and two UH?) stations serving different areas nay he
licnsed to or controlled by the one persons or corporations. This
linitatien has been challenged in federal court. In 1955. the Storer
Broadcasting Conan challenged the linitation, but the court allowed
the linitaticn to stand.”

Because of the ducpoly rule, an inherent limitation is inposed on
industrial consolidation and consequently on the uount of capital which
is available for oxperinentation with automation. Availability of
capital, however, is not the only factor which controls the pace with
which actuation noves into industry. ihe rapidity of the rise in real

wage rates nust he considered also.

Autuation'a Egg: _a_s_ Related to Egg: Lates—
locording to the Inerican hterpriso Institute, increases in
wage rates ndce it economically feasible to autonate when it otherwise
would not be.
The cost of the new equipment required to replace a nan is about

$35,000. If the annual wage of a nan is less than $7,000, it does
not pay to replace his at this cost since property and corporate

 

won-and Chester and Garnet 3. Garrison Television 29 Radio
(low Iork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1956 , p.

I.

a
O
.
I —
.
.
. . -. .
i ‘ . A
. . .. '
. ' .
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. ,
\.
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P
e
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.
i
.
V ‘ ‘
-
- _ i
. 0 ‘
_~

22

earnings taxes, insurance, depreciation and interest costs mount

to about $7,000 on $35,000 worth of equip-ant. If annual .ploygh

nent costs rise above $7,000, it then pays to replace a few non.

Iron the above statuent it can be construed that the proximity

of annual employnent costs to the $7,000 level should serve as a crude
baraoter which night indicate the speed with which autenation could be
adqted by an industry. Therefore, by comparing annual uploynent costs
of broadcast .pleyoes to the approxinatod $7,000 dividing line, an
indicator as to how rapidly autonation night be adopted by the broadcast
industry can be denonstrated.

Below are listed enploynent cost statistics on broadcast
qleyoos, 1963 through 1966.

' mats II
may as am: mass or sou-supmxsoar manner mommies“

 

 

 

 

Iear weekly Average Yearly Averag!
1963 $133.96 $6. 965.92
196); 1h0 .66 ‘ 7,31h.32
1965 1k? .63 7,676 .76
1966 151.211 7,86%“

 

 

"0.8., Dareau of Labor Statistics, 1 out and Barnin
gay-nor 3;:- United States, 1909-1967, etin o. fila-‘fi'gomur,
1 7 p e '

According to these statistics on broadcast uployees (which are
available in Statistical abstract), it is evident that neither the wage

 

MW“, as 22'3" po Se

(I

23

level nor the rate of wage increase has been sufficient to force broad-
casters into a great deal of rapid autonation. As Table II shows, the
average yearly salary of non-supervisory broadcast uployees is
increasing each year. According to these statistics, the average yearly
salary of the non-supervisory uployee has crossed the $7,000 per year
wage borderline which was suggested by Brosen as the dividing line
between the slow advancenent or the fast advancenent of auto-such.“
low that the non-supervisory broadcast uployee average wage has attained
and surpassed the $7,000 point, presunably, the broadcast industry nay
eaporienoo larger strides toward automstien. However, in the intervening
years since the 1963 Brosen study, inflation and other eoonuic factors
have undoubtedly pushed the borderline beyond the $7,000 point.

 

“Brown, Leg. 9_i_t.

mm III
RADIO PROGRAM AUTOMATION

AI has been suggested in the preceding chapter, radio progran
eat-etion essentially consists of pro-recording nusic or progran seg-
nents to be used on the air and then cubining those progran features
with the recorded announcuents which are produced by the station's
staff of announcers. The notivation factor behind radio progra- auto-
natien stun fr. the fact that a large part of radio programning is
repetitious. Music, nusic introductions, progr- introductions, and
c-ercial announconents are all repetitive types of naterial which
occur again and again, day after day, and constitute the bulk of radio
progr-ing. If this bulk pregran naterial is edited to recording
tape and these tapes arranged to be switched on and off the air at the
proper tine by autuatic equip-out, this is, in its sinplost state,
nut-ated radio.

The usefulness of radio program autuation depends upon the
ratio of. repetitive naterial to the naterial which wast be changed con-
stantly. In other words, it takes three to four times nore production
tine to prepare progran segnents for autenatod progr- equip-ont than it
does to do the one segnent live.- consequently, if this progran sepent
cannot be aired at least five or were tines, then progran autuation is
a poor investment in production tine.

Some progra- naterial exists which cannot be autuated. Tole-

phone audience participation prograna and my other naterial of extremely
2h

 

Is

25

current nature are oxanples of program ferns that nuet be broadcast
live.

There are certain alternatives, however, that will pernit sons
stations to take advantage of antanation even though some of the pro-
grdng is not adaptable to actuated operation. Station personnel
fr- departnonts other than productiu way be available to physically
progr- ourront naterial into an auto-etion systen. An oxanple nay be
found in the news depart-out, where the newuan nay take the responsi-
bility of seeing that two newscasts are recorded and inserted twice each
hour. A second alternative is a rearrange-est of the progr- schedule
to soc-sedate block progr-uing of live productions into a unified sog-
nent, leaving the balance of the day's broadcasting to be done through
ant-atod neans. The significant factor is to recognise a new philoso-
phy of progr- proparation and, by careful analysis, dotsrnine whether
this approach to radio progra-ing will inreve any specific station
operation.

In the sedan radio station, the separation of duties between
the .ginoor and the progr- direoter becues increasingly obsolete when
nodsrn broadcast autonation is introduced. lo longer can nanag-ent
turn to the engineering depart-out alone for a decision as to what type
of broadcasting equip-at is best for the station. The automatic equip-
nent which is purchased nust noet good progr-ing standards as well as
be desirable fren the engineer's technical point of view. Thus progra-
ning and engineering decisions nust go hand-in-hand.

The roots of nodorn broadcast autuation go back to the days when
nusicians were widely used by radio stations to produce live nusic in the

“silla . ,ers

new!

26

radio studies. As tine passed, the radio broadcaster discovered that
phonograph records of the nusicians' perfonances could be used nuch
nore cheaply than could live perfornancos by the nusicians. This trend
evolved into what night be called the I'diec jockeyn era, wherein a live
staff announcer plus recorded mic and provides cements between
selections. Thereby, a relatively inexpensive progre- is created which
is acceptable to the audience.

Present du audio autenation carries the advanouent one step
further. Disc recordings are th-selves replaced by taped nusic. The
live announcer also gives wu to the taped announcer. In fact, the torn
'1ivo announcer. is fast boooning a nisnonor even in stations which con-
sider th-solveo I'live." Indeed, there sits the announcer at his cen-
solo in front of the nicrophone. lot, with the widespread use of
cartridges or other pro-recorded name to deliver station identifications,
pronetions, and c-ercials, to say nothing of the nusic itself, the
I'live“ announcer is often little nore than a button pusher. The way is
now open to the nest significant advances in broadcast autuation equip-
nut-oudio switching. .

Audio Switching letheds
hdio switching is the heart of all autenatod radio progruning.
Because audio switching is the strata upon which the whole of progr-
aut-atien exists, the noses by which it is acconplished should be
investigated further.
To prehce oven the sinplest radio progr-s, a certain haunt of
audio switching nust be done. If the progran which is being broadcast

27

.pleys a solo speaker, then only one switch need be turned on-his
nicrephone switch. If the solo speaker plane to use recorded nusic
during the progran, then another switch must be thrown, that of either
the phonograph turntable or the tape recorder. In a nodern 'disc
Jockey“ progru, where phonograph record after record is interspersed by
tape recorded and live announcnents, a large uount of audio switching
is necessary to produce such a progra- hour after hour. Equipment can
be constructed which will do all of this switchinr-ut-atically. By
furnishing hidden signals or cues to the autuatio equipnent, all audio
switching can be acconplished as if a hen being were doing the Job.

In reviewing and analysing various approaches to audio switching
nethods, it sent be ru-bercd that the task to be accuplished in each
case is the placing of a signal, or cue of acne sort, at the end of each
unit of progr-ing. This one is used to start the next scheduled unit
of prop-dug. In the past, nany nethods have been nployed. The
following have been nest notable.

an; 2.11.“. 2 nu

Probably the sinplost syst- of switching nakes use of either
notal paint or natal foil on audio tape. As the audio tape passes over
the contacts a circuit is closed and the switch is accuplishod. It is in-
praotical, however, to switch at the end of each unit of progrfiing on a
reel of tape using notal foil due to the tine involved in putting on each
piece of notal tqe.

as. it. 22: 2.1: Low
lest hue-type record changers start their end-of-record cycle at

a particular place on the recordingnusually at the very end of the

28

record which has Just finished playing. This cyst. night be used to
start the next sequence in autmation systens. Rool-to-reel tape
nachines could use the sane systen. When a reel of tape completes its
run, the I'tape break. switches could start the next operation. This
cyst- is quite oubersone and is not very practical in actual daily
operation. Once the tape runs oupletely through the nachine it nust be
rethreaded to be used again.

Iggy-Sensitive hvices

Photo cells are used in various configurations. With audio tape,
the oxide is renoved at the switching point and light is allowed to pass
through the transparent backing of the audio tape to the photo cell.
This syst- has proved quite successful except for the occasional oxide
breaks that inadvertently appear in the tue, giving out a false switch-
ing pulse. ‘ A

_Time__ switching

Tine switching is used in nest actuation systus at ease point
or another. This night he used to switch to a network, renote, or other
operation by use of a repetitive tinor or clock, or it could be used to
‘resu' a switching action while the actual switching is accuplished by
other neans., All couples autuation cyst-s use a tinor or clock for
correction so that operators are freed of the burden of tining each sog-

m‘ o

silnce Switching
In the past, silence has been used extensively for switching.

It is one of the simlest syst-s as far as I'nake-up" is concerned. The

 

.olsl.

.. .3. use... .‘n.r..e.d.vl .i.‘ *1 Daily:
L

 

.1.‘

ii.

’\

29

operator has but to leave a silent spot in the recording. It is about
the only practical method when individual phonograph records are used in
a systen. It has serious disadvantages, however, since silence is a
negative device rather than a positive one. If silence is advertently
left in the niddle of a unit of progressing, pro-switching can occur.

The classic example is the recording of a 'cha-cha-cha" which say have
long spaces of silence between beats of the nusic. Also, silence is a
relative thing. Surface noise, tape hiss, tube noise, and other types of
non-intelligible audio on ruin a period of what should be silence. For
these reasons, silence has been largely abandoned as a neans of switching
and is used only for fail-safe purposes in nodern systens. This neans
that if the sutonatic equipnent senses a long period of silence, such as
night be caused fron tape breakage or oquipnent failure, then the auto-
natic switcher will switch on another playback nachine which is operable.

Tone Switching
Presently the nest reliable systen of switching is with tones.

In essence, tone switching mounts to nothing nore than superinposing a
low frequency tone on the tape at the place where switching is desired,
such as at the end of a nusical selection or voice announc-ent. Sons
nanufacturors have standardised on 30 cycles because it is easy to con-
pare to a 60-mlo AC line for tone accuracy. Other syst-s use 25
cycles, which is nuch harder to check for frequency accuracy. Official
In recognition of this unofficial standard would be of benefit to the
industry in waking actuation syst-s and nusic services conpatiblo.)

Va
E .0: inn» a.‘
. .sf
7 s’

'\

30

Standards have already been set on cartridge equipment)‘6

There are tum basic methods of tone switching. The first is a
subaudible tone nixed with the progran naterial. This nethod works
quite well if care is taken to insure that regular audio does not con-
tain tones at the switching frequency which would cause false switching.
AI namle night be a pipe organ solo which night contain low notes
having undertones extending to and below 25 cycles. If the automation
senses these tones, then false switching could occur. This proqu can
be elininetod by the use of appropriate filters. Care nust be taken,
also, to insure that the ratio between the level of the switching tone
and the nauimn recording level is consistent.

The _a_s_-9339 nethod of tone switching is to use a separate or one
track for switching tones. This nethod is neat connon on cartridge
equipnent. This devolopnent results in increased reliability as the
sensing unit need listen only to the cue track, not the progran audio.
The problens of level, distortion, and low frequency tones prevalent in
the progru track systen are greatly reduced. Also, a nultitude of fre-
quencies and cmfigurations within the audio range (20-20,000) are

possible since they do not go the air.

E91

Sue type of one nust be given to autenatic switching systens in
order for th- to know when to perforn a switching action. Six nethods

have been listed: notal paint or foil, end of tape or record, light-

 

“Danny Coulthurst, “Broadcast Autuation-nPast, Present, and
Future," A lepert to the 1965 NAB Broadcast hgineerin Conference,
March 21 to march 2h, 1965, Washington, D. C., p. 3. Hineographed.)

l3". ‘1

 

31

sensitive devices, tine switching, silence switching, and tone switch—
ing.

Metal paint or foil and light-sensitive devices are difficult to
apply and difficult to erase. The end of tape switching nethod is too
awkward for autuated usten use since an operator would have to
rethroad the tape after each use. Tine switching is useful in linited
application as in starting precisely scheduled events such as network
progr-e. Silence switching is a negative type of switching and is used
nore to indicate equipnent failure than a positive switching consand.

U all the nethode listed, tone switching is the nest versatile. Tone
switching is nore reliable than silence because it is positive and it is
easier to apply and erase than are netal foil and light-sensitive
devices.

Progru Control hethods

There are two basic approaches to progran control: the sequen-
tial approach and the insertion approach. In the following explanation,
at least one word should be defined. Systens co-only have two or nore
transports or channels. It is therefore necessary to standardise on the
word “channel“ to seen a progran playback unit of any type such as a
reel-to-reel pluback nachine filled with pro-recorded nusic , or a car-
tridge pluback, or a network line.

mil-2.1;! £21" ‘
The sisplest sequential syst. night he called a I'f’lip-flop."
lore only two channels are used and they alternate fron I1 to {2 at each

switching tone. Because of its sinplicity, the "flip-flop“ syston is

32

reliable and easy to operate. Its sinplicity, however, severely linita
its flexibility and it is used only in the sinplest of applications. To
increase flexibility, additional channels nust be added. The sinplest
nethod of controlling nultiple channels would be to set up a sequence
either on switches or on a patch panel. ‘ Once~ established, the order
ruains fixed until nanuslly changed. Thus channel 2 is on the air after
channel 13 channel 3 follows channel 2, etc. By adding a tiner clock,
the sequence can be reset to again start with channel 1 after a given
length of tine.“

There are advantages in the use of the sequential syetu. It is
quite easily understood by operators and naintenanco personnel. Also,
the operator always knows the exact order in which channels are sequenced
and therefore which features will be played next.

There is a najor disadvantage in the sequential systu. Once set,
the sequence never varies until nanuslly changed. lest broadcasters feel
this leads to a 'oanned' sound. If this is to be avoided, the sequence
nest be changed often, i.e., instead of a 1-2-3 order one night want a
2-1-3 order. This, in turn, some that an operator nust be on duty to
nanuslly change the sequence. having to keep an operator on duty to
accqlish such a neniel task would lessen the econonic advantage of the

mus

Insertion §z_st_u_
In this systu, a single nusic channel is used, generally con-
taining all nusic and nusic introductions. This nusic becones "hone

 

I"’Thuas I. Basket, "Audio Tape lquipnent,‘ Broadcast En necr-
in (February, 1965), 18. """"'—"'"

use --u

war"

 

 

 

in- -ur‘ us;-

'I.

.I4

33

base' and non-nusic feamres are inserted between nusical selections.
Other progrning features are loaded into the appropriate channels, or
nachines, each of which has a selector to pernit it to be inserted on a
tine base as detenined by a naster clock. This tine base nay be
repetitive, such as every 5 ninutes, every 15 ninetes, or longer as the
break tines nu dictate. Where nultiple channels are used, a sinple
priority is established whereby the nest inportant channel will be
inserted first, followed by the second nest inportant channel, and so
on. when no ether channel is ready, the nusic channel will fill in.“8

The nain disadvantage of the insertion systen is that nusic nust
be pro-programmed. Once recorded, the progra-ing balance and nix can-
not be changed without ro-recording because all of the nusic selections
are on one extended length tape. Repetition of nusic tapes can be a
probl. unless enough tapes are provided. lost stations using an
insertion syst- would probably look to an outside nusic recording
service to supply nany or perhaps all of their tapes.

.1212 2.1.2: int-r

The randu select systen is the nest versatile systen now on the
narket but it is generally were caplex. In the random select syst-, any
channel can follow any other channel in an ever-changing pattern. There
are four. basic types of may storage used in randu select systens:
(1) audio tape, (2) progr- 1og paper, (3) punched paper tape, and
(h) punched data cards.

 

“southern, pp. git.

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At least one najor conpany uses tones or sequences of tones
recorded on an audio tape to store the sequence of events for the du.
In this type of systen, the operator sets up the sequence for the next
hour of progr-ning by dialing the nubers of various progru sources in
order as they are to occur. Each channel or tape pluback nachine is
given a tone cede. loch tine the operator dials this code the code is
recorded on the syst- progrner's internal tape. If the operator
dials l-2-3, then when the syst- progra-or plus back this infornation
it starts nachine 1 first, then 2, and so on in the exact sequence as
recorded. One seven-minute cartridge can store all of the sequences
seeded for a full week of progress-lag. The nain difficulty in the use
of this ust- lies in the necessity of having to erase all of the
sequence infornatien for the week sinply to correct one nistake.
Further advances on the progruer design nu reduce the faults on this
syst. to a nininun.”

bother conpany, Continental Electronics Conpau, in its prolog
systu, uses a specially prepared progran log to establish the channel
sequence. An In! nachine codes the log paper. This nu be done
nanuslly. The leg paper, in turn, is loaded into a 'reading' nachine
and the log novee through this nachine, scheduling the various channels.
Authentication of the log is done autenatically by a clockprinter which
shows year, nonth, date, and tine. Prolog clains the unit to be accu-

rate plus or nines one second on each entry node. In the event a

 

”n g g g
min Leg ht-ated Radio Pro ran-in , A Report prepared by
the Auto-atic Tape Control to the 1965 Broadcast Ingineering Confer-
ence, larch 21-2h, 1965, flashington, B. C., p. 10.

f
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35

correction nust be node in the progran log, the operator nust locate that
portion of the log and erase the nachine code. Photocells read the log
sequence infornation in such the some nanner as do autonatic test grading
devices which are used by educators. Instead of a student's placing a
black pencil nark in a designated area for a correct test answer, the
station secretary ca place strategic black narks on the log, thereby
setting up the pregra sequence.50

The nain disadvantage of any of the aforaentioned ustas, how-
ever, is the difficulty with which changes are node. loch systa, as
has been pointed out, has its own solution, but extensive chages are
cabersae at best. Both the audio tape ad the punched paper tape test
be redone, often in their entirety. The progra log paper not be cor-
rooted wheneverlaet ninute changes are necessary.“ here is one
nethed by which the job can be acconplished in a nuch were expedient
nanor. This nethed involves the use of punched cards.

Originally, punched cards were used to nake up radio ad tele-
vision logs and for billing purposes. Recently, several capanies have
developed autaatic control syatas designed around card readers.

Those readers are nenufactured by the latiosal Cash legister Conpay and
by II. In its sinplest fern, each data card represents a particular
channel such as reol-to-rool or cartridge nachine. Cards are stacked
nanuslly in the desired order ad loaded into the reader. The reader

 

50
"hole " Automatic ad Lo n for AM or PT! A
wort by ConEnental gectronic misIon 3‘! Essie-13.36“»,
Inc. , to the 1965 IAB Broadcast Engineering Conference, Harch 21-2h,

1965p Unhington, D. co, ppo 3-7e
51'Coulthurst, _ep. £13., p. 12.

as.

‘Ps

.\

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36

itself progras the order of the features as each card is brought to the
reader head. The sequence can be changed at any time by sinply chaging
the order of the cards. Key punching equipnont can be used to punch a
slpha-nuneric description of each feature into the card itself. All
intonation necessary for traffic, the progras log, accounting, ad
billing goes on a single card. Card-sorting; equip-ant can then be used
to sort the cards into their proper sequence. At this point, the card
reader takes over ad progras the various audio sources in their proper
order. As each audio source is put on the air, a electric typewriter
types the progras log, taking the accurate tine free a digital clock and
the progra feature description free the card itself. The canorcial
cards ca then be stored until the end of the south when they are used
for billiu and accounting on the appropriate accounting equip-ant.52

This usta is neat versatile in that changes can be nade easily
right up to the last ninute before air time. The syst- ca be used
with a pregra service desiaed for an insertion usta or with nultiple
nusic trasports as in a sequential systa. Bach progras feature is
properly logged only when it has actually gone on the air. The tie-in
with traffic, legging, accounting, ad billing also psi-its a fully
integrated syst- with appropriate long-range cost savings in all depart-
nents of the station. The ultinate in radio pregra autenation lies in
the card controlled renda select switcher.

Because of the eqlesity of the card-controlled systas and the
true flexibility offered by tha, it will be necessary to go into

 

SzIbi‘op ”a 12.13e

BIT!

37

operational detail in order to understand how the nodern broadcast plat
ca benefit nest fren the systens' distinct features.

As already nontioned, the heart of the card-controlled randa
sequential syst- is the punched card reader. This capact unit stores
up to 500 cards, each representing a different elonent of the daily pro-
gra schedule. The reader tells which channel or transport is to go on
the air next by trasnitting the code in the fourth colun of the card
to a switch nodule which controls the channel. (See Figure 1.)5 3

The progras features thaselvea, such as nusic, mercials, and
news, are pro-recorded on reel-to-reel pluer transports or on cartridge
tape pluere. Bach pluer unit represents a channel and that pluer or
channel is arbitrarily assigned a code number. (See Figure l.)

The pro-punched cards containing the proper channel designations
are then stacked in the order in which the features are to go on the air
and loaded into the card reader for a trial run-through.

During the trial run-through of the cards, the card reader is
nonitored by the autuatic typewriter printout. This trial run-through
takes approximately 15 ninutos to produce the preliminary log. or pro-
play log for a entire 2h-hour broadcast day. The prelininary log is
distributed throughout the station to the various depart-ants involved
in the airing of the daily program-traffic, progrs—ing, and engineer-
ing. (See Figure 1 for an exanple of a pre-plulog.) than all depart-
seats are in agreaent ad the pro-play log has been corrected, the

53-v1seal 12,000 Audio Autaaation with In! Punch Card control,-
A Technical Paper prepared by the Visual Electronics Corporation for the
1965 IAB Broadcast Begineering Conference, larch 21-2h, 1965, bashington,
D. Go, po 2e

a."

38

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various progr- chonnola aro than loadod in nccordanco with tho log and
tho card roador ia nae not to otart ito on-tho-oir switching of tho
various audio channels. 'rho stack of data card: ia loadod into tho
roador, tho propor otart button in proaood, and thua bogina tho auto-
natod progranjh

Tho out-atod typouritor printout ia non avitchod our to noni-
tor tho actual on-tho-oir prozrn, and ao it dooa ao it proceeds to noko
o mod final program log. Tho log ontrioo aro nado at tho onct tho
tho progr- ooponta go on tho air.55

33‘ roading tho conbination of porforatod holoo in oach card, tho
card roador hon oxactly which nochino to “witch on tho air noxt. It
tho ad of oaoh audio log-ant, tho 1o- froquoncy 25-m1o tono rooordod
on tho tapod progra- tollo tho card roodor uhon that aogeont of audio in
our and thou to oeitch to anothor. Various tono filtoro aro upland
to nako oortain that only tho autenatod oquipnont hooro thooo low fro-
quonoy ouitching tonoo and that tho liotonor at hm dooa not hoar thou.
In othor norda, tho 1o! froquonoy tonoa aro filtorod out long boforo tho
progra- arrivoa at tho input of tho trananittor.

try out. which proparoo tho final progru log autonaticany
prooonta a vorifioation prob].-. Firot, tho atation not how proof
that tho propor progr- oognont in airod at tho achodulod tino, and
mo“, tho vorifioation ayat- nnat odhoro to too guidolinoa. Ihoao
too “ado nooooaitato a foolproof and fail-aafo ayat- of vorifica-

t1...

 

Shy-£9, p. 2. 55293.3.

’4].

ho card-oontrollod ayato- prosonto a rathor uniquo but cuplox
aolution to vorifioation. To undorotond how tho vorification io accou-
pliohod autuatioally, it io aoooooary to firot rovioo hoe tho progr-
aoponta aro hado up" on tapo. It hao proviouoly boon oxplainod that at
tho ooncluaion of oach prop-- oognont, ehothor it ho a tapod nusical
oolootion or a tapod cmial, an log-onto auot havo a low froquoncy
25m]; “itching tono. Mo tono ia tho cuo which nakoa tho card
roador aeitch to tho noxt logoont. Through a oililar procooo of 'hiddon'
tonoo, autonatic vorifioation boo-u a roality.

By putting tho aorioo of tono hurota on tho m of oach tapo
at tho tino on. m1. hung. io hoing rocordod, in offoot oach cum-
oial amounouont ia gluon ito poraonal idontifioation. fhooo tono
horoto (3-digit) aro variod oo that no ommial hao tho oano oubor or
hind of horoto. u oach oartridgo or progra- oouroo io playod on tho
air, idontifying codo tonoo aro fod back through tho tono rocovory
onoodor and aro priotod out ao vorifioation in tho log vorification
oolun. At tho tino tho tonoo aro firot oonaod by tho playback nachino,
tho autuatio typovritor printout givoa tho yoar, dato, and tino plua or
linoo ono oooond that tho tono burot io hoard. Lotor, tho typovritor
tnoo in tho idontifying oodo mhor dorivod fr. tho tono hurot. thin
oodo n-hor ohould oorroopond uith tho mhor printod on tho data card.
11-. data card hao thia o-o idontification nonhor punohod into it.
‘rhoroforo, tho idontifioatioo o-hor ia typod out teico, onoo frou tho
infonation road frou tho ponchod card and onoo from tho tono huroto on
tho rooordod progr- oognont. If tho n-boro oorroopond, thoa tho

propor progr- oonont nao put on tho air in conjunction with ito

 

. IuVH‘Mr I‘D.

    

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roopoctivo data card. (Soo Figaro 1.) Uhon tho owitchor or card roador
hoaro tho and of tho aognont tono, tho autonatic typonritor logo tho
official off-tino for that announcuont.

htailod Doocription of Syoton'o Cmpcnonto
an: 9.22: ’

Physically, tho cards nay ho oithor of cardboard or plastic.
to. plaotic inprognatod warioty aro not oubJoct to nonal roqoir-onto
of tqoraturo and honidity. lornally, thoy nu ha and 75 to 100 tinoo
without cord donago which could canoo fooding or roading orroro.
rigoro l ohowo tho individual oorial n-hor for oach card. In actual
n-tho-air owitching, thin nunhor hao littlo valuo . m oorial nnnhor
ia noofol only to tho poroonnol in traffic, whooo duty it in to cata-
loguo oach individual card for ouch purpoooo oo billing, «1.. ecu-1.-
aiono, and apot awoilabilitioo.

no oocond cola ohooo tino-hour, ninuto, and oocond-ueith tho
lottor '1' for 5.1!. and 'P' for p.11. Again, thin intonation io nood
pawn, in tho traffio‘dopar’uont whoa tho initial otaching of cardo
tahoo placo. Thin tino in only a ouggootod tino. An oxanplo would ho
in noting up a cliont'o ochodulo. Say that oponoor John Boo hm 36
ono-ninuto opoto for a coo-nook poriod and ouggooto a ochodolo of oix
opoto par day, apacod at four-hour intorvalo. Tho hoy punch oporator
and card typiot will proparo oix difforont oarda, with tho onggootod run
tinooonthooardo. moon-o oixcardonayhooooddayaftorday
until tho oniration of tho 36-opot contract. Tho tino narh on tho
card, than, in dooignod an an aid for tho poroonnol who otack tho pro-

gran cordo for tho day'a ooquonco of «onto.

1:3

rho I'progrnn sognont" liotod in tho third colon of tho card is
oolf oxplanatory. Again, this intonation is usod only by thoso who aro
in chargo of placing tho cards in tho propor ordor for on-tho-air uso.

In tho fifth colm, tho nachino channol is liotod. lot only is
this infornation typod on tho card, but thoso data nuot bo punchod into
tho card for tho card roador's bonofit. This punchod codo on oach card
dictatos to tho card roador which nusic or unsunco channol is to bo
switchod on tho air noxt. An ox-plo of this occurs in a station uhoro
all of oach day's connorciol announc-onto aro on ono continuous rool of
taps. ibis taps playor nay bo arbitrarily assignod on as its channol
u-bor. loaning that tho spot announc-onts havo boon duhbod or
rocordod on tho taps in tho o-o ooquonco as tho cards aro stockodython
all tho 'hoy punch oporator nood do is punch a coda n-bor on onto all
cards which aro rooordod on tho nastor sucroial tops.

59. mes-224. 2:12

Tho hoy punch cubination card roador douhlos in duty by func-
tioning as both tho nachino on which oach card is punohod, than lator
road. As oach card is nachino road, tho punchod holoo in tho rospoctivo
cards oouso tho roading unit to «loot tho dosirod progran channol.

hut-atic monitor Printout

Tho typowritor printout soms as tho official link botuoon tho
functions of on and nachino. tho autonatic printout, which cporatoo
nuch as a nowo tolotypo nachino, is usoful in dotornining whothor tho
cards aro in tho propor ordor by first building a prolininary log. This
log is chochod for nistahos and is usod to load tho co-orcial tapo and

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tho nusic channels in sequence. Later when tho on-tho-air period of
switching starts, the autonatic typewriter begins to build tho official
progr- log as each progran segnonts goes on the air.

Another added feature of the autuatic typewriter is the auto-
natic tino stag which is integrated into the typing nochanisn. At the
start of each progr- unit this st-p signifies the date, year, and tino
to the second. This was stanp gives the exact tine tho progr- seaont
leaves the air, in accordance with P00 ruling. Both the hey punch-card
reader and autuatic typewriter printout are included in the standard
card mt... the In! 836 card punch and reader and the Inn 866 type-
writer nay be used as a c-plete oyst- er nay be integrated with other
card sortero and tabulation equip-out.“ This aspect will be discussed
later in the sectiu which deals with autuatic billing equipnent. It
should be recalled, however, that m is not the only source of autuatic
card handling equip-out. lotional Cash Register Oupany is another
organisation which builds suitable oquipnent for autenaticn control. In
the event that sufficient technical poroemol are not available for ser-
vicing of owh squpnont, renting night be advantageous.

Bake-up of Special intonation has
The secret to the success of any autonatic switcher lies in the
cautious placing of cue tones on the various progr- soponto. The
switching tones needed for the owls: 'rand- card switcher” are nuch
the one as those which are used in thesimler autcnation switchers. A

 

h 56"Visual 12,000 Audio Intonation with 13! Punch Card Control,“
po s .

 

 

1:5

25-cycle tone of one or noro seconds in duration is used at the end of
each segnent. The I'nake-wup" announcers or operators nust be certain
this tone is energised at Just the right nonent, otherwise a glaring
production error can exist. If the tone occurs too late, then there
will be 'dead air' between nusical selections, connercial anounc-ents,
or whichever sopento night happen to be on the air. Announcers and
engineers with a degree of aesthetic talent will soon discover the
inportanco of tons placensnt; after a few weeks of enperinontatisn they
can have the autenatod progran noving with the tqo which a good
'tight' live show should have.

do has been enplained, all of the nusic usually cones fren reel-
to-rool tape transports. host spot announcuents, such as cuercials
or public service announce-onto, are recorded on cartridge nachines.
the rationale supporting the use of cartridge nachines st-s fren the
nobility of the nachine. Once the cuorcial is contained on a separate
cartridge, it nay be pulled out easily frcn the autonation for live show
use or it nay be erased and changed without disturbing the progren sog-
nents. loch cusrcial cartridge is a cqooite of three types of
infoxnatieu. The order in which they occur on the cartridge are:

l. the verification tono bursts, I

2. the audio neosage or o‘ercial announcenont proper, and

3. the switching tone which signifies the end of the audio

troch. ‘

The oudio track or aneuncmt is self explanatory in as nuch as this
is what the audience hears in the radio receiving sets. The end of the
neosage has already been discussed at length. The verification code

146

pulses ruain as the only tones or data found on the cartridge which
have not been explained.

The Federal Conunications Connission has set up broad guide-
lines in verification procedures which nust be used when stations log
daily progra-ing. ll'his inplies that sons kind of accurate neano not
be established whereby the actual tine on the air of cusrcial announce-
nents is logged. This is acoqlished by the autonatic tine stanp er
the typewriter printout. But as a fail-safe procedure, and to be sure
that the proper o‘ercial was aired when the progr- leg indicates it
was, it is necessary to record special tono pulses on the cartridge when
it is being "nade--up'I by the announcer. This is in effect the sons as
assigning each cartridge an electronic serial umber. Since each car-
tridge recorder is dual-track, this verification tone burst along with
the end of the neosage cue are recorded on a separate track free the
audio neosage. In other words, only the nachine can sense these tones.
has the cartridge has been recorded and is played back through the card
reader and nonitored by the autonatic typewriter, the verification tones
will be sensed and will agree with the progran code umber. The progran
code nunber is contained on the data card and is read by the card
reader. On the other hand, the verification nunber on the log cones
from the tone bursts of the cartridge tape. If both nunbers agree on
the progran log, then the correct connercial tape was put on the air as

called for by its respective data card.

Hake-up and Handling of Music Tapes
The noting up of nusic tapes varies in ocuplexity depending on

the type of nusical fornat used. Generally speaking, the "good nusio'

 

 

.\

h?

fornat is the easiest type with which to deal. The chief reason lies in
the fact that the nusical selections never get out of date. Once a two-
hour tape has been recorded, that tape, if given the prepor care, can be
used for nonths or years with little degradation of quality. 0n the
other hand, stations utilising the 'top ferty' format will need to re-
recerd their nusic tapes continually.

Statims using the |'good nusic" forest custuarily record all
nusical selections on reel-to-rocl nachines and at the end of each
selection on mneuncer's voice identifies the selection. After identifi-
cation, the switching tone is added. This cycle is repeated over and
over until the tape is filled. Usually ten-inch tapes are used. Onthe
average, each contains approxinately one and one-half hours of nusic.
loch tape has conjugate latching of all nusical selections, i.e., all of
the sons t-po, all which are vocal or all which are instrunental. By
loading each of four tape transports with different t-po tapes, the
switcher can produce and progran the variety which is needed. in exanplo
could be one fast tape instrunental followed by a slow instruontal,
then a slow vocal, and so on. The point is that the nusic director of
the station nay stack the nusic cards in the card reader to effect any
variety of nusical prcgruing which he desires .57

The I'top forty“ type of station seldcn uses the reol-to-reel
nachine for the bulk of its nusic playback. Instead, each of the “live
twenty-five" selections are recorded on cartridges without voice identi-

fications. The announcer nahes up a caposite reol-tc-reel tape of

 

57mm; 535 htenated Radio Pro annin , pp. 21-22.

118

nothing but connents and record introductions. The switcher cards are
stacked in such an order that the announce tape plays first and then the
introduced cartridge with the proper nusical selection plays. By using
this nethed, a five-hour disc Jockey show can be recorded in approxi-
natoly one and one-half hours, allowing anple tino for correction of any
nistehos node by the announcer.

In past experience with autenatod systens it has been discovered
that when the expense of tino is added to the investnent in recorders,
reels, tape, and associated squipnent, an hour of recorded nusic costs
fr. three to five tines as such as it would if it were prograned live.58
here are several advantages of autonatim to be considered, however. By
pro-recording, nistokes can be elininated and cuplote control over pro-
gra-ing is possible. Also, the actual phonograph records are preserved
fr. daily abuse. When all of the advantages of pro-recording are con-
sidered, it is apparent that each hour of taped nusic nust be used at
least three to five tines before its cost can be recouped and any
savings effected. This brings on the problen of repetition.

Repetition, if not carefully handled, can noon the duke of any
autonaticn syston. Listeners soon grow faniliar with and eventually
tired of the one selection used over and over again. For this reason,
no station should take to the air with any less than _a_t long; ten days
of progrsnning without repetition. the basic tape library for a full-
tins station should contain about 3,000 selections, and additional nusic

should be added at the rate of 120 to 2110 selections per nonth. This is

 

”Contour“, 2. 543., p. it.

1:9

equivalent to adding approximately four lO-inch reels oach south. The
entire basic library can be contained on one hundred lO-inch reels,
using one nil thickness tape. Ono nil is a unit of neasuronent equal-
ing 111000 inch. One-half nil tape is too thin for professional
nachines to handle day after day without donage.59

If the nusical programming of a station is oriented to currently
popular selections and a linited nunber of nusical selections are pro-
grnod-osuch as a “top forty" list-oit nay be neat efficient to
reproduce nusic fron tape cartridges, as has been previously suggested.
A c-on pattern of nusic selection in this type of operation is to play
fron a library of about 200 selections each week, with a weekly ro-
reocrding schedule of about 100 selections. According to one nanu-
factursr, this fernula has been effective in nany narkots where each
week about one-half of the nusic is replaced and the other half, includ-
ing the current 'top ferty' list, is retained through its popular life.60
In this application, each selection is recorded on a separate cartridge
for lesion progr- control and efficient handling.

Indie stations have tn alternatives free which to choose in
securing their taped nusic libraries. The first is that of recording fron
the station's own phonograph records. The second is to subscribe to a
syndicated taped nusic service. Each alternative has its nerito and dis-
advantages. By far the nest aggressive and controlled nethed can be
production by the statim, provided that the station has an abundance of

 

S9Planning £33 Autonated Radio Pro annin , p. 3.
des, Po 6s

So

personnel and a budget which can afford the expense of both phonograph
records and tape. This allows the nusic to be progranned specifically
for the narket served and the actual phonograph records can be available
for live shows as well.

On the other hand, a new station or a snall station with few
personnel qualified in production talents nay wish to subscribe to the
'ready nade' nusic tape services. Most of these services provide the
nusic tapesin two ways. One is the 'ouplete service. in which the
nusic is fully progranad on a single reel of tape and announced by the
nusic tape ccnpany announcer. Local station personnel can then concern
th-selves prinarily with the production on non-nusical features such as
news, c—erciala, and talk prograns. ‘fhia caplete service is available
in classical, pop-concert, niddle-of-the-road, and country and western
categories.61

fee second type of service is designed for those stations that
prefer to use their own local announcers for nusic introductions. These
tapes consist only of nusic, which nust be selected with care in order to

provide a true progrned sound.”

It nust be r-ubered that nusic nay
conprise fron 60 to 90% of a given radio station's fornat, and nusic
mains one of radio's chief audience getters. It behooves the wise
station nanaguent to be thorough in checking the alternatives avail-
able, for the nusic service will be a deninant factor in the total sound

of an station.

 

61km w. Clark, Lute-atic Frogs-ing 9351 1.433513% A Report to
the 1965 In Broadcast Engineering Conference, larch l-2 , 1965, flash-
13m, De Co, P. De

621mm Catalog Washington: International Good Music, 1965).
1). 2e

CHAPTER IV
TELEVISION PROGRAM IU‘NHATION

Basis of Television Progran Intonation

In categorical terns, the preceding chapter duonstrated radio
to be a nediu of sound via the nicrophone. Sinilarly, television is a
nedi- of vision and sound via the television canera and nicrophone. It
is logical to assune that nany of the autuation design principles on
which radio progran autonation is predicated could be suitably nodifiad .
to operate in television applications. This assunption is basically true
since the foundation principle underlying all eutuated progranning V
equip-ant for television and radio is the function of autonatic signal
switching.

To better understand how autenatod progranning equip-ant nay be
applied to television, it is helpful to review sue non-autenatod tech-
niques of progran production.

Ill techniques of television progran production relate to the
functioning of the television canera. Creative decisions about the use
of the worse are nade by the television director. In live television
progran production, the usual studio setup puts the director at one end
of the studio intercununications syst- and the canera crew at the
other. the director directs all novanents of the canera on the air
while at the sane tine readying ether c-eras for the next shots. As the

progran progresses, he directs switching fren cans to canera.
51

52

The director nust constantly strive for an orderly presentation
of canera shots. He nust present, in logical order, a series of canera
shots so arranged as to preserve pictorial continuity. In sane circu-
stances, the nethed used by the director to nova fron one shot to another
nay be as inportant as the canera shots themselves.

The ten "transition" is used to describe the nethed which the
progr- director utilises in passing the television progran viewer fr:-
one picture or series of pictures to the next.

The ‘switch' or I'cut" transition is the sinplest of all transi-
tions to perfon. It involves abruptly cutting off one picture and
switching to the next picture. The switch transition is perforned
instantaneously.

_ A second type of transition is the I'fade--out" and ”fade-in.“ To
ace-plish a |'fadeooutJ' the progran director nust nanuslly operate con-
trols which slowly fade the television screen to black. Te 'fade-in,‘
the director reverses the process, starting with a black screen and
slowly fading to the next picture.

The I'dissolve" is akin to the fade-out and fade-in techniques.

In this nethed of transition, the first picture becones steadily weaker
while the second becones stronger on the screen. In reality, this transi-
tion is a fade-out sinultaneous with a fade-in.

The 'wipe' transition occurs when a new picture starts as a snall
area and grows until it covers the entire screen.

The switch or cut transition is the fastest of all transitions
perfoned by video switching equipnent. In nodern equipnent, the switch
occurs during the vertical blanking interval. With high quality

53

equipment, the switching interval nay be as short as a few nanoseconds
in length, so short a tine as to be considered instantaneous to the
bass eye. The dissolve, fade-in, and fade-out transitions do not occur
instantaneously but have a variable tine length. It tines the program
director nay call for a slow fade to black at the end of a cmercial or
progran; at other tines he nay desire a fast fade to black. Consequently,
the tine elenent in a fade, dissolve, and wipe is extr—ely inportant
fru an aesthetic standpoint as well as on a practical basis. This point
is substantiated by Brats:
. . . the neat dangerous aspect of using fade-outs in television is
that the length of blank screen between fade-cut and fade-in nqy be
too long. Audience interest drops very rapidly when there is nothing
on the so "an and the fade-in should always be carefully planned and
rehearsed.

To the progran director and the television audience, each transi-
tion has a different aesthetic neaning. For exanple, a fade to black has
a connotation of finality. In contrast, a dissolve retains continuity.

If all televisionprograns were live originations it is doubtful
that there would be nuch opportunity to apply ‘autuated progru equip-
nent. .This‘ie substantiated in the fact that the television progran
director's Job is one which requires an abundance of aesthetic decisions.__
And, as Btasheff and Brats aphasise, 'autgation can never replace art."6h

In reality, the cost of staging live studio productions and the

lack of top talent nake extensive live television programing prohibitive

 

53mm 3
Brats, Techni ues of Television Production (New York:
learn-Hill Book ecu-puny, Inc., 1%27‘1“, p. o.

 

’ " “severe Stasheff .n Rudy Brats, Th__e_ Television Progran (New
York: Bill and hang, 1962), p. 183. .

rs

5h

to the najority of television stations. Host stations linit live pro-
duction work to a few newscasts, commercial announcenents, and perhaps
one or two variety shows per day. The bulk of naterial is left to
originate fron purchased or rented films and pro-recorded video tapes or
frn one of the najor national networks.

Instead of live progran-ing, the local television station's pro-
duction depart-out, as well as the technical staff, spend nest of the
broadcast day occupied with switching fron network progranning to pre-
recorded tape ccnnercials. and then back to netwark again. The normal
tine allotted by a network for breaks for station advertising varies and
averages approxinately seventy seconds. In an effort to accmodate noro
local sponsors, the station often subdividos this tino interval into
mallor intervals .65 The result has been to place nuch work and pressure
upon station operating-personnel. Loading of the projectors and other
progran sources and then switching rapidly back and forth between the
various sources bacon” a rigorous and exacting task in the course of an
entire broadcast day. 'In the Jargon of broadcasting, this task is often
referred to as directing 'reeidue" or switching the ‘panic poriod.‘

Directing 'Bosidue'

. Obviously, -stopping one playback progran source and switching to
another does not take nuch creative ability on the part of the director.
However, in respect to 'residuo' directing, Professors Stasheff and
Brets have the following oment:

 

651'. I. Finnegan, "Station-Break Autuaticn for Television,”
Broadcast lngineoring, VIII (February, 1966), ll.

o:

55

Although there is nothing creative about directing a series of short
spots, especially if they are on fill, it is nonetheless a television
director's job and calls for the ame skill and accuracy that is
necessary in directing programs.

Tasks which require little creativity but nuch precision-tining
accuracy are readily adaptable to autenatod switching equipnent. To
this end, autenatod oquipent can be utilised to automate a television
station's entire residue operation. The director's job, under such cir-
cunstances, is to load the proper instructions into a control.nechanisn
instead of calling th- fron a script at the tino of actual broadcast.

The February, 1965. issue of Broadcast unseat/Engineering
reported on a survey of the broadcast industry concerning application of
autuated video progran systens. The report stated:

. . . our study indicated that break period [station break] auto-
nation is beconing alnost connonplace; autonatic operation of both
video and audio sogrcos, atgleast during station breaks, is con-
sidered essential.

The application of autenatod equipnent can be better understood
by analysing a typical station break. The following sequence could be
considered a representative station break:

I. Ending of network progran.

2. Two-bybtwo-inch filn slide and audio tape announce-ant.

3. fiction picture film connercial (25 seconds).

It. Video tape co-ercial (30 seconds).

 

“stutter: and Brats, 32. _c_1t., p. 177.

57~neee rv intonation Pay Off?" ______Br°'d°“t WW
I (February, 1965). 32.

56

5. Slide for station identification with audio tape or live

booth announcenent.

6. Returning to network progran.

Assn-ing that the director nanuslly operates the switching equip-
nent during a seventy-second tine linit sequence, it is apparent that the
director nust be rapid and accurate if the execution of such a sequence
is to be successfully accomplished.

Hasards are nunerous. If the director should start one of the
sepents a few nonents late, the following steps would also start late,
thus naking it necessary to return to the network progran after it has
begun. Under the excitenent of the break sequence, the operator's
fingers nay perspire and occasionally slip off the buttons. There is
also the likelihood of his inadvertently starting the wrong nachine or
switching a wrong announcenent on the air. All such nistakes are costly
to the station, especially during prine revenue producing tines. The

station's loss of revenue could be quite sisable ever a one-year period.

btonating _th_e_ 221$. m

The philosophy of autuating this aspect of a television sta-
tion's operation is based upon relieving the operator (director) of the
intensiveystation-break switching activity. With conventional nanual
operation, the operator has very little to do for long periods of tine
between breaks, but is called upon to perfon nany switching functions
rapidly and precisely in a short period. Under the intense strain of
such rapid action, nistakes are likely to occur.

The utilisation of autonatic equipnent for progran switching

spreads out the station break effort over a longer period of tine by

57

allowing the operator to pro-select and double check each switch
sequence long before it goes on the air. When the actual station break
tine arrives, the equipnent does the switching autonatically.

Actuatic Switcher Descriptions
If autuatic progran switchers for television station use were
categorised in the order of capability and technical oonplexity, the
following order would perhaps be typical:
1. Sinple preset video switcher.
2. Preset video and audio switcher with lapsed tine unit added.

3. Cenputer-type control with eutuatod video and audio
muhCro

P_r_e_s_e_t_ Switcher

The preset switcher is a nodifiod fern of the conventional
nanual video switcher. As its sue inplies, the operator nanuslly pre-
selects the progran source channels which are to be put on the air
before air tine arrives. All such selections and adjustnonts are nade
at‘relatively oaln tines when the operator is able to double check his
selections to be certain they are in accord with the break sequence as
dictated by the progr. log.

A hypothetical station break sequence night call for a thirty-
seoond filned ouereial, a five-second station call letter identifica-
tion on the slide projector, followed by a one-ninute o‘ercial fron
the video tape playback unit. The operator would at his convenience
pro-select, i.e., press the individual control panel buttons for each
source of video in the order in which each is to occur in the ou-air

/‘

58

sequence. Since the hypothetical station break sequence calls first for
a thirty-second filned connercial, the operator would first pro-select
the notion picture projector which has the appropriate filned ce-ercial
loaded into it. By pressing the proper control button the projector is
placed into I'ready" node. This sane procedure would be followed for
setting up all r-aining on-air playback nachinery which is to be used
in the sequence. After the control panel has been double checked to be
certain that all nachines are in the 'ready' node and that the video
switcher's pro-select sequence is in accord with the sequence called for
by the progr- leg, the operator's involv-ont is over until air tine
arrives.

when actual tine for the station break arrives, the director or
operator pushes a single activator button. This I'start" button inedi-
ately puts the filn projector on the air for its thirty-second filned
announc-ut. At the conclusion of this announc-ont, the one start
button is once again pressed to start the next video source into action.
The nest obvious advantage of such a pro-select video switcher lies in
the single button for the switching of video signals on the air. This
'single button" approach pernits the residue director to keep his eyes
on the clock for perfect timing of each event within a break sequence.
And with few distractions, he can press a single‘button to accurately

initiate each event.

Lapsed Tine Cgabilitl
A lapsed tine feature for video switchers is the second step

toward noro c-plete progran automation. By integrating a clock nechan-
isn into video switcher circuitry, the switcher is able to neasuro the

59

lapsed tins of each progran event within a sequence. The lapsed tine
feature carries the preset switcher one extra step by autonatically
switching fron one video source to another without the director or
operator's having to press a start button each tine to initiate a new
event. ‘

The tore 'lapaed tine counter. inplies that the internal clock
operates on a pro-instructed tine base which has no relation to opochal
or standard clock tine. This is sinilar to the clock tiner on a kitchen
range which counts down tino independently of the tins of day when the
housewife night have set it. For the. lapsed tine switcher to be effec-
tively utilised, the operator nust first pro-select each playback source
by pressing the corresponding buttons, as was necessary with the preset
video switcher. Secondly, he not be certain that each progran segnent
within the break sequence, whether video tape or fill, is carefully
tined before air tine to be certain that its total length cenforas to
the tine pro-selected on the lapsed tine counter.

bhen air tine arrives, the lapsed tine video switcher, after
being initially triggered at the beginning of the station break period,
will autenatically continue operating all necessary video for the dura-
tion of the break period without intervention by the hunan operator.
Bach segnent within the break sequence will be switched on and off the
air in strict accordance with the pro-instructed tine linit as originally
loaded into the lapsed tine counter by the director or operator.

A probl- exists if the operator accidentally nisinstructs the
lapsed tine clock concerning the length of the individual segments. An

exanple of this would be a case where an operator would set up the

14
a
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e
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L
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. I.
i O
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.
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.
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a
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.
I

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o

in

60

switcher for a thirty—second tape comnercial and would instruct the
tiner to this effect but would later accidentally place on the video
‘ tape playback nachine s one-ninute comercial. In such a situation, the
lapsed tine counter would autenatically switch to another source at the
end of thirty seconds whether the connercial nessage were finished or
not. Obviously, if the systen is to be effectively used it nust be
double checked to see that no hunan nistake has been incorporatedinto
the nachino's instructions. I

In sunnary, both the pro-select and lapsed tine video switchers
give the hnnen operator a better chance at quality control of the
station break sequence. Switching errors are less likely for two
reasons. First, the operator is given anple tine to thoroughly analyse,
instruct, and double check all on-air and video switching equipnent
prior to air tine. Secondly, when break tine arrives, autenatien does
the switching of all video signals on and off the air. Consequently,
the operator is relieved of pressured thinking, which is conducive to
switching error.

The preset and lapsed tine video switchers provide.nany benefits
over conventional nanual switchers. The services within an autenatod
progran control systen are hanpered by three najor linitationsa

1. There is little or no provision for audio signal control.

2. There is linited selection of transitions. Often, a direct

switch or 'cut' is the only autenatod transition available.

3. lbs nest confining linitation is that of a linited nachine

nuory. The inpact of this linitation necessitates the

hunan operator to roinstruct the autenatod equipnent

61

frequently, perhaps as often as prior to each break
sequence.
To broaden the capabilities of autenatod television progran con-
trol equipment, design engineers have turned to developnents used in the

field of cuputer technology.

mm: ____Switcher

The herican public seas prone to ruanticise the role of con-
puters in society. Few nodern developments have tossed the public's
attention noro than electronic computers. Sensational press releases
nixed with the public's exposure to science fiction have tended to
inflate the nodern computer inage to that of a super-brain with alnost
cmnicient powers. Many people fear such complex nachinery and see its
emergence as a giant step toward nan's subservience to nachines.

Electronic computers at their present state of development
should not be feared, for c-puters are tools. lo tool can ever be
truly effective if it inspires awe in its user instead of trust.

In reality, cuputers are nan's link between the fonulation of
problens - and their eventual solutions. Coquters were developed to
relieve nan of the task of cuputation. This they have done in tons of
advanced speed, accuracy, and versatility. Actually, the torn acomputern
includes a large guut of devices from sinple office adding nachines to
complex data analysers caps blo of solving nillions of nath-natical con-
putations per ninute. The computer operation is predicated on two
funduontal characteristics which are generally considered canon to

every cuputers

62

l. the presence of a nenory, and

2. an analytical system for nathenatical problen solving.

Counter-type progran control equipnent is basically an exten-
sion of the sinple automated systems previously described. Earlier in
this chapter, the preset video switcher and lapsed tine unit were shown
as neans by which the airing of television programs could be autenatod.
However, the nenory of these devices is linited, and after a snall nu-
ber of switching operations the nachine needs roinstructien. Thus, the
search for better infornation storage has led to the application of con-
putor-type n-ory techniques .

While a computer-type nenory is desirable for use in autenatod
television progran switching equipnent, the cuputer's quantitative
ability in neth-atical probl- solving finds linited application.

Logic circuits are often used in the formation of proper switching paths
and as side in loading the nonery section of autonatic program control
equipnent. The real use of a computer's quantitative capability is per-
haps better utilised in accounting, billing, and nunerical analysis.

“bother such highly refined autuated television program control
equipnent can be referred to as true computers is noro a natter of tech-
nical interpretation of various electronic circuits nd the functions
which they perforn. The final decision rests with the nanufacturer.
when the sarkea Torsion Cupaw68 first introduced the APT-1000, it was
referred to as cuputor controlled. Later generations of this one eye-

t. continue to be listed as cuputer controlled. Another cuparu,

 

68$arkos Tarsian, Inc. , Broadcast lquipnent Division, Blouing-
ten, Indiana.

l “'

1‘

63

Hancock Telecontrol Corporation,69 which manufactures a similar machine
(UNICON) for automation of television program control, emphatically
refuses to refer to its nachine as a computer or as computer controlled.
Instead, the company prefers to describe the UNICON system as a 'special
purpose, stored program, digital control programmer with a magnetic core
nenory,‘ in its equipment brochure.

The tern 'conputer-type' seens to have a better generic connota-
tion than has the word 'computer.‘ Therefore, in the interest of
accuracy, all advanced television progran automation equipment in this
section will be referred to as computer-type.

Computer-type automated programming systems are usually composed
of three sections:

1. On-air station equipment.

2. Switcher control section.

3. Master programmer section.70

On-air Equipment

The en-air section includes all program sources, i.e., progran
nachinery directly involved in playback or origination of the actual
video and audio signals of a television progran. This category includes
video tape recorders and playback units, film projectors, slide projec-

tors, audio recorders, cameras, and other such equipment.

 

69Hancock Telecontrol Corporation, lh3 Sound Beech Avenue,
Old Greenwich, Connecticut.

70Finnegan, 32. _c_i_t_., p. 13.

y‘

I.

6h

For this equipnent to function in an automated system, it must
be reliable from a maintenance standpoint and be adaptable to auto-
nated switching equipment.71 These criteria suggest that the equipnent
be operable by remote controls In order to be capable of remote control
operation, en-air equipment should be capable of being started into
operation and stopped by sending control pulses to the equipnent from a
remote location. Sone automation systens nay require that the on-air
equipment be capable of sending back an 'end cue' pulse upon cupletion
of each en-air cycle. In reality, virtually allinedern professional on-
air equipnent made for television applications is basically designed
around pulse control capabilities."2 Therefore, new stations converting
to a total autuatod progran systen will find that nuch if not all of
their existing on-air equipnent is easily adaptable to remote control
through pulse ce—ands.

Video and Audio Switcher Section

Earlier in this chapter, it was shown that every station,
whether autenatod or not, has some type of video switcher. It is this
piece of equipnent that the television director nanipulates to direct a
television progran. when operating this switcher nanuslly, he presses
the proper control buttons to turn cameras on and off the air, and he
may show video tapes or notion picture films at will.

Physically, the video switcher appears as row after row of con-
trol buttons. Technically, it is often referred to as a switch natrix.

loch individual. button in each row of control buttons is capable of

 

711bid., p. 12. 7ZIbid.

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switching on and off the air a signal from a designated playback unit in
the on-air equipnent. If there is a large nunber of on-air equipnent
sources, then there will be a proportionately large nunber of control
buttons on the face of the video switcher.

Video switcher integration into an automation systen demands
that the video switcher be capable of renote control operation just as
is necessary for the en-air progran source equipnent. There are two
general types of video switchers presently available which meet this
requiruent. Their technical classifications are: (l) the relay type,
and (2) the solid state crossbar type. The solid state, vertical inter-
val typo is the noro nodern of the tale.73

Equipment nanufacturers make a distinction between internal and
external video and audio switchers. The internal switcher arrangement
contains both the naster prograner and audio and video switcher sec-
tions as one integral unit. The Sarkes Tarsian APT-1000 and subsequent
generations are examles. One authority, Irv loskowits of Biker Video
Industries, sees the internal switcher arranguont prinsrily used in
large facilities tiedte netwrks for precisely tinod cutaqu to local
stations.7h The external switcher arrangement indicates that video and
audio switching equipment are separate units apart from the naster pro-
gra—or and new. Stations which already possess nodern switching

equipnent would probably prefer the I"external! approach. This entails

 

73"Video Switching " Broadcast Hanagonent/Bn flooring III
(me-hr, 1%7), 27o ,. ,

7k. 5 gig 5
Automated Video Switching " Broadcast Hana onent/En eerin
III(Septenbor, 1967), 1:0. , ,

67

purchase of only the computer-type naster programmer which would be
interfaced er interconnected to their present switchers.

With traditional manual control of television programming, the
audio signals are switched on and off the air by an audio operator who
site before an audio switching console and coordinates the sound signal
with the picture in accordance with directions from the director of the
program. Control of audio signals can be automated by a method similar
to that used to automatically switch the video signals. The more com-
plex c-puter-type cyst-s provide for audio fade-in and fade-out and
the mixing of audio signals, as well as direct switching from one en-air
progr- source to another.”

In summary, it should be renaibered that the video switcher,
audio switcher, and all on-air playback equipment are normally under
direct push-button control by human operators in a non-automated equip-
nent arrangement. However, if both the switcher and en-air equipment
are capable of being operated by electronic pulses from a renote point,

than all of the control functions can be relegated to a master programmer.

naster Progra-er

The master programmer section bears the same relationship to a
cuplete progran autuatien oystu as does the brain to the hunan both.
It is the responsibility of this section to «used equipment into opera-
tion in accordance with the information stored in its nuery. A‘ ropro-'

sentativo list of information needed by such a machine memory includes

 

75Brochure of the Hancock Telecontrol Corporation, 1143 Sound
Beech Avenue, Old Greenwich, Connecticut, p. 10.

p§

68

length of each Spot announcuent, video and audio source, type and
length of transition between one announcement and the next, and tins of
day each sequence is to occur. In addition, the master progranor needs
to know how each sequence or program segment is to be initiated, whether
by a bun operator or by a precision master clock within the progru-
”.76 ‘

In order for such a naster progr-er to accuplish its diverse
responsibilities it must have a center for (1) many, (2) caused pulse
origination, and (3) function display.

m muse-As is the trend in nest technological advance-
nut, nanufacturers differ in their approach to equipment design. In
this respect, manufacturers of television automation equipment are not
different. There are three general types of infernation storage devices
which are neat co-only used in cupstor-type automated switching sys-
t-s. They are: the nagnetie core nuory; a magnetic dr. nuoryg and
punched-data oards or punched paper tape, both of which are similar in
operation. All three of these methods of many are “on to data
storage techniques used in modern euputer technology. It would be dif-
ficult to assess one approach as better than the others since each
n-ery technique is relative to the application for which it is designed.

The magnetic core nuory is cuposod of thousands of doughnut-
shaped pieces of iron, each with approximately a 50 nil-inch outside

 

“brochure of Serkes Tarsian, Inc., Broadcast Bquipnent Divi-
‘1.’ 310.13“, Ildllld, ’3 he '

f.

r!

69

diameter.77 Through the center of these tiny cores run various control
wires. when a current is passed through certain of these wires, a mag-
netic field is built up in individual iron cores. When the current
steps in the control wire, the small core retains its magnetic state.
This property of the core, to continue in a magnetic state after the
current field has been removed, is the property used for strong informa-
tion in each core. By careful arrangement of the thousands of iron

cores along the control wires, meaningful electronic information in the
form of a binary math-stical code can be stored and retrieved at will.78

The number of magnetic or ferrite cores determines the nuber of
bits of information the nuory is capable of storing. Ultimately, the
nonory'e storage capacity is proportional to the uount of progran log
the n-ory can nonorise and translate into switching action of the on-air
equipment.

The napotic drum new technique is similar in operation to
convultional audio or video magnetic tape reoording machines. The
recording media is a moving oxide surface scanned by a recording head.
After intonation has been recorded, it may be retrieved at a rapid pace
through a magnetic playback head.

horses the magnetic core memory is an all electronic system for
data storage, the magnetic drum many is classified as an electro-
mechanical device since mechanical force must be applied to nova the

 

"Brochure of the Hancock Tolecontrol Corporation, 11:3 Sound
Beech Avenue, Old Greenwich, Connecticut, p. h.

7822- 21.15..

to

70

recording medium, in this case the oxide-covered drun assenbly.” his
is potentially a significant design factor in as much as electro-
mechanical devices are slower in their operation speeds than are
exclusively electronic devices.

Chapter III shoved hoe data cards could be used as almonory
device for control of radio program equipment. ‘lssentially, such
devices work on the principle of punched holes in a card or paper tape,
with each hole placed in a fornat fashion. The format arranguont is
made relative to an arbitrary nath-atical standard which allows a cem-
puter or other sensing machinery to read the card and translate this
stored infornatien into significant action.

The idea of using punched.papor tape or data cards for a storage
media is not a men one. nany of the present ideas about punched card
processing cane from the work of Br.lflermnn Hollorith, whose tabulating
machine uas used to record the 1890‘Unitod States census by the use of
tape. ‘nr.lflollerith lator founded the forerunner of the International
Business Machines €3crporation.ao
" Generally, the field of computer technology assigns data cards
and card reading equipnent to a group of devices called input/output
equipment. this implies that data cards are most useful in loading or
unloading stored infornation into or out of a cmputer's magnetic

nuory.81

 

79lutonatic Pro on control lPC-l_9__1, brochure of Central
Dynamics,W ., Wm,§§m.a‘ .13", am», 1965, p. a.
. 80William Bordon, 'High-Speed Punched-Card Readers,“ Electronics
World (January, 1967), 1:3.

31mm, p. 52.

 

y.

71

Data card and punched tape handling equipnent is inherently
mechanical in nature. Therefore, it is no notch in speed as compared to
magnetic menory equipment. The maxim "tino is money” is extremely
pertinent to computer technology. Speed is neat important to corpora-
tions or government agencies which have great quantities of data to be
processed, such as utility bills, bank statements, sales slips, or
income tax returns. nany large couputer coeplexes use magnetic m-ozy
equipment because of its high operational speed, while the punched data
cards are retained to feed intonation into and out of the computer
after data have undergone the desired mathematical analysis. Irhus the
nne input/output equipment has been given to data card machinery.

The operational speed of computer-type out—ation equipment for
television program control is not so vitally important, since the umber
nd speed of switching functions which must be performed are relatively
few and slow by machine standards. Therefore, data card mucry equip-
ment which is considered too slow and cumbersome to be used in ace
c-puter applications nay find effective use as the main data storage
system in some television and radio switching equipment. Several
advantages can be cited for data card muory equipment. Unit cost of
the individual card is low. Cards can be readily replaced if dnaged or
easily modified if the data change. loch card usually constitutes a unit
record, or cnploto information on one subject. This means that groups
or files of cards about one particular set of subjects are easily
expanded or modified by simply r-oving than or adding individual cards

into the stack. Finally, one cannot look at a magnetic tape or magnetic

72

core memory and expect to see the data stored there as is possible with
data cards.

In summation, broadcast equipnent nanufacturers differ in their
designs of outnated computer-type switching equipment. All are
attnpting to nploy the latest developments available to than from the
field of cnputor technology. To this end, the nagnetic core, data
card, magmatic drum, and tape have emerged as the more advanced methods
used for machine intonation storage. Some manufacturers have chosen to
use a cabinstion of both nagnetic and data card data storage in order
to derivo the advantages of both memory techniques .82

The more important criteria in selecting and designing menory
syst-s for computer-type television program control include: (1) sim-
plioity of operation in entering data and extracting data frn a mnory
unit, (2) sins of storage capacity and flexibility, and (3) retrieval
accuracy. A fourth consideration, that of ultra-fast memory operational
speed, does not seem to be of primary concern in television and radio
program switching systems.

guy: origination .ua- discussed earlier, the master prograner
is the control point from which all system conmands radiate. Bub-
servient equipment includes the video and audio switchers and associated
progr- playbach equipment. In addition to being the center for system
may, the master programmer must possess special circuitry to commi-
cate with and exercise control over the sub-equipment under its cnmand.
This is accomplished through pulse origination and reception sinilar to

 

321mm, 13.. h.

f-

f.

73

the way a human brain routes motor nerve pulses to actuate coordinated
muscle movenent in various bochr parts.

Three general classes of pulses are generated by the progranmer
subsequent to the stimulation of its menory. They are: function con-
trol, signal switching, and visual display pulses.83

In general, function control pulses are routed from the master
progra-er to the en-air equipment. The master programner utilises
these pulses to put on-air equipment into stand-by or ready condition,
or it might be used to physically start the meters of individual units
of playback equipment.

Whereas the function control pulses are directed from the master
progr-er to the on-air equipment, signal switching pulses travel frn
the programmer to the video and audio switchers. Tease pulses instruct
the video and audio switchers as to the correct playback unit so that
the proper sound and picture may be coordinated with the desired transi-
tion between program segments.

The third type of pulse, visual display, serves still another
specialised function which is not directly involved in controlling the
on-sir progr- signals. It is used to activate special read-out devices
in the function display section. This application contrasts to function
control and signal switching pulses which are directly involved in
putting sound and picture on the air.

13232: Mu—hsontially, this section exists to infon the
human operator of the step-by-stop functioning of the master progranner.

”Brochure of Hancock Telecontrol Corporation, 1143 Sound Beech
avenue, Old Greenwich, Connecticut, p. 10.

{I

n-.
O

7h

Even without the monitoring feature that the readout section Provides,
the master programmer probably could handle its prine chore of getting
television program segments on and off the air. Tet the function dis-
play section is considered highly essential for the most effective
operation and versatility of computer-type automated program control
machinery.8h
Function display is facilitated through the use of electrical or
a combination of electrical and mechanical readout devices. One such
readout device under the trade name “Nixie tube," consists of a glass
container, inside of which are placed several specially shaped wires
technically referred to as control cathodes. The glass container is
pressurised with neon or a similar type of gas. 'Hhen an electrical
charge is applied to the internal wire within the glass container, the
neon gas will ionise and give off a soft red or orange glow which is
plainly visible around the outer edge of the control wire. If the con-
trol wire is arranged, for exanple, in the shape of the numeral '9', when
electricity is applied to the wire the gas will ionise and the numeral
'9' will be visible as a soft glow. One such container can be manup
factored to accommodate many control cathodes, thereby enabling each
glass container to have the capability of displaying any numeral between
0 and 9 on command. Six units, such as might be connected to a digital
clock, could continually display the countdown of the time of day in

hours, minutes, and seconds.

 

8"P. S. Finnegan, 'Station-Break Automation for Television,"
Broadcast Engineering, VIII (February, 1966), 12.

75

Other display devices may use a principle similar to a tin
slide projector.85 There may be several translucent slides on which are
written different nunbers or letters of the alphabet. Behind the indi-
vidual slides is an arrangement of tiny light bulbs. The light from a
single bulb shines through its respective slide and projects the slide
content on a small glass screen. By turning on different light bulbs
behind the various slides, a variety of information can be displayed on
one tiny screen.

Visual display pulses from the master programmer control all
read-out devices, thereby enabling the human operator to see every action
of the master programmer both before and as it occurs. In order to meet
its visual display objective, the computer-type master programner
usually will provide at least four individual groups of display

dMCCIoM

One display group counts down time in hours, minutes, and
seconds in accordance with a highly accurate digital clock which serves
as the time reference source to the master programmer's mnory section.
smother portion of a display group infons the operator which unit of
playback program equipment is actually on the air. In addition, the
display group counts down the unber of seconds that main before the
progr- source is to be switched off the air, and it provides an indica-
tion as to what type of transition will be used in bringing the next

program event to the air. Still another visual display group is

 

8SBrochure of Hancock Telecontrol Corporation, 1143 Sound Beech
Avenue, Old Greenwich, Connecticut, p. 12.

86Brochure of Sarkes Torsian, Inc. , Broadcast Equipment Division,
Bloomington, Indiana, p. 3.

,a

76

connected to circuitry which scans the programmer memory and indicates
to the second what time the next program event is to occur and from
which program source it is to originate. Optional displays can be
arranged to provide infonation about the next event stored within the
prograner m-ory, or can be used alternatively to random search through
the master programmer mnory for specific data. This capability is
helpful for memory verification or is useful in reloading up-dated
intonation into the programmer memory to match changes in the daily

station program log.

Operation Analysis

Computer-type program control equipment demonstrates its great-
est potential when operated in an automatic mode. In the automatic
mode, it is possible to enter into the master programmer section the
desired switching events sequence, together with the duration time or
real time of each program event. As was shown earlier in the section on
machine memory, the basic storage capacity of the master programmer
governs the number of program switching events that can occur auto-
matically before it is necessary for the human operator to intervene and
reload the memory with new information.

Usually, data for the master programmer memory section is entered
into that section by means of a set of push buttons on a control panel;
or in the case of data card use the infonation would be prior punched
into data cards, perhaps by another departmcnt of the station, and an
autnatic card reader would transfer the card data directly into the pro-

grner mnory.

77

Typical of the basic infonation contained in each program event
address and which is needed by the memory section in order to switch a
single pregram event are:

1. selection of the video and audio signal source,

2. whether the video signal is black-and-white or color,

3. the type of transition desired to put an event on-air,

h. the actual clock time that on-air switching is to occur or
the duration of on-air tine remaining before an event is
to be switched off, and

S. the method of initiation to be used in switching on event
on-air.

The master programmer memory accepts such instruction, called

"words' in the semantics of the cnputer. All the cnbined data about
one program event comprise one 'word.‘ Each word is than assigned a
nnber, often referred to as an 'address."87 The progruor is to
quickly locate and execute data contained in each word. Equipment manu-
facturers spare no effort in making the loading of infonation into the
master progra-er section es easy an operation as possible. This is
another crucial area where man and machine must conunicate. In order
to do so effectively, a clear and well defined procedure must be estab-
lished.

Some equipment is designed with apparatus to aid the ham

aerator in finding his own mistakes. Should the nnory be loaded with

inadequate data, a light, often referred to as a I'parity" light, flashes

 

87Ibid., p. 2.

78

to warn the Operator of an information loading error. Also helpful in
this respect are the visual display panels which automatically read-out,
in one of the visual display panels, information as it is fed to the
memory section. This serves to verify to the operator that instructions
are correct and are indeed memorized by the memory section. In the
event that infonation errors are discovered, designers are careful to
provide qu in which corrections may be inserted without disturbing the
remaining part of the stored infonation. Obviously, an extension of
this sne feature allows updated infonation or scheduling changes to be
entered into the computer-type memory section anytime up until moments
before air time .

idvanced arrangement of circuitry within the master progrmer
allows the omission of certain repetitive operating instructions which
might be necessary for less complex program control systems. Exnplary
of this feature is the programmer's automatic handling of on-air equip-
ment pro-roll cues. Pro-roll pertains to the time length needed by a
given program source to maintain operational speed prior to being
switched on the air. Video tape playback units may require ten-seconds
roll time before sound and picture are stabilised sufficiently to be
switched on the air. Film projectors may require only five seconds.
Since playback units are a penanent part of the complete program auto-
mation systn, the roll time of each of the various machines can be
penanently memorised by the master programmer, thereby eliminating
these data as part of the routine machine operating instructions.

Regardless of which playback unit is selected for on-air duty, the

79

master programmer will automatically provide the correct amount of pre-
roll needed prior to switching that unit on the air.

When the operator has entered all of the necessary data into the
memory section of the master programmer, the system is ready for auto-
matic control over all of the station's on-air audio and video. When
the system is operating in an automatic mode, the master prograner
mnory section is influenced by a highly accurate master clock, which
issues pulses second-by-second to the prograner section. Switching
actions are initiated by comparing the read time of this clock to the
mnorised time previously stored within the programmer memory section by
the human operator. when the real clock time corresponds to the memo-
rised time, the master programer switches the event on the air.

A need for versatility often dictates that the master programmer
section use other methods or a combination of other methods for switch-
ing from event to event. One alternative is counting down the duration
time of the program event on the air. This method of operation requires
that the memory section be prior instructed of the actual length of each
on-air program event. when the allotted time or on-air duration time is
expired in accord with earlier memorized time, the event is switched off
and the next event in sequence is switched on the air.

A third method of initiating switching from event to event is
the one system. This technique entails the sending of an end cue pulse
back from the on-air playback machines to the master programmer. End-
cue pulses are easily generated by on-air playback equipment. This is
accomplished in a manner similar to that which is used by radio program

automation equipment as described in Chapter III. Subconic cue tones,

80

or a tiny strip of tin-foil spliced into the end leader of a film, or
video tape may be used. The tone, or metal strip, is sensed and causes
a pulse to be directed back to the master programmer. This in turn
stimmlates a switch through the proper transition to the next event.

In sumary, perhaps it is significant to again emphasise that
automated program control.mschinery, regardless of its level of advance-
ment, is never complete without an overseeing human attendant. Never-
theless, system effectiveness demands that computer-type program control
systems be designed to minimise the operator's involvement with actual
on-air button pushing. To this end, the human operator's primary con-
cern is relegated to two principal areas. The first consists of
correctly loading the master program-er'mewory section with all of the
pertinent data needed by the machine system in order to carry out its
switching procedure. The second consists of’monitoring the qystem's
overall performance through the many visual displays.

If and when contingencies arise, a single over-ride control
button may be pressed which instantly disengages the computer-type
master programmer from all station equipment, thereby allowing progran
signals to be switched.manually as in a conventional non-automated
television station.

Published reports from broadcast stations which are using
advanced automated program control equipnent indicate general success

and satisfaction.88 Amid reports of success, however, there is some

88"mitomated Video Switching,I Broadcast Management/Engineering
III (September, 1967), 33.

,4.

I"

81

criticism. Some stations are concerned with inaccurate timing on the
part of the major national networks. This makes it difficult to air
station-break sequences on a real tine basis, thus crippling one opera-
tional mode of computer-type systems. One broadcaster has stated,
”Since network timings are not dependable, the manual take-over mode is
used quite extensively. . . ."89 Others suggest that the solution to
this problem might be the origination of standardised cue pulses from
the network which would autnatically trigger program control systems at
the various affiliated stations.90

I second area of desired improvement is the visual read-out sec-
tion. Sue operators of advanced computer-type sustams insist on an
expansion of read-out capability, particularly for up-coming events.
Central Dynnics, Limited, has approached this problem with a cathode
ray tube type of display on which all events in the magnetic memory are
displayed alpha-numerically and move up the tube as the sequence
progresses. The cathode ray tube used is similar to the ordinary pic-
ture tube used in most television receivers.” This approach means that
the operators may view the entire switching sequence long before it goes
on the air. is the sequence progresses step by step, the displayed data
slowly move up the face of the display tube in order to facilitate easy
reading by the operator.

The material contained in this chapter is evidence that techno-
logical sdvancoment is adequant to surmount the majority of problems

892213..) P0 39- 90M” P0 33.

”unto-nod Video Switching,‘ 92. 913., p. to.

I“

(a

82

associated with television program control. Automated program control
constitutes but one phase of station Operation. Therefore, it is logi-
cal to assume that the broadcast industry, along with other industries,
will extend automated techniques into all areas of their businesses as

rapidly as benefits can be realised.

CHAPTER V
AUTOMATED DATA PROCESSING

Fundamental Office Routine

Ostensibly, of course, the broadcast industry is primarily con-
cerned with broadcasting programs and announcements. For that reason,
preceding chapters have described the capabilities of automation in the
production of program materials for broadcasting. Equal in importance
to program production is the necessary accounting and scheduling
functions which are delegated to what is referred to in most stations as
the traffic and accounting departments. To understand how automation is
applicable in this field of broadcast operation, a basic knowledge is
needed of departmental functions and the resultant enunication between
thn.

Bypothetically, each cuercial radio or television program or
onercial advertisement begins with a client's purchasing a quantity of
air time from a mnber of the station's sales force. Upon completion of
the sale, the salesman fills out a fen known as a time order. The time
order is submitted to the traffic department. The time order alerts the
traffic department to what kind of program or announcement has been sold,
to whom, the length of time needed for broadcast, the number of broad-
casts seld, and the tentative dates for these broadcasts. In. these
data, the traffic department proceeds to schedule these broadcast times,
as ordered, on the daily program log. When the daily program log is

83

8h

completed, it is passed to the program department whose duty it is to
transform the program log‘s schedule into picture and sound for the
audience. 'When the program department confirms that the client's broad-
cast time has indeed been put on the air, it is the accounting depart-
ment's function to compute the total charge for the service and bill the
client at the month's and. Although this is a highly simplified
explanation of a departmental function, it is obvious that both schedul-
ing and accounting functions are office tasks. See Figure 3.

In the introduction of automation to office methods, it is first
necessary to determine which phases of the office activities can be per-
formed by machines and which phases need human interpretation and
handling. See Table III.

A previous study reveals that in every mechanised office routine
the work functions fall into seven basic categories:

1. preparing sources of original documents;

2. introducing or putting data from these documents into

record-keeping systems;

3. manipulating, or working, with the data such as assembly
sorting and classification of data, reference to and
extraction of related data previously stored, and
computation;

h. storing data, including temporary filing of intermediate
results and other data in process and the maintenance of
files of carry-forward data;

5. withdrawing or taking out results from processing;

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87

TABLE III

A COMPARISON OF DEPARTMENTAL FUNCTION ACCORDING TO THE
TYPE OF OFFICE ROUTINE UTILIZED

 

fiépartmentsl Duties

Scheduling (traffic department)
Availabilities
Production of daily program log
Commercial announcement rotation
and film rotation

 

_Type of Office Routine

Sorting, classification

 

 

‘Hritin of commercial announcements
(traffic'department)

Not applicable to machine pro-
cessing, original document
preparation

 

Accountin (accounting department)
abulation of accounts receivable
Payroll
Accounts payable, operating costs
Other cost accounting as might be
necessary for operation of the
station

Computation

 

Billing (accounting department)
Preparation of clients' statements
Preparation of affidavits of per-

fonance

Sorting, classification, computa-
tion

 

Research (perhaps the accounting
department)
Sales projection
Product analysis
Audience analysis (demographic
data)

Sorting, classification, computa-
tion

 

 

I‘D

88

6. summarizing results; and
7. supervising.92
This same study suggests that sorting, classification, and caaputation
functions nonally can be mechanized. However, the preparation of
original documents, input operations, and supervisory control usually
cannot be mechanized with any degree of profitability.”

If the functions of the traffic department and accounting
doparnent are analysed, it is apparent that the majority of their
duties fall into the sorting classification, and computation functions,
all of which lend themselves to mechanisation.

Deparnental organisation varies frn station to station. Some
stations, for instance, might separate the traffic deparnent from the
accounting department. A large station, with more operating capital,
might be more likely to have separate research facilities. The impor-
tant point to be realised is that where there are similar office
routines there is the possibility that more than one department may be

able to utilise the same basic type of automated equipment.

Electronic Data Processing
The technology of office automation is known as electronic data
processing, often abbreviated as EDP. According to an article by
less Lovell of the College of Business Administration of the University

of Houston, electronic data processing can be broadly defined as the use

 

”Ralph Griese, “An Approach to the Human Problem in Systems
Mechanisations" (unpublisheduaster's thesis, Engineering School, Michi-
gan State University, 1959). p. 11.-

93Ibid.

[w

89

of electronic computers and data processing machines to aid in the fol-
lowing operations:
1. collection and processing data needed by management to make
decisions,
2. lower-level management decisiondmaking operations,
3. issuance of the necessary paper work to instruct the organisa-
tion in accordance with those decisions, and
h. measurement of actual progress and feedback for management
control.9
Operating well within this broad definition of EDP, there are
systems available to accomplish the office functions of broadcasting
stations. The TRAFFACCOUNTINO system, developed by'a company in Denver,
Colorado, is one such system, and TASCOM by Sarkes Torsion, Inc., is
another. These systems are not identical in function, as will be

explained.

Application of Electronic‘Data Processing

The TRAFFACOOUNTING EDP system 1. applicable in both the traffic
and accounting departments.9S This system combines an IBM card sorter,
card punch, and card-reading machine with a tabulator. This unit of
machines is capable of tending to all scheduling, accounting, billing,
and, to some degree, market research as needed by the modern broadcaster.
In understanding the application of these EXP systems, occasional refer-
ence to Figure 3, page 86, will prove helpful.

In the area of scheduling, the TRAFFACCOUNTINO system auto-

matically keeps constant check on the number of time availabilities open

 

9hHoss‘W} Lovell, ”The Nature of EDP,I University of Houston
Business Review (l96h), h-S.

95TRAFFACCOUNTING for Broadcasters (Denver, Colorado: TRAFFAC-
COUNTING Accounting and Data Processing Company, 1965), pp. l-3.

f.

at any given time on the program log. This information is constantly
fed back to the salesmen in the form of automatically typed lists. New
time orders are automatically inserted on the daily program log and are
projected to those tentative logs to be made at a later date. Expired
orders are automatically removed after the date of last broadcast, and
orders are automatically deleted on the preper days. In the event that

a salesman should sell a time order a very short time before it is to go
on the air, blank spaces are left on the log to meet such tight dead-
lines. The IBM tabulator machine automatically prints a final cepy of the
completed program log. Printing time could be expected to vary between
15 and 25 minutes daily, depending on the length of broadcast day and the
commercial load. At the completion of this automatic typing of the pro-
gram log, the log is ready to be submitted to the program production
department in order that preparation may be made for the next day's
broadcasting. -

In the area of accounting, the same equipment used for scheduling 4
and making the program log can produce reports on accounts receivable,
when due, and which salesman sold each account. The equipment can be
expanded with a check printer to handle payroll or it can even handle
all accounting chores such as profit and loss, accounts payable, and
cash receipts, all of which can be totaled daily.

Some stations send affidavits in addition to statements to their
clients showing the time and date of broadcast of all accounts. The
TRAFIACCOUNTING system will handle account affidavits along with the
autonatic printing of the monthly statements. Included will be the sub-

tracted credits for payments received during the previous month and the

HS?)

91

current month's balance. The statements are ready for immediate mailing
following the automatic printing.

A limited amount of research is available to management in the
form of daily sales projections. Each day, management knows how many
dollars are on the books for the present month and for future months.
Projections are available for individual salesmen at all times. Sales
product analysis is also a possibility with this type of operation. The
weaknesses or potential dangers in billing can be spotted by showing
which product categories are strong and which are weak. Each month,
management can receive an analysis showing the total number of announce-
menta and the total number of dollars received from each of the different
product categories. The sales product analysis may be further broken
down by the salesman to show national vs. local accounts or direct con-
tact sales vs. advertising agency sales.

The TR‘FFACCOUNTING system is suited for needs of modern radio
stations and it is also capable of being used by the television broad-
caster in the areas of accounting and billing.

I long-time leader in the electronic data processing field, the
IBM Company, also promotes much of its standard equipment lines for radio
and television usage. IBM equipment can be arranged for automated pro-
gram logging and accounting operations. One typical IBM arrangement is
used by the Columbus (Georgia) Broadcasting Company, Inc.96 In this
organisation, daily program logs begin with an IBM 029 card punch

machine. Time orders, change orders, program changes, and promotional

 

96's»: Processing," Broadcast Management/Engineering, III
(September, 1967), 1.3. . _—

92

and public service announcements are all punched into individual data
cards. For each account, a color-coded.master card is key-punched with
account name and category number, salesman's identification, audio and
video source, day of week, time and production cost, and contract start-
ing and ending dates.

These master cards are returned to the traffic department and
placed in a visible line display according to the sequence they are
called for in the daily program log.

After the card sequence has been checked by the traffic depart-
ment, the cards are given to the data processing department, where a 51h
duplicate machine punches duplicate cards which are machine read,
resulting in an automatically produced day‘s program log. The log itself
is printed on a h02 accounting machine. After sorting on an 082 sorter,
either alphabetically or numerically, the cards can be fed into the
accounting machine to print such reports as revenue distribution, sales
commissions, and similar data. It is important to note again that if a
station possesses automated progrmm switching equipment, the card stack
could also be passed along to the production department and fed into an
automated computer-type program switching device, as described in the
preceding chapter, thereby completing a total system from time order to
actual on-air switching of the television program signal.

The TASCOH system developed by Sarkes Tarsian, Inc., is repre-
sentative of squipent designed primarily for television traffic depart-

ment usage.97 T‘SCOH is not a combination traffic and accounting

 

97TASCOH Traffic Ivailabilities Scheduling Computer (Blooming-
ton, Indiana: §arkes Tarsian, Inc., 1963), pp. 1-5.

93

department.instrument; it is capable of handling traffic time avail-

abilities and scheduling duties only.

Problems encountered by the scheduling department may include

some of the following:

1.

2.

3.

h.

S.

6.

Films are not always of the same length from week to week.
The extra time must be filled.

Sometimes a station's commercial time is not sold as of a
few days prior to the on-air time. The departmentwmust be
flexible to deadlines.

Unsold time must be determined in sufficient time to alert
the sales department and salesmen and keep them informed
until almost the last.moment before the commercial thme
goes on the air or before the final program log is written.

Some sponsors have a variety of product types that are
covered under one sales contract and their on-air
commercials must be rotated to give proper coverage to all
products.

Conflicting commercials must not be adjacent to each other
on the program log. Conflicting commercials are those
which advertise the same type of product.

Lastimoment changes must be included in the log without

causing conflicts or timing errors.

The above is notia complete list but it is representative of the problems

faced by the traffic department daily.

 

9h

The TASCOM system can handle all of these problems on an auto-
matic basis.98 The key to the technique of this high-speed data
processor lies in its memory system, composed of the tape cartridges
which are capable of storing the necessary data used in computing the
time limits and schedules for each day‘s program log. Each tape cart-
ridge used by the machine holds an amount of data equivalent to 5,000
punched cards. The system uses an automatic typewriter for both the
receiving and the transmitting of back data. Some of the instructions
needed for production of the completed program log include:

1. Day of the week. In some cases stations might wish to store

infommation for as long as six months in the computer.
Thus, data for each day of the week would be stored on a
single tape cartridge.

2. Time slot. This would be the actual time the broadcast is
to go on the air.

3. Title. The name of the show or the name of a sponsor of a
commercial.

h. Duration time. this is the actual time on the air when the
particular material is to be broadcast.

5. Other information which.might be required in scheduling the
broadcast. For example, a code number may be desired for
commercials of certain types in order that the automatic
equipment would not schedule conflicting commercials

adjacent to each other.

 

981b1de, p. 3e

95

The Cox Broadcasting Corporation, an Atlanta (Georgia) based

, station chain, makes maximum use of automated data-processing equip-
ment.99 The nucleus of this company's electronic datadprocessing
machinery is a Honeywell 200 computer. Cox reportedly views the use of
this computer for sales, research, and traffic operations as more valu-
able than for billing and accounting purposes, although billing and
accounting can be accomplished with ease on such advanced equipment.
Some of the applications to which this company puts its computer
include: (1) log preparation, (2) sales availability, (3) weekly sales
projection, (h) billing, (5) personnel reports, and (6) film inventoryu
In addition, analyses for Federal Comnunicationa Commission reports are
possible by accumulating infonmation contained on the daily progrmn
logs. lech.month, this information is summarised showing the amount of
time actually broadcast for each FCC program type and source. In the
area of research, any Cox station can take a public opinion poll on any
subject and have the results cross-tabulated by the computer in relation
to demographic breakdowns.

Station market data received from the American Research Bureau
or the I. C. Nielsen Company can be further computersprocessed to provide
a complete local breakdown of station strengths and weaknesses as well as
those of the competitors. Such analyses are extremely helpful to exist-
ing and prospective advertisers in deciding logical air time buys. The
presence of this capability, obviously, is a powerful sales tool for

both local and national sales.

 

99'Data Processing,‘ 22} 2&3}: PP. hh‘h5°

t'.‘

96

In summation, the field of electronic data processing is not a
new one. Many industries have reaped its benefits for a number of
years. However, the application of automated data techniques in the
broadcasting industry is comparatively new. Some large market stations
are already successfully utilising electronic data processing. Others,
perhaps, plan to follow that route soon. Stations whose future plans do
include the use of automated data processing equipment and who have
begun feasibility studies should consider the benefits of a total sys-
tem. This means, of course, communication between the automatic
machinery within the system. Output data from one process such as the
traffic department's program log in the form of card stacks must be com-
patible with the data input to the automatic equipment in the program
production department. Even if capital equipment.must be acquired
separately and over a period of time, it appears that through long-range
planning and judicious equipment selection a station could set its own
pace in moving toward a complete system, with the assurance that the
various automatic devices will perform satisfactorily both now and later

within an automated system.

CHAPTER VI
AUTOMATION'S FUTURE IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

This study has concentrated on automation as a continuous
process using separate automatic machines connected in series. This
concept involves the handling of production from one operation to
another by mechanical means, with little need for human assistance.
Imphasis is placed on the relationship of one machine to others, all
working together to produce the final product, in this case a radio or a
television program or a traffic or billing process. In assessing this
concept as it relates to the broadcasting industry, it appears unwise to
suggest that every television or radio station could receive immediate
benefits from a totally automated system, for automation can be applied
only as rapidly as stations are able to comprehend the need and absorb
the range of benefits available to them. Obviously, stations are not
able to do this on an equal basis. However, if many in the industry
continue to find success in the simpler forms of automation equipment, a
trend could evolve toward the total systems approach. This trend is
predicated in large part on two important considerations:

1. the amount of capital which can be budgeted with an expecta-

tion of recovery in a given length of time, and

2. how rapidly automatic devices can be developed and approved

to effectively supplement the total systems approach.

97

98

The first consideration is difficult to analyze because the
amount of capital which is available to a given station depends on the
individual station's financial stability. There is a wide degree of
variation in finances from station to station, and this information is
not usually available for research. However, up to this point, equip-
ment,manufacturors continue to present encouraging payout periods on
their automated equipment lines. Their data are usually extrapolated
from experience derived from an ever broadening cross-section of pre-
vious buyers in many and varied markets both in and out of the United
States.

The second consideration, new equipment development, is very
much alive with activity. 'Even a cursory examination of trade journals
and equipment brochures will attest to the immense effort at development
and application of new and more efficient means of automation for the
broadcasting industry. J. Lm Smith, manager of Broadcast Systems
Engineering, Collins Radio Company, believes that

the capability for automation in the broadcast industry now exists
to a degree far in excess of its present use. It is only necessary
to put to work the capabilities we now have. . . .100

To this end, the National Association of Broadcasters continues

to wage a continuous effort to insure that the industry has opportunity

to take advantage of the many capabilities now at hand.

 

100:. L. Smith, 'Hhst the Experts Predict-éHan and Machine,”

Broadcast Management/Engineering, III (September, 1967), 28.

Remote Control of Television Transmitters

Chapter II of this study demonstrated the profitability of
remote control of radio broadcast transmitters. Ultra high frequency
television stations (UHF, channels 1h through 83) were granted permis-
sion by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on May 6, 1963, to
operate by remote control. it the end of 1963, very high frequency
television stations (VHF, channels 2 through 13) were the only breed-
casting facilities not allowed to use this capability. On February 2h,
1965, the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) petitioned the FCC
to extend to those very high frequency stations the privilege of
Operating television transmitters by remote control.101 This formal NAB
petition, commenting on Rulemaking Notice number 735, was filed with the
FCC after what was thought to be an adequate period of experimentation.
The main issue was whether such remote control permission would in any
way result in a degradation of the Commission's standards of good
engineering practices. The NAB petition was based on successful tests
which had been conducted at four television stations. The four stations
reported a combined total of 12,000 operational hours without a single

102 In spite of these seemingly significant results, the

malfunction.
FCC decided against allowing remote operation of VHF television trans-h
mitters. .

The denial of the NAB petition was discussed during the Twenty-

first Annual Engineering Conference held in conjunction with the 1967

 

1°1'Remote Control of TV Transmitters," Broadcast Management/
Engineering, I (July, 1965), kl. .

1°21bid.

(i

100

NAB Convention, April 3-5. mring one session, FCC engineers made clear
that there should be another petition filed later by the NAB.

Wallace E. Johnson, FCC Broadcast Bureau, Washington, stated that "the
wording of the denial suggests the approach to be followed in any forth-
coming petition to the FCC to assure adequate maintenance of remotely
situated transmitters.'1o3 Presumably, this clarification of the FCC
position regarding adequate maintenance of remote controlled trans-
litters will result in continued NAB petitioning until a favorable

ruling is achieved.

Automatic FM Transmitter

At the present, an automatic-FM broadcast transmitter is
entirely feasible. The FCC has been petitioned to change the rules in
order to permit its operationamh The Collins Radio Company is also
seeking FCC approval for associated automatic monitoring equipment. ‘8
envisioned, at the beginning of each broadcast day the transmitter would
be turned on automatically by a time clock or other automatic mechanism.
Fm that point to sign-off, no further attention to the transmitter
would be required unless a fault should develop or it would be desirable
to switch from monaural to stereophonic sound. It the end of the broad-
cast day, the transmitter could be turned off, either manually, by

remote control, er autonatically.“);

 

103nm}; Report," Broadcast Engneering (Hay, 1967), 57-

10163.1; Monitoring of Automatic FM Transmitters," Broadcast
Engineeringfiqatember, 1967). h2. .

105nm.

101

Automated monitoring facilities act as sentinels to guard
against erratic transmitter Operation. If any of the transmitter's
parameters such as voltages, broadcast frequency deviations, or other
metered points begin to vary toward a tolerance limit, an alarm is
sounded. This alarm may be transmitted to any location such as the
maintenance engineer's home or the studio. Should the monitoring equip-
ment detect a totally out-of-tolerance condition on certain critical
parameters, indicating unlawful operation, the transmitter would be
removed from the air automatically and immediately. In the event that
the out-of-tolerance condition is only temporary, the transmitter
attempts to recycle itself 'on' again for a total of three times. After
the third attempt, the transmitter indicates the cause of leaving the
air on a spiral fault panel and remains off until.maintensnce personnel
arrive.

The integrity of the proposed selfimonitoring automatic FM
transmitter would be maintained by maintenance personnel visiting the
transmission site once each week and checking the calibration of the
various sensors and level detectors and verifying the accuracy of the

selfqmonitor circuits.

Remote Controlled Studio Camera
Another interesting development in the field of program produc-
tion is the remote controlled television camera. This camera and its
associated equipment can be rotated on both a horiaonal and a vertical
axis while the camera lens can be pre-set or varied throughout its focal
range, all from within the studio control room. One control room

operator can have the simultaneous control of up to four of these

102
cameras. In actual use, no cameraman is needed.106 The camera is
capable of two operational modes. One mode of operation uses the preset
principle which permits rehearsals of exact shots before the program
begins. As the director decides which camera shots he will need, each
shot is pro-set. 'When the action begins, the director has but to press
a single button to select each of the individual preset shots. Another
mode of operation puts the remote camera operator, or perhaps the
director, at a set of control handles. Through manipulation of these
control handles, the camera may be turned on each axis or the lens may
be altered to suit shot needs.

Remotely controlled cameras have immediate advantages. By the
elimination of cameraman, production costs of live programming are
lowered. This, in theory, could make more live progra-ing possible.
Remote controlled cameras are suited for newscasts, weather programs,
interviews, and for carefully rehearsed production of commercials. 0n
variety programs and.musical.preductions, where much camera movement is
desired, the standard studio camera with its attendant cameraman will no
doubt continue to be used because in any creative program situation a
skilled cameraman is a necessity to assist with the anticipation of pro-

gran action and the set-up of shots.

Autaaatic Check-out of Color Television Cameras
nodern color cameras require a large amount of maintenance-
technician time to set up and align. Each channel of the color cameras
must be precisely aligned with all others to maintain changing scenic

 

106Autocam Brochure (New York: Television Zoomar Company, 1965),
pe 1.

103

conditions, such as varying light levels and lens-zooming operations.
The time consumed for alignment and set up can range from thirty minutes
to more than an hour, and often requires two men.

A "go, no, go" system check-out, such asis often used in cer-
tain military electronic systems, is not desirable for camera check-out.
Color camera setnups require a certain amount of artistic talent on the
part of the operator since the final camera performance is basically
qualitative. Because of this qualitative aspect, Eric Herud, of Philips
Broadcast Equipment Corporation, reports that his corporation believes
that a complete automated I'check out" system is impractical. He says,
"Even if we could assume feasibility, the cost and complexity of such a
device would make its use prohibitive.'107 V

The Philips Corporation has made an attempt to provide what they
consider a practical solution to the problem. First, as has been the
case with most»manufacturers, their camera circuits are being con-
structed so as to make them inherently more stable. Secondly, they have
designed a semi-automatic checkout of camera circuits. This system
Operates on the basis of three steps.

1. Station personnel initially set up and align cameras.

2. A sampling process is then used to record on storage tape

' all key voltages and values of various oscilliscope wave
patterns. This information constitutes a memorized

standard for the camera circuits.

 

 

107"What the‘lxperts Predict,‘ Broadcast Management/Engineering,
III (September, 1967), 9e ‘ -

ion

3. During future checkouts, an electronic comparison is made of
the camera's performance against the memorized standard.
Only circuits out of tolerance would require readjust-
ment.108
This equipment is not yet commercially available. The advan-
tages of such systems, however, will probably be sufficient to prompt
widescale demand, particularly in view of the fact that the same type of
system could be employed to rapidly check out virtually all of the

studio equipment in large studio complexes.

Centralized Data Processing

Trends in other American industries forecast the fact that group
stations which are owned and operated by an individual or corporation
may be able to achieve a high level of efficiency frem.an automation
central. This approach assumes a central point, fully equipped with
computerised office equipment. This point would be linked to each
individual station within the group by use of data communication lines
such as those currently available from American Telephone and Telegraph
Company. The central control point could then be responsible for all of I
the individual station's scheduling, billing, accounting, and perhaps
even the automatic typing of the daily program log.

The Cox Broadcasting Corporation is one company which is
reportedly contemplating data inter-communication lines between its sta-
tions and other enterprises to an already existent central processing

point. Interconnection is expected to cost approximately $h,000 per

 

1°81bid., p. 29.

105

month. In this case, no doubt, the Cox Corporation will find new
frontiers in more efficient uses of its equipment. On this subject, one
Cox Broadcasting executive stated that his corporation "locks forward to
the day when a group broadcaster can adopt a complete management control
system for all stations within their group.“109

It seems entirely possible that the small stations, which for
justified economic reasons are prevented from owning or leasing compu-
terised data processing equipment, may eventually find hope in other
quarters. These electronic data processing services might be provided
by private companies, many of whom are already servicing certain seg-
ments of American industry. The telephone directory's yellow pages or
other advertising media in any medium-size metropolis contain listings
of areadwide data processing companies ready to cater to businesses of
any size such services as payroll computations, cost accounting, and
other functions which are applicable to electronic data processing.
Some of these companies are already specialised in their services,
including statement writing and accounts receivable for groups such as
physicians and dentists. Therefore, it is entirely plausible that some
broadcasters, too, may turn to such private companies to handle their

specialized needs.

Conclusions
Today's technological.marvels are only forerunner of the products
which the wizardry of science will bring forth in the next decade. Tech-

nological advancement is by nature exponential in scope, for each new

 

109mm.

106

achievement may give rise to dozens of others. If the past can mirror
the future, then the American marketplace will continue to yield new and
more efficient ways of accomplishing industrial tasks.

For those who are in the broadcast industry, it is much too late
for debate over the virtues of technological advancement. To so argue
would be to deny the fact that the entire broadcasting industry was born
out of technological advancement. Likewise, automation is a product of
technological advancement. It currently knocks loudly at the broadcast-
ing industry's door. Automation's impressive success story in other
fimerican industries offers assurance that the broadcasting industry door
will be Opened. In pondering the consequence of this trend, successful
broadcasters are ceasing to ask yesterday‘s question, ”Shall I automate?"
Instead, the cogent question of today is, "Fig 219?. shall I automate?"
For those who earnestly seek the "golden mean" of broadcast automation,
three admonitions bear consideration.

First, an extremist position should be avoided. There are
broadcasters who through unawareness and perhaps apathy are comfortable
with the present and consider themselves insulated from changing trends.
Some others suffer from what might be referred to as the "hardware syn-
drome." The latter are prone to view equipment as an end unto itself, an
almost.magica1.panacea for station problems. In their haste to be first
in the purchase of new and more complex equipment, they very likely
ignore the danger that the solution to a problem may be more complex
than the problem itself or that automation does not belong in an area

where a more efficient, less expensive solution is available.

107

A second important admonition is to remember that automation
involves far more than technical decisions. At the 1968 National Asso-
ciation of Broadcasters Convention and Engineering Conference,

George H. Brown, executive vice-president of Research and Engineering
of the Radio Corporation of America, urged broadcast engineers to re-
orient themselves sway from being equipment-minded engineers to becoming
systems planners. He continued:
And when I say systems here, I mean the broadcasting systems . . .
extending from the advertiser's order form to the audience living
room.110

Finally, and most obvious of all, is the fact that automation is
so potentially inclusive in scope as to be a way of business. Any
decisiondmaking regarding its use must be based on an analysis of a
station's economic, social, programming, and technical circumstances.
Such a comprehensive analysis can come only from management. In the
interest of good business, far-sighted management will manifest a high
level of involvement in any trend toward automation. Every step will be
coordinated and supervised, from feasibility study to equipment utilisa-
tion. .It is to this group of managers that the promise of automation

will continue to shine most brilliantly.

 

110"NAB Convention 1968-Convention Highlights," Broadcast
Engineering (May, 1968), 20.

 

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