'I'HE USE OF WOOD IN THE ONE STORY MICHIGAN SCHOOL ‘I‘hosis Io: the Dogs» of M. S. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Charles Heckman Sfrauss I960 ‘é—v". '.._l - .u LIBRARY Michigan Stan University g”: 0N3 STORY LICIlnAN SCTOOL Charles ~ec’1aa Strauss A T 1-:J3IS Submitted to the Co].le2e of A2riculture Elohi2an State ?hiversity of A2riculture and Applled Science in partial fulfillment of the reqzireme ts for t1e de2ree of 11/131311 OF SCIENCE Department of Forest lrodvcts 1960 7/' v”; ~ I . " cu ./. //’ .I; /,l/( c ‘fi ".774; ‘é’fl '//.' ‘- “gp - ‘r’ C/ [ 5,5/ /-'/:,'/// 1,! ("7/ 74-40 TABLE OF COHTBNTS CIAPTER PAGE I . I 1‘77]? 0 DUC T IO 1"? TO T"? 3‘ S TWDI 1 Purpose ' 1 Importance of the Study 2 Preview of the Study a limitations of the Study 6 Advanta2es of One gtory Schools 8 Sources of Uata and Treatment of the Findin2s 9 II. PROCEDURES AID PLRSONKJL IIJOLVED IN SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION 16 Classification of School Districts l6 Cyclic Buildin2 Pro2rams 17 Educational Planning for the Uchool Building 21 Architectural Planning of the School 5 23 Selection of the Architect . 23 Selection of t‘e Site 23 Preoaration of the Drawings 2h Approval of the Drawin2s 25 :inancing the New Building 26 28 Construction Procedures Variations in Procedures Conmon to Lar2e Districts 29 III. 11:33 PROPERTIES OF SCHOOL B'JILDIIJ’G AERIAL." 31; Initial Cost of the haterial 35 Divisions of Initial Cost 37 Problems Arising from Cost Anclysis 39 CHAPTEI III. Amortization of the Initial Investment Kaintenance Continual Kaintenance Flexibility EXpandibility Apaearance Human Comfort Insulation from Heat and Cold Sound Insulation Fire Restrictions 'TJ ire Safety Heasurements Oriqin of hichigan's Ordinances Fire Prevention Section School Bulletin U12 A Discussion of the ReviS'on Opinions Obtained Through Interviews Rate ial Substantiatin: these Ooinions Wire Resistance of haterials Flame Spread Conclusions Fire Insurance Ratinfs CHIPTER IV. I~L¢”xT‘~Zi1l.~'i';l g hasonry Construction Curtain Hall Construction ind Wood Products Exterior Walls Utiliz Interior Walls Concrete Block Wood Srame Stud Partitions Flexible 2artitions Floor Construction Structural Coneonents Floor Coverings Roof Construction Structural Kembers Steel Bar Jeists Liqht Steel Beams ° r3 . l . Prefabricated Concrete Deczing Glued Laminated Structural Lenbers U1 *' : haterial Gypsum Products on Roof Decking \) O 5 J U] P- (1‘ H o \ . _ a. I J A School Jindou Doors interior Doors "U If. r» H 2 as O") \O ’3) \0 ~o 107 109 111 111 112 CITAPTE: IV. Interior Doors C O ICC LUS IO N BIBLIOGRAPHY PA GE: CHAPTER I m INTRODUCTION TO TL STUDY, Purpose The major purpose for initiating this study was to evaluate the present usaqe of wood or wood products in the one story hichiqan school, thereby determining why these products were partially or entirely eliminated flom present or future buildinms and to assess the possibility of increasing their markets in the future. It was evident that wood products had been lareely replaced as structural framing and finish materials in this field by competitive items from the various metal, plastics, and masonry industries. But the validity of such inroads was questioned since the competitive industries produced a maze of conflicting reports on their products and their competitors'. It was therefore deemed necessary to discover the actual reasons and loqic behind the selection of materials in various components of the school structure. One detinite restriction had been placed on the interior usage of wood materials by the State Fire harshal's office. This action, in the form of a mandatory fire safety specification necessary for the Fire marshal's and subsequent state approval 0f a new building, prohibited certain classes of combustible nmterials. A further restriction of wood as a structural item 2 the opinion of architects and school administrators based solely on hese actions ented another barrier. The soundness of t what alternative, are feasible pres was studied to determine if any, these lost markets. for regaining a portion of Importance of the Study is study stems from the increasing The importance of th n the public education ollment in primary and a1 system within the needs placed uno secondary state of Michigan. The enr rose from 1,38h,939 in October 1955: to public schools 1,625,051 in October 1959. cent increase over the year 1955. Enrollment projections e 1,922,hll children in This rearesents a seventeen per our public for the year 1965 plac schools or an increase of thirty-eight per cent above 1955. ha this enrollment trend is the subsequent Closely followi The increase in the number r housing these students. 5 and 1959 represented iry children per room. demand fo a need for 11,000 of students between 195 Not additional classrooms based on th structed new bui entinually replace outdated only has the State con 16.1.1138 and additions fOI‘ students but it must c ined requirement p these new reduces an ever present structures. This comb a materials. market for buildin nq 1958 the state of and expanding the year 1955 to and includi illion dollars for new From complete "V‘ in. Michigan invested over 275 School buildings. This fiQUre excludes the costs of any 3 additions to existing structures. Between July 1, 1958, and June 30, 1959, another 83 million dollars worth of complete new buildings were approved for construction by the Richigan Impartment of Public Instruction. Although these figures do not indicate the value of materials utilized in construction 1 they do present a measure of market size and potential growth. In contrast to this rising field of school construction the products from the lumber industry used within school buildings have steadily diminished. Prior to the influx of one story schools in hichigan the majority of school buildings constructed from 1920 to lQhO depended on wood products for various components. These structures were frequently multi- storied, utilizing solid masonry or brick veneer and wood Flooring systems frequently used wood joists, frame walls. Further structural subflooring, and a hardwood, finished floor. usage of wood was found in wall partitions and some roof construction. The majority of interior walls and ceilings were then finished with plaster. Double hung windows in varying width combinations and heavy panel doors, interior and exterior' tYpe, with a clear finish were typical wood products common to schools of this era. An abundant disolay of wood trim items and cabinet work either in pine or hardwoods such as oak, _——__._ ’I Department of Public "School Enrollment Study", lhstruction, Lansing, hichigan, 1959. n.— 1L maple, birch, or beech completed these structures. Although these structures were adequate and functional there were certain disadvantages caused by design and construction. Some of these faults were rectified through more efficient usage and design while others were left unsolved. Various materials, construction methods and designs not improved or properly used, gradually decreased as favor items. Following World war II a rapid influx of new products coupled with a trend toward one story designs created stronger competition among building products. Influential individuals within the school construction field were more inclined to use highly promoted new products to satisfy the increase in educational space requirements. This process has evolved to the present status, whether justified or not, of hichigan schools beinT constructed of predominantly masonry, metal, with only token quantities UV— plastics and other synthetic products Although this situation exists today there ‘ of wood products. llities common to certain ‘lf‘ 1_— g“-..— are seemingly still sufficient q wood products, essential for proper school construction, to rerain portions of this market. The lumber industry mUSt correct certain problems and change various misconceptions but the potential within this state alone should provide the necessc y incentive. Ezpview of he Study. The material within this study has been subdivided S into three main categories. An outline of essential procedures necessary for the construction of a school building is included under Chapter II. Since the majority of these actions is initiated br the school administrative staff this chapter will be centered on such activities. Other essential groups, such as architects, are discussed in the chronological order by which the school staff calls upon them for their services. The major function of this chapter is to indicate at what time and by whom materials are selected. Also certain functions are mentioned which will have an indirect bearing on this selection. A general discussion of qualities desired within a school building material constitutes the second phase of writing and also acts as an introduction to Chapter III. Materials are selected for construction by the number of functions or qualitites they possess and the extent to which they fulfill these requirements. In the field Of school construction a certain weight has been placed on various properties as a basis for selection. This largely predetermines competitive adVantages. The relative merit and basis for stressing these certain functions are presented. Uflapter IV is a study of the component parts within the building and the materials selected for them. This will the reasons for selecting Q; 81". U1 involve competitive material these items as opposed to wood products or other competitive non wood materials. The merits and disadvantages of wood for 6 each component part are presented to ascertain the reason for the use or nonuse of wood and its future potential in each of them. limitations of the Study This thesis was limited to one story school buildings due to two major reasons. A greater amount of data and opinions concerning materials within this type of structure is available. Furthermore, over ninety per cent of present schools constructed in the hichigan area are of one story design. These buildings of a multi-storied arrangement are usually constructed due to a restriction of site size of exoense. Secondly, wood products are restricted in nearly all areas of a multi—storied structure by parazraph 7.1 of the Fire Prevention Section in School Bulletin h12 issued by the State Fire harshal's office. The item states that "All school buildings of more than one story must be of fire resistant construction, with all steel structural members protected by materials which will afford at least one hour resistance to fire%2 This one restriction is based primaiily on safety during a longer evacuation time. Any study concerning wood in these structures would be controversial and restricted largely to the merits of this bulletin. 2 "Fire Prevention Section School Bulletin h12, Ibpartment of Public Instruction, Lansing, hichiqan, 1959. ‘ ~ 7 This does not mean that multi-storied schools are not functional in design or restricted to non-combustible materials. ith fewer governmental But the popularity of one story desizns w restrictions on wood products enables a more thorough and less controversial study. Further research should be conducted by the lumber industry with a report on the potential of wood products in multi-storied structures. All data collected for this study was obtained from sources directly or indirectly related to the public school system. But the problems of parochial and private institutions are of such similar nature that a direct application to this report should be considered. This study does not develop a detailed analysis of school philosophy in the fields of architectural layout or engineering design. Heating, plumbing, electrical design, lighting and room arrangements are discussed where direct application to materials exists. Ehch of these fields constitutes an entire study by itself for personnel in the school administrative or architectural fields. But these areas do affect material selection to the extent that relative trends are presented for a more adequate correlation of factors. Furniture and other movable items within a school building are only briefly mentioned. Here aaain, the design, construction, and arrangement of furniture within schools would present sufficient material for a separate study. 8 Advantages of One Story Schools. Certain factors have caused the one story design to increase in popularity in fichiga and the remainder of the United States. perhaps the first and foremost of these reasons is the elimination of stairways in the structure. This reduces the traffic congestion which usually centers in such areas and at the same time prevents a multitude of accidents from occuring. lbvement of heavy teaching aids or other materials is facilitated by one level of traffic. Stairways are expensive additions in the building both from the standpoint of space requirements and construction details necessary for a fire safe buildinq. Here again, the safer and more expedient means of egress during possible fire presents an advantage to one story construction. Ekcavation and foundation requirements for multi- storied buildinos are erponsive and time consuming items. The simplicity of one story foundations eliminates costly materials and labor which are often of a specialized nature. A light, simple framing detail presents one more economical measure favoring one story schools. This simplicity a7ible design and the advantaqe of isolating Presents a more f on recs. The problem .n.\J(,., various units which may distract teaching a of overhead noises in multi-storied areas presents an annoying an costly item should the situation be corrected. These factors condone one story construction but the nulti-storied building also has its advantaées. Economy can 9 be realized in these structures mainly from a basis of land requirements. Land availability and initial cost of city property establish the reason for multi-storied city schools. Buildings will also have a more economical heating cost per volume of space due to a reduction in exterior ceilings and ll wa space. Expensive poof maintenance is also reduced by a common cover for many classrooms. But when site considerations are of a reasonable nature the other inherent factors of one story construction will favor this type. This can be supported by the present popularity of this desian throuthout the state. Sources of Data and Treatment of the Findincs V Material for this report was obtained by two means: a search of current literature and a seeies of interviews with personnel associated with school construction. The major object in both methods was to find information that was directly apolicable to school construction in Michiqan. During the course of research n7 indications of a similar study were evident. Sources for the search of literature included the lfichigan State University library, Colleae of Education's library, all prominent lumber industry trade associations, the Yational School Boards Association, Ohio School Boards Association, Federal Security Aqoncy, National Fire Protection Association, Ihderwriters' Laboratories and various manufacturers of products 10 utilized in school construction. The majority of information in both libraries dealt primarily with educational specifications, studies of various functions and theory of education and school design. Although this material was of little value due to its indirect apolications, one book on materials was discovered which contributed to the report. This text, "Saving Dollars In Building Schools”, prepared for the Ohio State Board of Education was a study of school construction in the noiqhboring state of Ohio. Evaluations of various construction methods and materials on the basis of performance and cost were the major contributions to this paper. Information on roof construction alternatives was of value but nexlect in comparine wood products with more popular materials in other components proved to be a void for this report. An evaluation of the Fire harshal's School Bulletin hl2 Revision was aided by information obtained from.the various fire prevention organizations. The recoamendations of these orqanizations has undoubtedly influenced hichigan's rulings. The validity of such recommendations was in turn studied through various resorts and interviews conducted throuchout this state. Although a large amount of information was obtained from various lumber associations only a limited portion was used for this report. Rany examples of the advantaoes of wood \ 11 as used in school buildings were cited but their applications to the state of Michigan were questions . The South, West Coast, and other miscellaneous areas in this nation may use a predominence of wood products in school construction but certain conditions, not found in Michigan, undoubtedly produce favorable markets. A strong industry influence in the lumber producing areas coupled with an abundance of materials and economical transportation rates create strong competitive advantages. Other areas throuehout the country not having these factors may also vary in labor supply and costs, building codes and resulations, or climatic conditions. It was therefore necessary to eliminate such items not common to ifichisan and to only use material that is not influenced by economic or seceraphic factors. hanufacturers of products which would be used in conjunction with wood products were also contacted for information. Cost, application and various advantages of cartain preservatives, paints, and fire protective items were of use to this report. News items in Lansing and Detroit newspapers related to school construction were collected from the period of December 1959, to hay 1960. These items were useful for their information and as an indication of productive sources for future interviews. The second and most important phase of research consisted of a series of more than fifty interviews with various personnel representinq different phases of school planning and buildings. In each case, an appointment convenient to 12 the person being interviewed was established by telephone or personal conversation. Before the meeting a questionaire was developed to act as a guide for the interview. Since different fields were sampled, the questionaire was altered to discover the duties of the person, his obligation to school building, and his opinions and.reasons for favoring certain construction methods or materials. This guide for the interview did not always delve into every area of importance but during the course of conversation these items would generally develop automatically. In general, the person interviewed was encouraged to talk freely and the outlined questions were only used to better guide the conversation or obtain comments on points not mentioned. A similar pattern of conversation was developed in each field of sampling and after a few such meetings it was felt that all important items were outlined on the questionaire. Notes were taken during each conversation and later transcribed to more legible items and patterned chains of thoughts. Further areas or concerns to interview were mentioned and added to a rostrum.of further interviews. In nearly every case the interview with each person developed into a conversation lasting from one half hour to an hour or more. The congenial and helpful manner of all persons interviewed was somewhat unexpected since, in many cases, this time constituted a nonproductive area in their business schedule. 13 In all interviews the author attempted to separate opinions from.more factual statements. General opinions that did exist were evaluated as to their soundness and associated patterns of thoughts were grouped from each source of information. Before the writing of the paper was started, all interviews were grouped as to their source and thoroughly reviewed for useful data pertinent to each phase of the report. Interviews were started by arranging appointments with various state officials in the Capital and personnel from.the Ibpartment of Education at hichigan State University. This was necessary in order to recognize the general pattern followed by school construction and the roles played by everyone concerned. Influences, restrictions and.trends of building in this state were also determined at this time. From this starting point it was evident that interviews with school superintendents, board members, architects, contractors, material distributors, the State Fire harshal, insurance agents, and other indirectly associated sources would adequately cover the planning phase and uncover reasons for various preferences in school building. The school superintendent, or special assistants in the building and design department found in larger districts, were best acquainted with the needs and desires of their district, and chosen as the best source of material. This 1h was substantiated by opinions obtained during the initial interviews and also after a few school board members were interviewed. Board members readily admitted that their position did not place them in constant contact with the district's needs as did the superintendents or his special staff members. lfichigan has divided its school systems into four classes and representative samples of each type were made. For reasons of convenience, six districts of class four size were sampled within a twenty mile radius. These districts; Okemos, Haslett, Hason, Holt, Grand Ledge and Williamston represent rural communities, those with a small industrial influence, and types acting as suburban areas. lensing, Jackson, and East Lansing were the class three districts sampled. Grand Rapids, Flint, and Detroit were interviewed and represent the only class two an class one districts found in Michigan. Since architectural firms have the greatest influence on material selection, over twenty sources wo-e interviewed. Ebre aaain, for reasons of convenience the majority of the firms were from East Lansinm and Lansing. But also included were men practicing in Flint, firand Rapids and Battle Creel. These firms represented sole ownerships, partnerships, small firms and large interstate companies. To augment information obtained from.the architectural 15 firms, various building material distributors and construction companies were contacted for interviews. The major item souqht was an estimate of local building Costs typical of Michigan. Although some cost data was secured, it was felt that a competitive status prevented this material from.being divulmed by these firms. In addition, information on advantages and trends of various materials was secured. The State Fire Lhrshal was interviewed to gain a better understanding of recent material restrictions and the reasons for adopting such measures. The cooperation of various members of the national lumber Lanufacturers Association was useful. Although certain prejudices for wood construction will exist in this type of personnel, their aid in preparing a course of inter- views was useful. They too had realized the declining usage of this material and suqzested sources who might explain the reasons for this trend. 16 PROCEDURES A‘x‘D PER'SOZTZTEL INVOLVED ET SCF‘TOOL COI‘TGTRUCTION The development of a school building is a synthesis of various skills and tasks preceding actual building from five to ten years. The majority of these items are usually accomplished during the twelve month period prior to construction. Various functions are necessary for proper development to occur and should follow a chronoloaical pattern desiqned to have each following job dependent on and aided by a past project. The organization is the responsibility of the school administrative staff with some supervisory and regulatory authority exercised by the state. Whether the school district performs these activities or an outside firm, the coordination still remains with the administrative staff. Variations in this planning do not depend on the number of steps to be followed but on how thorough each item is developed. Classification of School Districts hichigan has classified its school districts into four categories based on a school census of enrollment of students between five and twenty years of age. Class four districts are areas under 2,h00 students and composed of small arricultural towns or surburban districts of larger cities. Class three ranges from an enrollment of 2,h00 to 30,000 students such as in the cities of Lansing, Jackson, or Battle Creel. Flint and 17 Grand Rapids are the only class two districts, having an enrollment between 30,000 and 120,000 students. Detroit dominates class one district by exceeding 120,000 students. Since population varies among the four classes of school districts the needs for educational housing will also vary. This in turn produces different methods of accomplishing the school planning procedures. Although various methods may be employed the same steps are still used by all districts. This variation in methods is most evident when comparing class four districts with class one and two. Class three districts are an intermediate type but usually follow patterns similar to the larger areas. A constant demand for new schools in the larger districts substantiates the establishment of permanent planning departments within the administrative staff. The smaller districts will establish new planning committees for each new building campaign due to their sporadic and cyclic housing needs. Personnel on these committees are composed of full time school employees, school board members, and hired technical consultants. chlic Building Programs The deveIOpment of a school building within a small district necessitates the establishment of a new planning committee for every program. When construction of the building is started the majority of the functions carried by the planning committee are completed and the group aradually disbands. 18 Although each program.may contain some variations in personnel the composition is fairly similar as are the duties and tasks of each new group. One of the key members in the planning committee is the school superintendent. The nature of his job enables him to be a prime source of information concerning growth of the community and its present needs. In essence the superintendent coordinates all of the school administrative departments and usually has all of these groups reporting to his office. Not only will he develop new school policies and procedures but his link with maintenance and performance records of existing buildings will be of value. Information on other districts is also secured by his office. Lembers of the school board of education constitute another segment of the planning group. These members are elected officials acting as representatives of the community. Primarily the board's first duty is to establish a competent school administrative staff. Once this is accomplished they then act as a :overning body on such matters as school policies, eXpansion proqraxs, and other developments. During a school building prorram these members may display partialities for various construction methods due to their personal occuoation. Although these items.may be interjected for discussion by the group, lotical reasons for adootinq such ideas or materials nwst be presented. 19 Further reoresentation from the community may be included by selecting prominent, interested and beneficial citizens to act on the planning committees. Although this action may have exceptional merit, few citizens are actually willing to give their time for such duties. Generally, this source of aid is not used extensively in Michigan. The opinions of teachers is valued for expansion programs. Their main interest is in educational planning of the new building. Such items as size of rooms, building layout, or special education facilities are placed before teachers for their comments and approval. This consulting work is legical since these are the people who must live and work within future schools. Teachers may have some Opinions concerning various materials but they are more interested and better versed on educational systems. ustodians of existing structures may be included. Their knowledge on the performance of oresent buildings would act as a supplement to the s serintendent's material. Greater efficiency in the operation of a new p ant may develop by having the custodial staff participate i; planning the building. Various school planning consultants are receiving greater use and recognition by building committees. These originate from an educational staff in the state government, a collefie, or university department. Their major function is to determine what facts are needed for school planninn, how -—,V) 20 to obtain these facts and their interpretation. Further aid is provided by planning educational systems and housing of these systems. A study of the educational needs in the community of G and Ledge, nichigan, was developed by the Department of Education of Michigan State College during lgSh. This proaram evaluated the community's school system and its future needs, and then presented suggestions for its proposed building program. The report provided the Board of Education with a foundation to work from and proved to be an important step toward present school systems. The architect completes the make up of the olanning committee. His major function outside of the committee is to design a structure which will adequately and economically house the proposed edicational system. To accomplish this goal it is imperative to have the architect working with the committee on its educational specifications. In this way he will be thoroughly acquainted with the thinking of the group and with all phases of the educational program as it is developed. The majority of materia selections are the responsibility of the architect. Lhmbers of the committee realise that his training and experience best qualify him for this duty. In planning for buildings he will be of particular help in such matters as evaluation of existingbuildings and site location. 21 Educational Planning for the lchool Building. The development of school policies and systems to be used in the new structure always precedes architectural planning due to its foundational aspect. In essence, the building is only a means to house our educational system and must conform to these requirements. Forming the educational program around a building places architecture before education and defeats the purpose. One of the initial tasks of the cemmittee is to deter- mine the educational needs or desires of the community. From this primary survey an official educational program is develooed. Such items as the general purpose of the school building and groups to be served by the building are determined. It is important at this stage of discussion to mention the additional uses a school building may serve other than daytime education. A large number of communities are developing adult educational and vocational training programs which place added requirements on school plants. Many districts use the school structure for a community center. One of the most noted examples of community use of school buildings.is found in the Flint school district. Adult education, club meetings and recreation groups place 52,000 children and ad’dlts within 3 their schools every nieht. This number exceeds the 37,000 *— fiv— 3 Gies, Joseph, "Flint Proves: It's Fun To Keep Fit", This week l-iargazine, May 3, 1959, p.6. 22 daytime students. In planning its community schools, Flint gives top consideration to community facilities. Each of its newly erected buildings contained a kitchen, auditorium, and gymnasium.planned with the needs and size of the neighborhood in mind. Various other communities in Michigan are now developing similar programs of placing this responsibility on its school system. Upon completing the official educational program, the area to be served by the new school is established. This is then tied with the community's long range educational program. The future needs of the area are estimated and prooosed schedules for future develOpment are established. Flexibility of the structure will be incorporated into the final plans for these extra burdens providing cost is not ezcessive. Once the grade level of children is established further refinements are necessary. The extent of special services to be included are discussed. Such items as special rooms for speech, art, music, and athletics are considered. The merits of libraries and auditoriums are weighed in relation to the desired educational system ti be developed. Throughout the entire educational planning program the financial capacity of the community determines its decisions. The budget will be the final determinant in the selection of any educational system and its housing scheme. The actual amount of money and the purposes to which these sums 23 will be used are the most influencial items in adopting any plan, building, or material. Architectural Planning_gfmthe th001 n.-* §electign of the Architect. After the board of education has decided that a building program should be initiated, one of its first tasks is to hire a qualified architect. This will enable his experience and knowledze to be utilized during primary planning. An architect is selected on a basis of reputation, his availibility for consulting services, and previous buildings he has designed. This information is usually gathered by the superintendent in such forms as questionaires directed to the architectural firm and to his past clients and from a study of his past work. Once selected, the architect becomes an integral part of all committees and committee work an integral part of planning. Selection at an early stage is therefore imperative. §election offithe Site. An early joint responsibility of the architect and other planning members is to select the site for th prooosed building. In most cases the site has been secured by farsighted school administrative and‘board actions. This is usually accomplished from.one to ten years prior to the building for reasons of economy in securing such sites while they are still in an ndeveloped state, Should alternate parcels of land be available for the vii ‘4 .1 In: 2h proposed building the best site is selected in terms of the educational goals to be accomplished and its compatability with the actual building. _Ereparation of the Drawings. As ideas for the educational system.are formulated, the architect gradually evolves a scheme of layout. Final determination of the educational specifications may depend in part on architectural designs necessitated by financial restrictions. Frequent committee approval on various alternative designs is essential for preliminary work. The preliminary plans constitute the most vital stage in the evolution of building plans. In these initial studies the architect must solve all of the major problems that confront him, and determine the scheme or layout of the building and future extensions. Working drawings are merely a develop- ment of the preliminary drawings offering a study of details. During this period it is the responsibility of the architect to recommend the type of construction and the materials to be used. He is usually abreast of new developments and materials in the construction field and of their relative nmrits. Nearly all communities that have not had recent GXperiences in school construction will place complete dependence on the architect for correct material selection. Even districts that have recently constructed school buildings will often place entire confidence on the architect's decisions. Various 25’ objections or preferences to certain items may be presented to the architects but these specifications represent a minority of the items. In general, class four districts and the someWhat smaller class three districts rely upon the architect for the majority of all material decisions. Approval of the Drawings. The architect must first submit the working drawing and specifications to the local school district for approval since they are held responsible for the building program. Next the plans and the written approval of the local district are placed before the hichiaan Department of Public Instruction. This department will determine the adequacy of the plans in accordance with the provisions of the School Building Law and such other measures as efficiency of the site, educational usefulness of the building and health and safety standards. Often to avoid confusion, the preliminary drawings and outline specifications are also submitted to this group for suggestions which might be incorporated on the working plans. The major restrictions placed by the Department arise from the school Building Law. This measure, Act 306 of Public Acts of 1937 as amended, places certain performance standards on.the basis of inducing safety within the structure. A recent revision from the State Fire lmrshal's office, incoroorated in Bulletin h12, sets forth the mandatory fire safety provisions 0f school building construction. Not only are severe restrictions placed on combustible materials in multi-storied NV 26 structures but several areas within one story members are also barred of such items. Since it is not required by law that the State Fire harshal's office approves plans and specifications the Department of Public Instruction will act in their place on plan approvals. The Fire Marshal's office is required, however, to inspect each building twice during construction. One inspection is made of the building's structural framing and the second on the completed building. One other approval is required from the Department of Health. Usually, this will be made by the County or District Health Department and will cover such items as sanitation and food handling facilities. When the final approval from all agencies is obtained direct actions toward building may be undertaken. Financing the Few Building. Since tie means of handling financial matters may be of a fixed or varied nature, \ actual planning of this item may occur at various times i the program. In general, the concluding steps of tnc builfing process involve the implementation of the protram through adequate financing of the required school facilities. It is imoortant that all of the necessary legal steps be taken throughout the entire planning period, and this is particularly 1mPerative in connection with financing. School building construction in Michiqan is financed 27 for the most part in one of three ways: (1) out of current tax receipts on a pay-as-you—go basis, (2) from current tax receipts which are accumulated in a building and site sinking fund, or (3) by borrowing money through the issuance of bonds. In the first two methods, money is derived from special taxes placed on the community. To adequately cover school eXpansion by this means it is necessary to have an area with considerable taxable wealth or relatively small and cyclic needs for school building capital. The more widely used method in this state is the issuance of bonds. All districts financing buildings by this method are required under the Eunicioal Finance Act of 19h3 to incorporate correct level procedures such as seeking council of a certified bonding attorney. Of greater significance is the need for the community members to certify this indebtedness. Citizen's approval will require the circulation of information concerning both educational and building preposals. This need must be presented in such a manner as to assure the citizen that funds use are for a valid and logical purpose and are accomplished in the most efficient manner possible. The architectural firm may formulate a brochure or phamplet on the educational and building details to accomplish this puroose. Rejection of the bond issue durin: elections will require various alterations in the proposed structure in order 28 to comply with a tighter budget. Such changes usually occur in the form of eliminating special educational rooms and materials, reducing space requirements or the substitution of Ho cheaper building.materials. To avoid this possib lity, accurate budget limitations during planning should be employed, followed by an effective method to thoroughly acquaint the public with the purpose and methods of the program. After the bond issue has been passed and funds voted to retire the bond according to a schedule, the board of education should advertise for bids on the sale of the bonds. Here again, the architect and the school administrative staff should produce and effective method of presenting the necessary information to prospective bidders. Bids are collected and those that present the lowest cost to the district over the entire period of indebtedness are usually accepted. ggnstruction Procedures. The relative infrequency of major material decisions during the construction phase, reduces its importance for this decision. For the most part the contractor's major function is to construct the proposed building in accordance with specifications and drawings Provided him by the school district. A brief outline of Various obligations submitted by the ulanning committee and architect should suffice. The initial item to accomplish before construction can proceed is to disseminate information on the provesed building for the consideration of various construction firms. An outline 29 of the type of construction, location and time for bids to be submitted is essential. This information will be carried in such media as local newspapers and building reports produced by organization such as F. W. Dodge, and builders and traders associations. Concerns that are interested will indicate their desires by requesting a copy of specifications and working drawings. Sealed bids and a certified bond covering the bid are submitted to the board on a predetermined date. The job is awarded to that firm.having attained the lowest, reasonable bid. Once the project has been started, supervision of the construction will be necessary. The architect will periodically accomplish this service. The purpose of this function is to assure correct interpretation of the _lans and specifications and to avoid any substitution of materials or methods of construction. The dearee of experience and reputation of a contracting firm coupled with the complexity of design will determine the extent of supervision necessary. "mun—ll. Zhriation‘in_frocedures_Ceqnon tq‘Larfie Districts Due to a continuous demand for new school structures, the larger districts throughout this state have developed specialized departments within their administrative staffs. An increased budzet allotment permits these additions. Althouqh costly, in the long run they ??0d“03 areater efficiency 30 in planning and subsequent economical results. This efficiency results from having the various departments continually measure the present status, progress, and alterations occurring in their areas. Community expansion, school policies, school layout and design, engineering, and architecture are a few of the various departments found in larger school districts. These personnel work under the superintendent and thereby allow this man to devote more time to decisions on major policies. During the educational planning stages, districts such as Detroit, Flint, and Grand Rapids will eliminate citizens' committees, eachers, and custodians and only make limited use of the board of education members by changing their function to that of an approval board. Preliminary educational specifications will be develeped by the districtS' technical departments, school consultants and the superintendent. Class three areas still maintain board members as an integral part of their committees. This is due to the fact that class three districts represent a transition between the smaller and larger school systems and have limited their degree of Specialization to various assistants to the super- intendents. Architectural representation is still utilized on.both planning committees to enable better coordination between education and design. But due to the specialized study of 31 materials and construction the architect may have certain standards set before him. These standards, written or oral, any mention actual materials desired or rejected by the district but more often are as up as performance codes. Althou~h these standards often parallel certain state restrictions and suggestions, the greater volume of material represents valid information derived from past experiences. In no way do they discourage the use of new products which the architect may sugaest. The hiring of an architect indicates their desire to incorporate individual design within each structure. Until two years ago, the city of Detroit had only used private architects as a source of drafting skills. The majority of their buildings had incorporated a 1930 vintage style of architecture which was develoyed and used by their own staff. An awareness of advantaqes gained by Mt er districts using newer methods has caused them to chal nae t leir curr nt building program to one that utilizes all skills of private arc .1itectural concerns. Certain performance standards are being developed but will be used only as a general outline. Grand Rapids has gaine much respect from varivus architectural firms by es tablis r1 fing a concise statement of design standards. This was formula ted in 1951 by a Collaborating Architect's Committee composed of seven firms which were to share equally in Grand Rapids multi-million dollar school expansion program. Proposed design standards which would meet 32 the requirements and desires of school administrative staffs were developed by architects for the use of architects. The results of this procram are stated in a recent revision of the original standards: "Concrete, factual results are now evident in this unique pilot experiment of close collaboration between seven architectural firms for overall standardization of a multiple school building program. It appears that actual economies have been effected; maintenance costs held to a minimum and a reasonable uniform.esthetic appearance realized, yet flexible enough tolpermit each architect an individual L characteristic touch."l Statements from this source concerning qualifications for materials will be used in other p rtions of this paper. One other area which 1arger districts have improved is field sueervision of the construction job. This has been deemed necessary through errors of the contractor and the teat. Frequent attempts on the part of the contractor to substitute or omit certain materials has caused the school district to olace their own superintendent on the job. is dis person usually is a fu 1 time member of the district 5 aintenance staff. “1 Buikema, Benjamin J., “Revised Desian Standards for fdementary Schools”, Board of Education, Grand Rapids, xachiqan, lgfih. _—__ M L—L histakes on working drawinqs or specifications may cause further need of a supervisor. One veneral a ea in which school authorities find fault with the architect is a b-43— failure to specify thorough information on material installation or finishing. Often, failure of these items may not be caused by the material itself but traced to improocr installation. Althouqh these mav be due to neqlect on the _ J . contractor's part, adequate detailing is of primary importance. CHAPTER III THE PROPERTIES OF SCHOOL BUILDIYG LATETIALS In the field of school construction, certain properties are desired of the materials used as structural and finish items. The competitive advantages of a material depends to a high decree on the number of qualities it may contain and the extent to which it accomplishes these factors. Further- more in school construction.therc are individual characteristics and problems common to these structures which place varying weights on the qualities of a building material. This in turn is again varied by the people interpreting the needs of these public educational buildings. Such people, whether superintendent, architect, fire marshal, or school consultant, finally arrive at a system.by which they will evaluate materials. Although such systems are made in the best interest of the school district, the accuracy of weishinz or classifying the qualities of a material may be questioned. A tendency to allow such factors as personal Opinion, industrial promotion or inadequate information to influence decisions will exist vdth the final outcome of some qualities bein: stressed too strongly or others not even considered. The ynanic status of our educational systems produces many new concepts and changes which also should be constantly evaluated as to taeir effects upon materials. 35 In evaluating this means for selecting materials it is evident that unfair considerations do exist but for the most part this system is a sound basis for determining which materials are best suited for school structures. Hood products have suffered losses in school construction as a result of these standards. A few components have received unfair judqment because of the improper stressinq of qualities not common to these items. For the most part, wood products have decreased either due to a lack of information concernin these items or to a lack of sufficient qualities necessary to condone usage. lgitia£_gost of the Material The problem of providing ample space at a low initial cost produces one of the greatest problems for hichigan's school system. Hestrictions on building funds caupled with the yearly increases in school enrollment require init costs per square foot to be at a minimum. This monetary standard will be directly related to the cost of various materials. Echool districts throughout the state are constantly demanding the selection of materials which will adequately enclose a premium of space at reasonable, qeherally minimum, costs. Fot only is there a problem to reduce this initial payment but secondary complications also arise during attempts t0 have the taxpayer approve these expenditures. Should a O .' J- .: Sinkins funds be used, the initial action of levying certain 3e taxes for this purpose will still require the voters' approval. But more often bonds are used and the voters' direct approval of each building is required. Even with full information on all the prospective buildings assets, the initial amount of indebtedness is still a prime determinant of a bond's acceptance. A reminder at this point concerning value is important. Initial cost may be of 3 eat importance but at the same time k the quality of construction should not be nefileet d. False economy through the use of cheap construction materials will only result in the need for increased sums at later dates due to repair, refinishing or replacement. It is urged that districts obtain economy through the rational selection and use of materials poss ssing sufficient qualities to merit their users. With this constant concern over monetary -imitations ’~ t to note the general trend in cost of school building construction in relation to other increaSinq costs. a.‘_\l In the past twenty years the cost of school buildinqs has 4/ increased 150% whereas the cost of all other buildines averaged 210%. A list of other increases during this period are as follows: General construction 2753 Home construction. 225% Haterials and components for construction 200$ "J |\') ‘\ on 37. Automobiles 200% Skilled labor 220% Common labor 1 330% Although this study by the American Association of School Administration is an average of the entire nation it is quite evident that the State of hichigan is also obtaining economical use of its school appropriations. Between 1955 and 1959 the average cost of construction for complete school buildings in hichigan fell from $15.08 to $13.30 on a square foot basis. At the same time the area per pupil rose from 31.7 square feet in 1955 to 106.0 square feet for 1959. This trend of obtaining greater usage of seaool investments may be attributed to functional designs and the PPO?6P selection of materials. Constant thought towards economy, enforced and produced by budget restrictions, has presented the tax-paying communities with structures that Q incorporate improved educational facilities and feasiele costs. Divisions of Initial Cost Katerial. haterials costs -1“. are divided into the initial cost of the material and the subsequent amounts required to install the item. When considering initial cost variations, the cost of the material will measure to some degree the quality of construction and composition as COMpared to other similar items. Here afiain, it is necessary to determine how well the item will function and the length 38 of time it will be serviceable; be it a window, roof component or floor covering. Other considerations to take in account when comparing items on a basis of cost are the number of D functions the material may accomplish. The total cost of accomplishing two or more functions with two or more materials may substantially exceed a seemingly high priced material which accomplishes a number of requirements. With the ever increasing cost of labor it is essential to give this item proper consideration when selecting various materials. The cost of installation may be divided into quality and quantity factors. Quality will apply to soecialized trades or machinery which will be required for a certain construction phase. These items are preportionally hizher in cost and often require careful coordination of activities to insure a continuous flow of construction. SpeCialization usually indicates a scarcity of such trades and equipment due to supply and demand factors. It is essential to properly I) t viti.s on a job H- O *4) {TC \ plan this work to follow the pattern or else wasted and confused time may occur. the amount of labor involved in Quantity refers to --assenbled materials and b “J *3 0 construction. The merits Ol easily installed items have de sloped increased usare during the east years of rising 1 her costs. Zuch materials also ’ n - - . . - a a =Ln ' ~ s"t ”e ' e elininate poor quality installation by substitutinq tinddrdiz d factory procedures. Although factory finished items may carry ,.V l I ‘5 v. 39 a higher initial cost their savinas in installation may place them in a more competitive position. One further consideration regarding labor is the number of various trades necessary for the complete installation of an item, Numerous trades ”re not only eXpensive in total but present a problem in coordination of avtivities. 0 Problems Arielna from Cost Analysis. During the course of study necessary to complete this report considerable effort was made to determine actual costs of various building materials. Estimates were secured but not in amounts anticipated. Although the comoetitive nature of some firms prevented the dissemination of such information, the major reason for this partial void is attributed to the characteristics of the construction business. Architects and contractors stressed that it is extremely difficult to accurately comoare mate *1 Ho 9.) H ndividual characteristi O P- costs by alternate bids due to the 3 0 OJ— found in each building. Auch characteristics will not only present variations in cost between different structures but C3 hey may also favor or disfavor certain materials. in example would be excess’ve Sgaqs in a bull ing causing increased costs for extra structural support or their prohibiting certain items only available or practical in shorter lengths. In addition, the quantity ordered will present variations in cost. Discounts and wholesale pricing will present var,inq no costs in the same material ordered in different quantities. Certain manufacturers will also establish various pricing methods to promote a more competitive position. Retail pricing may be a basis for comoarison but will not always hold true for volume orders. Another factor preventing accurate comparison of costs is the cyclic nature of the contracting trade. Competition during ebb periods may reach the extremes of building at cost whereas six months hence the demand may allow lush profits. To compare structures with their included materials built during such extremes or even during various transition periods would produce a maze of inaccuracies. ifliS is also evident in the materials manufacturing industries. Although for the most part these industries are relatively stable in their supply and demand cycles, some variations will cause the product to rise or fall in cost. Dbre drastic periods are evident during strikes and other shutdowns in production. Costs and supply of materials cannot then be taken as average conditions for comparisons. émortization of the_§nitial Investment. Another important consideration in dealine with initial investrents will be tie amortization of the loan or other real money paid for interest. Althoush this factor may be considered as a separate determinate of material selection, for purooses of this report it shall be hl treated as a product of initial cost. The cost occurred over the period of a loan is directly proportional to the initial investment and produces an extra burden on premium priced materials. It is then necessary, in the actual selection of materials, to have assurances that the amount of service and qualities of a product will justify not only the initial investments but the resulting mortization. At present, the average rate of assessments against Richiean school loans average between hi and 5 per cent. Since Iichigan school districts usually obtain loans on a twenty to twenty-five year basis the amortization of material investments will re life u- only cover this period and not be involved in the ent of a building. The cost of loans will also affect the solection of materials on a basis of maintenance. This will be discussed in the next section of this chapter. Primarily it involves their resulting amortizations with the savings realized in reduced maintenance costs within the school's lifetime. Eaintenance For purposes of this report maintenance of materials is used to desionate the cost of labors expended on materials after installation is completed. This will include such J functions as cleaning, refinisning, ropairinr or replacing h2 and can be considered as a basis for measuring the service- ability of an item throughout the life of the school structure. An increasing demand for a minimum of maintenance in building materials has placed the importance of this factor on par with initial cost. Actually, these two features are major components of total cost. In the past there was some tendency to disregard maintenance costs and to only stress the initial costs of the structure. This was due to an urgent need for a large quantity of educational space which did not stress the quality features. Dollar and cent Values obtain greater significance to the tax payers when presented in a lump sum.than do the merits of future savings at a later date. Therefore the school districts presented the public with low initial costs in order to obtain approval and they rould thereby disregard the future maintenance eXpenditures. The "hidden nature” of maintenance costs also allowed this de-emphasis. haintenance costs are usually paid for from.the general operating funds obtained through yearly taxation. Although taxation must also receive the community's approval the tendency to lump all operating costs together considerably reduced the actual importance of maintenance. However, during more recent years there has been an awareness of rising maintenance costs that are cantinually being assessed aaainst buildings durinm their life ycle. To compensate for this, school superintendents and architects LLB now think in terms of the total cost as develOped by school buildings. Even though the personnel affiliated with school planning are realizing the importance of total cost there is still a problem of educating the public. Frequent rejections of bond issues are often the cause of the public's failure to understand the assets of low maintenance construction. Schools that are built are being further critized with comments concerning their ”luxury” or‘plush appearance". haterials that are initially more exoensive in cost an apaearance are often these that retain this apaearance with a minimum of maintenance. Continual haintenance. The procedures Included within m‘~ this term are items such as oainting, PinLiShinfl, cleaning, waxinz, washinz, and other cantinual custodial services. The continual nature of such costs accumulate to a larqe sum over a period of years. Cost in this case is comaosed of materials used and the labor expended. In the majority of cases the major cost will be for labor. materials usually comqose only a small fraction of exeense. fiot only is labor costly but the qrality of such services is often at such a low level that school districts try to eliminate all maintenance solely on this basis. Low caliber maintenance presents both door appearance as: a need for frequent reoetitien. The extent of these mailtenance functions are not always directly related to the tree of material but may result from atmospheric canditions, climate, or human occupancy. Rain, dirt, heat, cold, or moisture vapor will exist under normal conditions and many of the maintenance costs are attributed to these items rather than to the materials. But the elements and occupants will act upon materials with varying results. The ability of a material's composition or surface structure to eliminate maintenance presents a distinct advantage. In some cases maintenance is not only costly but results in the materials wearing at a lEStGP rate. Repair. Repair is an effort to correct darage resulting from harsh treatment or misuse. materials are jUdTGd bOth .‘ by their ability to withstand such punishment and the ease st l—-'- by which repairs may be made. Items thiCh either P93 such treatment or do not refdily show the results therefrom will find wiae usaae in heavily used areas of a school building. are desired for walls, floor coverinqs, existing Such material In areas, and various types of furniture. A second consideration sheuld be :iven to the type of rePairs necessary to correct damawed items. Low cost is realized when a minimum of time and variety of trades are exeended for such repairs. Replacement. The final results of excessive damage or continual maintenance may be the replacement of the item. Deterioration by the elements to a stage where inadequate d. service and appearance result will also require replacemen Jill cur :4 Seldom is the job confined to a small area and the cos generally be considerable. Although replacement is usually erpensive, it may be more economical in the lens run than trying to suffice with a series of small scale repair jobs. Laterials that will outlast others frequently prove to be more economical over their life span than those costing smaller initial amounts. The cost of replacement will also be reduced if the item is stocked locally is of standard dimensions and requires a minimum of labor. Imprqper heasurement quhaintenance. Clrrent trends “4. placing greater emphasis on maintenance have also produced over-emphasis of this item and incurred inaccuracies of measurement. haterials that are known to require reapplication of finished coats or certain installation procedures are frequently eliminated without diving consideration to the actual costs involved in such operations or the other qualities which the items may possess. Such over-enphasis of this function is further complicated by comparing improved materials With older materials which did require an excess of maintenance Caused by improper designs and manufacturing processes. Another fallacy associated with the comparison of materials maintenance has been the tendency to accept without 7.) ‘1 J. - . L“ ”W: "l as question all claims and guarantees stated by the manufacturers of new products. Such claims are often unfounded or based upon accelerated testing that does not accurately measure the items true resistance to all factors. When applied to the school structure many of these laboratory tested materials will not hold up for required periods under the actual conditions of use. Both of the above conditions can be remedied during planning. The first condition of over-emphasizing maintenance and inaccurate comparisons could be remedied by the placing of correct information in the hands of persons selecting materials. In other words, the major fault lies with the manufacturer not being truthful about his material. haintenance may be over-emphasized to such a degree that other advantages common to a material may be completely overlooked during selections. This may be rectified by proper promotion that presents the entire story on the item inclusive of its required maintenance. But in this way certain advantages may also be Presented for a more fair consideration. Other inaccuracies will result from imprOper installation or usage of the material. Frequently materials requiring certain prerequisites for Proper installation are put in place by unskilled, careless, or hurried workmen. This may result from netlect on the Part of the contractor or inadequate detailing and specification by the architect. The resulting poor service is then blamed fully on materials. Such fallacies are additional competitive {r \] advantages favoring the use of preasscmbled items which partially eliminate the possibility of poor installation. The second fallacy is due to inaccurate information or poor methods of testing and is best remedied by requiring positive proof of guarantees before incorporating the material within the school structure. Currently, more Kichigan school board committees are requiring their architects to present examples of new materials rhich adequately prove them capable of full service under conditions similar to those found in their areas. Should none exist, the manufacturers will be required to assume all responsibility for the material providing application is correct. Architectural Requirements The rapid chances which occurred in our educational Systems within the past years and those which will cvntinue on into the future alace different requirements upon the school buildings. Such trends are develooed by our educators in an attempt to utilize better methods of teaching our increasing pOpulation. In turn this transition will require the architect to develop a building that will function properly while adequately housing the student bodV. Although such prerequisites place certain restraints on design the evaluation of various layouts gradually produce an Optimum solution or series of solutions. Since this process of evolution is necessary the architectural field is always behind the Fax hi3 educational field. But through cooperation of efforts the gap between ideas and reality is lessened. During this transition the requirements of building materials are also continually changing. To some extent older items are replaced by newer materials which may more adequately fit the needs of new structures. In other instances he materials themselves are still sound but require new designs and treatment. Whichever the case may be it is evident that products as well as designs must meet the future requirements or else suffer the fate of replacement. Flexibility. Rapid transition in the school systems have caused the school administrators to realize that a rigid structure that is not capable of incorporating new ideas will soon be outdated. Since the average life of a school building is estimated at fifty years it is possible to have an antique structure that acts as a detriment to the school district. To reduce this possibility there is now a growine tendency to have the entire interior of a structure composed of movable partitions incorporating a modular layout. The chanees which are of frowinz concern to educational buildings are the various room arrangements to facilitate different course material and presentation thereof. An increased number of students mav require mass lecture systems and proper room space to facilitate such delivery. The extreme h? of this condition may be supplementing mass lecture with further instruction of much smaller groups on a more personal and informal basis. Various courses are also requiring different sized rooms and space for soecial equipment. Science courses, speech, the various arts, as well as manual ning are developing in importance and require special H' tre arraneement of space. The elementary schools are still relatively stable in their method of teaching but the future may even see specialization of courses in these buildings. With this present movement in systems it is difficult to predict what building, if any, will finally evolve as the major solution. School administrators now stress that their buildings should insure the ability to incoroorate any advancements in education. Although such changes may be advisable there i still a tendency by the teaching profession U] to resist changes and remain with past methods. This in turn presents opposition to new types of buildings.which do not utilize flexible designs. Architects in hichigan have stated that such conditions do exist and present barriers to their ideas. There have also been buildings constructed in this state at additional costs in order to incorporate flexibility but the structures still remain in their original desisn. The most feasible solution to such problems is to have better dissemination and understanding or educational problems within the school administrative staffs. 50 The initial cost, installation, and other requirements of design necessary to incorporate movable room.partitions pres nt a sizable increase in the cost of a building. For the most part the wall itself represents the greatest cost but since it is of a non— earing design the roof must incorporate added strength features which also increase the exeen e. U) The motive behind this costly design is the resulting changes in layout which will be less expensive with movable panels than with the cost of chanqing room layout with rieid walls of a bearing nature. The cost of tearing down a wall, providing adequate roof support for this void, and then rebuilding the new wall will be considerably in excess of a custodial staff rearranging movable walls. In addition, bearing wall alterations are time consuming and disturbing to the teaching process. Although movable partitions are cheaper for alterations it is essential to ascertain whether the school has need of such a flexible nature. Expandibiliqy. Future increases in school enrollment will require additional snace requirements which may be aained by expanding the size of an existing building. In essence eXpandibility is quite similar to flexibility since both deal with the reoreanization of wall sectiyns, the only difference being that the latter deals with interior partitions while the former deals with exterior walls. 51 the size of the building with wall panels Increasins \ will still require a new foundation, floor area and roof members to be added to the existing structure. Some materials for these components are also manufactured in a panelized form. But the greatest savings is obtained by disassembling and reconstructing tie entire wall area with a minimum of (D wasted material and labor. Her again, this type of construction movable capacity. Other savings may be obtained durinq initial construction if these panels are of a liqht weieht construction and do not require excess structural support. The exterior usase of these panel systems presents another problem which is caused by their eXpos re to the elements. The materials must not only resist exiosure but must be combined in such a manner as to provide a tiqht seal against the elements. Although the wall is a series of ('1‘ Danels, once joined they should form a single unit hat perm ts adequate interior conditions for human confort. The Urinary consideration of the entire building proqram is to provide a proper environment for the students. hechanical advantages are to be desired but should only be included if they harmonize with our basic objective of attaininq the DPOper educational conditions. A‘nearance. Perhaps the greatest task and accomplishment ”*“~-“- 5’2 which the architectural profession performs is the arranging of various materials in such a manner so as to present not only enclosed space but a structure that is oleasin3 to the eye and comvata ble wi Mti the educational environment. Tie areat variety of materials available to the architect would seem to simplify his problens nles s one co1side ers the re triction placed upon the de esi 3,n by the bud3ets. It is then necessary for the architect to use a arcat amount of discretion in his selection of materials. The success of the architect's noals may be attested to by the oublic's comments of schools being luxurious, and yet still being within the averaqe cost limits of other nichiaan schools. Careful selection of: lateria-s presents the oubli with a service that fully justifies the expense entailed in hiring an architect. For the most parts chool building budfp s are still restrictive of quality type interior and exterior materials which impart a lar3e portion to the overall appearance. The major item of iznoortance is to present functional soace at economical costs. Arca:itect1ral flavor is only incorvora ted (a providing it still meets the e primary requirements. But appearance is receivin uq creater r1 co3n tion by school districts in an effort to improve the quality of their bui dinqs and to provide a better educational atmosoiere bare essentials were necessary d rin3 the initial drive for 53 schools but now with better means to meet school demand, a chance to inorove the structure's architecture is receiving greater siqnificance. Emtra approoriations are available in limited amounts to further this d‘sire of producing schools that develop civic pride. One method frequently incorporated in nichi3an schools is to present the structural members in the buildin3 as a decorative item. This process is a combination of unctions and presents a more economical unit. In other cases the structural item.may still be exposed regardless of apoearance due to monetary restriction. Further efforts on the part of the architect are aimed at the selection of materials and components which eliminate the heavy, uninteresting, massive appearance. Light, qraceful materials and desi3ns are sought in an effort to improve aDDearance and prevent restrained feelines due to spacial limitation. The outside environment is combined with the interior of a building by window areas in such a manner so as to not distract from education but to add to and encourage the process. The addition of color to school buildings provides a pleasing appearance. In recent years there has been an effort to eliminate the drab stereotyped ap>earance so common to bUildings constructed during the prewar period. The result Of this transition was the use of many intense colors in 5’1; various areas of the building. This produced the other extreme in coloring school buildings and was also rejected. New, school buildings follow a plan of using one general oastel color theme highli3hted by the use of brighter, vivid colors in smaller areas such as a door or chalkboard. This is further developed by harmonising color with components constructed of natural materials such as stone or wood. The overall selection produces a pleasing atmosphere that is both interesting and not extremely artificial. This overall architectural effort is summed up by the booklet "Planning T03ether for Better School Building" which was produced by the Hichigan Department of Public Instruction; "Good school buildings are no longer being built as monuments, but rather as being built as a pleasant environment in which children may learn. Emphasis upon informality and non- institutional techniques, variations of shape and mass implied in various educational activities and the creation of atmosphere and delight through the use of color has replaced the use of applied ornamentation and decoration. The result has been a more friendly building, light and airy, in scale with and attractive to the child.” Human Comfort .‘ ~m School administrators realize that in order to develop *— ‘ _-_A I ”Planning T03ether for Better School Buildings", Department of Public Instruction, Lansing Department of Public Instruction, 1956. __ 55 educational conditions in a classroom area the students and teaching staff require an atmosphere free of distractions and compatable to the human body. To attain these conditions various mechanical means coupled with proper layout are specified. Once produced for the school structure, it is essential to maintain this environment and prevent other factors from entering which may disturb our educational processes. The maintenance of proper educational surroundinqs is partially dependent on the selection of building materials which are compatable to these needs. Insulativn from Feat and Cold. Once the heating system in the buildine has develOped an ideal temperature for the school inhabitants it is necessary to provide adequate insulation throuehout the building in an effort to prevent fluctuations of this temperature. During the warmer months the problem is reversed to that of preventing excessive heat from entering the school atmosphere. This problem, cemmon to summer months, is somewhat solved by the summer recess of approximately three months. But to meet the constant increase in enrollment school administrators are now devising a system of quarterly vacation periods alternated among four class groups. This would extend the utilization of our schools throuqh the summer months and also present problems of providing in} air cenditicned atmOSpheres. In e'ther case the construction Of the building should prevent th- passaje of exterior 56 conditions into the ole sroom areas. This may be accomplished by various construction design and the selection of insulative uilding materials which shield the entire structure. Those materials, whfiher structural or decorative, which eliminate the need of insulating items due to their composition will accomplish two or more functions. This should prove to be an economical selection providing their initial cost is not C!) excessive. In other cases many materials, such a metals, readily conduct heat and cold and require the use of special construction, insulating materials, or a combination of both. The type of construction most common to Lichigan employs special insulating materials and the use of dead air spaces throughout walls, roof, and floor sections. Direct exterior ex:osure of conducting materials used on the interior surface, such as a door or window unit, presents special problems to school heating. Alth0”go this Usafe may seem contradictory to all basic rules of construction .3 are selected on a basis of the 93 “.--.J these einducting materi other advantages which school administrators feel are more important. This decision then presents an adverse Cindition to rectify. In general, tne heating costs of a building are seed to comoensate for the resulting cold cond cted incr (1) into the class area. 3. 115 de-enphasis of heating costs stems from the lack Of information concerning this phase of the ooerating budget. 6V A‘ QB 57 School buildings will lose a large amount of heat during the day due to the frequent opening of exits and require an even greater amount to adequately heat the interior spaces. In preportion to these expenses the actual amounts required to equalize losses through materials are difficult to determine and aiven less consideration. Architects realize that losses of heat will occur at areas incorooratins highly conductive materials and to compensate for this loss and to prevent radiation of body heat to equalize such cold areas will place heating outlets at such points. These methods will never fully correct the situation due to the heat conductivity of the materials. Generally such methods are accepted by the school administrative and teaching staffs of hichiaan and no changes seem imminent. The ”U" factor in this reoort is a measure of conductivity and refers to the British Thermal Units conducted through a square foot surface area of material per hour per one degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature. Since it is ex ressed as a decimal equivalent the lower values are more acceptable. §9und Insulation. The elimination of distractinn '_) sounds in the classroom area is a prerequisite for any educational system. Once a room is isolated from the remainder 0f the building, further thouaht must be given to the proper 58 transmission of sounds in this unit. Acoustical qualities and sound insulation are obtained by the selection of materials which will absorb excessive vibrations and by utilization of proper design. Design will include the layout of teaching units in such a manner as to isolate distracting regions such as music, shop or athletic areas, and the olacement of wall and ceiling surfaces in a style to create prooer acoustics. Various types of sounds will need separate treatments. Air-borne sounds are those which originate within the room and are best controlled by wall, floor, and ceiling finish materials of various textures. The efficiency of a finish to absorb sound is termed its "absorption coefficient" and a high value indicates greater efficiency. Sound insulators are used to combat air-borne sound which originates outside of a room. The efficiency of a mass to keep out sounds is measured by a "transmission loss" rating. Here aaain, the higher the rating, the more efficient the material. The third type of sound is tran mitted through the materials of a building and is termed the solid-borne sound. These originate from vibrational sources such as machinery and are reduced by using special insulating mounts at the source. Large slab floor units,due to their extended continuous mass, may also conduct smaller vibrations such as normal StUdlnt traffic. Ckoansion joints olaced at reqular intervals 59 will isolate this type of sound. Classroom areas should not be "dead rooms" in the sense that all surfaces are completely treated with acoustical material. "Auditory deafness" obtained by this type of treatment is not recommended from a standpoint of economy and the resulting abnormal atmosphere. Students are disturbed by excessive acoustical treatments, and the suggested practice is to incorporate only an acoustical surface on the ceiling. Hallways should be "dead” acoustically so that air-borne noises will be absorbed quickly and not be transmitted to classroom area. Auditoriums present a special problem since long reverberation of sound is best for music whereas short reverberations are ideal for the delivery of a speech. This conflict can be solved by striking a medium with sound absorbing drapes, curtains and ceiling used in a room with flat surface walls. By drawing all drapes and curtains to obtain maximum coverage an adequate sound absorbtive quality is produced. The isolation and transmission of sound is essential to the educational process and merits considerable weijht in the selection of materials. Primary consideration is given to the isolation of class units since this may be obtained by selectinq proper structural materials. 3?90131 acoustical effects involve added layers of materials and require additional investments which restrict their usage. They W111: however, be Used in limited amounts where the need is great and (r. C. ) 1 'O Q 1 ’1) 60 economically feasible. One of the most important problems confrontins the architect during the desiqn of a school building is to provide for the prevention of fire and the safety of inhabitants. Primarily, such measures are necessary to prevent tee loss of human lives and check ex essive finan al losses The State of hichigan not only encourazes such practices but has established various restrictions t 1at the architect must follow. These restrictions set minimum staz1dsrds on t1e type of construction in e t1er sinele or multi-storied buildings with fur' ther ordinances placed on he different t"oes 0f rooms in each building. In general, the major ouroose of taese standards is to orovide iOP sufficient evacuation time during a fire and to restrict bfle spread thereof. is a result of these actions definite limitations are placed on structural and finished materials which are of a combustible nature. To evaluate these restrictions it is necess ary t3 St”dy the source of jurisdiction, the methods of evaluating materials, and the reasons for revis ing ori inal preventive measures. Fire Safety heasurements. The two methods of evaluatine if) neterials_or components of a structure in relation to their '0 er? or mance when subjected to fire are the fire resistance and flame spread ratinqs. The first was devised by the -. 61 9 American Society for Testinv haterials in an attempt to measure the fire endurance of construction assemblies. The test, A. S. T. M. Standard E—lgg, involves the application of a flame to one side of a structure and the subsequent measurement of time required for the flame to penetrate through to the unexposed side, thereby establishing the fire resistance rating of the assembly. If the assembly is to be used for load bearing purposes a corresponding load is applied during the test, in which case failure under loading will establish the fire resistance rating. In short, this test is a measure of endurance and frequently used for the classification of various wall, ceiling and floor sections. In the case of doors, an alphabetical classification of fire resistance was devised by the Fational Board of Fire Underwriters. This listing shows he location for which the assembly is designed and measures the door's fire resistance at various degrees of temperature reached on the unexposed side after thirty minutes eXposure to flame. The temperature increases over the thirty minute period used for this broad classification are ESOOF, 650°F or no reference to any temperature. Under each of these three categories the doors are designated as follows: (1) 3 Hour A Door- Fire doors for openings in Fire walls (2) 1% Hour B Door- Fire doors for oneninss in vertical shafts (3) l FIOLII’ B D00r_ t! n H I! H n H (‘1‘ Cal ‘u' 62 (h) 3/h hour C Door- Corridor and room partition doors (5) 1% Hour 0 Door- Fire doors for Openings in Exterior walls (6) 3/h Hour E Door- Fire door for opening to Exterior fire escape The second measurement of materials was devised by the Uhderwriters' laboratories in an effort to eValuate the fire hazard of materials exposed on the interior surfaces of a building. The procedure is known as the "Tunnel Test" and was described in the September lghh Underwriters' Laboratories Bulletin No. 32. The testing apparatus was a horizontal tunnel in which a test specimen twenty inches wide and twenty- five feet in length was installed to serve as a ceiling. A gas flame was placed at one end and distance recorded as the flame moved along the ceiling specimen. The basis of measuring the flame spread was established by rating asbestos board as zero and untreated red oak lumber as 100. All other materials were then related to these base points. These teats were later confirmed by the American Society of Testing haterials, A. S. T. M. E—8h SOT and then grouped into an alphabetical classification of finish materials by the National Fire Protection Association. Class A materials were limited from 0-20 in flame spread, Class B from.20-7S, Class C from 75- 200, Class D from 200-500 and materials over 500 spread are grouped in Class 3. With the exception of pitchy pine which is a Class D material, all woods are classified as Class C materials with redwood carrying the lowest flame spread of 7S. Fc Lid l‘vlfi 63 Orig in of hichigan's Ordinances. Act 306 of the Public Acts of 1937 established the requirement that all plans and specifications for new school buildings and additions to or remodeling of existing building as needed the approval of the Superintendent of Public Instruction before begi nning construction. Bulletin h12 was then devised by this office to act as a basis for evaluating these plans and specifications submitted for approval. Although the State Fire marshal's office is not required to approve these school plans it is essential that this department approve the building twice during construction, one inspection to be made of the fr Mme work prior to plastering and the second of the completed structure. In addition, the Department of Public Instruction will frequently confer with the Fire harshal's office on submitted plans, eSpecially when there are items of questionable fire safety. It is evident that thouqh the Fire larshal is not d:Lrectly re pons ible for plan approvals his jurisdiction will cover this phase in an indirect.manner and at a later date his direct approval is necessary. The Michigan Fire Larshal's office is set up as an agency of the hichiaan State Police Administration Force. The duties of the Fire Marshal are assigned to the Commissioner [-10 of the State Police. This oosit on is largely a centrol and approval one with the majority of the du ble s as: izned to on the Chief of the Fire Division, who in turn is appointed by the Fire harshal. All inspections and regulations d,veloped by the central Fire Larshal's office, located in East Lansing, are made under the auspices of the Chief. A staff of four detective sergeants aids the Chief in these matters by developing information on building trends in four different construction areas, one of which is school buildinss. At present, nichiqan is divided into eisht districts, each of which has a reg qional Fire Ihrshal OI fice and manned by one to five State Police officers. The actual inspection of school buildings is then made by the district representatives with a report submitted to the main office in East Lansing. To enable the architect to understand the Fire lhrshal's system of approval and to adequately design school structures a number of regulations were sent to architects' Offices in.the form of "Letters to Architects”. Further aid was available in the form of condensed versions of these letters and from material as found in Bulletin hl2 as produced by the Department of Public Instruction. Architects were freq*ently confused and lacked sufficient information on the Fire Larshal's regulations due to he sporadic and dispersed sources of material on this subject. This was further ovmnlicated by various inspectors in the state who were not using a standard set of inspection procedures. To correct this situation it was decided in earlyl 759 to de evelop a uniform.basis for construction approval in rtlation to fire safety. 65 This revision was developed by the Fire Earshal's office and the Department of Public Instruction. haterial contained within this standard was a coordination of all past regulations developed by the Fire harshal's office, items contained in the School Building Law or Public Acts of 1937 (as amended), and new restrictions governing the use of interior finishes. This revision was modeled after the Building Exits Code, a standard devised by the National Fire Protection Association to aid in coordinating all fire regulations throughout the nation. The general scope of this standard is: "This code covers the construction, arrangement, and use of exit facilities necessary to provide safe means of egress from structures, together with such features of construction and protection as have bearing on safety of egress." heasurements used in this new revision were flame spread and fire resistance ratings. Although hichigan primarily followed the Building Exits Code, some portions, namely construction methods, were more restrictive than this code. When the revisions were completed by these two depart- ments a committee was developed to criticize it and to offer SUggestions on further refinements. These hearings were composed of hree to four members of the Lichigan Society of Architects, representatives of the hichigan School Board Association, Michigan parochial school system, and various —_; ..__‘ 6 National Fire Protection Association, Buildinngxits Code, Boston, national Fire Protection Association, Iv # L’J school board adnlnistrators. Suggestions on ingrovenent ief , “ -4LL ~ a ~ lea suenitte' to tea 0 ,J were discussed by the :roup and "I ‘ . “or his consideration. Although the t of the Fire Divis on y. ‘1 SD m c—I— J major purpose of this committee v insure the development of a practical and workable regulation it did not have any power to enforce its recommendations. The results of the revision were then printed as a supplement to School Bulletin h12 as originated by the Department of Puelic Instruction and put into effect on section is not a law 1. AD .3 H- October 1, 959. The fire preve or code paused by the Lichigan leqislature and only acts as a guide for construction tiat is approved by the Fire larshal's department. fiinee Act 306 requires the Fire Larshal's approval on construction and authorizes him to establish criteria for such, the adCition to Bulletin hlE may be cansidered as an q -oeuaent upon the discretion indirect code. Althea,~ tr .‘J f... d. F '1 m c, Q of this department to establise such regulations, there is lexibility. It is e.~sible to amend \ D J J or revise tfis standard w;tbout requiring S'ate approval “f 4—K .. ‘ n J.“ ~m' ' i 1 . c r ,_ .u- 1 1 etaer Lmdhl-blat oi tau) pare -lufisaal's {millilstrauugng Dogy. .1} .. _ J- _o ‘1 j- _. r‘ '0‘ '3' ‘ '1 _:_ _o ‘ a r . ELY? -revention ,eccion, gsuool Julietin Ala. jhe ma]or “—M .m‘ a... ‘_ ‘-‘—‘ _V ' I Portions of this bulletin deal with the number, location and Ho 3 ze of various types of rooms aid their exiti1g facilities. Laterial not of sreat significance to t1: report includes 4— . ‘ J.— ‘ .1. - - __ - _"5 ., —. f . -l ‘ ,- f . -v--_ Sbalr CCHSUTQCULOHQ SuOfaée LQCL&LL&QS, £33c_10 and ODJCT 67 its 1.13 restrictive to multi-s tori ed structJres. It is impor tant to note tiat a lull basement is cons dered as a story. leis was a portion of Act 306 and was establislied to insure adetuate exits and retarded flame sarea d in areas subjected to the dai3er f fire occurring beneath a floor unit. Should a school bLi ldi n3 be of a multi-storied design it must be of fire resistant construction, wi 'th all steel structural members pr tected with mats: ial s vidig a one hour fire resista11ce. This factor automatically eliminates wood construction products from the 14a jor ity of uses within this type of bui ding. Since this report is limited to one C I \ story structures it is not wit.ain it's scope to report on such items. "owever, the validity of this restriction on materials is questioned and provides an area for further invest i3ation. ”n in 3 no direct restriction on the type of materials (D (D H. r- used for structural components of a one story ox lliug providing they are not exgoged on the interior surfaces. Should :1 a, ,.> items be eXposed on interior surfaces, the interior finish restrictions will apmly whether the item is a Linisn material or structural in nature. The major i'ens in this fire prevention section pertinent to this study included the following para3raphs: t Barafiraph 7.3 In one story construction, any open combustible *5 O O) attic sectiuns, regardles C; x) '0' C C.) of area betweun the ceiling and roof, shall be subdivide d into areas not exceedin3 3000 square feet, with non combusti bl eeartitions. 68 Paradraoh lO.3_ All corridor lockers shall be constructed of non combustible material. Paragraph ll.§;_ Fire doors and fraxes equipped with door closers shall be provided as follows: 3. Interiwr doors to heater and fuel rooms, incinerator rooms, projection booths, transformer roses, attics, certain storage rooms, Shep and industrial art areas, certain fan rooms and in Openin3s to vertical shafts shall be "B" labeled. A. Openings in fire walls shall be equipped with at least "B" labeled fire doors and frame assemblies. Para3raph l3.l Interior Finish -- Ceilinss b. Ceilings in one story buildings shall be Class A or B finish in corridors and exitways and rooms exceeding 200 person capacities. In all other occupied rooms, ceilings may have Class C finish, Which may be applied directly to wood roof deck if desired, and provided that such rooms except doors, of at least a 3/h hour fire rating separate them from the corridor. Where the ceiling finish is Class A or B with not more than a permissible 10% of the a33re3ate wall and ceiling area being combustible, or where outside exits are provided from every room in the effected section, such partitions will not be required. Paragraph 13.2 Interior Finish -- Halls b. Malls in gne story buildings shall be Class A_or 0') ’C1 (.1 69 B in corridors and exitways, except in lobbies, not over 10% of the aggregate wall and ceiling area nay be combustible. c. In all schools, walls of rooms exceeding 200 person capacity shall be Class A or B finish. In all other occupied rooms, walls may have Class C finish provided such rooms have partition construction, except doors, of at least a 3/h hour fire rating separating them from corridors. (Partitions are not required as stated in Part B, Paragraph 13.1) e. Fl "0 t ‘ne spread ratings are t ose of the basic materials themselves and will not be effected by ordinary varnish or paint, but any highly combustible material application such as lacquer or pyroxylin base materials shall not be used. E222: This section (13) shall not apply to buildings protected with approved automatic sprinklers. A Discussion of the Revision_ The revision initiated by the Michigan Fire harshal‘s office during early 1959 was undoubtedly influenced by the December l, 1933, fire in Our Lady of the Angels School of Chicago which caused the death of ninety pupils and three nuns. Shortly thereafter, this shocking loss spurred many communities and states to revise their school ap.roval systems in an attempt to prevent such an occurence. In many cases, the haste of such actions prevented an accurate appraisal of materials and construction methods Which constitute a fire .L safe building. Those attenpts to provide Oor greater security TO cites resulted in the indiscriminate banning of all COLDUStible materials. Lany materials, alth0'3h capaole of supp rtin3 ire, are still adequate building items if used in an approved construction method and the restriction of such items only reduces the ”DOS ibility of economical construction. If communities Lould step and analyze the elements which contributed to this Chicago school disaster a better understanding of the situation would re ‘1 s -t. This two story, solid brick, masonry wall structure with wood s was ch 0 8 LJ. built in 1910 and later converted to a school bui-Ldin3. Stairways from the ba ement to the first and se and story levels were not enclosed. Ceilings of classrooms and the hallua were finished with an untreated conbustible ceiling tile that develops a fla :1e spread rating 0* Class D. *“its were inadequate, hallways narrow, and the rooms were over- crowded, ho sing from iorty to sixty-four st tents in roons avera 3:1ng twenty-five feet by thirty-two feet. The fire orijinated at the botton of one of the two existing sta‘ in a pile of old papers and debris. Detect on we .s followed by C1aos dzr ring which the instructors failed to sound an alarm to warn the entire school ani the fire department. Klaus, smoke, and hot 3ases quickly accumulated in the second story level with the tra3ic result of nine ty-three lives oeng lost In its report on the fire, the Iational Fire Protection Association stated: "The loss of lives in this fire Va 71 primarily due to inadequate exit facilities. It is important to reco3nize the fact that even if this building had been of fire resistive construction the results of this fire would have been similar because of the combustible material available at the bottom of the stairway, the absence of doors at the top 7 of the stairway, and the combustible interior finish." d these factors been properly presented to the public 9: 1 instead of the usual ”wood building burns” a better concept of the problem would possibly have resulted. As it stands, wood products are now restricted due to their conbustible nature. In a recent address delivered to the rational Fire Protection Association Conference on School Fire Safety, 1r. H. G. Thomas, president of the K. F. P. A. stated: "The results (of hasty revisions) are obvious -- codes that are unrealistic, impractical, predicated on some fire protection device or measure and 3enerally uns tisfactory all f which leaves the door wide open for cri O rchitects, engineers, labor unions, self appointed experts V 93 land anyone else who can fiet on the wagon.” For the most part, the revisions develODed by the ldchi3an Fire harshal's office are lorical steps necessary to promote correct construction and use of materials. But the 7 National Tire Protection Association, "The Chicago __ ecnool Fire”, Boston, rational Fire Protection Association, 1959. (:3 Thomas, H. 3., ”Let's let Cur Feet Be a the 1round", \ F 7) A n n w 1 :4: ° :1 ’~ . . i. . Conference on ocnoo -ire ea 1 Few York, Jan. 22, 1960. n 72 tendency to follow past measures which have not been thoroughly proven presents an error in these regulations. 00 nions Obtained Through Interviews. During the o 4‘ .Jo course of interviews with architects, school superintendents and consultants, their opinion was asked concerning the recent .1. revision from the Fire harshal‘s office. In a surprising 0" 0 g-... number of instances the parties had not heard of udls revision or were not familar with the materials within it. This was more evident with superintendents than other groups, probably due to a lack of interest in the building field. h.st .1 superintendents in smaller districts rely on the architects «A to be abreast of such matters. Architects usually knew of this revision but did not fully understand the extent of such sstrictions. A large majority stated flatly that many wood products co ld not be used in these structures since the Fire Marshal's office did not approve of such items. There also seems to be very little effort on the part of this office to correct such misconceptions. To avoid possible friction wit; the Fire larshal, tnese architects will dutifully design tLCiP schools USiDS a predominance of non burnins naterials, both structural and finish. H388 (‘1: Other architects had given little thouaht J'o revisions since they had been designing in non combustible materials for some time and fully realized that they had always 73 I complied with the Fire harshal's regulations. In the majority of such firms it was evident that this process was mandatory rather than by choice. In the remainder of the architectural interviews, the individuals were well versed on the matter but still hesitated to use some permissible wood products due to the Fire harshal's tendency to disfavor such items. Their views on wood products were for the most part directly Opposite that of the Fire Fhrshal's office. It should be pointed out that all wood products restricted by this revision might not be used by architects due to other disadvantages. But the restriction of wood products eliminates any possible considerations an architect might give such items.. Any competitive advantages that such a product may possess are quickly destroyed by Such regulations. Architects generally disagreed with the policies arising from the Fire Larshal‘s office. This may have been due to iormal resentments aqainst any regulation or restriction. But the architects' Opinions were similar t those of school superintendents and administrators who, although indirectly affected b1 the Fire Larshal's rulings, are not sub acted to J 0 '1 i U J“. I dir ct reversals in their policies. All concerned _elt that the recent revision was unrealistic and placed 3r.ater restrictions on economy by eliminating useful materials, inclus; wood products. 71L A number of t1ose interviewed questioned t1e or~anization —. and goals of th (D Fire I'1shal's de1artment.The placement of construction supei rvision duties witn a law enforcement bureau nefficiencies and nisconceptions [.30 suggests the oossibility of H arising from a ack of constructio on information or exverience. An appa arent de- -emM31 mi on otain_a~ economical cunstrWIC ion has resulted from stressing the placement of fire resistive naterials in school builiinos. Althoufn these actions are SOuMlUle made for the betterment of school bUilfliIflS, t‘eir restraint on toe cistrict‘s prime objective of securino econon cal constr We‘ion ples ents a definite problem. Architects also asserted that the one story structures which they have designed during the past five to ten years .' have not been unsafe buildings. Those buildings did incorporate some wood predicts but in such a manner as to prev do adequate safety from.fire. TF1 (7) oredeminence of one story desiens lacilitates the use of weed erod'cts in a manner compatable Fur 11er comments suj“1sted that the Isief of the Fire Division has a position enabling he and dis 8 mul ti ens wi h no democratic means of c rbind such edicts. Although a clmnit, e was present for hearings on the initial drafts of the revision there were comments txat many suaiestions . - , _ m - . rm _, 1- ‘ were not imlcltded in one linsl measlres. idem as.erte d teat the corii‘mt e wa used only to act as a necessary pretext in 7D ‘revamping state re guletions. Such comments no 3r be un ounded but the repetition of s Mc1 re mcrks from various men in t1e same and 1ifferent fields does present some basis for questioning the merits of the revisions. Fire Resistance of_haterials. Altho ouch unexposed - ‘ --—.—-—‘— .re not restricted in 013 story school wood structural items a structures inac lequate information on the part of arc itects coupled with the sugfested texeency of tm1 Fire harshal's favor wood products has suporessed one use of these items. lne remarks of various national orjsniza is a sharp contrast to these deletion t°ends. The Kati.)ne 1 Citizens Comnission for the Public Schools presents this View in its brochire ”unat Are Our )c1ool reeds9”° ”The orimary objection to the Irene school has been that the material is net fire resistant. This objectio: has been counteract1d by a new attitude toward the entire pro 1e :1 of fire 1001-30. In the past, f1: curosiing measures cancentrated on saving the building but not necessarily its contents or occupants. Thus, the old fireproof building Was the most danqerous of all for the ci1ildren if tb eJ eiuld not get out. One story frame schools, properly desiM1e with provisions for eround level ex its from every classroom to the ettdo oors, 9 are safer than the best fireproof three story school.” This comment was substan atne d by the Iational Fire Protection Association in their booklet ”School Fires” "The one story school, so arranged as to afford direct access to the outside from.any part of the building, is the safest design, and when this form of design is used there is little restricti ion as to the type of cons Hruct on. in any case the design should be such as to minimize the sp re Md fire from its point of origin. No highly combustiele allboard or 10 other quick burning interior finish should be used.” The Federal Security Agency stated in its booklet "3chool Fire Safety”: ”Buildi11gs of one story may be almost any type of construct ion arovided amale e::it facilities are 11 maintained and the danger of flash fires eliminated.” These statements are predicated on the pe r1 ormance of various materials when subjected to fire and a primary concern for the safety of the inhabitants. haterials which will not burn and often misnomered as ”fire proof materials" are not immune to fire dama2e. Unprotected metal building materials are not combustible, but they are subject to collapse in the —-—- A A __._‘_ A :7 __ ”v Iational .gitizon s Cornittee for the Public lchools, 'Nhat Are Our 3chool Building nee eds?” 3 :"Oh31 Citizen's Committee for the Publi 10 C 10 _ National Fire Protection Association, “School Fires" fiational Fire Protection Association, Boston, 195' 11 beds; a1 Security Agency, ”3chool Fire Safety”, Bulletin 1951, No. 13, .aashinston: Do 0., “‘d‘“ 31 Security A2ency, 1951. —~ F- mg 77 early stages of a fire. As temperatures rise, stee and aluminum.lose their structural strengths rapidly. Steel starts to weaken between 600 and SOOOF.and aluminum between 200 and oOOOF. Hot only do these items weaken with heat but expansion will occur at an alarmin2 rate. Such expansion will frequently cause the collapse of a roof, wall, or floor section presenting a definite hazard to fire departments. Concrete is also damages by heat with such defects as cracks or spalls occurring. A classic example of non combustible material failure This fire resulted in the complete destruction of an automatic transm.ssion plant, a 55 million dollar loss, and the death of three employees. This one story building covered over 1% million square feet. Its construction was predominately non combustible, consisting of unprotected steel trusses supported by unprotected steel columns and exterior brick apron walls with large areas of plate glass windows in steel frames. The roof consisted of narrow slates of to. 13 2auge steel supporting insulation and a built up roof composed mainly of asphalt and tar. Machinery, haterials, and product were also non combustible. But fire did occur in the combustible solutions contained in a dip tank, spread t3 the oily conden- ‘ a sation on the steel roof members, and gradually heated the roof's q ., asphalts and tars which added to the already 2reat heat and smoke. The final result was the collapse of the entire plant due to the steel member's failures. In contrast to tLese actions is the performance of structural wood memoers. Timbe s and glued laminated structural elements do burn but retain their shape for some .51 ,3 time in a fire. sis reaction is caused by the formation of a char on surfaces of wood exocsed to a flame. This material acts as an insulator and reduces the progress of dJS within the member. Collapse of a building is far less likely to occur which enables evacuation and subsequent lire iijnting operations to continue. The importance of this has refluced In“’ th lire proof“ in favor of a more (D significance of the term meanintful word lfir-e sale”. Franc buildincs of one story design have been improved both from a standpoint of design and construction. Adequate J. exits properly soaced have permitted conglete evacuation of ter of tgirty-Tive so :nds to one ct suca structures in a i {3 g 721 13.10 V .5- ’l 0-- f“) I *u 7“) n a"; u 1'1 31.3 F'- '1 u. C.) minute. Construction is such 38 t3 area thus oernitting early detection, evacuation and :- . - w, .L. .3 - is not onl sectioned ~ .' L,. -' —— ‘n‘ 1 99. ~. ‘- --x q ‘ . ‘ -' . ,., -.~’ frequgnt flI’O Sb-J_?So vea‘lflg Elli; us.f...x..._._) nave 030-1 l..i-)l‘QV6d . s. M J- 1 -. \ . 1:. 7 .'?---‘--‘~ ._,_ r J: by singliiln, l Sealgab13n aau lien ”SD~Lb¢nT 1v ATOA Dude? ety to 1.. r v .Lu LJ-_‘J “1-. 3L O a ‘ major fire in any one storv, permanent Iran) school building 79 constructed in the past ten years. One objection to this type of design was found in the Grand Rapids school district. iheir Design itandards for ?lementary Schools stated that outside exits directly from 1 classrooms were not desirable in tais climate because of cold drafts, tracked-in dirt, water and other Preference was for outdoor access through corridors thus localizing the problem at a few points. A lack of direct exiting schools in this state may cxylain the reason for other districts not realizing these disadvantages. One solution may be incorporating both corridor exiting and classroom exiting systems and maintaining the classroom exits only for emerzency use. Thought must also be given to the contents of a school uilding. Even if trash is kept at a minimum, such items as furniture, classroom materials, clothing and janitor supplies are available fuel sources to facilitate flame soread. This item is evident in the case of the Livonia fire. .This ootential source of energy does not need combustible structural items to reach deadly preportions. ‘. Elana Spread. The second phase of restrictions placed on wood products by Bulletin hlZ's revision is the interior finigh apglication of such items. Corridor lockers are restricted to non combustible materials. Ceilings and walls are ostricted to Class A or B materials in such areas as {-30 corridors, exitways, lobbies and embly areas holding over 200 persons. Class C finishes are perm'tted in classrooms if they are separated from the corridor by a 3/h hour wall or have exits to the outside. A minimum 3/h hour wall may be attained with 2 x h's spaced at sixteen inches with a sheathing Ho 12 Such restr ctions are based of 1/2 inch thick wallboard. on the Buildings Exits Code which in turn is based on the flame spread ratings. The net effect of this section is the elimination of wood hall lockers and a reduced usage of laminated beams, exposed wood deck roofing and‘interior paneling. C“ these items are often favored by an architect as a ma'erial in school structures. But the combination of direct restrictions, lack of information, and tendencies of the Fire Marshal's utilization oi these wood office have reduced or ended the products. A number of architectural firms had continually used an open type wood locker in their nall v designs. Oak with a natural finish was found to be far superior to any steel e an oven type locker is frequently 0 constructed lockers. Sin used in elementary schools the arciitects contend that the materials and clothing in such lockers create a far greater fire hazard than the wood construction. And yet, the style of lockers was not restricted. 12 "Building haterials List", Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., National Board of Fire Underwriters', 1960. __‘ __ 81 The actual flame spread classifications has been questioned by the Eational Lumber Lanufacturers Association. Grouping materials by their flame spread and then selecting only the higher groups for construction purposes does not fully evaluate the remaining classes. Extensive tests were conducted at the Factory Mutual Laboratories for the N. L. M. A. F. M. L. Reports #11760 and #11975. These tests were conducted in a simulated classroom measuring fourteen feet by twenty feet wide and twelve feet high which included two doors, four windows and six small vents at the ceiling level for adequate ventilation. The room was then completely paneled in various species of wood for each different test and a fuel source was chosen to simulate the equivalent effects of combustible contents common to classrooms. A temperature of 3OOOF at five feet six inches above the floor was considered as the maximum to which the human body could be.exposed without a fatal result. It is S‘rnificant to note that the wood paneling J D stopped burning after the ignition fuel was consumed even though the ignition fuel represented a severe fire exposure. Subsequent tests at the Underwriters' Laboratories demonstrated that the various species used during these tests had an average flame spread below 200. The iénition source alone was sufficient to raise the room.temperature to a fatal 3OOOF at five feet six inches. Persistence of flame spread on smooth 82 wood surfaces of buildings depends principally on the heat (D from the burning contents. Actual flame pread on wood surfaces requires a wall temoerature too high for human life. A paper delivered by John G. Shope, Chief Ens neer of the National Lumber hanufacturers Association discussed these tests at some lenzth and concluded with the comment, ”The records of fires fail to disclose any instances where the major reason for loss of life could be attributed to flame 12 Spread across the surface of untreated solid wood." This comment was substantiated by the author's review of literature which included such articles as "School Fires" by the National ire Protection Association and other resumes of fatal school *IJ fires occurring since 1907. Other tests by the Forest Products Laboratory, reporhxi in 1953 under F. P. L. Bulletin No. D. 19hl titled "Experimental Dwelling Room Fires”, contained conclusions on the hazard of They are as follows: ”The nature J terials. an interior finise m 7‘ of the walls, whether plaster, fiber ins lation board, or plywood, had little effect on the time or eaoeratures of the critical po nt and only small effect on the flashever. Reeardless of the tyae of wall material or the rate of temperature rise in the early states, fire of conflagration preportions eventually develooed. The flashover occured in all cases _. .“ -—-—‘ ‘WA ““” ‘12 Shope, John 6., ”Control of Flame Spread in Buildings”, national Lumber hanufacturers Association, Washington, D. C., 1959. 13 at a wall temperature too high for human life.” Of perhaps even greater sisnificance is the nreduction of smoke during the early states of a fire. Quch by-products are difficult to contain within one section and will rapidly Spread throuthout a structure. They not only reduce visibility but have irritating and deadly effects upon the human body. Recent tests on the effects of school fires and methods to combat this occurrence were conducted in Los Angeles, California. A three story structure, condemned for reasons of further school expansion, was use as a test site. A summary of results obtained from starting fires in hallways and classrooms are included in the book "Operation School Burning” and includes: "With the test fires used in these tests and no fuel added to the fire due to construction of the building, smoke (especially as it pertains to visibility and irritant effects) was the principal life safety hazard. Untenable smoke conditions preceded untenable temperature conditions in nearly every 11L test." From these comments it is quite evident that the hot gases and smoke resultinq from a fire produce critical conditions before flame cpread will occur on wood surfaces. The importance of adequate exitin: measures cannot be overstressed. -» m-~-- .— —.___. 13 ”Experimental Dwelling Room Fires”, Forest Products Laboratory, F. P. L. Bulletin No. D., lth. 1h . s Fire Department, “ "Operation School Burning", LOS Ansele national Fire Protection Association, 1959- —_ Q I”, such facilities have been included in the one story school layout, limitations of Class C finishes can be reduce without impairing the safety of these buildings. Conclusions. Various tests conducted on the effects of fires and material performance during such conditions have resulted in contradictions to the current methods of classfying construction methods and building materials. Failure to realize that preventive measures are only effective after more damaging results have occured indicates the lack of considering the total problem. This not only represents a fallacy in thinking but produces unfair discrimination against some products. With the hichigan Fire harshal's office patterning their regulations after such questionable standards, common injustice is then produced within this region. Further tests should be conducted by either state authorities or private associations to stress the inaccuracies of present methods. This material presented by a dedicated group of architects, suoerintendents and consultants should be adequate pressure for a reappraisal of present measures. Fire Insurance Rating The yearly cost of insuring all the school buildings in a district amounts to a sizable expenditure. Since the size Of a premium results from the type of construction and materials involved in the building it is only natural for 85 school officials to favor materials that will reduce this expense. In general, combustible materials are c nsidered as the greater risk and receive a higher oremium charge for s not involve the loss insurance. School fire insurance doe of human life and is ohly concerned with the orooerty losses resulting from a fire. Statistics have shown that the greater losses will result from fires occurring in combustible construction, assuminq contents, area, heiqht and other aqents within the building to be equal to those in a non combustible structure. hichigan insurance firms evaluate the risk of a school Under this system, three (1) building under the Analytic System. cateqories are established on a basis of construction: Class A, fireproof construction, must have incombustible SUpporting walls and an incombustible roof. (2) Class B, non combustible construction, must have incombustible walls and may have a combustible roof. (3) Class D, combustible vk it. construction, may have both supporting walls and roof of a combustible construction. Fireoroof construction involves the use of non combustible materials and a means to protect them from failures caused by heat. Ton combustible construction requires the use of materials that do not support a fire but need not incorporate Combustible construction utilizes materials added protection. that will burn and may continue the spread of flame. 86 sif cations of insurance F- These are only broad cla policies and are used as a starting point for the evaluation of risk. Additional measures are then used to determine the structure's standinq point within its resoective class. Various penalties are assessed adainst the building for defici es .1 o of its in its construction. A building may include up to SOr construction in enoth er class, but an onrooiikte penalty will be levie . mhe base floor construction, interior finish, deficient wall thickness, inferior roof materials, ooeeines otween floors and sky liqhts are a number of the various penalties wiich increase the cost of a are classified from the published Laboratories. Iext, a system of credits are awarded to the building for various items which slay rroduce the risk. These include alarm sys ems, st.r ndpioes and fire hoses, automatic Sprinklers and other objects wnic. duce the flame spread and facilitate detection. evalue _ted an actual monetary Insurance blished .1. n n 4. e rates est a common STSbufl oi O.) by the nichiean Ins‘ection Bureau. Since all comoanies use al variations in oolicies will only result from o tial evaluations and services rendered. deViations in the i- H- In general, fire insurance rates do not vary areatly among the competing firms. 87 The chhl"afl Inspection Bureau' 3 re ates are the basic reason for wide variations occurring in the insurance premiums of various construction methods. Their basis data is obtained n this state. An attempt H- from continued studies of fires to interview t1e personnel in this bureau was not acceptable further information on their procedures was not obtained. Their conclusions are used to fix the rates for the three types of constrlction and the subheads each droup created by oe alties and credits. At present ation in prem milims amountine to POUthy 50% 3m there is a var on. The variation between H. between Class A and B construct Class D and B construction‘pre miums is cons iderazoly ereat er 1 ‘ f. ,«f o o _o . . ana amounts to over 150 or Loos. This wide variation between the lower cate ories has been questioned by various trade associations from the lumber industry. The associations “alize that a wreater risk is present, but obio ct to th ) value placed on this risk by the hichigan Inspection Bureau. In order for wood products to receive a more favorable rating the hichiqan Inspection Bureau will need to revise its present standards. There are no indications that such revision will take place in the near future or, if one is created, that it will dive wood products a better position. This bureau should be cghf onte d by the various associations and asked to present the reasons behind current standards. At the s ame t Jae, sufficient material verifyine wood product's 88 stand should be presented. Through a cooperative type meeting some headway may be produced which would give wood products a more competitive status. 89 CHAPTER IV HATURIALS USED IN SCVOOL ST;UCTURES Various component parts of a school structure should meet certain functional and economical requirements as discussed in the previous chapter. To accomplish these tasks a critical selection of materials will be required. In most cases, no one material can meet all requirements, but its competitive position will be determined by the number of important functions it will perform. This chapter will discuss the predominant materials currently used in the various parts of Michigan's one story schools and the reasons'for their selections. An evaluation of wood products will be included if th as items do not constitute a portion of such construction. Exterior Walls Kasonry Construction. The predominent type of exterior walls found in hichiqan's one story school is solid masonry. ibre than eimhty per cent of the new schools built today Probably incorporate this type of construction. Generally, the wall section is compose of a regular brick veneer, an air space, and a load bearing member constructed 0f eithereiqht or twelve inch concrete blocks. The block is usually a light weiqht asiregate type, parsed on the exterior 90 surface and painted on the interior surface. Parqingof the exterior surface is accomplished by applying one or more coats of Portland cement from the footing to above window heieht and then placing one coat of bituminous material over the parging. This process provides a damp proofing barrier for the wall section. ~The presence of an air space, usually two inches in width, between the brick and block areas creates a dead air soace which increases the wall's insulating capacity. Brick and block are bonded totether with corrosion-resistant steel ties usually spaced thirty-six inches 0. c. horizontally and eighteen inches 0. c. vertically. In some instances the cavity is filled with a poured or rigid insulating material to better restrict transfer of heat and cold. Liqhtweieht concrete block is preferred for its ease in laying and handling. This type is more expensive than the heavier, conventional aggregate block, averajing about four cents more in the Lansing area. Comdosition of these whi01 produces .4 blocks is an expanded clay or slag particle high fire resistive and sound insulating and absorption qualities. With the reduction in weight of these blocks a liqhter foundation is feasible. At present, this type of wall construction has a large number of advantages explainine its preference not only in hichiqan but other Lake, Eastern and Lidwestern States. Considering the number of functions performed by these masonry ‘/ I 91 products, one finds that it is the most inexpensive type of construction, possibly only surpassed in economy by brick veneer and wood frame construction. haterials are abundant and relatively inexpensive. Labor constitutes the most expensive portion of cost but by requiring only a mason durin: construction efficient erection and fewer coordination proolm s will result. Present estimates in the Lansing area place the square foot osts of this finished wall section, using an eijht inch light weight block, at $2.00 to $2.15. AltJOU”1 the cos t of brick Veneer is high in some areas of Lichfgsn, a preference does exist for this item due to its durable aid wea tier tisht finish. Apaearance is computable to any community due to duality type features. Eric: veneer is a durable material and usually results in a minimum of maintenance providing prooer bondins mate ials and procedures are used during construction. Variati ns in color 0 texture, size and laying patterns i3°ovide a decree of flexibility O o ior deSign. The homereneous nature of this wall section provides a continuous wall bearina area. One storv desir s will not usually require the placement of anv additional load supoortinn nembers due to the structural. q1.:.ali“ies of concrete block. Leis not only facilitates the construction onocess but enables the architect to sinlvlify h 1'“ U) Q; Q U) H. ’5 (‘3 Q... Q.) 0 CT 9) }_ . F" p. :3 1 3 Ho L) U C7 C7 _ .3 1,—1- ' \‘ FJ C) C; O "I $13 nis1 H- erior f (1' The in simele procedure \O N of paintins the block surface. This creates a textured finished coat that will hide a large majority of blemishes common to classroom use. Application of paint does not require a large degree of skill and repair work may easily be accomplished by the custodial staff. Patterned block work and new block designs will improve the appearance of the room but most schoolrooms use a normal stageere system with tooled joints to reduce the cost of construction. Lajor objections to masonry construction stem from the appearance of the interior surface and restrictions placed upon future expansion programs. Limitations by the school building budmets usually force the architect to use the exposed block wall for interiors of classrooms and a few other resembly rooms. Althoueh the resulting finish is durable and requires a minimum of maintenance, the Leavy apnearance of block construction still leaves somethinq to be desired. ‘ Architects have stated that the heavy, monotonous features do not create an adequate atmosphere for these schoolroons. Instead, a cold, drab effect is created that lacks both quality {13 .04 n interest. Various colors azd desifns have been attempted but they still produce an institutional appearance. The solution to this problem.may lie in an inexpensive, durable overlay that imparts warmth and variety to the surroundings. Brick veneer-block construction has another disadvantage attributed to its durable nature. Larae costs are always 93 involved when the removal of a section is required for expansion or remodelinb programs. This construction type is definitely not flexible for any alterations. Such alterations will be expensive since only very small amounts of the wall may be reclaimed while the operations squire considerable amounts of time and labor. Savings in heatinq costs are questionable when compared to the brick veneer and wood frame construction. Variations in the cavity portion of the wall, size of block, and types of insulation will create different values in every case. In general, the heating costs will not exceed those of wood frame construction by a great amount. hasonry exterior wall construction should retain its present competitive status for a number of years due to a large number of advantaoes common to this design. Further increases in labor cost could be a deciding factor in losing its com etitive position. Advancements in desiqn by other pro-assembled units could encouraoe this decline. Fallacies caused by its riqid state may prove detriuental should school exoansion policies increase in importance. But for the most part, oroper design and placement of flexible materials in critical areas would control tnis problem and still produce sufficient markets for masonry products. Curtain Hall Construction- Today the remainder of exterior school wall construction would be dominated by curtain wall 9h materials. For teis re1oort, curt ain wall or window wall refers to paneled wall systems supported by a structural aluminum member or arid system. Curtain wall construction is usually divided into three categories; custom curtain wall, standardized curtain wall, and air dow wall. Both elrtain wall types are self-c ontained structural units that are self-draining an require no caulking \ during construction. ustom curtain wall is manufactured for a specific design whereas an architect must design the building to fit standardized units. U’ndow wall is simply a system of window un: 'ts and pan ml placed in an aluminum grid. Separate mullions are re.uired to support these units and caulking is done during construction to crea ate a weath r seal. Iindow wall units are least expensive of the three tv.es and are predominantly‘used in structures not e: :ceedi ins threo stories. Standardized curtain wall and window wall are the common ty1es used for schgol structures but window wall has the creater market. The most ex;ensive item in these systems is the tanel. Increasing window area will reduce the initial cost. The xterior and interior su.rf HOG of the panels are either porcelainized sheet metal, usually sixteen :auTO, or a compressed fiber board covered with aluninum.and then a ‘ porcelain finiss. Insu ati on betJeen the surlace is accomplisned U) by 901ystyrene foam, dead air spaces, a honeycombed paper core or other such materials. TLese panels usually constitute one 95 third of the wall surface with the remainder being metal and glass. Different colored panels are available to provide for variations in buildinz design. I.a3 or advanta mes of this constru.ction srstc- are its flexibility, reduced costs resultinq from installation procedures, and reduced structural supports. The nanelized nature of curtain wall will pernit future :zaansion and at a cost so vincs caused by materials being reclaimed for new layouts. Installation of these panel sistesls is time and labor savins due to a simplicity of orocodures. Since the panels are relatively lifght, heavy supporting materials and foundations will not oe re lire d. Although these products are increasins in use tarouqhout hichisan's school districts there are a number of objections to this systeL 1hich need be corrected before creater use is l”’-3€3..1:°Lzed. Lany architects that have desizncd b ildiiss incorforatins curtain wall construction have expressed a dislize to tan overall apvearance. they contend that the panels pres ent a comlnercial appearance to school structures and do not always blend with the surrounding community. Interior J. surfaces create a monotonous system t1a U is di .f_iCIlt to utilize due to its hard surfaces. In part, some firms have PGduced these problems by injecting nasonry units within the curtain wall system to create some interest in cesiqn. 96 ions result from the actual construction of the system. There :ave been a number of instanc,s where the weather seal or caulking failed and allowed moisture and wat er to oenetrate into interior surfaces. 4nis is caused by diff nt rates of exoansion and centraction oroduced by the various materials in the e panels. Desirn isself is U) complicated by the expansion oroole em of aluminum and creates a problem area prone to failures at a later date. An abundant use of metals and other heat con‘uctine materials in curtain wall construction presents a delinite loss resulting from excessive heating costs. Not only will heat be lost to these units but a reverse problem results during warm seasons. Radiation of body he at to cold surfaces on these units will present an unhealthy cone ition resardless of the room temja ratu.e. Initial cost of these oancls is one of the highest in the school construction field. Fully installed the svstem will vary from five to twelve dollars per square foot depending on the tvde of unit and desisn of the building. This factor alone has banned curtain wall from many school districts. Althouch savin 3 may be realized from a reduction in materials in the remainder of the building, these units still command the highest initial cost. A number of architects interviewed stated that one major reason Ior the material receiV1 :1? wide acceotance by the D ,- 97 architectural field was due to an impressive promotion campaign by the manufacturers and distributors. These qentle- men.had used curtain walls in school buildinss and other structures but in general were ‘issatisfied.with the results n its present form was only a H. and thought that this material passing trend in architecture. Architects do have a tendency to design with new materials for no other reason than to maintain a progressive position in their field. It is interesting to note that the American Institute of Architects is now formulatinq a proeram to conduct their own intensive tests on new materials and thereby provide its members with accurate and timely data. The future of curtain wall in one story school construction will depend to a great deal on improvements in the praduct. A reduction in cost is essential for it to reach a more competitive status. Construction improvements are ssential if the architectural field is to make use of the item. 7Rterior Walls Utilizinq Wood Products Only small quantities of structural or finished wood prOducts are used in the exterior walls of hichitan's one story school. Althoueh these products are widely used in residenticl canstruction there is a tendency to disreeard } the wood frame wall as a structural unit for larser buildings. Objections to this type of wall are found when discussing this system with architects and superintendents but to some decree wood products may simply be overlooked during material selections. Cost wise this unit is hijhly competitive with masonry construction. Lansing estimates of conventional wood frame construction usin: eitat inch wood bunealow siding and a finished interior of olester are approximately $1.20 to £1.30 per square foot. With the same framine materials, but substituting brick veneer for wood siding the cost is 31.95 to d2.00. These 3 (7. LJ. 1 1—" costs were obtained from construction firms and bu Y5"? _. .‘ 'l mater al dealers. n thoueh architects seldom work with definite bui.ldine costs, they did e. timate this cost as being , equal to or below masonry. Brick veneer was hiehly favored over wood or aluminum siding due to its reduced ma intcnance feature. The necessity of paintin? wood sidinp every two to four years creates V 01001 districts are t fine to Q L.) m (D m (T ' ) (J C per odical exo eligrinate. AlLujlinLuu sidin’f iS rejected on 5‘. b3 SiS Of questionable performance. Contrary to industrial promotions, alCllt€ cts ‘I " i . . . . v . vfl. : ‘5 n a . ‘ realize tlnt tflls siding 13 ADD Mai tonance iree 91: 183 DOOP R '- 0 _ . g -- ‘ x 3 ‘, ‘51 insul ting orooerties. 1n Jart, tae oroierence exteriers may also result from a tradition in s 1901 buildinqs desien. 3e~ar11ess of the enterior material, wood frame stud construction possesses excellent insulating orooerties. The combination of an exterior shea fixine, exterior s rfacinq, dead 99 air soaces and room.for adaed insulating materials produces a \ temperature b rrier lona favored 11 the res ii). dential building field. materials and labor are in abundant supply which accomodates constructions edules. Ihe need for the mason, carpentry and plastering trades does present a coordination problem but present cost figures still indicate efficient use of tn ese resources. Comments on the System. One of tae major Objections to wood frame stud construction is the necessity of inclldin L79 a :3 plastered or dry wall interior. Past maintenance costs i older structures have causes scaool administrators to ftvor nainted block walls. Ibis objection has not only eliminated wood frame stud construction but also adversely affected the market on metal stdds. Tlastored walls are subiccted to a large amount of scuffs and dirt marks w.1ich are 01. y remedied by frequent painting, an added eXpense. Large chins and craccs r quiring extra maintenance may also res lt. Superintendents and arc1itecL s were also displeased wit: the initial appearance There seems to have be‘n a number of cases in va1ious districts who‘s poor quality workmansaip or materials resulted in ex ossive crackinq of such our application of the gynsum sheets known as drywall has received a larqe deoree of criticism rein rdi-1: its ocrfornance. 5 100 A number of architects and superintendents stated that they had not considered wood framinr due to the Fire harshal's office res riction of its use. althoush no direct rerulation prohibits tdis tyne of construction in one story schools, misinformation and attitudes of the Fire Larshal's office do create definite barriers. Fineinaurance oremiums are substantially .x 1ijher for W t J K) U) (D H. this Class D construction than nourred by other non 0‘ (D O 9 {:5 C1- 3 3 .03 0 d- (D {.14 8,: U) .3 4 1J0 :5 7 CO Ho :3 [—10 S H d. M W H O O U) (‘1‘ f h C) C. U c3 \D ,Q C. ID a. amortization of these savinqs but the small di;ference in cost between masonry an wood frame reduces the siani icance of this savinas. Continual chanzes in the construction field create a fluctuation of such cost differentials and outdate 77‘ many current COZTI‘OQI’lSOnS. .1181‘8 ore, 119 difference in insurance rates is the most widely used method for com1arison. anif 1* *4. One 3 cant development imoortant to the wood eroducts field has been the :rowth of one story, residential- type structures used as additions to the primarv educational system. These ”ranch-type homes turned classrooms" have been Used in the Lansina, Detroit and Flint school districts. 'L.) “T iney have been considered as temporary additions to teaching S?ace necessary to stem.the overflow of enrollment in fast growinq residential communities. In most cases, the school district erects such structures in clusters of two to four 101 with the fonbthought of eventually converting them back to a small three bedroom home for subsequent sale to the public. Each unit houses one grade and with the exception of eliminating the majority of interior partitions, is identical in apoearance to the $15,000 and 520,000 hone in the community. Flint has erected over ninety of these structures and now considers them as a semi-pernanent addition to their school system. One teacher supervises each building and his location is so convenient to the source of pupils that parents now praise their idea. These units are only used for kindergarden and he first three primary grades in order to assure that the students are not deprived of upper grade facilities such as an auditorium, cafeteria, gymnasium and library. Teachers are able to give each student more attention an a noiqhborhood atmosphere prevails. Younfsters first entering school are not subjected to an abrupt transition in these "home like" schools and educational development is very satisfactory. Perhaps one of the :reatest advantaqes is a reduced cost to the Flint school district on a classroom basis. These buildings average $12,000 exclusive of the site and equipment. In contrast to this an avera e classroom costs from d25,000 Id 3 to 535,000. When comparing these costs it should be remembered that the higher price for a conventional classroom in a large SChOOl Will contain the exoenses Of added facilities SHCh as cafeterias, gymnasiums and office space. In soite of these 102 items a significant savings would still be realized in the '1 esidential units. The prime reason for this savings is the type of structure. Over the slab foundation a typical wood frame construction l Ho Ho (.3 is used this includes wood studs, plates, rafters and ce n- JOists. Floors are asphalt tile and the interiors are of dry wall construction with the utility room finished in cement plaster. Awning type windows, flush doors and interior trim are also of wood. The exteri rs are finished in a variety ck veneer, board and batten P. of ways including wood siding, hr and cedar shingles and shakes. The Chief Enzineer of the Flint School District stated that maintenance of these structures was still a questionable item since none of the buildings were older than five years. excessive maintenance was contemplated in future years but to date such had not been the case. There have been no thoughts of using this structural system in larder schools. This is attributed to such factors as plaster or drywall receiving areater abuse by older children, he possibility of excessive exterior maintenance and the fear of a fire hazard. Although wood products are being used in these types of school buildinos, barriers to further utilization are still present when corsiderinq the construction of a refular sized school structure. These buildiigs are not schools but only 103 a varied use of residentia al construction. Their general classification as a temporary or substitute sch 1001 ouildina produces a poor reference for the products used in the structures. Interior Halls Concrete Bloch. Concrete block 13 the predominant material used for oartitions in current school construction. The usual procedure is to lay one course of lighttm ei ht block from floor to ceiling hei. ht and then paint the exvosed surfaces. This type of construction ineoroorates all t1e advantases and disadvantaqes common to a lifhtweifiht block as discussed One mayor advantajo of olocc cons truetion ior interior "I artitions s a recuced amount 01 sound transmission attributed ‘ to the orodncts mass. A six inch block is preferred out four inch sizes a-1e used in areas not Sij ect to heavy sound trans- nission of where the budeet may restrict the larder size. SOlnd transmission is a definite oroolcr 1 be,twee1 adjoin; Classrooms and was the najor reason for selectin: concrete block, a olazinq aeolication or a olazef tile overlay. Areas bene th a c1alk eoard often receive this treat- ment 53 Pgdncn wear and subsoquent mrintenance on this rooion. 10h This nrocodu.re also imoroves the room‘s as cars nce but cost lin'ts the application. Excessive sound reverberations nresent one other limitation of this type finish. Other areas in t1e building, such as hallways or lobbies, W1ere excessive wear may occur and acce taole ap>earance is desired will also use a slased surface. Usual comoonents of V this finish are a resinous binder and :lm1 s silica SCLd with pionents or colored crannies to supnly a variation in color. Ba tlroon s, locker rooms, and apolications to obtain a water r1sistive and sanitary finisn. Wood Frame gt 11d Partitions. A li1itedcp1lication of interior wood frame stud 1.alls is still found in Lichfaan schools. The major use for tais wall section 3 in areas re1uirin 1:) SD M liihtweiiht ncrtition not subject to an one ss 0; transmission. Althouqh sound insulctinfi materials may be incoroorated, these oroducts will increas the cost while the wall will still laci: sufficient mass to halt transm;ssion. Temnorary partitions also incoroorate a wood frtne stud f-Jo construction. Insuff cient sound insulation and objections to plastered walls serenally limit this construction netaod. sertain areas in a school will use a wood frame stud wall to facilitate the an1lication of either wood oanel ing or plYWOod. Such areas as offices, teac. v. w z «r v 1:- r"? 4'1. L.' ‘ a hill use wood oterlnfs to obtain an aberCulJe gall susface. by fire reculatiens, bsildinq bud~ets and insur nce penaltie es. Flexible Partitions. Jew ends towards flexible inter i'rs has increased the ineortance of zaevable p: rtitions . These partitions are non-bearin: an} ma? be readily removed and re~rouped by custodial staffs. Ducts, bide lines, conduits, .. - ”D and so on, are usua .?_1y run in the corridor or outsid, wall to reduce the amount of fixed wall space. These modular svstems are DPOdlCed by oot h tLle metal and wood industries but interior surie ce restrictions limit the use of the wood units. Both systems are OHlY used to a small extent in hich man's schools due to exceSSive costs. One estimate of a eedium quality, three inch metal partition, system was $27.00 to 30 00 per lineal foot. Hood units were priced at 390.00 per lineal foot. One other disadvantaee lies in their hollow core desiq seund transmission. importance eradicted by (—1- <4 "5 0 :3 OJ {3 (‘1‘ fi) 0 Should flexibil; school consultants and design the excessive cost of these ‘ ability to maze che noes readily Q 0‘ <4 C.,. :3 o ”stems will be balance and economically and obsole ccnce will tend to be held in check. Floor Construction Stract iral Comneneits. Poured concrete slabs now “TA predominate a: the brsic unit for floor construction. in. 0 SB \ 106 slabs are poured over a well tamped foundation of cinders or broken stone usually four to six inches deep. A damp course or vapor barrier cons1stinq of a layer of roofing felt or polyethylene sheets, well lapped and‘ee omented and turned down aoainst the exterior wall, is required to prevent the passaae of moisture through the slab and into the interior. This layer is placed over the crushed stone foundation prior to pouring the slabs. Insulation should also be provided at the perimeter of the slab at the exterior wall. The concrete slabs, usually U4. Ho 5 four inches thick with steel wire mesh reir fore g are poured in individual units to control exoansion-contraction problems and to reduce the trans;Hissi n of solid borne sounds. After placement of concrete, the surface is screeded to orooer elevation and steel troweled to produce a smooth, dense surface required for the application of floor tile adhesives. Lansinz construction estimates place the square foot cost of slab construction between thirty-five and forty cents. Wood jo st floor construction is rarelyx use ed due to osu ltind crawl soaces, fire l's office. lround level should be below the bottom of wood jo sts to In addition, adequate O avoid contact with excessive moisture. -naae, ventilation and termite shields should be orovided 'Jo 'YI (ii a " .vsr'cn "- n '1‘ 7 to protect the wood membe s from rot and iisoct attact. 107 rotection to the joists, the ’13 Although these measwmr s offer woos ibility of this crawl space harboring vermin and other lth hazards, produces one objection to this type of construction. Fire insurance rates are also increased for combustible floor to Thase objectives coupled with a hesitation on the U) ts to use combustible construction has all ’d c1- 0 to p ’3 o ,J H d o 0 but eliminated wood joist floor systems. Floor Coverings. Proper floor coveri.n are an inportant ° ‘ Chis item is not only subject to the item to any bu i leinq. scuffline of hundreds of feet and the t ackinq in of dirt and dust but also receives holed woar from constant cleaninr and 24 m “fs 9 a floorin: 18 o 0.3 ’5 0 FC) :_ . 9 C) LS c:- O L. ti o the ; ovin: of furniture t»: J. necessary for it to save seed 9 H C _1 D 0 cf. P1. 0 Cf. _ J Q (D W O ' 3 0 CD (/1 [—4 C'f‘ ‘- o u? that Haintain a smooth and dust . v 9 A. ”an “ V 1‘ J r‘/u_-Sbl\/9 S Aria :3. School floors should also be r-o .‘5 4 ‘ fl _0 1 '0 ‘ '1‘ v .. ilxomrs erIIK.lu Julienselnr in .0 - ' .1. silience is necessary b0 reduce and deJirable ac Lv'ties. 9 - fati~ue from constant standinfi, W01Vin7 0? 9137132 on 5100? '.,.. as well as uodie resistance to horizontal ._’ e but are not as tiring ' 3 ”P '1 . NA‘ ‘r‘ :, .1 w -y-. , . Areas SUbJGCt to on encoSs auiunt Oi milstire will reqiire non absorptive floorinjs. room floors require sue; to prevent odors from developfnfi. Since >KtGHSlV9 floor areas are involved in a school of a floorin: is of utmrst imoortance. districts will dictate to a large Seloet a euooer based u: e for Altoovch in'tiall’r more exoeoslve than asvhalt tile, the ‘ Q ’..T’30‘fb' m ‘ ,v - v -'~ . H Welling 9r: “LLTLQHQJCG e.£; more economical investnen over a :erioe Oi y,u type tiles are now increasing ’ so a; t J the oooularity of rubber tiles. ihis product has an even lonror life soan and lower moi- ‘ ' ‘I . _s ‘ .fi _ ‘ either than for too TJbOOP tiles. .1. _ "“‘0 _fi. .' N‘ .3 .3 .3 J..- .I. DGPPQZZO 01" C‘JI’C‘.; 1.1-0 llOOZ‘. J- .19? J 31' tJ-Oj- COS DS RP“ QCC'39qu vv . -. . L7 '1 or 1 ll tiese areas. :coools 1'19 a. the same time obtain a more acceptable aooearance. .. Ladle floors have little coneetition I o 0 F1) H m *‘3 0 Q: 6 Cf o D m {3 o (—1. o u) o 5 liene um floorinj field. The res duplicated successfully by any 109 to be the preferreds Irface for at1le tics. Elementary schools have frequently i11cluded wozd floors for their multi-purpose rooms. ”his area is used for athloties, axes a Id ot or recreational activities common to ele m1entary education. In tais case, resilience is not as significant as the wcrmth of the floor. Ttudents will freqUent lJ have to sit on these floors during such activities and the adequate warmth is necessary for hrman comfort. Hood floors have been laroely replaced in oth or areas of t1e sehool by the various tiles. disher initial costs and reapplieation of finishes have made it econonieally unfoasible to continue the use of wood floors exceotinq in thos are as where warmth and resilience (J are of utmost l 11ortance. Beef Construction oontcmoora y 801001 a; chi te cture has repeatedly made To meet the use of the flat or relatively flat roof 'esign. needs of this popular design there have been a host of products developed by various industries. The complex nature of roof systems has caused the school district officials to rely almost comoletely on the architect for this selection. In turn, the architect chooses those material with which he has had previous experience and acceptable performance. Competition will try to sway his choice but in general the arch tect will 3799.103. remain faithful to one system for a number of 110 In order for a system to be connatable to one story flat roof design it must develop sufficient streneth and span with a lifiht weieht mass. This will enable the wall and foundation components to be lighter which in turn reduce total cost. A complete roof system is usually composed of a structural member, the decking, insulation material, a built- up roof, and a finished ceiling. Some building materials have increased their efficiency by incoraorating two or more of these functions thereby eliminating the need for extra products. One of the more difficult tasks encountered during this study was a determilation of cost comparisons between various roof systems. Actual costs were not obtained from any sources due to the large number of variables common to roof structures. Such factors as the complexity of material selection, variations among buildings, construction cycles and business d compel , t Lata an fluctuations constantly change the cos building concerns to rely on general comparisons. Alter ate bids for one job are deriVed but do not hold true in all cases. A common item to all roof systems is the exterior layer or the built-up roofing. Built-up roofinq may be laid on a wood plank roof, gypsum slabs, laminated structural insulation board, or a cancrete nlank system. It is composed of three to five layers of rat felt or jute saturated with coal tar, each layer being set in a mopping pitch, or asphalt, and with of hot tar asphalt.’ The top is usually finished with a layer 111 of crushed slag or clean gravel. when well laid with mood materials ane workmanship it is an enduring roof which common y lasts over twenty yo 3tru c tural 1 .er1be 1teel Bar Jo is ts. Steel bar joists are the most widely used method of supporting roof areas in one story schools. Uhen combined with an econom al roof deckin1 and a suspended ceiling it is the most economical of all roof systems. Since it does resuire other materials for completing, the total cost mav fluctuate and reduce its comoetitive advantage. This joist system.raye eliminate the finisM1ed ceiling but an unfinished apooarance and hi1her insurance rates oenerally precludes such practices. By.ehjosing the steel members the classification is dr ed fr mfireproof to non combustible and a penalty will develoo. This system is fairly Hi11le to erect due to its construction. The joist consists of an upper and lower steel ClOTd welded together by a web of roundrod. Various depths and lengths are available in o ;r inch mo: ular sizes. Lirhtweizht desirninq is also possible due to the web arrance11nt creati no a smaller dead load. Vhe depth of a bar joist not only creates an i1'1s1.1latin'1 dead air soace between plankinj and ceiling but allows piping and ductwork to lie in this area. A metal framework is fastened to the lower chord of the joist for the application of a suspended ceiling. Once in place the acoustical tile are snappe into position. This material will be discussed more fully in the ceilinq finish section. Liefit Steel Beam . A limited use of litht steel beams "S \D U) C H C1,. U) [—10 h) f.) :5 Ir" .J 0 F3 \D J C) \D O H) Q; M) A.) Q: H O C.) U] ¢ ,J (D *3 (D U <4 ’0' H )3 O l' 1' 3 3)? L3" (3 £3 < Po (9 "3 requirements on the wall sections. But teeir creator load possible with ’C) D O l1 :3 :‘q ‘1 L; $13 capacity will allow a more liberal s bar joists. Should an ex1osed structural system be used the Lb wider spacing and solid web will produce a cleaLer apooarance tha- that obtained with bar toists. Prefabricated Woncrete Decking. Another lim ted material in one story school construction is the “refabricated concrete plalh. Txcessive weifiht and expense are the chief reasons for pr ventin1 wider use. Tince the product may span up to (D thirty-two feet, a system of interior bearine wells will not be required. One advantage of this unit is tee number of functions it can perform. The material not only acts as a structural ‘ and deckinfi item but may also function as the finisned +- Ceilinq. A suspended ceilin? is Still used in the majority Of cases to pr1duce better sound absorption and appearance. I.) The plank is designed in deLths of four, six and eight inches with a modular width of Si Miteen inches. reduce its wei1ht. This area and spaces between each adfoining reinforcing and pretensionea steel members stren1the and relieve the stresses within eaca plank. Either a poured or rigid type insulation is required to produce an efficient thermal barrier. The "U” factor of four inch plank is .16 and with one inch of ri1id insulation becomes .11. Glued Laminated Structural Lembers. One of the best Opportun Ml ies for the lumber industry to re-enter the school construction field seems to lie with 1lued lazninated members. This nro1ressive application of wood represents a number of qualitiga which 1re desired for school constriction. At H- present, these members are slowly ncreasinq in use throughout eitan's one story SC .0013 Glued lam'm _ aced members are produced by bondinq a series ofwood boards or strips, two inches or less in thickness, to a desired thickness, width, and curvature. -aeiv'dzal boa rds x) are graded and kiln dried to eliminate the possibility of J. defects in the final structure. -dhesives ar1e from water resistant interior t7pes to exterior types suitable for use in LC! (.0 fw o :4 C? CD CD :5 ere the avera1e moisture content exceed llh per cent. Casein glues are commonly used for interior members whereas a resorcinal formaldehyde adhesive is used for more rigid specifications. Following the boidinq process, the item is sanded, machined for exact dimens cions, drilled and tapped shed with a sealer and natural 14' for various fittings, and fin a coating. nese units are custom built for each individual job. These members are more acceptable to Michiqan's schools in a post and beam form, a fact attributed to the predominant lonz span, one story construction. But the more eraceful arches, cambered beams, and barrel arches could also be used in other classroom desiqns. The latter curved members are better adapted to are as requ ng large open spacial requirements and a greater ceiling hei1ht such as 1ymnasiums, multi-puroose rooms, auditoriums and cafeterias. The outstnnding advanta1e of these items is the ability to 9K?OSG the structural member and yet add beauty, warmth and arace to the surroundines. inese members introduce quality to any area. By introducinq lar1e oeen spaces to a flexible wall plan may be incoreorated in the design. Although wood is combtstible, a combination of relatively lar1e cross sectional volune and the char capacities of wood dur inn_ a fire places the safety of these members above that of the non combustible steel construction. En1 neered timber construction also has a resilie1ce that are serves strength under shock of wind and seismic impact, often leaving structures sound when 115 ° 1 other more ri1id bui ldi ings might have suffered heavy damage. Certain inoire ct savings are attributed to this construction. 1’ These include the “linination of sub oended ceiling s3 stems and the ability to use 1i 11:.1ter partitions. Since the products are not subject to interior wear, maintneance on these items is also reduce . Factory fabrication will produce further savin1s by reducing the amount of time and labor spent on erection. Re1: rdless of these ind ct savin1s, one of the major drawbacks to laminated construction is their excessive ini ial cost. inls is lartely attributed to the detailed and custom manufacturing syste In use ed by the industry. Steel 3o 18 t systems are produced and distributed on a mass produ onal C? \D 1"" \d nat scale which reueatedly undersells the wood members. School dist icts with tie ht bud1ets re strict t1e architect from even cor siderin1 these laminated its 13. I.) l-J umber industry may success sfully C? in pite this fact tie counteract by stressin1 the ouality features common to elulam products. School d stricts have slowly been increasin1 their ct buildin1 fund o incoroorate such quality features in their 0) buildines. I s new evident that various districts are c1. ’40 keenin1 abreast of their school space requirement and do not limit their new structures to bare necessities. 3rand Led1e recently completed a new high school buildinc which used glulam Q ‘1 0 ~ . 6, _n .2. - .9 "‘ 1,. . .2 1 .1 beams in tea lib MP 1y and caieteria areas. Jae :son, ”131:_ son, has used laminated wood beams in the classrooms of its last seven structures. In both cases, a quality tyoe appearance was the ma]or reason lor s electin3 this structural sistem. In the majoritfi of inim rviews conducted with school officials there were no sbfieCtions to 3lulam members. The major re e.son for not usin3 this aroduct in their schools was attributed to the architects not see c fV1s3 the material. Iany sneerintendez ts ad11ir ed this ty1e of construction as frequently used in their community's churches but 113d little information on the prodwct, taereby not considerin3 it for their school buil.di 3s. Zcbools and churches zzer e considered as different spacial pro oclems t 1at re equ.ired different buildin3 materials. When tse questioninr was directed to architects it became ap1a arent tnat another reason for their not specifyin3 glulam products was a lack of interest in or inadeoiate iz1fornation on the eroduct. In part, this mar stem from the arcbitect's in the majority of cases el irlina-tes a thorou3h 1 scaoolin3 wimi education in timber dc csi3n 1n3. Despite this fact, one major n J reason lor the architect's iniiff erence is the lack of Wromotion T by manufacturers of 3lued laminated 1roducts. nis void should be filled by fielc‘ re1res3nastiv3s who can stimulate the architect, accurately solve his des i3n orob ems, and eersonally supplemn ent im1e33311al or1m.t d natarial. Architects frequently mentioned that such services were offered by co;1: etit ive 117 industries and to some dearee had influenced their material selections. Yearly ever architect interviewed expressed a desire to incoroorate more natural materials within his school desizns and considered wood as a orine means to accomolish ality on the nart [~40 this qoal, With the nresvnce of such a oart of the architectural profession, further oromotion by the alulam industry sould induce a greater use of these products. Another reason for glulam prod cts not develooing a larder market is the restriction placed on such items by the Fire harshal's office. Since the exoosed el lam products do not oerform as Class A or B finishes they are restricted from hallways, lobbies. and large assembly areas. As discussed in Chapter III, such restrictions are unfair and need to be revised. Altho”qh architects do not aeree with these regulations, they have shown no desire to form a body which misfit influence the Fire Tarshal's office revision thereof. Guch actions ‘ bl-“ soonsibility of the lumber industry and its are now the r (D respective associations. Glulam products are classified as Class B or non combustible construction for fire insurance ratings. Tésting by the Underwriters' Laboratories have shown that thee members do not add to the fire loss and as a result are credited by insurance firus. 118 Deckingfhaterials Cypsum.Product§. Gypsum products are used for school construction in one of tau forms: a precast plank or poured slabs. The value of dypsum is based on its satisfactory heat insulating qualities, its light weieht, a non combustible rating and the fact that it is strong enough for roof slabs which are not heavily loaded. Gypsum.planks are comnosed of 97$ finely ground calcined gypsum and 33 of fibrous materials by weirht. These nrecast roof items are reinforced with a hea wire mesh and a metal tongue and groove edging. The two inch members are usually available in eifnt and ten foot lengths. Iormal application involves laying these planks perpendicular to the joist memhrs lacine ( D Ir or purlins, adding a layer of rigid insulation and teen the built-up roof over these layers. 1J0 incl Llanks carry a "U" factor of .53 and with one inch of rield insulation the Va ue becomes .20. t will H- oured ayesum is only used on flat roofs since flow on an inclined Surface. Lhe feundation for this poured roof consists . formboard panels laid on a sttem of sub- 0 I }~_J l y) purlins known as bulb tees. sulb tees are is twoirbt, inverted steel T sectioned members, usually an inch deep, which provide a h-lf bearing surface for the perimeturs of the fermboar t. S‘.) This sxstem is laid .ereendicular to the purlins or shorter Space ioist systét. Formboard may be an insulating, acoustical lJ _ ‘ P1 . w w 1 ‘H 1. . ,0 h . r~ ‘ '1‘ _ O f . .0 or staiuard sneetrocc necesifl and can finction as a f dished J9 lu-Jo ilin C) O ne >4 iosed steel constriction. Once the formina material is in place, reinforcinq mesh is overlayed and two inches of gypsum.mortar are eoured on the roof and allowed to set. This system has an insulating "U" factor of .16 or .11 if an inch or rifid insulation is added. Blank and noured nv sum are widely used in one story the most econonical and has attained satisfactory performance records in the mafiority of upolicntiQJs. Its use is restricted in areas of nidh buniditv such as shower rooms and inaoer svimnini pools, ' . . ' ‘ 1 -. \N 17 J'— -. v. ‘. 1 ‘ *v‘! ~ Owe to its caoac1"7 of QDCQPDLHT n3b7? Lnicn SUOSG‘lgfitly “~. One of the newest aroducts ;-. L. Comoosition Roof WOO?“ in limht roof canstruction is the fioer cameositifin board. These Drodncts have increased in vooularity u“rin~ tie past ‘3 CD J) \D :5 C‘f‘ U) :3 Q; {0 H.) [—10 ,3 Ho Cl. C) O L3 ‘ {3.) H I.J 'L D L) . 9 Q d. O f 9 .:( a 1 "Q U) § few years and now e - m V o 4-: '6 products. Althoueh Tectum 18 only a brand name ior silo product, it predominates construction and is now considered a "eneral term for this eroduct. 1340? co-” -. .\ .3“ w r} J“ r, j ". 4“. (7 board are a uniform not of wood filers inpresn set lufl an - . I Q “\‘“1’, (Vf‘_‘ .5. 4- A h" 'V 5 O :- inorMOnic binder. This 18 teen c>maiesae~ um a desired tnic f r; ns~s.n ms tum ta“ fi .. ‘1 - - 4. -7 11 _0 _‘1 C‘ A. 716 .1.“ 3.10 U10 . .Lxlc ' J- Q 333 3.110. i:lflCfl.L.lb’d U3 2 C... .1. J...) lbll . L .3 -‘- ~ ‘ -° a a ‘1 n a finished surface of wood fibe s aid a r\ asodqlt-qaturatcd roof felt to prevent moisture from'penetratinm . s -, o o f; into the material and to also orovxdo for tie agelLCStlon O- 120 a built-up roofine. He added insulation is needed since the material has sufficient thermal insulating aoilities. "U" Values for a two inch board is .20 and .15 for the three inch layer. Other assets include a non combustible ra tile, acoustical qualit- . lishtwoijht construction. Cost is comparable to sypsum decking when the rec mi red insulation for gypsum is added. The material is best adapted to exposed be m construction and is also erected with a system of bulb tee subpurlins. Once the .lanks are layed on the bulb tees a arout is applied to the resulting gaps wnich insures a uniform base for the ‘l built-up roofi ins. gore again, ta w- no product is not recommended by the manufacturer for application in areas subiect to a high hUIli d i 4037' 0 Steel Decking. Another low cost deckins mater is 1 used in moderate quantities for Lichiman's schools are the various steel decking Me i s. This oroduct is see1 to erect and is usually layed perpendicular to the purlins. The sheet metal overlays obtain their rijidity from the loneitudinal rib des ien formed into the material. USJ.al depth of tiese formed two inches. Once the twenty-five to thirty inch wide sheet is overlapped on the adjoining pieces, he section is spot welded into place, or fastened by self tapping Initial cost of the roof deck is one of the lowest in the field but its lack of 121 insolating orooerties reouiros an added amount of insulation to be incorooratcd in the roof structure. Architects that were extensive use of this system due to problems 0 design. Care must be taken to isolate the since it is subject to deterioration from rust. Since this deck system cannot be us,d as an overlapped and welded joints, an insulation may be placed above the One variation of performed steel decking and incorporatina a "U" form for lone span decking eliminates the and will aauae of decking used. to obtain a rieid roof. *e insulation and member from.moisture, exposed ceilinq due to its added layer of blanhet required sus. from heavier gauge material each individual member. This need for structural support span tiirty to forty feet dependinq on the dopth and Each member is welded to its neifihhor Lajor disadvantaqes of this system.are centered on insulatina and eipansion problems, inherent in the Although the system may be left acoustics and appearance are not .8 an exposed ceiling, the desirable. Due to these features ’36 the system finds only limited use in school structures. Wood Roof Decks. roof deck. This deck groove system is comoose wood members spiked toecther to form a Comoctition among the various roof . ‘. .3 _. o ' 4.7 A dech systems is not complete Without a ClSCUSSIUn on the wood of double tOnQue and continuous 122 deck that is a combination of strength, insulating qualities and a finished co il:!na. Commonly, this erodict He ),used with glued laminated members for various architectural effects but it may also be used with other structural members. The individual planks are grade ma Ved, kiln dried and used in a 32 :5 or h X 5 dimensional size. All pieces are pro v rilled for a seven inch spike fastener and nac1ine planed and beveled on the edee to produce a arooved surface ready for finishina. Various softwood soec -es are available and their at cractive q drain toXtUPCS usually receive a clear f nisn. ihe cellular nature of wood creates a natural insulating property for the member. This feature may omit the nee? for further insulation but the USlal practice is to incordorate one inch or riaid insulat ioo aoove V e deccin" aLd then aoely no- a built-up roof. The ”e” value ”or a nominal four inch deck H is .17 wnerea one inch of insulation lowers this to .11. Adequate streneth is nroduced by this ayatem with construction spans of 16, 1h, 12 and 10 feet carryine live loads of 30, O - " .5 ‘. --v d 4. ° L9, 55 and 29 pounds per so re fooi; roe ec.1ie T. vOSU lS ~"eneraJer class * frrx _|. -° .1- . . -\ ’d . as conoeti ;,-u J x D {- D S 1 a I . 1 ('1' 3 :3 3 ve witi ,, *Jo when the e:: rs material costs incoreoratcd in a iinisaed The major advantafie of tFis system is its final aooearance. The aesthetic ap ear ance of linisaed roof deckin: is not only attractive but versatile due to the husher of soeoiee available 123 To other roof system can produce onparable fin sTes to those _____ 1 .1. ' " J. -‘ ‘ - -. .1 Obtained wlti tiese Jood nemeers. One of the sonoral requirements of the various school districts A O orence ior an acoustical collide whica is of -‘ ~ 1 J- u 4. ‘ ~ 4" ~.'1 -, ‘n on tile oastoa U0 eneee atn or acowseical olaster. noon )irface . o . -.. 1 ‘ 1?... ' ,‘ " Reileetances (ninimam) : Ceilinis .... a p. r'n . .. ”M . .- .n '4. ‘ .‘ -'—- , m. -,~-~_‘ ine Department 01 ~ublic educas on also recommends: H m .' : v l ,9 .~ ~ ' . ,5. .1- - j . .1. ~ ceilrnas should he :lnlSAQd in.a ilac wiice, rosaraless of . . _I : ‘P. _ - __- r 9 ~ ‘ _Q . I .I‘ _I‘ ‘ F.‘ '0 ~II _. . 7 T ’. material. iae material to oe used in Collin, linisa will depend upon several factors, but often the ceilin: surface 15 3 .' fl 0 1 is dasiéned ior sound absorption.' ‘V ‘ .‘ .- K‘ 4‘s. .' _'_ ‘ ouc1 emis;nts aee tie usual orac ices 1 .0 1 o L P. _ . , J—I‘ . A ans ll;un-nau on. These ue°"nres well: red co Vie QPJQQTCnCG I“: _ 1 'l .t . fl 4 ‘ ‘Q A) ‘7‘ .1." \ . 5‘ q..- assets 01 ‘o d v’oof.‘ doc S, LlCPCHSQ b— P0"L 04 U-13 POOL S/Stem :3 p.) [:24 (1‘ 51) *3 (9 W N 0 S3 C1" 1* C1" U] 0 9 I ; ‘3‘ .1) {D Cf- I‘J. (.1— H' <; (D p a; d m :3 C1" ‘1‘) I Q C] . .Ig-i._-l_ __ _ ”Revised Desion fitan V ‘ r1 The Collaboratin: ArcniteC‘s Conn‘ 16 "Plannint TOTOther for Better SChOO Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, n F“H W 9 L ‘ A H :5 7 m F1 10 countera i‘dstry must strive to d. L) e 0.5 p I p x J 523 L) H (J C] l_) I...) : i Q cnanqe such ideas and stress the imoortance of obtaining warmth and interest in tne interiors of classrooms. A careful selection of liqhtinr fixtures w uld reduce the need for reflective ceilings, In part, high gloss varn'shes will develop reflective surfaces. Acoustics are d sired but not always es.aential. "Planninq Torether for Better fichool Buildings" also states: "Zowevcr, acous be accomplished in other way be used in ceilins finish.” Lany of the tractices witz‘ school construction are time honored rituals taat may be chanaed with more a grossive and intorestinz ideas. here again, an industrial promotional campaign is essential to introduce these ideas and thereoy influence the personnel dealir n3 with material selections and soecifications. The entire story of wood deck roofs should be constantly presented to the architects and school administrators in order to correct misconceptions. The second and larmest restriction on tFis roof systez orio' T1113 tag from the Fire inrshal's office. {ictual restr--_ctions are similar to those placed upon elued laminated members. The H. C1. CD ~ 7 - :4 e restr ctions also result he are iV ct re"ardine all J t d or u.nfa.vorable to t1e Fire (D lin 1~o {.0 ”00d BPOducts as beinq el': Marshal's office. 17 "Planning Toeether for Be otter School Buildings", Department of Bublic Instruction, Lani ing, hichigan, lBSh. L fl 125 It is possible to observe these regulations and still use wood products. 3uch measures as fire retardine onints, 3, “’t) .1 fire retarding imprewnations, or a sprinkler system will provide adequate protoeti n as orescribed by Bulletin 112. Painting and oressure treatments are eXpensive and destroy the appearance of natural wood. Sorinkler sis ens are not only an added initial construction exoense, but produce : maintenance problems for future years. Hone of these solutions are economically feasible or comoatable to t-e aooearance of wood products. The major solution lies in attackine the problem at its source. Hood roof decking is also restricted by its fire insurance ratinq as a combustible roof. This establishes a nenalty asainst the item and was frequently mentioned by school su erintendents as a reason for eliminating the item. Reducing this problem will depend on a method to lower the insurance rates. \ School windows Aluminum now predominates as the material for school windows. This material undoubtedly caotures over seventy-five per cent of the window market in school construction. The remainder of the window units are nroduced from wood and steel, with wood probably havinq a slicht edme over steel. The one major reason for this selection is a reduction in maintenance costs durin: the lifetime of a school building. 126 Architects, suoerintendents, seiool consultants, and neers and school board meabers all stated that one of the prerequisites for window units new centers on its maintenance costs. Althouqh aluminum requi es less: iotenance it ca onnot be classified as a maintenance-free material. Aluminum does react with the elements to form an oxide whicn acts as a protective coatin: on the metal. lhe color of this oxide varies from a whitish grey to almost black, depending upon atmospheric conditions and aoe. Mi al results of this natural process are a dull grey su.rface that neither adds to nor :reatly detracts from the e::terior's aooe arance. one oxide coating is not always a Quarantee of orotection since the layer is relatively porous and in time softens and I;1ay erode away. It also is rough and retains certain anounts of airt. its tendency _1 C? A second shortcomins of t‘e mtt3r to actually corrode when ex; sed to the clone. nts. If excess amounts of acid or alkali are present in the atmosohere this deterioration will be more pronounced. In part, the ox1de coat will step corrosive endencies but the low stability of these coats ca onnot be relied on for extended periods of time. Care must be exerCised wnen placini aluminum windows in a masonry wall since a direct contact with masonry will cause excessive corrosion. Corrosion toe alkali in ce11ent to so as also e: :ists whore aluminum is in contact with steel. Toe text, "Tavinq Dollars in Building fichools”, states 127 "Aluminum reacts readily with the lime found in cement oroducts. This makes aluminum a poor Urodxct to use directly a2ainst masonry and concrete in any form unless care is taken to separate masonry materials from aluminum in order that excessive corrosion will not occur. hany aluminum store fronts have required replacement in from five to ten years because of the excessive lime bath t1cy receive from water wcopi.2 over the a} masonry wall above and over the aluminum."ld Due to such tendencies, a number of architects inter- viewed state that exceptional care must be tal :en in selecting he aluminum window units. One 2entleman stressed that the L _— c1. aluminum industry has played a hoax on the public and its nse throu2h the use (D school districts by advertisin2 less exo of a 1ainten1nce free aluminum product". To combat tm1:F weakness of aluminum, arc1 tect will specify only windows that can resist these actions. 1. visas to reduce this objectionable occurrence are tne actial co”,,s1tion of the metal and soecial protective coatin2s. A areat number of aluminum alloys can be produced and at present about fifty are c1rre21tly available. They range from high otren2th aircraft metals to lower stren2th items u eful for be :Wd ng and d ctib Ho :4 l~° ty re-uirements. lJ , "Saving Dollars in Buildin2 ficaools DaVid A. Fierce, Reinhold Publishing COmoany, flew fork, 1959. 128 Variations also exist in relation to the metals' resistance to corrosion. Alloy 638 is usually selected for extruded shapes such as window frames and sash and has a hi2her de2ree of resistance to elements than other cheaper alloys. The second means of protection is Oi Lere ed by subjectin2 th member to an anodizin2 nrocess which creates a specified amount of oxidation and a more resistive coating t1an t1_at occurrin2 throu2h slower, 'lll‘l’ natural processes. A controlled finish is acquired, with a uniform or special color inte2rally bor ded to the base metal. These measures do offer greater protection to the metal but also increase the cost of the material. Architects that have obtained sufficient knowled2e of this metal not only t ne opera tin2 featzres of a window unit but also its material comoosition and the de2ree of coatings. One firm ‘ I P-b states that to assure their clients 0 satisfac ctory re le us it is essential to order units that have a double anodizing layer. In most cases, the architects and school officials were satisf’ed with the performance of their aluminum windows and nad obtained sizable reductions in maintenance costs. A number of architects stated that althou2h oerformance was satisfactory some doubt was raise d as to the window‘s lifetime esults. The predictions of laboratory testi1112s were oiestioned due to discreaanci es ari sin2 from earlier tests on aluminum products. Re2ardless of what the future may produce, the nresent 129 reduction in maintenance has caused aluminum to replace wood H, and steel units. haintenance 0 window units is a major issue with school districts. Not only is it costly and continuous, but the maintenance job may produce low quality results. hany districts were dis 1W1 ased with the quality of workmanship now found in the nainting trade, and surmised that while labor L costs are increasing the pen a1 worvmans hip has taken a reverse . trend. 1T9 rrow muntins and bars were not painted neatly, thorough cleaninq and paint removal procedures were not applied to all surfaces and crevices, weatherstrippine was pa ainted and did not functiin proeerly and windows were "painted shut". Tw ese and other maintenance failures resulted in t1e windows not Operating correctly, unsightly finishes, and a need for more frequent oaintinz cycles. Should such aults can.tinue over a period of time, these results will be magnified. Even if workmanship was satisfactory the school district is still F“) CD so d with the need for roapplicat ien of paint every four or five years. ‘73 0 }J0 dire s also a period between tie oainti e cycle when \ the w1ndow unit will look shabby or hcve uzisiehtly failures in its pe int surface. At times, school roariatiens and procedures will create a further lag before the rejuired maintenance can be performed. Such periods will leave the product in an unsatisf rotory state and distract from.the buildineg‘ s so earance o 130 ~Urt1er objections to IIOOd LintOU~ resulted from.improder installs tion and inoc1e uate fiuiq+‘n"“00 Failures, in the form of rotted or eos in tde UlLdOW unit, were the result of not yroUe*1y COVOl W1 _ t~o wood surface, or creating water traps duriflfi irstallation. Should the unit need rsolacement, the cause of failure was usually olscod on tie wood ;.rt rials. L '3 fl 1, :- . - - .- 4.x .L, - n - negardless oi unere tue failure dues lie, Udo natnral reactions Ii [13" are to elimin:*e t::e Urodwct. W When the maintena”ce enl installs tion P““”l”€1“nts are imvroved, tne otter glall ti es of a wood wimdow have cowsod a ‘7- sizable reduction io the nL‘;nber if aluminum units. .early xtect in”erVi. - .. —fl 3 ,--‘ ' altmv 3 oz; Cu -mu ‘3, cog") oi aruflic 13 *xtrfiffi. ‘- '- ‘ 'L' . 1r ‘11“ ‘ 7“ '. M ". ‘ '\ '1“! 'L~"\ otier wortions of tie cdudodoflt. )Urin1 Mllt.r Jon :3 ..- _ w _.__ . - , : a . ‘v : . .1- : - .. n aluminum and Steel units Hill move 031d loterlor Swr rmazes end a , - - . -. —‘ - tGNd to condense ,oe moisture )res nt in t1e d)-o~wwooo Gender ns9ti3n re esults and croduces excessive anounts of free water. Gontraction of metal fruA?"qoy also causes seams and - .°- - .' . ,1. . -" r, .. 'V . temperaoures Will be orOuzcea near Jindow areas aid be trad.- 1&1 tted to otM1e portions of the room. To eliginate client (0 the architects sv cify wood windows. Q: CD ('2‘ I—v-l. U) H.) £0 0 (3' P. s so Hoti 3-3 are controlled in 309901 brildinls b? Placins a ditional amounts of heat in the class- rooms. sumidity conditions within a Classroom usually are not as critical a. the home since they 50 not oriiinate from u) E ,_$ cookinq, sundry or ‘athin9. +n aroas tnat 6.3 receive excessive amounts of moisture tfie condition is remedied b7 using non Dorous sills an 1; in 9:: ro-:1e cases sued as shower rooms, glazed tile surfaces. Cost coaoarisons between wood, aluminum and steel window units are difficult to make due to the wide nunber of Vindow “LlOdelS and the uality of manuf cturc. Construction firms C 1" F4 (—4 f—l .3 P. ct. $13 (.0 C)“ {D H. L J 3 CD C _l H d’ \J L r if «D sually consider a wood or cost of enclosing an equal volume of s_99 o with an eitht inch sleek and Brick veneer wall. Aluminum units are oriced from enclosure oxaense. O {.5 J 3.4 *3 d. ,4 c1. x.) U .J . I' if» "S Q; 5‘ I—Jo or :3 \D "S 9 £4 :3 U C‘f‘ ,_) I—-—o U) r, .L!‘ J- \ ~ -, ~ —'- A. 79‘ Erase GSULMRUQS were oene ally conllrued darlio st or int,r- views but the variue ti on be t"e9 n aluminum and wood unit costs were not always as 9933to .-.'.'*?.'_‘ Architects have objected and mullion stries connon to woo 132 ‘q 0 t the Hi mUntins bars \L’ :3 ,I’ ._ .L D) d window units, however, the cLantine requirements of school buildin9s have reduced this criticism. A lares number of schools built in the east few years have incorporated laree amoUH.u of window area to utilize natural liehtinz. School districts now realize teat such radical departure were not economical or fully func ional. Those obje tions were: (1) fatural lieht varies areatlv and schoolrooms aust still relv on artificial sources. (2) “stural light may be too intense or cause glare from concrete and snow surfaces. (3) .eat losses and radiation are ma9nified with lar9er elazed areas. U—L) Curtain and shade exoenses are also excessive with lar9e alazed areas. Due to these objections mans school s‘werintendents now want a window covera:e not exceeding thiry percent of the wall surface. This Klaj‘I place a estriction on ex erior appearance. Vowever, previous sob iools Icre not observin: functional desions. at the some time, this re ced reduirement on window areas nav decrease the amount of heaVilv elazed curtain wall units. To comvly with these trends these units would need to increase their an Ints o; costlier panel members. Ap e rance of vell kept wood window units also excels oVer aluminum. The eainted surface of Hood may vary in color and serves to Eccent the oUtward aooearance, whereas exeosed metal surfaces have an indistrial apnearance that are not as 133 pleasin: t1 the building's architecture. These conditions will also exist in the classroom interiors. To summarize the present status of the school window market, it is evident t71at one major drawback of wood units has resulted in their dicreased use. Althouqh thev do possess other advantages not found with aluminum or steel, the oos~ibi lity of unasMotlv '1earances and unsatisfactory _ '1.E-_‘1-“fi functio oninz has de-emohasized t1e other sellinq noints. Correction . I...“ of the aroblem 1 es c1ieflv with a means to re;hflce this main- tenance. Other con ideration should also be :iven in order U) to enkhasize the invariance of the other window qualities to o n: architects and sc1ool building ofiicials. to the ztr ainter nance of er terior 1 tr I 1 (1' t) ’3 H J '1 ,- O O *3 O O 0‘ L4. \D 0 ct H. O :5 painted or Finished surfaces has resulted in aluminum doors being used for main entrances to school buildinos. A number of superintendents also obj1cted to the we pine and rotting t1at occurred wits v: rious exterior wood doors. The major reason for a ornperly built door to 1.rp or rot w:7ll usually stem from not offerinq t1e door suflici ent protection from the elements. ixoegsive time ‘etween handing an finishing or a failurg to adequately seal the unit durinq the initial coat mav pro luce ear 1y defects. Failure to realace a worn finish and low quality maintenance offer reason for failures to occur at a later date. 131i Finishes received excessive wear during winter and spring months from children oushini on the door with wet gloves and clothes. These factors, plus constant exoosure to the elements, resulted in short life cycles for the more oopular ‘ varnish finisn. neaoolica ions by an unskilled custodial (.1- 1 staff may often produce further comolaints on wood doors. The usual soecifications for schools now call for an aluminum door at main entrances and solid core, flush wood doors for secondary points. Aluminum doors contain a larae .1 glazed area and may be combined with alazed side liehts. These doors are n>re exoensive than their wood counterparts avgraqing 3200,00 as compared to $60.00 for the wood door. Chea‘er units were available but did not stand the constant P traffic common to school buildings and developed excess oxidation and corrosion. This expense was cited as one reason for limiting their use to main entrances. Laintenance on aluminum involves a monthly washing with a mild deterrent to remove dirt, excfiss oxidation and smudfes by finders. Hollow core stool doors are also used on secondary entrances. ’heee units are comoetind with wood doors for secondary entrances but he e not exceeded too popularity of wood. Steel units are often selected in strong colors to accent various areas of the school's exterior. ianerally the 135 ve edee on L.) \d O K.) I rJ {0 (1‘ id. ('1‘ Ho These factors have aive wood door. 1. Interior Doors. The major evoes of interior doors us in nichiqan‘s schools are the solid core, flush wood door and Q hollow core, flush steel loors. althouoh con e ition between these units is keen, tae wood doors are receivine slizhtly hieher acceptance. Wood doors are favored on an appearance standooint due to their natural features. Natural wood fira ai.-s are both attractive and comolementary b3 the eurroundines ina hallwa or classroom. "Planni ne To t1er for Better School Buildins” sureTSts, “Doors should be desi nod to per o rm their soeCific functions -- the provisio D of quiet, warmth, and privacy 19 without thenselves becoming obtrusive." A number of arc1itocus aid C"Merintendeits bad iLdirectly made a similar comment on door units and had found that the colored surfaces or metal units did not fulfill this requirement as did the "\I .7 natural wood doors. School c cts have used 2 to 1 units (1) J. lb}- Dr C) but returned t3 an exc]_qu 1V8 USO Of WOOd dTOPS primarily f0? apeearance considerations. The baked enamel surfa es of interior metal doors were 3 also difficult to repair when canaee occurred. ficratchos and n were much more evident than on a natural wood surface , J l-«o marr 19 fins .37 "Planning Torether for tter Soho 01 311i]. diets" Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, hichidan, 1956. 136 subsequently required frequent maintenance. host districts had found that the installation of a metal kiokelate on the bottom of intori r wood doors reduced excessive wear on finished surfaces. Other maintenance problems occurred with metal doors when the units were unbalanced or had received excessive fl...“- - ‘I-i-'—':_- '1 damage. In most cases, the custodial staff could not handle these metal-workina nroblem and needed ex ensive shop ~cilities often resulting in sending the door to a manufacturer‘s H) “‘3 {3 represent tive. Solid core wood construction also oroduces a better soun ing door during openins and closinp than do the hollow core metal units. This stability reduces sound in the building with less damaee from abuse. hetal doors are :enerally preferred for their ease of installation and fewer adjustments durin: operation. A minimum of time and skilled labor is required to install t 'v—J 1888 ore-issembled units. Doors are us ally set in the ‘1') al cost of Ho jamb hinées and connected wita pins. The init metal doors is.hi¢her but advocates or these units stress the savines occurrinq through reduced installation and maintenance costs. Interior wood doors are subject to temperature and humidity chanses during the course of a school year. The summer months and holiday seasons create problens for wood 137 doors when the school is closed. Humidity tends to increase 1" .L durinq summer months and with t1e lack o proper circulation in the building say localize these conditions in ce tain areas. Temeeratures may also incree; in various rooms and caU.se excessive drying of wood products. Both cond'tions, if excessive, will distort the criminal shaoe of door units and require added aaintenance. L I Reqardless of the tyne of door used, metal door jambs ',Y and trim are the more common. m4 ood erod‘.cts have lost a f ‘ Greater snare of this market due to the amount of time involved in the installation of the items. With the wide use of interior block walls, steel jambs are new installed by the masonry trade dfllr .n" construction. This re dUces the labor costs. Althoueh the material costs of steel jambs are hijher, the final analysis prove that exoensive labor during wood jamb installat ionp reduces a hieher total cost fisure. 13s - Tor the most wart, school construction has evolved n to the present status of usine materials which will e Liciently 3 se structures. Wood u) acconnlish the desired requirements of th \) products have commanded a lower dimand du. to three sioeral directly and indirectly orohibit the 3 S r" ”J C?- H o C) :3 (a \ rersons: (1) re. use of wood urtducts in school ouildinés, (2) these products 5 r-r ‘ f '1‘ ’9’ . ' .leso rJStrlctions not only circctly e“rclude many useful wood products but tend ‘14; to adversely influence the architects into eliminétiné all to re-estsb‘ish wood products in the school canstruction field. ‘1») UL; "RA. Tiis restriction is tne one naior barrier to renove before U any oronotional or oraduct development actions by the lumber ?* ‘ q ‘ V n - v 1 ~ nf“ J- -. 1‘ ' I“ 't- J“ ‘p n ed.stry wnule 1rove 9L;7CULVG. at pres Du, one tasi oi w‘. -. 4- .- L? N 1 4-3 ' —-1 0"“ -v .. 7.. ~ enoVinfi or alteridf teese re Llatlons lies sqaa°ely wits the ‘ “ ‘ ‘.‘ 1“ w- -n . - ' '. “‘ ‘ " "N (1 '. '1'"! ~ -’ ldnoer lim.stry aid its vailols lIALCP as.oclatlois, since it Ho 3 tfieir mentors who are adversely e:;ected. A delinite plan 139 of action, ba cked wit 1 valid reasons for chanoinq t retulations, would undoubtedly receive some suooor from rchftects and school administrative personnel. leis combined 9 r force would oresent a strons ootential means of inducinr a re-evalue tion 0: orfisent restrictions. In some areas of 801001 construction wood products do not fulfill the requirements presently established for building lost to materials materials. As a result, markets have been that satisfv these conditions. Solutions to t‘is dilemma m include; changing the product itself to more doquately accomoli sh certain functions, or chanie the present nethods qost feasible solution for evaluating bui ldin: materials. Che r is a combination of both ide as. Research should be initiated I. tee la mtbe r lioes‘rv to solve such :5 by the various areas 1 problems as excessive initial costs, reooa :ed and costly maintenance and dimensional instability. At the same time, in developing new oioducts, and more 9-: procress is nee (W .e asiressive metiods e: or sen no wood irod cts to toe construction indust y. Proassembled units, special finishes, new materials to combine with wood products and many more ideas are needed to match the dynamic ”PDVbl of c “ oetitive ° 1 industries. In some resoects, the oresent sta tu -s of wood *aJ Chg; ongtr”ction fie\ ld is the result of a C] \4 products in the lac in research by the lumber industry while etoer materials CT) were constantly improved to fit various construction needs. 113-0 The second method to counteract these es ta bli s‘ied requirements isr M] ted to the third problem of not properly promoting these products. An increased amount of promotion i ‘ I nee sed to develop an interest in wood Droduct s by sc1eol D) administrators and architects. A :ver isins and personal .3 sales contacts by manufacturer‘s retresenta tives should be l .5 combined in proper amounts to am iciency in the F t lumber industry. This oromotional cam aian should also attempt to have present material standards re~evaluated in an effort to place wood products in a more competitive advantaae. Althomea these advantages do exist, the aroups responsible for mater al selection are not reminded of these assets in an anorooriLo manner or in sufficient amounts. Competition has monopolized promotion to the extent that wood products are not re cOM ize d or are misnomered. Efforts should be directed to correct these inadequacies and misconceptions by various lumber manuf: ct Irina concerns and associations. inese three pha es of development are essential for a re- e taolisnn nt of wood products in school construction. The potential vithin this field should be a sufficient incentive. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 13 5-1 Anonymous, Classro m Shortaae Associa ion of School Board Journal, 1955. BIBLI3C}RAPHY ”Primary Knits Partial Solution to Flint's ”, Reprint of article in n101'”&fl American Association of School Administrators, "fitretchino tne School Building Dollar”, Uashinqton, D. C. O o 0 ’1 > _o o r-J The American Assoc1atlon of school Adn1nistrators, 19b7. l Collabo rating Archite cts Committee, "Revised Dec s:7cn I Standards for Plcuontarj Scnools”, 1rand Rapids, I Grand Rapids Boar d of education, 195” ' Department of Public Instruction, Planning‘Toeether for Tetter PUBIlc Instruc ion, _uchool Buildi es, Lansing Department of of Public Instruction, ”School Construction Data”, Denartmcnt of Public Instruction, Lansinc, 1959. Elucctional - “acilities Laboratories, Inc., "Pine the Alarm" ;eu York, TdLCational Facilities Looolatorie Inc C., 1959. Federal gecurity Ace ncy, ”%chool Fire Tafe v”, ulletln 1991 To. 13, massington, D. C., Federal Security Aconcy, l Ta-rahan, P. J., ”Peavy Timber Construction for Tire Safety”, Washinston, D. C., American Institute of Timber {‘1 construction, 1935. Iational Titizen‘s Committe as for the Public Schools, "That Are Our ITEchool 3 uildinz‘21-Teeds", New York, gational Citizen's Com;1ittee for the Rublic fichools, 1955. Kati nal Fire Protection Association, buildi: _L‘ '7 " .0 . b ‘ 13 1 1 ~.o * _‘ o . ‘ . . 5 7“!" - ' «nal F1re Protection Association, 1799. tational Fire Protection Associativn, ”Geieral Actors Fire”, Boston, Ya‘io nal Fire Pro section Associct1on, 1953 J atifinal Tire P otection As soc’-ation, darn inn T d1ool Purn1n~ Lu 0 cf) Cr 1 o . :3 ‘0 {Dc—d ci‘ ’3 Ho onal Fire Protection Assoc1ation, 1959. 13. 1h. 1&3 Eational Fire T Trotection .“ss ociation, ”So 001 Fires”, Boston, racion _al Pi re Protection Association, 1953. Tational Fire Protection Association, The CZMica o Tchool Fire”, Boston, Fational Fire oratcction Assoc 13 ition, 1959. ‘aterials and flr‘ V - O I O h ' ‘ . ’ T " I“? ‘31,, :1. ’ ‘<—~Y9 C. A'l. , .1110 ”IL/’1 116’ U . If. ’ --«,. _. Let‘ods OT Arcfi;téctura1 Cons tr1ction, ien Iork, dohn ”iley BHC1 Sons Inc., 1953. fierce, UaVWd A. Tavin~ 1n Puildinr 3PTOCIS, l ,. -‘_ ._‘_. .an—x _— fi‘Lr 7T 1 13m fork, ’ciadoIc P "” Cor1., xv . 3 ichool of Jducotion, Licaifian State Collewo, A Turvcv of 1 the firand Iedce Community “chool Cre;, iast nrnsi1q, ‘ "H? .1 ”x, niCJigan 5 ate 06110 fie, ‘1931. inread in Buildinas”, ihope, cfifin1 3., ”Control of 31 e ‘ t’ a Lumber Lanufacturers 1LITE}.f.)11:}..1‘].(":.t(DJ-Y1’ D. C. , l;8-. As ocia tion, 19I9. State Tire Larc1al's Office, “Eire Prevention section, School Bulletin L12", jast landinfi, Stote of nichizan, 1959. (Ermaoson, I} 3., ”The Pfilwe Pe r-‘or;£nxxa