I": Errnki 3 VI a: sauna CERTAIN PHYSIOLGGICAL MEASURES Thesis Ior the Degree OI M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Douglas Gordon Stuart 1956 fl 7 h; ~Wr~hw '-... THE EFFECTS OF SPEED AND PACE TRAINING ON CERTAIN PHYSIOLOGICAL HEASURES B V ‘I Douglas Gordon Etuart A THLS 8 Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of kichigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of I'LILSTIIR OF AL’CTS EEpartment of Health, Physical Education and Recreation .195 IIII |I|l Ill ACKECULLDCMQNTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Henry J. Kontoye of the Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation for his supervision and guidance throughout the study and preparation of this paper. Dr. whyne D. Van Hues of the same Department and Dr. H. D. Collings of the Physiology Department displayed an interest in the study that was always a source of encouragement. Dr. Jilma Erewer, Dr. Dena Cederquist and Mr. Richard Slocum of the Ibpartment of Foods and Nutrition conducted the blood analyses, and have my full gratitude. M . William Pierson drafted Figure 3 as well as criticis- ing the text of this paper. Such generous help is deeply appreciated. hr. John P. halter deserves mention for helping design the training systems and collecting the data. ’ Kr. Karl A. Schlademan, head track coach at hichigan State University and his able assistant hr. Francis C. Dittrieh gave permission for the four subjects to participate in this study. For this cooperation they are more than thanked. D.G.S. _v_.\'.\'.\ umuuuuua l\ I‘ I\ l\ I‘ I\ I\ I\ l\ I\ 1‘ THE EFFECTS OF SPEED AND PACE TRAINING ON CERTAIN PHYSIOLOGICAL HEAS RES By Douglas Gordon Stuart AN ‘STRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of l-‘iichigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of EASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation Year 19,6 Approved _ . . _ . will. Douglas Gordon Stuart ABSTRACT Statement of the Problem The problem stated w s: "Ahat are the effects of speed and pace training on the electrocardiogram, basal metabolism, basal oxygen pulse, arterial blood pressure, blood hemoglobin level and five minute step test score of trained college freshmen?" Speed and pace training are empirically considered essential com- ponents of middle distance (mile and half-mile) race training. Little is known of the relative physiological effects of either and it was felt that such study would contribute information of practical as well as theoretical value. The physiological measures were selected on the basis of the interest they have aroused in the field of physical fitness research. As a subordinate investigation the inter-relation of certain of these measures was examined. I \‘ . u- 3 | urperimental Procecure g Four members of the freshmen track team.were prepared for the ; study by undergoing a season of cross—country running. This pre- liminary training was considered necessary to condition the subjects for the intensity of the nine week speed training and the nine week pace training prog ams. Before, during and after each of the programs a determination was made of each athlete's electrocardiogram, basal uh. Douglas Gordon btuart metabolic rate, basal 0i gen pulse, change in arterial systolic pressure from lying to standing, blood hemoglobin level and five minute step test score. The raw'physiological and training data were analyzed graphically to detect phvsiological changes and improved athletic performance. V ,— \ x ~tatistical treatment was applied wherever considered necessary and necessitated computation of analyses of variance, student "t"s and coefficients of correlation. Results and Discussion There was no statistical or graphic evidence of any physiological changes or improved athletic performance throughout the study. The relative effects of speed and pace training could not be assessed as each had no effect on any of the subjects. It was not possible to determine whether this failure to produce any athletic improvement or p‘ysiolegical changes was due to too short a total training time or t) the actual program being too mild in the amount of running undergone each day. Such a result illustrated the duration and intensity of training needed to elevate a freshman from one level of athletic achievement to the next is at least beyond that attempted in this study. It further illustrates that freshmen can cope with far more intensive running programs than usually attempted,for both the speed and pace training program were the most rigorous ever attempted by any of the subjects,but the over-all effect was maintenance of the "Status quo." Douglas Gordon Stuart Some statistically significant correlations were observed for the subjects between certain of the measures. hostly these significant relationships were between measures that contained common factors. However, the relationship between basal 02 pulse and step test score, a comparison of two relatively "isolated" physiological mechanisms, was close enough to justify a further study of basal oxygen pulse as an indicator of physical fitness. 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Phgw yolo ical heasures A0001 Lowest Step Test Scores of Pour Sun panying the Highest and JGCtSooooooooooooooooo Coefficient of Correlation between Certain of the Phys iO:LOVi0al heasureSooooooooooooo000000000000.00.000... iv Page L2 F I GU11 :1 LIST '1 FIG 1:33 The Effect of Speed and Pace Training on Race Peri.omlglnce...o.......OOOOOOIOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. The Effect of Speed Training on Kean 220 Yard Effort Time Certain Physiological Keasures Before, During and After SPQEd 811C1Pace Training...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0.... The Effect of Speed and Pace Training on the Change in ) Arterial Systolic Pressure from lying to Standing........ The Effect of Speed and Pace Training on Blood Hemoglobin LewfelOO0.0...0......O0.00.0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0.... The Time Spent on Various Activities During the Study.... c 111111 1‘ INTRODUCTION A fundamental aspect of physiological research is the study of the body's reaction to disease and of the diseased state. Similarly, striv of the body's reaction to the stress of t11letic trai-ning and the trained state au::qe11ts phrsioles1cal knowle 0. Such study of the effects of athletic training on various phys io- lo ogi ical measures has two—fold value: it leads to a concept of the duration and intensity of training needed to promote inpro ver ent in phgsir al function and lsiowled'e of the measures themselves is further devel ed bi notine their reactions to such stress. o (.3, "I otatenent of the PrOblem The prob em stated is: "that are the effects of speed and.pace training on the electrocardiogram, basal metabolism, basal oxygen pulse, arterial blood pressure, blood hemoglobin level, and five minute step test score of trained college freshmen?" ustification for the Study The physiological measures studied were selected on the basis of the interest they have aroused in physical fitness research. The step test score is the onlv se_ ection universall;r accepted as a valid indicator of circulatory fitness and as being significantly affected by athletic training. It was felt that data on the other five measures, the 5h collected on but four subjects, would contribute information to a field of conflicting Opinion. If the measures are affected by "middle distance" training, a valuable opportunity exists to Observe two factors of such training. Speed and pace training are empirically considered to be essential components of training for the half-mile and mile races, the "middle distances.” Nothing is known of the relative physiological effect of each and it was hoped that the study would contribute information to the problem. Conventional studies of the effects of athletic training either consist of subjecting a sedentary group to a period of athletic train- ing or testing athletes before, during and after a competitive season. ‘dith the former method the group have to become adapted to athletic activity by a graduated athletic program, meaning that a uniform system of training cannot be conducted. In the latter case there is doubt that athletes are in the "untrained" state before a competitive season, and a comparison to the mid—season state is not necessarily of the "untrained" to the "trained" state. In an attempt to avoid such considerations the following experi- mental design was adopted. A group was conditioned to a highly trained state before tne study was begun, then they were subjected to two standardized training programs f hitherto unattempted intensity. This was a deviation from the usual pattern that can only be validated by further experimentation. Limitations Due to the need for a carefully supervised training program only four subjects formed the experimental group. Conclusions which may be significant with a larger number of subjects are not necessarily significant with only four subjects. Each training system was limited to approximately nine weeks-~an unavoidably short period. Plys'oloeical e fects that may not be seen in nine weeks could quite possibly be evidenced in a longer training Uncontrollable variables such as "motivation," "emotionality," "fatigue" etc. were not considered measurable and as such were not discussed statistically. No medical interpretations were attempted of the electrocardio- gram . Rather, the amplitudes and intervals between the P, R and T waves of leads I, II, III, an, aVl and aVr were analyzed and the electrical axes of the CBS complexes calculated. Definition of Terms The Trained State: A state of improved physical performance the re- sult of adaptation to regular athletic training. Pace Training: A system of training based on repetitive efforts of running at a set speed until such speed can no longer be mc' - tained. 0 speed efforts at a set distance. Speed Training: A system of training based on repetitive maximal h _‘ bleetroeardpogram: a graphic record of the electrical activity of the heart. Standard limb Leads: Positionsfrom which electrodes lead Off the electrical activity of the heart from the body surface in three combinations; lead I, ri3ht arm - left arm; lead II, right arm - left leg; lead III, left Hr -left leg. Augmented Unipolar limb leads: Placement ofe lectr ode in a direct lead to the central ter11inal of the electrocardior91ph machine and the other on the right arm, left arm and le: t le 3 for leads aVr, 1-. aVl and an respectively. P dave: An indication of the spread Of excitation over the auricles that precedes auricular contraction. R have: An amplitude that depends on the direction of the electrical axis of the heart (see later) during the particular moment at which electrification Of the main mass of the walls Of the ventn_- cles is beginning, an activity that precedes ventricular contrac- tion. T Have: Possisly a represents ion of "the repolarization of the sinus node and action currents from the heart muscle"2 based on the Observation that the T wave and end of venticular contraction are co-ineidental- rval between the beginning of P and the begin- °s missing). This is thought to show the the auricular and ventricular contractions.3 P-Qfi Interval: The ill er ning of Q; (R 1hen 1;; time relation be we 5 H Q-T Interval: The interval between the beginning of the Q (R when Q is missing) and the end of the T wave. This total duration is approximately the same as the mechanical systole but there is doubt that it can be used to determine the contraction time of the heart. 1 _ ‘ Houssay, Bernado A. Human Phisioloev, 2nd Sd., pp. l22-lhO, LeCraw 7M3” . o-o-~ Hill Book CO.,1 Ilew York, 15959. 2 Foerch, Richard L. A Conpar:ison Of leetroea1Oiorraonwc Teas1re- .phc“ -.-—.---. -’.-..Hhm"--.”'-'*‘u. “*-.M*‘-.- mentswofw Athletes and ion—nt1leces at 1111*}A State bniversitv, p. WIf. Tbnpub. Ha er's Thesis, hichi3an Sta ate College, 1931). 3Houssay, pp, git., p. 12h. \J’l QRS Instantaneous Electrical n) :is: A vector that 3ives an inch cati on of th e volta e resulting fr ron the electro1otive forces developed during t}:e ¢.b,co map ex and indie atin J the direction in which the current ilons.’ a ism: "The irreducible enerjf cost of maintenance durina ecu plete rest."3 It is calculated as a_rate of heat production based on Iea C _ng po st—absorptive ouvsen consumption, i.e., basal metabolic r Ht = Ce lories per hour per square meter of body sur- face area. Basal Oxv'en Pulse: The quantity of oxygen utilized_by the bod", in the resting post absorptive state, per heart heat. It is usually expressed in ccs.02 per pulse and, for counarative purposes and due to its direct correlation with body vei ht, per kilogram of body weight. Arterial Blood Pressure: The force eyerted bv the blood on the walls of the arteries. The pressure is at its 3reatest during the con— traction phase of the he art's action (5 stole) and at its least during the heart's relazation phase (Ciastole); hence the terrs systolic and oia stolic rterial blood pressure. Blood Hemoglo in Level: The grammes of hemoglobin, a pi3nent in the red blood cells, per 100 ccs. " blood. Hemo looin is termed tzie "re spiratorv" pi rent by virtue 9 its role in taking up oxygen from the lungs, transporting it in the circulating blood, deliv,ring it to the body tissues, and helpicr carr; carbon di- oxide back from the tissues to the lungs. But for heaoglobin, blood could only transport l/éth the amount of oxygen. 1ive Minute Step Test Score: The nuroer of pulses for thirtv seconds, thirty seconds after a subject has completed 5 minutes' stepping up and down a 1?" steel with each of the four steps of each cycle taking 0. 5 seconds. thid., p. 128. S“ srody, Samuel, Bioener; etips_and(hnxfifln p. 59, Reinhold Publ. Corp. New York, l9h§.m 6-.. lbid., p. 932. 7Houss say, pp. Eit., p. 27. CHAPTER II REVIEJ OF THE LITERATURE The Electrocardiogram It is becoming increasingly difficult to deny that athletic training has an effect on the electrocardiogram. hany authorities have resisted such a belief. Katzl reflects this opposition, stating that "nothing in the ECG gives information regarding the power of the heart, vigor of contraction and tone, only the presence or absence of injury, the character and spread of excitation and its point of origin ."2 The literature on training effects is not voluminous in English—speaking 5 countries and Robertson3 believes that too little attention has been given to continental views, a neglect due in the main to language difficulties. Lepeschkinh reviewed electrocardiographic studies, mostly European, and, in a summary devoted to athletic training effects, stated that: 1' ‘W - 'v 1"" *‘1 'I o hatz, L. N. electrocardiograpqg, 2nd LOlt., p. 80, Lea and reroiger, Philadelphia, 19h7. 292.21- . :1 “ Robertson, Douglas, Translator's preface to Clinical electrocardio- ‘ A . .—. --~- 1-7" ----—-—' --~---~ -- --- granhgg L. Holzmann, staples Press, London, 1992. l .' L I \ “\' v ‘- -~I a Lepeschkin, a. Epdern slectrocardiography, pp. 263-h, wllll us & Williams, Baltimore, 1951. I l. The P wave is lowered. 2. The P-R interval is prolonged, beyond .Ol9 seconds in 5-203 of all cases'studied. 3. This prolongation is due to an increase in vagal tone, proven by its return to normal fOIIOwing atropine injection or exercise. h. The a:{3 electrical axis in a lar e group of athletes averaged +500 (with normal subjects the axis tends to +600).5 5. No relation has yet been dis covered between the duration oi' gas and its axis deviation. 6. The T wave is increased, especially in long distance track men and in champions. 7. In lead III, T is inverted in 103 of the cases. 8. The developn ent of an inverted T in lead III and an inversion of T in leads II and III has been ascribed to excessive training. 9. A pathological ECG was found in only four of 850 champions even after exhaustive competition. 10. The Q—T interval is prolonged.especially in outstanding athletes and in long distance men where it may reach +3OS. Lepeschkin’s review is a valuable supp lem.ent to the more widely read American studies. 7 . a 6 -, ... . . Tuttle and horns quote araus and Nicolai‘s Il ncEing that athletes T waves were higher than non-a thletes ', though no other differences [C3 were noted. Von Csinady' and heindell, both working with large groups Houss y, Bernardo A. In man IE siolo;yz 2nd Bdit., p. 129, HcGraw Hill Book Co., I Jew York,l %b. Tuttle, h. N. and Korns, H. h. "'lectrOCi.din rap} cObservations on Athletes Before and After a Season of Phys we 1 Training." Ancrican HeartJ‘Iourna l 21.:JIN', l9hl. 7 c 1 o *1 9. o -\ . r1 ‘0 Ipid., Citing Kraus, a. and hicolai, L. Das slektrokardiogranm des 5esunden_und Iranken henschen, Liepzig, 1910. 8 \ ~' *1 . I. Lureton, Thomas A. Physical rit 1 as f bhannion RtfllCtGS, P-‘lh3: -1..n."--. MAT— .. u o w The Univerr ity of Ill linois Press, Urbana, Val, Citing Von Ceinady, n., "Sportzartalische Untersuchen lll. Hitteilong: vergleichende elektrokardiographische Untersuchen an Sporttreibenden be besonderer Berucksichtigung des did-Zeitwerte." firoeitpnvsiolo ie 3:579, 1930- Ibid., p. lhl citing Reindell, H. "Kymographische und Elektrokardio— graphische Befunde am Sportheizen l. Untersuchungen in Ruhe." /\ Deuts che lurchiv fur Klinische Ledizin 131:385, I937. O) of athletes, established a longer P-LI interval with the latter find- ing that the length of systole (as assessed by the Q-T interVal) varied with the ability to perform in certain sports. 10 Hougerwerf's widelv publicized 1923 Amsterdam study found lower P waves but hi her It and T waves for 260 Olvmpie athletes. On the ‘( ll fl ”8‘1" - contrary, Broustetm mid ngenberuer found 33 normal Ltd's in a group 1‘ .L 5 professional boxers, scullers, soccer players and cyclists. Ki) 0 A reason for the lowered P wave in athletes has been offered in a '1 1-2 ..L “ 1—3 P1 both an aus tra.ian and German stuFV. They maintain that a low P wave is ass oc1ated with increased vagal and arterial tone and increased blood flow. .1 To illustrate the differences between atlmr tes and non—athletes 3 data from the University of Illinois Pm wical Fitness Laboratory con- n ’ ‘ _. 4.1 1 1L' Q1 15" pares mean scores 01 So Champion athletes to J1 normal young men. (See Table II, page 36.) OM... ... , - lOld., p. 1L0 Citing Hougerwerf, S.,' le'rtro‘r‘rdio raphis cne Unter- suchen der Amsterdame Olympiade" Arbeitphysiologie 2:6l,l 929. ll . Ibid., p. 1hl citing Broustet, P. and Eggenberger, H., "L'elektre- hardiographische des Sportifs," Journel de Medicine de Bourdeaux et du Sud-0e3e 113:126, 1926. “" 12 Cooper, 3. L., O'Sullivan, J. and Hughes, 3. "Athletics and the Heart. In Electrocardiographic and Radiological Study of the He- sponse of the Healthy and Diseased Heart to fixercise." hedical ignrnal_of Australia, 1:569, 1937. T ‘ 13- ... . . Uureton, mp. EEE‘) p. M21 Citing PurJesz, B. and Von Csinady, a., "rffects of Chan :es of Position on the Hulzan ECG. ' Rivista ee IIedicina _Aeronautica, 3:106, 1930. l ,, . 9Ibid., p. 159 citing golf, J. G. “lectrocaro ograin otandarcs for Normal Young Ien" (Unpublished MaSter's Thesis, the Universitv of Illinois, l9h3). w"., . 16 , ,w,. . . htn the sane 56 Olympians, Cureton ‘ recorded gab anis dev1a- - 4—- O «’70 O r? I n 9 ‘- .tions from + l)! to -3t.5 . he claims that the athletes with the Q ‘ least left side hypertrcphy tendee to have the greatest left axis J) deviation and those with the smalles riglt diameter heart the la gest right axis deviation. Tuttle and horns followed h; athletes in varying sports through 'a pre- to a post—competitive season and found no significant LOG dif- ferences in L3 of the subjects throughout this period. jr’l Stauffer‘” established increased carbiovascular fitness for lb varsity bashetballers as they moved from pre- to mid-season and de- creased efficiency as they went out of competition, but there were no . ' (‘ Significant changes in the 506s throughout this period. -“ ‘ ,20, - ..L 1 ,1 1‘1 oesenhacn has listen, though noc valicated, h? factors other than disease that can affect the ECG. Such factors must be taken into account when appraising any ECG studv. Ibifi. , p. 161;. / n \J FJ 7 -, -- . V . Tuttle, a. n. and horns, H. L., on. Cit. ...... ...—...- Stauffer, G. "The Effects of Conditioning on the Ballistocardiograns of Varsity asketball Players," p. 50. (Unpubl. Kaster's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1955). 19"“ . . , , , w . - _ . , Unpublisneo oaua collected by n. J. Lontoye, a. D. Collings and G. Stauffer, hichigan State University, 1955. 0 fi . _ o u c o I T " - oesenbacn, w. some Common Conditions hot Due to Primary Heart Disease, That May be Associated with Changes in the ECG." Annals of Internal Nedigine, 25:632,19h6. —.-.— 10 The only conclusion that can be drawn is that athletes have dCGs that vary from those 0“ sedentary people but the duration and intens- C ity of training needed to elicit such changes and their exact physio- logical interpretation are still unknon . Basal Metabolic Rate t is normally anticipated that athletic training will to some degree both develop the musculature and increase cardiovascular fit- ness. Different forms of training m v elicit diverse effects. For instance, weight lifting should develop the musculative without in- creasing cellular efficiency and the opposite is possible with long distance running. Any increase in muscular development should increase the resting body's oxygen requirements waile any increase in cellular eff’ciency should decrease this requirement. Perhaps this is the reason that studies of the effect of training on basa metabolism have often produced conflicting results. It is suggested that the type of train- ing undergone is often neglected in the examination of the results of such experiments If during a period of training the gain in cellular efficiency overbalances the gain in the mass f body proto- plasm then a fall in the B.H.R. will result. If, on the other hand, there occurs a considerable increase in the size of the muscles due to formation of active protoplasm, then this may overshadow the gain in cellular efficiency and re- sult in an increase in metabolism. Lastly, if the increase in cellular efficiency should be just counterbalanced by the ll production of protoplasm the B.M.R. of the individual will remain unchan; ed durin' a period of physical training. The Schneider and Foster study that provoked this discussion con- sisted of recordinf the B.L.h. of y varsity athletes in and out of training and 3 sedent w.ry sub;ects throughout a six week exercise pro— H n1 Gran. Seven of the athlete s reduced the? C.‘ .L.R.'s in training , one did not change, and one increased. Of the sedentary group, training increased pronouncedly the E.L.P. of one, moderately increased th B.L.R. of anotl:er, and Inocerately decreased the metabolism of the third. i 22 An earlier study by Schneider with Clark and hing of one athlete in and out of competitive training and h sedentary subjects undergoinq a 6-lh vsceh program of tennis, handball, and s*.i1linf, produced diverse res lts. The athlete had a higher B.h.R. out of training while 3 of the sedentary group lowered their B.h.h. during training, the other raising this index. All the sedentary group returned to their pre- training levels after the pr gram was completed. This trend toward a lower B L .P. during athletic training prompted the statement that "one of the results of physical training is an increea se in the efficiency 23 with which the life processes are carried on. " la . . a , l Scnneider, S. C. and roster, A. 0. "Influence of Physical Training on the Basal Letabolic Rate in Kan." American Journal_ of Physio] oLv 0.3; [jot 1931 '- ...... ....-.“ W11- , . Schneider, S. C., Clarl -, S. J. and Ring, S. C. "Influence of Physical Training on Basal hespir atory "tchance, Pulse late and Arterial Blood Pressures." American Journal of Prvsiolosv, 81:253, 1927. 2 2) ”aa- Knehr, Dill and IxIe‘..1feldm'L trained lh subjects for 6 months on cross-country ruzu sing three tines a week. Though they were at le to demonstrate marked improvement in physical performance, there were no significant chanje s in the B.I.L.'s. ~.' 3 2.) ‘ —1 Loren us ’ tested a group of tracknen throughout a track season .ec to show an increased metabo isn due to track training. Steinhaus26 carefully controlled the environments of four dogs, interspersin: periods of nearly total inactivity with periods of daily treadmill runs of 6-12 miles. He was unable to note basal metabolic variations due to such periods of activity. In the above studies the type of training selected would tend to promote increased cellular efficiency rather than an increase in muscle development. .. 2" ,. . , 0n the contrary, IWlEl en { studied the basal metabolic rate 0: n 19 college girls throughout a swimming course. The B.h.B. or 15 of the group rose and the h that did not elevate their index were on a v low carbohydM“ te c.iet that tendecl to recuce their B.I .n. 2L, .. . . nnehr, C. A., Dill, D. B. ano Leuielc, a. "Training and its Sff ect lr’ on.Lan at Best and at Jerk." Arer. Journal pf Phypiology 138: '9 7 9L? . ”NT“ 2“ i /L” ) Cureton, on. cit. citing L rehous e, L. "Basal Letabolism of -— Athletes in Training 'p. 67. (Unpubl. Laster's Thesis, Spring- field College, 193?). no“ 2 r . - S Steinhaus, A. H. "axerCise and Basal metabolism in Dogs.” Amer. Journal of Physiology, 83:558, 1928. 27_ , r . . .. m lbid., p. 292 Citing illGlsen, L. "ihe Sf fect of Physical Sducation on the Basal hetaboliSI of Colle e .omen, " p. SlO. (Unpubl. Iaster's Thesis, Univ. of Illin nois, 1950). 13 28 - a Cureton cites Leilich who tested the B.m.fl. of 70 students at the University of Illinois to find that 13 top athletes averaqed 7.5% higher than 20 sedentary young men. ~ 0 29 o ‘ 1 v ' ‘_: S, ' .' D - - .71. [- Nylin,- in a broad pnySiological eiamination oi two OUtStddOlR5 Swedish milers, calculated both B.h.R.'s to be above normal, thus refuting an earlier statement in this review that track training would tend, by promoting cellular efficiency, to reduce the B.h.R. However, one of the subjects was of endomorphic structure (5'10", 16h lbs.) and according to Nylin this would tend to outweigh considerations of the type of training to which he had subjected himself. ‘0 ‘)o1 3O 1 v 0 0+ Benedict and hiedle found that prolonged phySical aCth1oy ‘ . 1. ' . . . 31 ., , oecreased the metabolism of pigeons and, With Harris, decreased the B.N.R. of a dog 22% by prolonging an inactive state for several months. On the basis of the studies reviewed, the assertion that a low r . . . 32 . . , B.h.R. may mean low cardiovascular condition cannot be Justified. . I 0 ~ 0 A "yardstbck" to assess the type of training undergone by subJects and the relative degree to which such training improves cellular 2R 0 o o ’ o o N - *-; 1 D 1 ”Cureton, op. Cit. , p. 28 Citing Leilicn, Boy L. The Comparison oi Various Education Groups on Basal Metabolism, p. 60, (Unpubl. T Laster's Thesis, Univ. of Illinois, l9h3). 2 '. _ . . . . . 9Nylin, G. "investigations on tne Blood Circulations of Gunder Haegg and Arne Anderson," Cardiologica, 9-lO:311, l9hS—6. O . 1 . , . 3 Benedict, F. E. and Riddle, D. "The heasurement of Basal Heat Pro- duction in Pigeons," Journal of Nutrition, 1:530, 1929. 1 Harris, J. A. and Benedict, F. G. "A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism," Carnegie Inst. Report No. 279, 1919, p. 2h5. 32 Cureton, 2p. cit., p. 288. efficiency and muscular development would be an asset to this field of study. Basal Oxygen Pulse There has been no work on the effects of training on basal oxygen pulse but some theoretical discussion is of such import that it would appear timely to develop this field of study. Brody33 maintains that the greater the blood volume pumped by the heart per pulse for an animal of given weight, the slower will be the pulse rate. The oxygen pulse per unit of body weight is then an index of systolic output or heart capacity, the usual limiting factor in hard muscular work. 314 A theory not to be neglected, is that of Brody and Kibler who maintain that the rate of oxygen consumption is probably the same for a slow or a rapid pulse rate and it thus follows that high oxygen transport capacity is associated with high oxygen consumption per heart beat. 35 Henderson and Prince have maintained that maximum oxygen pulse depends not only on the systolic discharge but also on the blood 33Brody, Samuel, Bioenerietics and Growth, p. 932, Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York, l9h5. 3LKibler, H. H. and Brody, 5. "Growth and Development. LVII. An Index of huscular dork Capacity." Univ. of Missouri Agricultural Imperiment Station Research Bulletin, No. 367, l9h3. Henderson, Y. and Prince, A. L. "The Cuvhen Pulse and the Systolic ‘U (2 Discharge." American Journal of Physiology, 35:106, l9lh. hemoglobin index. If this were true of basal ox gen pulse it would indeed be of use in assessing cardio—vascular fitness. However, following computation of data collected by Henderson 37 oz and Haggard)” on members of a sculling crew, Brody was forced to the conclusion that such a resting index may not alwers be a reliable index of work ca acity. In this instance Brody calculated an oxygen pulse of .09 ccs. CZ/Kg. of body weight for two members of the crew and only .05 cos. OQ/Kg. of body weight for a third memoer. He felt that there was a possibility that excitement may have altered the relation between pulse rate and oxygen consumption and as such this index was not nearly as valuable as an index based on working con- ditions. Such a conclusion can be drawn for all basal tests but as 38 . . . . 1 Henry pOints out, tests of the resting Circulation snould always command a certain respect as an indirect reflection of the active system. , Q9 . . Brooy’ has prepared a chart that illustrates that athletic creatures (man, horses, dogs and cats) have higher oxygen pulses than non—athletic animals (beef cattle, "tame" rabbits and sheep). Q6. ’ Henderson, Y. and Haggard, H. H. "The Circulation and its heasure- ment." American Journal of Physiolofv, 73:193, 1925. 37Br0dy’ _O_Bo Cite, pp. 935-60 38 - Henry, Franklin.h. "Influence of Athletic Training on Resting. Cardiovascular System." Research Quarterly, 25:28, l9Sh. 39 . BrOde, 29-. 9-21., p- 935. 16 Bock and co-workersho present a famous marathon runner's 02 pulse as .081 ccs. OZ/Kg. of body weight as compared with two sedentary adults indices of .059 and .osh. This single study is the extent of comparative fisures for athletes and non-athletes. In summary, little is known of the value of the measure in the field of physical fitness research, but extensive experimentation seems more than justified. Arterial Blood Pressure In the absence of disease, 1arked changes in resting arterial blood pressure are transitory due to sensitive compensatory mechanisms. Poiseuillel‘Ll was the first to calculate that pressure in.the arterial system is diversely proportional to blood minute volume and peripheral resistance. In turn the minute volume is proportional to systolic discharge and to heart rate. This systolic discharge is modified directly by the physiological condition of the heart musculature and the venous return and inversely by the heart rate. The peripheral resistance is inversely proportional to the sduare of the cross sectional area of the blood vessels. 'Each of these factors is affected by athletic training but due to the restraint they impose on each ho Book, A. V. et a1. ”Studies in.Huscular Activity. III. Dynamic ——- ..- changes occurring in_han at Jerk." Journal of Physiology, 66:136, 1928. ‘ "' ' ' L1 Houssay, 2p. git., p. 178, citing Poiseuille, J. "Recherches sur les causes du movement du sang dans les vaisseaux capillaires." Hemoires presentes par divers savans a l'Acadamie Science de L' Ingtitute demfrance. 17 other the resultant arterial pressure tends to remain constant. This holds true for a body free from disease, a body in the highl -trained L2 state, and a body beginning athletic training. I13 , . Henry's careful stuoy of 18 athletes before, during and after a season of competitive athletics is in keeping with modern theo- retical concepts of compensatory mechanisms. Beginning with the hypothesis that an increase in resting stroke volume should be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in heart rate, he illustrated that although training will affect each factor that regulates blood pressure, the over-all effect is homeostatic. This study is concerned with changes in systolic pressure from lying to standing. Interest was initially aroused in this function after a series of original experiments led HillJL to the Observation that "the effect of changing the position affords a most delicate test of splanchnic motor function," for it is only by vaso—constriction of the splanchnic blood vessels that the systolic pressure can be maintained when posture changes from the horizontal to the erect position. The assertion that Hill introduced the arguments for a postural AS blood pressure test of condition‘ is not in keeping with Hillls 5219313., p. 179. Henry, g2. cit. I hLHill, Leonard, "The Influence of the Force of Gravity on the Circu- lation of the Blood," qurnal of Physiology, 18:15, 1895. Cureton, Thomas A. Physical ritnsss Appraisal and Guidance, p. 193, C. V. hosby 00., st. Louis, 19h7. belief that "gravity exerts but little disturbing influence owing to the perfection of the compensatory mechanism,"b6 in man. Hill's sole interest and discussion in this field is related to proof that shook, anemia, hemorrhage and chloroform poisoning are largely affected by the position of the body. However, Crampton went on to devise his blood ptosis test with the rationale that a test of the gravity resisting function of the heart is an estimate of the "efficiency of the influences which bring the blood to the heart in the upright position.”b70rampton based this postulation on his observation that the function varied with the general state of the body, there being an increase in systolic pres— sure on assuming an erect position when a subject was fresh and a decrease when fatigued. His blood ptosis index is calculated from the changes in systolic pressure and heart rate when changing position and the standards for his index are based on the assumption that these wo factors are directly related in this function. Crampton addition— ally claimed that this test could separate the highly—trained and normally healthy state with the fitter the subject the greater the likelihood of an increased vertical over horizontal systolic pressure. His test was widely acclaimed, McCloy maintaining that the index score 16 Hill, op. cit. Crampton, L. N. The GraVity ReSiSting Ability of the Circulation, Its Measurement and Significance (Blood Ptosis)." American Journal of Medical Sciences, 20:721, 1921. 19 was even of use in predicting athletic performance on any given 148 day. Conflicting data soon appeared. Crampton's belief that his test indicated the degree of physical and mental alertness was disputed b9 . . . . by Scott who found the test could not disqualify pilots incapable of flying on a given day. He compared Cranpton's differentiation procedure to a medical differentiation that disqualified any pilot who ‘Jsplayed any three of the following symptoms: increased psychomotor tension . prolonged secondary dilation of the pupils relaxed peripheral circulation nervous tics nervous tremors 01?:me Of the group that were acceptable on the Crampton index, 118 qualified and 19 failed Scott's test and of the group disqualified by Crampton 37 passed and 26 failed Scott's test. V -- 1 5 SO .1. 1 o ‘ Senneider and Truesaell could net demonstrate a high corre- lation between systolic and heart rate postural changes when they established for 2,000 young men a slight inverse relationship (1‘: -.213i.01t) for these factors and stated that "the interdependence . r . , . )w of the factors had been unduly empnaSized." IO U . . . . . .. , .. 1 Ibid., Citing personal communication from C. H. McCioy. h9 Scott, V. T. "The Application of Certain Physical nffieiency Tests." Journal of the American Ledical Association, 76:705, 1921. Schneider, E. C. and Truesdell, D. "Statistical Study of the Pulse Rate and the Arterial Blood Pressures in Recumberency, Standing and after Standard Exercise." American Journal of Physiology, 61:h29, 1922. 51 Ibid. ...-..- SO The rationale for HeCloy's support of such a test is in conflict with a study by LarsonS2 that gives a -.l2h correlation of the index with th yard swim time. Crampton's belief that the more healthy the person the more the likelihood of an increased systolic pressure on standing is not valid in light of Barach's53 study that before a marathon race 10 subjects recorded an increase in systolic pressure on standing, 11 a decrease, and 3 were unchanged- Immediately after the race when the group could surely be labelled "in the fatigued state," five recorded an increase, twelve a decrease and three were unchanged. In similar vein, Rothacher5h established a mean lying arterial blood pressure for hO athletes of 12h.3 mm. Hg. and for DO non-athletes 127.h mm. Hg. The standing means were 121.9 mm. Hg. for the athletes and 127.3 mm. Hg. for the non-athletes. Despite the above studies an interest has prevailed in the postural cha.ge in blood.pressure, as a test of cardio-vascular fit- Bloed Hemogldbin A major limiting factor in man's ability to perform strenuous activity is his oxygen supply to active protoplasm. Hence, changes [:2 “ o a . '" I v r: H ’ tureton, pp eit., Citing Larson, L. A. "The Prediction 01 Success in Swimming th Yards." Unpubl. Report, New York Univ., 1937. Barach, J. V. "Physiological and Pathalogical Effects of Severe Exertion." American Physical Education Review, 15:651, 1910. Sh Rothacher, J. L. "Athletic Conditioning in Relation to Circulation and height." Research Quarterly (Supplement) 6:69, hay, 1935. 21 in the quantity and percentage of hemoglobin in the blood and varia- V tions in nemoglohin affinity for oxygen vitally affect man's endur- ance capabilities. "..I .r‘ s. 2) Steinhaus reviewed what little work had been done up to 1932 and concluded that the hypoxia (lack of xyjen) induced by athletic (_ training and that produced by_lowerine the tension of oxygen in environmental air (such as in rarified atmospheres) cannot elicit the same effects due to the transitory nature of exercise hypoxia. However, it is safe to argue that Steinhaus wrote this review at a time when the severity of training to which man has recently adapted, was unknown. The hypoxia of normal athletic contests (football, basketball, etc.) and their conditioning periods is certainly transi- tory. But the stress of middle distance training attempted since World Jar II is certainly of a far more severe and prolonged nature. That adagtion to prolonged hypoxia involves an increase in the blood hemoglobin level has been often proved.56 'That the extent of oxygen deprivation and the increase in hemoglobin has a direct re- 57 lationship has also been demonstrated. That the blood hemoglobin level can be appreciably elevated within 60 minutes after hypoxia 5r ). . 1 ’1 n *1 n 7“ 0 ~ I o Steinnaus, A. H. "Chronic nfiects of nxchise," PnySiological . q fi ”...”..- M. ReViews, 13:103, 1933. 4/ 5O ' 0 ‘il 0 (1 Van Liere, m. J. Anoxia) Its Afiectdpn the Body, p. lhl. The UniverSity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 19h2. Fitzgerald, h. P. "The Change in the Breathing and the Blood at Various Altitudes," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society r of London, Series B. 2033351, 1913- 22 S3 ‘ . . . r , has begun’ and sucn rapid elevation will be prolonged has been 9 \fl clearly shown. That none of the above phenomena have been studied as man adapts to the stress of exhaustive exercise is, in light of the above, unusual. It is not here the purpose to discuss the chemistry of hemoglobin regeneration nor to discuss 'he exact role of the hypoxic stimulus. Certainly it is not the intention to defend a belief that an exercise and an altitude hypoxia are one and the same. H-wever, the type of studies cited and their results should surelv promote an interest in the field of physical training research to see if an adaptation to the more exhausting methods of physical training is similar to alti- tude adaptation. Five Minute Step Test Score The general consensus of opinion in physical education research is that a pulse rate test is the simplest method of gauging cardio- vascular fitness. It has been well established that athletes tend to have slower pulse rates than non-athletes both at rest and during .60,. n 61 exerCise and the efiect of training is to lower the pulse rate. 58Grefft, H. d., Lutz, B. R. and Schneider, E. C. "The Changes in the Content of Hemoglobin and Erythrocytes of the Blood.in.han During Short Exposures to Oxygen." ggeripangggurnal of Physiology, 501:216, 1919. ‘ :QVan Liere, 9p. git., pp. LS-é. 0 Henderson, Y, Haggard, H. h. and Dolley, F. S "The hfficiency of the Heart and the Significance of dapid and Slow Rates." American Journal of_Physioley, 82:152, 1927. a».-.u-.. 61 ”"""‘“" Steinhaus, pp. git. 23 Salit and Tuttle feel that "of all the tests f ollo owing exercise, the post-exercise pulse rate and increase due to exercise are found the 2 most promising." Currently, the most w’dely used test of this nature is the Harvard Step Test. It consists of *3 (D -coraing thirty seconds of pulse 1 . ’1 . '- . . .. . . . rate l-l; minutes, 2-2; minutes and 3-3; minutes alter five minutes of steppi.s up and down a 20" steel with each four-step cycle taking ~J two seconds. An index is calculated from these rates. Soon after 6h e the test was made public, Brouha, Fradd and Sava ; presented data on a large group of students illustrating that the test could dis- tinruish between the trained slightly trained and sedentary states L , and that the effect of training can be noted through index variations. To date, the validity of the test in this sphere has not been questioned. - L 6 Go . . .' . .-. ’ . Both hontoye and Taylor have shown that tne Signiiicance Ol the test is not altered by eli“m ating the post 2- 2% min. and post ,. '1 . . . . ~ ,- . . 3-5; min. pulses, and Simply taking tne 30 second pulse rate one minute after training. 2 , _ Salit, E. P. and Tuttle, H. H. "The Validity of Heart Rates and Blood Pressure Leterminations as Measures of Physical Fitness," Research Quarterly, 15:25}, l9h9. 6? ,2 . a. . .. . . Brouha, L. "The Step Test. A Simple hethod of measuring Physical Fitness for Kuscular Berk in Young hen." Res earch Quarterly, 13:31, i9b3. rouha, L., Fradd, H. H., and Savare, B. K. "Studies in Physzc al HBfficiency of Col le;f e Students." Research_ guarterly , ly-2ll, l9uh. )_ . . Iflontqye, H. J., "The 'Harvard Ste D Te st' and aorx CapaCity," l Revue Canadienne ce Bioxcsie, ll: LJ, 1953. .—-—~-——-—.—-—-—~ — ..--o aux 66m laylor, C. "A haximum Pack Test of Exercise Tolerance." Research gparterly, 15:201, l9hh. 211 Summary It is not difficult to justify the use of the selected measures in this study, even though doubt still exists as to their value in physical fitness research. The outstanding conclusion that can be drawn from this review is that none of the cited studies have attempted to guage the type, duration or intensity of training needed to promote any physiological changes. Is it correct to assume that, because a certain program fails or succeeds to alter physiologic measures, the same holds true for any form, or any intensity or any duration of any athletic train- Future study should take cogniscance of the qualitative and quantitative nature of the experimental training program. CHAPTER III I~1nTHOD OF ROCEDUIEE Instruments Utilized The TLC-2 C ardi strep This instrument produces an electrocardiogram on a thermo- sensitive paper. The paper, ruled in one millimeter squares, moves at a rate of 25 millimeters per second. The records were standardized by adjusting the stylus to deflect 5 millimeters for every intro- duction of one millivolt, (0.001 volts). Such an excursion is half the regular setting but in no way adversely affects the validity or significance of the records. The instrument is a3,roved by the American.hedical Association and is manufactured by Electro Physical Laboratories, Inc., New York. The McKesson Recording_hetabolor This instrument consists of a closed circuit six liter spirometer with an attached electrically driven kymog'aph. The graph paper, ruled in one-tenth of an inch squares, moves at a speed of one inch per minute whilst a stylus deflection of one inch is equivalent to a one liter oxygen consumption. The apparatus is patented by the Mchesson Appliance Company, Toledo, Ohio. 25 The Baumanometer This blood pressure apparatus stands over two feet high with the upper foot containing a slightly sloping mercury scale frcm.0-300 mm. Hg. The apparatus is light, portable and permits accurate and clear pressure reading. The Baunanometer is made by the H. A. Baum Inc., New York. Other Items Blood hemoglobin levels were calculated with a Cenco Sheard 1' ‘I ' - ‘l ‘ 7‘1 Photelometer. This work was carried out by the Department of needs and Nutrition at Michigan State University. Selection Of subjects The four athletes studied were members of the freshman track team. Each athlete was at a different stage of athletic ability but the basis of selection was their expressed desire to undergo a strenuous running program. Two of the subjects were mile runners and were trained accord- ingly. One was a half miler and one a quarter miler moving up to the half mile for which distance they were trained. The group lived in mens' dormitories and were subjected to the same living arrangements, diet and study demands. l -. Central Scientific Co., Chicago, Ill. 27 experimental Procedure Training Program Each athlete attempted approximately nine weeks of pace and nine weeks of speed training; wherever possible running five days a week. Each was assigned a goal in time considered a little beyond his reach. The speed needed to run each race at an even pace was mas— tered before the study was begun. TTDIJ I PACE DETERMINATIONS BASED ON BEST HIGH SCHOOL TIMLS —. ‘— -——. .m*~~n—-—m- —-‘——..~—-.I.~ m. ...-m .m --.&.—. ...... _.., 0—.— A— .” ...—.m- ”P..— —.._.-—-— Best High Set Study Even Pace Subject School Time Distance Time Distance 220 Yd. min. - secs. min. - secs. ___, Time-secs. 1 so 1. 9.0 Yds 1 — 56 880 Yds 29 2 l - 58 880 Yes 1 - 56 880 Yds 29 3 h - 52 Mile h - 32 hile 3h L; h - Le I~Iile L; - 32 Mile 3:; In the pace training routine the subjects were allowed an indi- vidual warm-up, followed by repititive efforts at maintaining the pace for as long a distance as possible. They were timed for each sectional 220 yds. and ifcuufsection were 3 seconds behind the set pace they were stopped, rested exactly 8 minutes and resumed in their next effort. when the accumulative distance run reached 2 miles for the milers or 1 mile for the half milers they had completed_a day's workout. {‘0 C The speed training consisted of running 6 maximum effort 220 yd.sprints with 8 minutes rest between efforts. Again the athletes were allowed individual warm-ups. Competitive races at these and other distances were attempted throughout the study. Wherever possible this necessary check on racing ability was dovetailed into the freshman "telegraphic meet" schedule. An attempt was made to rest the subjects for one day prior to such races but sometimes the schedule prevented such a rest. To prepare themselves for the study the athletes engaged in a Fall season of cross-country running, a period of unsupervised activity. In the winter quarter the "milers" attempted the pace program and the "half-milers" the speed program, on an indoor 220-lap dirt track. The procedure was reve‘sed for the Spring quarter on an out- door th lap red brick track. This plan was designed as a check on two possibilities. Seasonal variations n‘ght have upset basal determinations to such a degree that the relative physiological effect of each system could not be assessed. Also, it was felt that following the winter program the group would tend to perform_better outdoors no matter what the training system. Even though the study was designed on a longitudinal rather than a comparative basis, it was felt this procedure was justifiable. Testing Program The subjects' physiological measures were recorded before, during, and after each program. Before the study was begun the subjects were thoroughly acquainted with the physiological testing procedures. The subjects did not train the day before a test period. They slept for at least 8 hours the preceding night in one of the Michigan State University Human Energy Research Laboratories and were in- structed to be in a l2 hour post—absorptive state the morning of testing. After each subject was awakened he breathed through the basal metabolor mouthpiece (still directed to room air), while the electro- cardiograph electrodes were attached to the body. The subject was then connected to the closed oxygen circuit and ECGs recorded whilst 2 six minute basal oxygen consumption tests were recorded. The leasser of these two tests was used for the BER and 02 pulse de- termination, the pulse rate being taken from the accompanying electro- cardiogra“. Blood pressure determinations followed, lying then standing, with a 5 minute step test concluding the testing period. Sometimes blood samples were taken before the step test but the usual occurrence was for the subjects to go to the Foods and Nutrition Lepartment later in the day to give blood for hemoglobin analyses. Sometimes it was not possible to record LCGs with the BER due to technical difficulties. On these days a radial pulse record was recorded for the BER and 02 pulse determinations and the ECG was recorded within three days of the other measures. 30 Leasurements and Calculations Basal metabolic rate and oxygen pulse were deter mined from basw “ . 2 , oxygen consumption. The axp litudes and intervals of the P, R, and T waves of each electrocardiogram were measured as outlined by Holffi All measures were made with a pair of dividers, an acceptable pro- h cedure. The magnitude and direction of each QRS electri al axis was I 5 derived from tables pre ared by Jackson and Jinsor. The Food and - d 1 Nutrition Department's determinations of blood hemoglobin levels was s v v o - ~ 1 < o~ a Y D d (D by the Alkalin Hematin Letnoa as cescrioed by Hoffman. Analysis of Results All raw scores in training and physiological performances were tabulated as shown in the Appendix. hith the majority of results, exaiination was by :raphic analysis, statistical treatment being app lied only when it was considered necessary to check the significance of certain graphic trends or when there was sufficient data to make such statis t3-c cal treatment valid. -m— 2 . - -1 -- a ConsalaZio, C. F., Johnson, R. n. and.narek, L. Letaoolic ietnons, c-n—h-w' Clinical Procedure in the etuov _of_ Le tabolic Function, pp. BLT—jLC, .....e H'-:—— --.-.A-‘n.-. -—.-_.—.ac— ,U'.'--~"-p.--w p-- Tile C. V. I OSUJ CO...) nit. 1401.113, *1/31. L. hlectrocardiorwanuy'ureientsls and C]_ini cal Application, c‘-~~-.—_--—M- “..-. --. _---—Ht‘§-- CHOC—h -..-‘- n...‘ ‘- -..-.O-H f D. 25, H. B. a iders Co., Philacelpiig, 1953. Loerch, R. L. A Compari on_ of_slectrocaroic" aphic Tweasu ements of u--_.-—= ‘. fin“--- —»-~ lung-..-“ Athletes and honf“t1lrte__ at hicnigan Cta te Cells p. 2L, (Unpub- lished raster's thesis, L ichi an State Collex:e, lJL l), iting personal communication from Lansing Cardiologist, Dr. T. A. Hockman. Jackson, C. 3., and winsor, T. "Aids for Determining the Lagnitude and Direction of Electrical Axes of the sleet: “ccardi ogr a," Circulation Lz975, 1950. ”~— Hoffman, '..} F. Photeloneeric Clinical Cheriserx, ailliau.Lor:ow and Co.,l 1011 York, lDul. Athletic variations throughout the stuer were graphed in terms A "student a? “d O '"3 H) O t3 ‘2’: O (D U) of race trials and certain speed traini t" test of significance was applied to these latter data. Pace training data were discussed solely in terms of the raw scores. An analysis of variance was calculated for certain of the ECG measures. Graphs of variations in BER, basal 02—pulse and step test scores were graphed on the one figure to permit an analysis of their inter-relationships. A coefficient of correlation was computed for these data. Arterial systolic pressure changes from lying to stand— ing and blood hemoglobin levels were separately graphed. harm" Federica No subject showed statistically signii icanc race or training improvement during either or both running programs. All subjects perfo med their first and last race trials without improvement (Figure 1, page 33). Subject 1 ran the 880 in 2-l2 before beginning speed training, 2—09 at the conclusion of this system, 2- l6 before and 2-lO at the concluxion of pace trair n”. Subject 2 record 12- 06, 2-06, 2-Oh and 2-Ol for the corresponding periods. Subject 3 ran the mile in h-S? before and h-57 after pace training and h-S2 and h-S? before and after speed training. Subject h ran h-hé, h-S2, h-hé and h-52 for the corresponding trials. Hith the thought that race tr:i_als may not have indicated actual running ability for anyg :iven period an attempt Ias made to analyse the speed pro ram data. The mean 220 yd. time for the 12 efforts of the first two days of the first, micflc e and last weeks of the speed program was plotted for each subject (Figure 2, pate 3h). This graph illustrates that all subjects improved their speed and endurance during this program. Between the first and ties last wee}: of this system the mean 220 yd. time for subject 1 improved from 25.9 to b.) ID kw b) r} FROST-Mi +3 a H ‘2.) f-O ’0 O {I} bk G p .1411 __ X\ “H >< 4-50 .3 r“ . a / 4—40 1 Pace 0 ' ~'6~ ...... kHz-“U: Jab—U‘ ‘ uwims JP U '73 {1: 0 Subject 1 o S-lO p. :3 \G 0 1:3 [:1 El\ £11.00 __ Subject 2 D L J i L First Last First Last TZCE TKIAL Figure l. .The Effect of Speed and Pace Training on Race Performance 28 NDS {6.5 26 25 Figure 2. Subjgct 1 Subject 2 SHDj D C b C; I>XDO #1. Subject The Effect of Speed l 1 Middle Last TR. 33 IN G WEE: Training on Moan 230 Yard Effort Time 3h 2S. 6 seconds, subject2 from 26.0 to 25.6 seconds, subject 3 frdm 27.7 to 26.1 seconds and subject h improved from 27.0 seconds to 26.0 seconds. hen these improvements were analyzed statistically they were shown to be insifnificant, (t eoualled 0.6, 0.h, 2.05 and 0.79 respectively), for each individual. Though a gra,hic trend was clear, in that all the subjects showed some improvement, the combined or group improvement was also found to be statistical y insignificant (t = .17). thrWOlOfiuzl.1e sures No subject showed statistically significant changes in any of the selected physiological measures. Certain of the mean ECG measures for the h subjects were in ‘ 0 -1 NJ. 1 '\ 1“ I2 3‘1 ~3 Keeping witn oata presented by tureton, #011, and roercn as shown in Table II. The table illustrates that the h subjects on this study tended to have higher R and T waves and longer P—R intervals than the other groups. lCureton, T. K. vasic'11 Fitness of Cla1p_o ~..—. ~ The University of Illinois Press, Uruaha, 195 [11'1“ €1,623, pp. l}!O-1L,, Ii?‘ —.——0— — Normal Your: Ien," (Unp ubl. hastcr's Thesis, The Universityo Illinois, 1951). Ibid., p. 159 citing hblf, J. A. "Slectrocardiogram StancWar s for Foerch, R. L. "A Comparison of the SlectrocardiO’i aphic Leasurcueits of Athletes and Non Athletes at ilChl’ State Colle; :e," (Unpuol. has ter' 5 Thesis, Iichigan State Collep:e,l 19 51). LII MMWMmewHNItII4II-slalbln.I 1111: ,au; m MHox memos Hm No. No. No. NH. mH. wH. mH. ma. @ . :m. m m.H mm. OH. MH. mo. I'I" 3"" [1’ I ll»? H copmHSS smpmaepm om SH.-So. SH. SH. NH. so. mm. mm. SN. om.H ow. No. so. No. i a west 2% l-.. i!!! gopoom uses Om HH. mo. mo. :H. MH. MH. MH. 4m. mm. Hm. mH.H Hm. mo. HH. we. m :opooa mopeHzpm Om No. No. 00. NH. NH. mH. NH. mm. mm. mm. 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Ohm Pwonm VHS Pwom mhm 05Hw> EdeOhm "1 l‘ 1 j 1‘ am pp om no a: mm mp Aomflmwowo pmmdfi. aw .oom oouom «9:500 mmfismv 05Hm> paws mwpw q guesses m poemssm w pumm2Sm H pomnSSS '1‘ -.I'Il-‘ Il.’|'|}|| -I“."‘J‘I I‘ 4“ i.‘n| ...:I i--l“llii‘t,- ‘ II. ...... meanwmzm “Born. mo mflfioom Emma nwxfin Emahbg cz< Bmflmon QZB UZHWdeQuood mmzbnddd Q<0Hm HOHnwmm HH> flamda I55 TKBLE VIII LC’TVICISNT OF CORLEIATIUI “STAB?" C'fi STAIN CE THE PHYSIOLOGICAL knucUfiSS “u-” ”'0'- -‘- -‘—.-- m' . C J‘.‘.—C-- ID. ‘ -..H‘M-“ —.—.-.._.-—-~.~--- 9—H.~_*.—o--‘._ .—.--..—.o—_~ ‘ A A __ ‘ Subject I 2 3 h Group r Value —~_..-.r_aq- 0 ~- o Leasures Ceinsrei Q -o—- p— .— ...—u- ”1-.....” -- Basal pulse/3K3 .6 .8 .39 -.6h .57 Basal pulse/02 pulse -.79 -.79 -.9S -.7 —.€9 Basal pulse/Step test .Gh .LG .38 .h? .003 02 pulse/BER -.33 -.73 -.I7 .35 .22 ’\ l‘ O f“ 02 pulse/Step test -.)2 —.JL -.99 -.3y -.6l Note: For individual subjects r significants at 5% (1%) level when .811 (.917). For group r significant at SS (lfi) level when .h0h (.515). Discussion fl innin. Pe 1_r ThJ¥¥2 The failure of any of the subjects to improve in terms of racing or training ability under either or both programs is surprising. An examination of the raw data indicates that both systems involve more intense training than that normally undergone by members of a freshman track tem.1. A practical query to the above 1av'possioiy'be that th estandard- ized repititive nature of both programs lacked the variety erpiri cally considered necessary in athletic training. As explained before it is not the purpose of this study to discuss such psychological factors as "emotionality," "attitudes" and "fatigue." However, in reply to the above query it can be answered that the interest displ.yed by the Varsi'y in the race trials and training efforts of the subjects, helpfully encouraged by the Track coaches, should have created a favorable "climate" for competition and training. An analysis of Figure 6 (page hY), shows that though the whole study lasted 150 days the subjects only averaged a mean 29.3% of these days on either running progra . This fact m.v help negate the query {1. 9.) (‘1' L) {_J (D II 0 that "fatigue" could have impede progress but it also illus- trates that the duration and intensity of the prescribed programs were adversely affected. It is still possible to argue that this 29.3fi of actual training for a given number of days is a relatively accurate assessment of the number of days that a college freshman can train due to exams, vacations, rests prior to races etc. _Thus the original postulation that both systems of training are more intensive than those normally attempted can be upheld. Unfortunately it was still impossible to determine whether the major limiting factor in this failure to improve running performance was the 29.3fi of total days that training took place, the total dura- tion of the study or the intensity of each day's trainins. If the study were to be repeated and it were known that the former factor would again be evident either the length of the study or the intensity of the training would have to be increased, if racing and training improvement were to take place. DAYS _u -- -- _- _- ~- |z|tl|lull| l alslnll'ltn ('Iatcnnl'Hll ,b'fi“l.‘,.|uul" 's.ssen""'” II'IIIIHIIIIHH 103301;“...IHIM I'lunnnnlgut ' “Ilstx ’ub SUBJECT E .__._.... Training Program [HID Race Trials Light Training Unsupervised Training m -—--—- - ...—...... Injuries :3 -————-- No Training Figure 3. The Time Spent on Various Activities During the Study 147 Certainly there can be no doubt that the pre-study cross country ~ 1 running attempted by all the suljeets erourht them to a level of \. trainins and racin Q ability that neither of the study systems could improve. It is also impossible to attribute any superior advantag of the speed or pace system over the other in terms of either's ability to promote superior athletic performance. PnySiological heasures The failure of the subjects to show improved athletic attainments during the course of the study limits an analysis of the effectiveness of any of the se ‘- ected physiological measures as indicators of plysi- The Electrocardiogram In the review of literature it was stated that the electrocardio- (“'1 .ram of an athlete tends to display a low P, high T and longer P-R interval. Table I, page 27, indicates that on Such a classification the h subjects would tend to belong to the athletic rather than a non-athletic group. The low P wave vas not evident but a high T wave a longer P—R interval could lead to the conclusion that athletic train- ing had already elicited certain electrocardiographic changes character- istic of auhletes, even though the duration and/or intensity of this study failed to markedly affect such records. This latter fact is in CI accord With data collected by'nontoye, Collings and Stauffer.) Unpublished data collected at Richigan State Univeasity on 10 Varsitv basketball players throughout 1955 by H. J. hentoye, D. a. Collings and G. C. Stauffer. Basal Metabolism Neither the speed_ nor the pace nor the cauiined pr0"rams affected basal metabolism. Table 111, page 37, illustrates the slight tendency for the h subjects to have a th lower than the normal standard for their age and sex. This I.ay indicate that the type of training under- gone in middle—distance running is such to promote an increase in cellular efficiency above and beyond any active protoplasm increase. with but h subjects and six testing periods it is not possible to form such a conclusion from this study. Basal Oxygen Pulse in analysis of the be isal pulse gram bh on b igure 3,p pay e 39, indi- cates that he duration of each program may have been insufficient to allow for significant variations to occur. For all subjects the last two measures are his fi1er than the first but close examination of each subject's graph indicates that the testing may have ended at a critical time in that each subject's graph resembled a frequency polygon. Of all the selected measures it would appear from graphic analysis that this was the one test that may have indicated a significant trend if the study had been of longer duration. Arterial Systolic Pres sure The change in arterial systolic pressure from lying to standing was relatively constant for all subjects and no trends can be attributed to either or both systems of training. Table V, page h2, shows an interesting relationship between the change and the step test score. If the step test is assumed to be a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness then this table illustrates that there is a possibility that the postural pressure test is of use. Subjects 1 and 3 show a decreased step test score with the least pressure change Subject 2 and subject h show no such indication indicating that dis- cussion such as this is of little value with but A subjects. An analy- sis of the r w data on arterial systolic and diastolic pressure indi— cates that like the postural test no trends are evident. Blood Hemoglobin Level An analysis of Figure 5, page hl, illuStrates an increase in blood hemoglObin level for subjects 1 and 2 throughout speed training aLd a decrease for subject 2 throughout pace training. subjects 3 and h increased the level throughout pace training but showed a decrease throughout speed training. From another angle all subjects showed an increase in the measure during the Winter Quarter and 3 of the h a decrease during the spring. However, the variation for all subjects during the break between quarters, or the variation between the post winter program and the pre spring program is as great as the variation during either program. There can be little doubt that diet and season factors uncontrolled in this study, impeded a close examination of the effects of training on this measure. hhen comparing the pre first program score to the post second program score 2 subjects showed a 1 moderate and one a slight increase whilst tne fourth showed a slight decrease. The only conclusions possible are that neither nor both system markedly affected the measure and seasonal variations could quite possibly have been the major cause of the blood hemoglobin level variations. 7 Five Linute Step Tent r The wide range in step test scores recorded by all subjects does not seem in keeping with the relatively constant running performances throughout the study. Table VI, page h3, shows that this range was not dependent on the program being undergone or the period of time a subject had been on either program. This fact is in keeping with the failure to graphically illustrate any marked trends in the measure throughout the study, (Figure 3, page 39). Further examination of Table VI illustrates maximum variation in step test scores was not -. . marked by any associative trends in BhR, arterial systolic pressure change from lying to standing, or blood hemoglobin level. The oxygen pulse of all subjects was greater at the time the lowest step test scores were recorded. However, conclusions cannot be drawn from an examination of but two testing periods on four subjects. It is difficult to accept the fact that the wide ranges demon- strated by all subjects are indicative of the same level of athletic ability yet for these four subjects that is the only conclusion p ssible. 52 Inter-Relation Between heasures The coefficients of correlation presented in Table VII, page hh, give the relationships between certain of the measures. The last two BHR'S recorded by subject h were unaccountably high and as a result negative correlations existed for this subject between basal pulse and BER and between 02 pulse and BER. It is not here the con- tention that conclusions can be drawn from correlations based on but six records for h subjects but both the individual subjects and the grouped correlation values indicate interesting research possibilities. A useful procedure is indicated by these values in that on the basis of such correlations, experimental procedure in securing records of the measures could be validated. A certain relationship should exist between basal pulse, BER, basal 02 pulse and step test score, the presence or absence of which might possibly indicate the soundness of measuring technique. It must be remembered that basal pulse rate and 02 pulse contain the common factor of pulse rate and that BER and 02 pulse are both based on resting O2 consumption. As a result a significant corre- lation would be anticipated between these measures. However, the relationship between 02 pulse and the step test score was a comparison of relatively "isolated" physiological mechanisms and thus of inter— esting moment. ' mama v sum-sum, ClelCl-USIOZES AND RLCOEJ‘WI‘GDATICIIS Swrmlary ‘ The purpose of this study was to stuny certain physiological effects of speed and pace training on trained freshmen trackman. The four subjects conditioned themselves with a season of cross- country running before beginning a program of speed and a program of pace training. Before, during and after each program a record was made of each subject's electrocardiogram, basal metabolic rate, basal oxygen pulse, arterial systolic and diastolic lying and standing blood pressure, blood hemoglobin level and 5 minute step test score. As a subordinate investigation the inter-relationships of certain of these measures were determined for the six testing periods. when the measures were graphed and certain of them treated statistically it was found that neither system of training nor their combination had produced any marked changes in any of the physio- logical measures or in racing and training ability of any subject. Some statistically significant correlations were established with some of the subjects for certain of the physiological measures. In the main such correlation values were due to the compared measures containing common components. The 02 pulse and the step test con- tained no such common element and two of the subjects and the group UL w as a whole showed significant correlation between these two measures for the six testing periods. Conclusions It was not possible to assess the relative effects of either speed or pace training on the physiological or athletic status of any subject since neither system produced changes. Despite the ini- tial belief that each of the systems was of considerable intensi y each was only sufficient to maintain the subjects at a physiological and performance level that had already been reached by the accumu— lative effects of high school track competition and a pre study season of cross country running. Either the intensity of each day's training or the duration of the whole study was insufficient to produce the anticipated changes. Thus the effect of speed and.pace training in this study was to maintain the "s atus quo." The need existed for a correlation of 02 pulse with a more fundamental measure than the step test before any claims could be made as to the validity of the former as an indicator of physical fitness.. However, the correlation with the step test was of sufficient magni- tude to justify any future study of 02 pulse in the field of cardio- vascular fitness research. Recommendations On the basis of the above conclusions the following recommend- ations are made: I. The elevation of a trained middle distance freshman from one level of athletic achievement to another cannot be achieved by a mild training program. If such elevation is to occur during the freshman year then the intensity of training will have to be increased to at least a degree beyond that set in this study. 2. If the relative physiological effects of speed and pace train— ing are to be successfully examined the duration and intensity of such training should be increased beyond that attempted in this study. 3. When such a study is again attem‘ted the selection of a much greater number of subjects would permit a study of the inter-relation- ships between the selected physiological measures that would be statistically meaningful. Books Brody, Samuel, Biocncrsetic and Gr 01th, Reinhold Publishing Corpora- “on...” Consalazio, C. F., Johnson, R. 3. and Iarek, L., Letiaolic Iethods. Clinical Procedure in the Studv of Letabolic function, Ihe C. V. hosby Co., St. Louis, 1951. Cureton, Thomas K., Pa"si W Unes s jenraisal and Guidance, The C. V. aI'Ai'L hosby Co., St. Louis, 1 L17. Cureton, Thomas K., Pivsica1 Lit ne es of Champion At: nletes, The ec—M- U“ ..Wh—O-p-C-n-"J‘ University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1;;1. Holzmann, h., Clinical Electrocardiography, Staples Press, London, 1952. Houssay, Bernado A., human ths iolo og33 2nd. ddition, thraw Hill DOOIC ‘ Cf"), J...” ...... ...- .. Co., NeIJ forl, 1995. Katz, L. N., Blectrocardio: Fanny, lea and Ferbiger, Philadelphia, 19h7. Lepes chLan, E., Iodern LIGCLTOCWleO‘F nhv, Jilliams and Williams Co” B°1timore, 1951. Van Iiere, Edward J., Anoxia , Its Affect on the Body, The University fChicago Press, Chicago, 1942. molff, L., s1cctrocarCiosrannv Fundarten.ti Is and Clinical Application, H. B. oaunders Co., hiladelphia, 1953. Periodical Articles Barach, J. V., "Physiological and Patholobfl cal Effects of Severe Exertion." American Physical Lducation Review, lS:6Sl,lQlO. Benedict, F. 3. an‘ Riddle, D., "T1 e Iea surerent of Basal. Heat Production in Pigeons." Journal of iutricic ,l:530,192P. ...—-Q MOOaH-ww-ch *“~-, Book, A. V. et al., "Studies in.IMu cular Activi III. Dynamic Changes Occurrin) in.han at work.” Journal of Physiologj, 66:1:‘(1’192‘30 UT 0\ Brouha, L., "The Step Test. A Simple Method of Heasuring Physical Fitness for Luscular work in Young Len." Research Quarterly, 13°31’1OL". Brouha, L., Fradd, H. H., and Savage,iBl.1“., 'thuhes in Physical Efficiency of College Students." Lesearch Cuarterly, 15:211, l9hb. Cooper, B. 1., O'Sullivan, J., and.Hughes, L., "Athletics and the Heart. An nlcctrOC1roio raphic and Radiological Study of the Response of the Healthy and Diseased Heart to Exercise." Medical Journal of Australia, 1:569,l937. Cramrton, C. U., "The Gr avit' Resistin: Ability of the Circulation, Its leasurerent and Si.; nificance (Blood Ptosis)." Ant rican Scirrees, 20:72l,l})2 ~«. I 1 Journal of Leoical o‘mw -..---—~ Fitzgerald, H. P., "The Ch ace in tlm Breathing and the Blood at Various Altitudes." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Se: ies B. 203:351,l913. Gregg, H. J., Lutz, B. R. and Schneider, R. C., "The Changes in the Content of Hemoglobin and Erythrocytes of the Blood in.Lan Enring Short EXposures to Ofygen." Ameri (an Journa1 of Phy- sio1o,J 501:216,1919. Harris, J. A. and Benedict, F. G. ., "A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism." erne"ie Ins" titute Ilep_ort; R . 27?, p. 2L5, 19l9. Henderson, Y. and Prince, A. L., "The Oxygen Pulse and Systolic Discharge." jerican Jourr Ial of hgsiology, 35:106,1911 Henderson, Y. and Haggard, H. H. ,"The Circulation and its Measurement. American Journal of Phasiclo:y, 73:193,l925. Henderson, Y., Hagg ard, H. H. and Dollegx, F. S., "The Afficiency of the Heart and. the Sirnificance of. Slow and R apid Beats." Armri _can Jmnuwfl cf Phgisioloij “2152,1927. Henry, Franklin.M. "Influence of .thletic Trainin' on Resting Cardiovascular System." Rej_1rch wuaricr1r 25:28,19 Sh. Hill, Leonard, "The Influence of the Force of Gravity on the Circu- lation of the Blood." Journal of Phys i<;>le-"v l8zlfi ,1835. ......LE. 3 Jackson, C. 3. and finsor, T., "Aids for lete‘rinin‘ the hagnitude and Direction of Electrical Axes of the Llectrocardiogran. Circulation, l:975,l950. I! kn co Kibler, H. H. and_Brody, 5., "Growth and Development. LVII. An Index of huscular Jerk Capacity.” University of hissouri Agricultural snmerim nt Station Research Bulletin, 10.367, 19h}. Knehr, C. A., Bill, D. B. and Heufelo, H. "Trainin: and its Affect on lien at Best and at aorlz." 11-?qu Jo}:11§l of Phj'si olomr, 133:1h3,1yh2. Lontoye, Henry J., "The 'Harvard Step Test' and “ork Capacity. " Hevue Ca so enne De Biologie, llzb9l,1953. Nylin, C., "Investigations on the Blood Circulations of Gunder Haegg and Arne Anderson." Cardiologica, 9-10:311,19uS-6. Rothacher, J. |., "1th1etic Conditioning in Relation to Circulation ...—4 and height." esecccn 'uarterll (Supplement), 6: 69,1935. —.—.o.-— -....- 'Salit, E. P. and Tuttle, J. J. "The Valic:ity of He artl 11ates and Blood Pressure Eeterminatiens as leasures of Phy 31 cal Fitness." Research Quarterly,1?253,]91 9. Sesenb ach, J. "Sore Common Factors Rot Due to Primary Heart Disease, that Ha; be Associated Jith Changes in the ECG.’ A.nnals of Interra lLeoicine, 25:632,19h6. —~u- ..-—... Schneider, B. C. and Truesdell, D. "1 Statistical Study of the Pulse date and the Arterial Blooo Pres sures in Hecurberencv, Standing and after Standard Exercise." American Journal of Physiology, ‘ 61:129,1922 ""”"" ““’“‘ Schneider E. C. and Foster, 0. A. "Influence of thsical Training on the Basal I eta colic l1ate in ham." American Journal 01 Prunolo"r " 98: :I)/S’:I.j'9 j‘. Schneider, E. C., Clark E. H. and Ring, E. C. "Influence of Physical Training on Basal Respiratory Lxchange, Pulse Rate and Arterial Blood Pressures." American Journal of thsiology, 81:255,1927. Scott, V. T. "The Application of Certain Piysical Lff101iencv Tests." n/ Journal 01 the American Leoical Association, We 7C ‘5, 1941. Steinhaus, A. H. "sxercise and Basal Metabolism of Dogs." American QEEEEfigafiéifiquiologg, 83: 653,11923, Steinh aus, A. H. "The Chronic Effects of Exercise." Physiological Reviews, 13:103,1,3; --....~.—.. A Taylor, C., ”a laximur Pack Test of Lxercise Tolerance." tesearci glarterly, 15:201,1‘LL. Tuttle, I. I. and horns, H. h. "“l_ectrocardio”r aphic Observations Mhletes Before and A:ter a See son of A hletic Training." mer,pqn Heart Journa1_, 21: 13L,19L1. Unpublished Material Foerch, R. L., "A Comparison of Electrocardiographic Leasurements of Athletes and Non-fithletes at Richiga in State College," Unpublished aster's Thesis, Lichiran btate Colle e, 1951. Lontoye, H. J., Collings, E; D. and Stauffer, G. Unpublished data concerning the electrocardo ogrars of Varsity basketball players, hichigan State University, 195 S. Stauffer, G. "The Effects of Conditicring on the Ballistocardiogl rams of Vars ity Basketball Pla\ers. Unpuolished Laster's Thesis, Kichigan State Universitv, 1955. mm (f Joya quav 7" on; or nwunou TAIULATED IV WIN TEF? 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