SOILPCEMENT RUNWAYS. , '
FOR AIRPORTS - -

Thesisfor the Dram MES-

» I MICHIGAN'STATE COLLEGE". ’ ' .

W E. Meniel
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Soil-Cement Runways For Airports
A Thesis Submitted to

The Faculty of
MICHIGAN STAIE COLLEGE
of

AGRICULTURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE

by

» 3f“; ‘
w: SI 1433161
Candidate for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science

June 1943

 

 

 

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TABLE QF CONTENTS

INTRWUCTION - - - O c- - II o -----------------
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS AND RESULTS - .......... -
Apparent Specific Gravity of Soil Samples

Mechanical Analysis of Soil Samples - - .........

Blending of Soil Samples - - - - - -

Apparent Specific Gravity of Soil Mix - - -------

Shrinkage Ratio and Shrinkage Limit

Test for Ph of Soil Mix - - - - - -

Liquid Limit of Soil Mix -

Plastic Limit of Soil Mix - - - -

Plasticity Index of Soil Mix

Moisture and Density Relations of

Soil Mix

Molding of Test Cylinders - - - - - ..... -

LABORATORY DURABILITY TESTS AND RESULTS

Freezing and Thawing Test - --------------

Wetting and Drying Test - -
Compression Test - - - - -
Ibathering Test - - - - - -
Additional Tests - - - - -

CONCLUSIONS EROK DURABILITY TESTS

PROTECTION OR AREOR COATS - ......... - - -

AIRPORTS AND AIRPORT RUNWAXS - -

Private and Commercial Flying

Flight Strips for Military and Civilian Use - -

BIBILOGRAPHY----“.------------..--

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INQQ 9E TABLES

 

 

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Table I Apparent Specific Gravity Test Data -------- 5,
Table II Specific Gravity Correction KC. and

PrOportionality Factor, a. - - - - - ....... 8
Table III Viscosity Correction Factor Xh - - - - ------ 9
Table IV' Hydrometer Correction XL - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
Table V Hydrometer and Sieve Analysis Data - - - - - - - - 11
Table VI ' ' ' i I ........ 12 {1
Table v11 5 - 5 . - o ........ 13 !
Table v11; I I I I I - - - - - - _ - 14 A.
Table 11 I I I I I ...... - - 15
Table.X ' ' ' ' i - ------- 16
Table XI Grading Curves ----- - - - - - - ....... 17
Table XII Tri-Axial Chart - ------- - - - - - ..... 18.
Table XIII Apparent Specific Gravity of Mix - - - - - - - - - 20
Table XIV Liquid Limit Test Data - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
Table XV, Optimum.uoisture Density Relations Data - - - - - - 26
Table XVI Cptimum.Moisture Density Curve - - - - ----- - 27
Table.XVII 8% Freezing and Thawing Test Data - -------- 32
Tab1¢m11 10% .1 I I I I -_---_-_- 33
Table XIX 12% ' ' i ' I - - - - - - - - .. 3a
Table XX 14% I I I I I - ..... - - - 35
Table XXI 8% Wetting and Drying Test Data - - - - - - - - - 39
Table XXII 10% ‘ ' ' i I ......... 40
Table XXIII 12% i ' I i I ......... 41

TableXXIV 14% . . . . - ---------42

9...... .ifis s...s.......:.....~5 is... w

Table XXV
Table XXVI
Table XXVII

INDEX OF TABLES (oon't.)

Accumulated Soil Loss Curve - - - - - - - - - - -

Compression Test Data - - - ...........

Bearing Pressures on Runways

 

 

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SOIL-CEMENT RUNWAYS
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EQREWORD

History shows us that new developments.in the United States are
always quickened and sharpened in times of economdc stress. History
has again repeated itself in the soil-cement field as well as in other
fields‘where man; ingenuity has found opportunity for full play and-’
development. '

Back in the days of the 'depression' in 1935. perhaps nowhere else
in the country was there a more acute need.for a light traffic. low-cost
highway than.in South Carolina. Instigated by South Carolina's leading
engineers. a search was made for just such a highway, and it was here
that soil-cement was born.

The investigation.moved slowly at first for. after all. the idea of
mixing soil and cement to obtain a hard, structural material was
definitely contrary to all the teachings and experimental data that had'
heretofore existed.

Soon. however. work by the Portland Cement Association. the U. S.
Public Roads Administration. and other highway departments began to
develop. Gradually. scientific soil principles were uncovered which
Slowed great promise of success with soil-cement mixtures. Field projects
demonstrated.that scientific control could be obtained at IOW'OOBt‘With
practical cors truction equipment and procedures.

The first field project using these scientific principles was built
in South Carolina. Since that time. soil-cement has been successfully
used not only in the construction of highways, but in lowbcost houses, and
especially in airports. It has spread to no of the United States. to many

of the European countries. to China. Japan. Australia. Alaska, and

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South America.
From infant to giant in eight years -- this is the progress of soil-

cement:

INTRODUCTION

Soil-cement is recommended for taxiways, runways. parking and other
paved areas at secondary civilian airports. It is also recommended for
military airports designed for use as training and pursuit bases and for
use as dive. attack. and medium bomber bases. It is also recommended for
any temporary and emergency runways and for paving bordering concrete
runways to permit use by the above mentioned type of plane. Soil-cement
has proved by service records that it can be used a limited amount by
heavy bombers Ln an emergency. but this definitely should not be practiced.
In case there is a possibility the air field may later be devoted to use
by heavy bomber planes. concrete paving should be used!

The object of this investigation is to first pick a practical site for
a secondary airport. take sufficient samples of soil. and through accurate
laboratory tests design soil-cement test cylinders covering a range of
cement percentages.

Then. to take these cylinders and subject them.to tests similiar to
actual conditions that an airport runway would have to undergo.
Observations drawn from these tests would then determine the practibility
of using soil-cement airport runways for these soil types. Also. it is
the purpose of this project to cover briefly the scope and future
possibilities of airport surfaces. made of soil-cement.

The site was selected from the college properties, and sufficient

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borings were taken to identify thesoil types. With the aid of a soils
map of the vicinity. it was shown that the plot was primarily made up
of Conover Loam. Brookston Loam, and Hillsdale Sandy Loam.

Five samples of soil were taken of sufficient depth and area to
obtain truly representative samples. These five raw soil samples were
air dried in the laboratory. and screened through a.# lO sieve.

nflth.all samples air-dried. and passing the # 10 sieve 100%, the
following tests were made on each sample.

1. The apparent specific gravity.

2. Agmechanical analysis of particle sizes. By this test the
grain sizes contained in each sample were determined. and with the aid
of the Tri-Axial Chart, the five soils were placed in their prOper groups.
With these two tests completed, each soil sample was plotted on a Grading
Curve. and a blend of the soils was determined. After blending. the
following tests were run on the soil mix.

1. Apparent Specific Gravity Test

2. Mechanical Analysis Test

3. Liquid Limit Test

he Shrinkage Ratio Test

5. Shrinkage Limit Test

6. Ph test (Hydrogen Ion Concentration)

7. Plastic Limit Test

8. Plasticity Index Test

9. Optimum.Moisture Density Relation Test

From.the results of these tests. and a selection of various cement

contents. the test cylinders may be molded.

A total of twelve test cylinders shall be molded, three for each

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cement percentage that was chosen. These twelve samples shall be tested
in a.manner that would be similiar to the actual conditions that the

soil-cement would be subjected to if it were part of an airport runway.

Note: All tests run on the soil samples are standard A. S. T. M.
tests. No deviation from these standard procedures has been made. except

where noted.

0 TO Y “INVESTIGATIONS

Apparent Specific Gravity pg Soil Samples

 

£32. was

Approximately 10 grams of oven-dried soil was placed in the mortar

and yound with the pestle to a floury texture.

About 30 grams was then

placed in a volumetric flask of known weight and weighed on the

analytical balance.

A burette was filled with kerosene up to the 100 cc.

mark. and approximately 10 cc. of kerosene was introduced into the flask,

meanwhile twirling the flask between the hands until the powdered soil is

thoroughly in suspension.

The remainder of 50 cc. of kerosene was then

run in. and the flask subjected to a vacuum to remove all entrained air.

When bubbles of air no longer came through the kerosene, the flask was

filled to the 100 cc. mark from the burette. and the volume of the

remaining kerosene recorded as the volume of the contained soil.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Soil Sample B A D E

Flask No. 11 10 12 11 8 9 11 10 12 8

”to 8011

andFlask 77.38 71.95 78.30 81.75 73.00 78.22 71.50 71.82 75.70 78.00

Wt. Flask 50.25 11.25 16.70 50.25 16.60 18.60 50.25 11.25 16.70 16.60

Wt. Powdered

Soil 27.13 27.70 31.60 31.70 26.10‘29.62 21.25 17.57 29.00 31.10

Vol. 8011

Particles 10.2 10.8 1107 11e8 1002 11.5 9.3 10.5 11.0 12.0

Appar. Spec.

Grav. 2.66 2.67 2.69 2.69 2.59 2.60 2.61 2.63 2.61 2.62

Mean 2.665 2.69 2.595 2.62 2.63
TABLE I

~.' _. '_--‘

Mechanical Analysis _0_§ §_g_i_]_._ Sarnples

A representative soil sample was selected from the oven-dried soil
passing the # 10 sieve. 100 gram samples shall be used for sandy soils.
and 50. gram samples for clay and silt soils.

The soil was placed in a glass breaker and covered with about 200 cc.
of distilled water to which was added 20 cc. of sodium silicate solution.
(Sodium silicate solution is to act as a defloculating agent). The soil
solution was then allowed to stand for 18 hours to assure that the clay
will have softened so that it can be easily broken down. and also so that
each particle is loosened from the next.

After tempering. the soil was poured into the diapersion cup, washing
all material from the beaker with distilled water from a wash bottle. The
dispersion cup was then filled within two inches of the top with distilled
water and placed on the milk shaker which was used as a mixer. The sample
was subjected to this mixing for 5 minutes or 9 minutes. depending upon
whether the soil is predominantly sand or clay.

At the conclusion of the mixing time. the contents of the dispersion
cup were poured into a 1000 cc. glass graduate. washing all particles from
cup with distilled water. Additional distilled water was added to bring
the level of the liquid up to the 1000 cc. mark. Covering the open end
of the graduate with the palm of one hand. the graduate was shaken for one
minute. then quickly setting it in a position where it would not be
disturbed for the remainder of the test.

The hydrometer and thermometer were placed in the solution and readings
taken at the end of l. 2. 5. 10. 15. 30. 60 and 120 minutes. The hydrometer
should be removed each time and inserted about 20 seconds before the next
reading is taken.

-6-

Upon completion of all the readings. the contents of the graduate
were washed through a.#200 sieve. The sieve was then placed in the oven
and allowed to dry. When the material was completely dried, it was placed
upon a nest of sieves arranged in the following order. Numbers 10. 20. 10.
60. 110. 200 and the pan. The set of sieves was placed in the Ro-Tap
machine. and shaken for 20 minutes. The material retained on each sieve
was weighed and recorded.

Corrections must be applied in the hydrometer analysis for temperature
of solution and specific gravity of the soil. since the hydrometers have
been calibrated for standard conditions. These standard conditions are:

1. That the apparent specific gravity of the soil is 2.65.

2. That the specific gravity of the suspending medium is constant
and equal to .9981 at 19.1°c.

3. That the coefficient of viscosity. n. is equal to that of'water
at the same temperature.

1. That the distance. L. through which the particles fall in a
given time period is constant and equal to 32.5 cm.

The above standard conditions were not the conditions for this test. so
corrections must be applied.

The temperature correction of the hydrometer is designated salsa. and
is taken.as .2 per degree change in Fahrenheit. The correction is added to
the original reading when the temperature is above the standard 67°F.. and
subtracted'when.the temperature is below this.

When the specific gravity of the soil varies from 2.65. the specific
gravity of the solution will also vary. Thus, a specific gravity of more
than 2.65 will cause the hydrometer to float higler and give a higher
reading. This reading must be reduced by a pr0portionality factor. A. as

given in table II.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Apparent Specific Correction Factors
Gravity s‘_ a Kb
2.15 1.05 1.07
2.50 1.01 1.05
2.55 1.02 1.03
2.60 1.01 1.02
2.65 1.00 1.00
2.70 0.99 0.98
2.75 0.98 0.97
2.80 0.97 0.96;
2.85 0.96 0.95
2.90 0.95 0.93
Table II

The correction factor for the variation in Specific gravity of
the soil is designated as Ed. and depends upon the density of the
suspended soil. The values of KG3are computed by the formula KG "%‘é§"
'where GA is the apparent specific gravity of the soil being tested. A
Values of KG are also tabulated in table II.

The correction factor for the coefficient of viscosity of water is

designated as KN and may be expressed in the following form. In SJ N

V .0102
where N is equal to the coefficient of viscosity.

The values of ER are tabulated in table 111.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tempe rature Kn Temperature Kn

16 °C 1.01 25 .93

17 1.03 26 .92

18 1.02 27 .91

19 1.00 28 .90

20 .99 29 .89

21 .98 30 .88

22 .97 31 .88 i
23 .96 32 .87 :z
21 .95 33 .86 L «

TABLE III

The correction to correlate the particle size with. the distance
that the soil particle falls in a given time is designated as KL’ The
correction Kl. is given by the formula Ki. - 0:251: where L' is the
distance from the surface of the solution tosthe bottom of the
hydrometer.

Values for K1. are given in Table IV..for each hydrometer.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Hydro- Hydro- Hydro- mero- Hydro- Hydro-

meter meter meter meter meter meter
Rds- 381037 311272 311253 Rdg- 381037 311272 311253

KL ‘1 ‘1 ‘1. ‘1 ‘1
-2 .568 .553 .568 30 .500 .183 .500
0 .561 .518 .5 65 32 .196 .178 .196
2 .560 .515 .561 311 .191 .173 .192
1 .556 .510 .557 36 .187 .1169 .188
6 .552 .536 .551 38 .183 .165 .181 §
8 .518 .532 .519 10 .178 .160 .179
1o .513 .528 .515 12 .173 .156 .175 ; ~
12 .539 .523 .511 11 .169 .152 .171 .1
111 .535 .519 .536 116 .161 .118 .1167
16 .531 .511 .531 18 .159 .113 .163
18 .526 .510 .527 50 .155 .138 .158
20 .522 .505 .523 52 .150 .131 .151
22 .518 .501 .519 51 .115 .130 .150
21 .511 .196 .513 56 .111 .125 .115
26 .510 .192 .509 58 .136 .120 .111
28 .505 .188 .505 60 .131 .115 .136
TABLE IV

The product of the three corrections KG' Kl.’ and KN times the
nominal size of the particles will give the corrected particle size.
The data and results from the sieve and hydrometer analyses are
shown on pages 11-16. One complete analysis was run for each soil
sample. and one for the blended mix.
Each soil sample was plotted on a grading curve. and also on the Tri-
nial chart. as shown on pages 17 and18.

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TRI AXIAL CHART

0 100

10 90

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

-18-

From the grading curves shown.on page 17. it can be determined

what per cent of sand, silt. and clay are in each

curves it can be seen that;

Sample A.ccntains

B

fit‘JU

6% clay. 11% silt.
12% clay. 26Z'silt.
17% clay. zuz silt,
10% clay. 22% silt.

8% clay. 17% 3111:.

9% clay. 21% silt,
mm 22m

sample. From these

and 83% sand.
and 62% sand.
and 59% sand.
and 68% sand.
and 75% Band.

and 70% Band.

It is desired to Idend these five samples of soil so that a.mixture

may he arrived at that will approach one of the Ideal Grading Curves

shown in black, and also contain the approximate percentages of clay

and sand thatwwill require a small cement content in.mixing the soil-

cament cylinders.

By taking 20% of each of the five soil samples and blending,the

mixture arrived at is shown.by the grading curve labeled ‘l‘.

As this very closely approaches the Ideal Grading Curve. and contains

a sufficient per cent of sand, this blend will be used. The five soil

samples and the soil mixture are plotted in their reapective groups on

the Tri-Axial chart, as shown on page 18.

-19-

APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY 93 3.1;;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Flask N00 12 8
It. 3.11
and Flask 77.46 79.30
Wt. Flask 14.6.70 46.60
Wt. Powdered
Soil 30.76 32.70
Vol. Soil
Particles 11.70 12.41
Appar. Spec.
Gray. 2063 2.64
Mean 2.635

TABLE XIII

WWWLM 9.2 5.9.11 Mix

Approximately 30 grams of air dried material passing the #40 sieve was
mixed with sufficient water to form a semi-fluid paste. This paste was
placed in a small porcelain dish. which had previously been coated with a
thin layer of vaseline. in three equal volumes. tapping the dish on a firm
surface after each layer had been added. The excess material protruding
above the dish after the third layer had been tapped. was struck off. so
that the paste would fill the dish level full.

The dish and its contents were immediately weighed. on the analytical
balance. and placed in the oven. allowing to dry to a constant weight.

It was then reweighed, the dried soil pat removed from the dish. and the

dish weighed alone. The volume of the dish was. found by filling with mercury

:20-

 

 

. Z-qivza 9 Julianlu. ,

and pressing a glass plate firmly over the tcp to remove the mercury
meniscus. The volume of the mercury may be measured in a glass graduate,

or may be computed from the weight, assuming the specific gravity of mercury
to be 13.6.

The volume of the soil pat was found by the diaplacement of mercury by
the pat. Mercury was poured into a large glass dish nested within a larger
dish. A glass plate with prongs was pressed over the dish containing the
mercury to squeeze out all of the excess mercury. The pat was placed on the
mercury surface. and pressed down with the prongs of the plate. thus forcing
out all excess mercury that is displaced by the soil pat. This mercury was
caught in the outer dish. and weighed. Again using the specific gravity of

mercury as 13.6, the volume of the soil pat was computed.

Data and gesults‘gf Shrinkage Test

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dish No. 5 14
‘li 'Wt. Dish and'wet Soil 3h.90 36.30
'2 wt. of Dish 13.260 11.60 '
11 Wt. of wet Soil 21.610 24.70
‘3 'Wt. of Dish and Dry Soil 29.050 30.60
W5 Wt. of Dry Soil 15.79 19.00
lb zwater in Soil Paste (dry basis) 3.71 30
V V01. of Dish 12.15 13.38
V0 Vol. of 8011 Pat (dry) 8.20 9.94
Vol. of Shrinkage 3.95 3.hh
Shrinkage in.% Wt. of Dry Soil 25% 18.1%
Shrinkage Limit 12.1 11.9
Shrinkage Ratio 1.91 1.89

 

 

 

 

 

 

~21-

 

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Sample Calculations from Shrinkage Tests

Shrinkage in z Wt. of Dry Soils v-vo x 100
W0

 

Shrinkage limit 8 WC - V-Vo x 100
m0

Shrinkage Ratio : E2-
Vo
122.12 12:; 2.1.1. 2.1; 10.11. mic.

The test for the Ph of the soil mix was run by using the Soil-tax kit
of the Michigan state College Soils Department. The test is as follows;

a piece of waxed paper was folded and cpened to form a small paper boat.
Using a clean knife blade. a small amount of the soil was placed in the middle
of the boat. Eight or ten drOps of the Sciltex solution was added. and the
boat shaken endwise to mix the materials. The soil was then shaken to the
back end of the paper. and the liquid run out to the front. By comparing
the color of the liquid with the color chart provided in the Kit, the Ph
of the soil may be determined.

Five tests were run on the soil sample, and a Ph range of 6.0 (slightly
acid) to 6.5 (very slightly acid) resulted. The general color of the liquid

was green.

uguid m 2}: Soil Mix
This test is to determine the liquid limit of the soil mixture. which

is the moisture content. expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight.
at which the soil will just begin to flow together when Jarred 10 times on
the liquid limit apparatus.

Approximately 30 grams of oven dried soil passing the #110 sieve was

-22...

1...... a... .13... ...3..........,...s_...3 £9.32... a

mixed with small amounts of water until it becomes a thick paste. This
mixture was placed in the brass dish of liquid limit machine. and leveled
off. leaving a thickness of 3/8' in the middle of the dish.

The layer thus formed was separated into two parts by means of a
grooving tool. and the machine cranked so that the dish is jarred slightly.
Water or soil (as the case may be) was added until_the soil would flow
together for a distance of about a half inch on the tenth jar.

Immediately after the soil was found to be at the liquid limit. a
sample of it was placed in a container of known'weight. weighed. and

placed in the oven. ‘When thoroughly dry. it was removed and reweighed.

Data 231 Liquid himit Test

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Container No. 1 2
W1 Wt. of'Wet Soil and Container 40.03 36.37
lb ‘Wt. Container 17.56 18.74
v at. Wet 5011 22.17 17.63
W3 Wt. Dry Soil and Container 37.28 34.18
'i-w3‘Wt.'Water 2.75 2.19
Liquid Limit 13.92 14.16

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE XIV

~23-

1“” “a‘mnnnr

_ r.H.. _ ii-§i

Plastic Emit and Elasticity Max 22 s31; 3.235

The plastic limit is defined as the lowest moisture content. expressed
as a percent of the weight of oven-dry soil. at which the soil can be rolled
into threads 1/8' in diameter without breaking.

The soil mix being tested could not be rolled into 1/8' threads. The
threads broke regardless of the amount of water that was added. therefore
the mixture does not have a plastic limit. This is not unusual. as granular
material generally does not have a plastic limit.

Sime the soil mixture has no plastic limit. it cannot have a

plasticity index. as plasticity iniex is defined. as the difference between

 

the liquid limit and'the plastic limit. i
thimum goisture 293. Density Relations _o_f_ £55.]: m
This test is to determine the relationship, in cohesive soil mixtures,
between the moisture content. dry density. and theoretical maximum density
at any given moisture content. The procedure followed is intended to
duplicate the degree of compaction obtained under standard field conditions.
A. 4000 gram representative sample of the soil mixture was used. This
sample was air-dried. and prepared for compaction by pulverizing all lumPs.
Water was added in varying amounts over a sufficient range to include
the optimum moisture content which produces maximum density. Moisture is
expressed in per cent of oven-dry weight of the mixture. and the range used in
this test was from 8% to 16%. The water was thoroughly mixed into the
sample by vigorous troweling.
Enough of the moist soil was placed into the mold to fill it a little
more than one-third full when the soil is compacted. Compaction was
obtained by drcpping a standard tamper (5% pds.) 25 times through a distance
of 12', spreading the blows uniformly over the surface of the sample,

-24-

Two more layers were added, and compacted in the same manner. so that the
mold would be filled above the top and into the collar after compaction.

The collar was removed. and the top leveled off evenly. By use of a
counter weight equal to the weight of the empty mold. the actual weight
of the compacted specimen was quickly and accurately determined.

The moist soil mold was immediately removed. and a representative
sample taken for moisture determination. This sample was placed in a can
of known weight. and weighed; placed into the oven. dried to a constant
weight. and reweighed.

The same procedure was followed for each succeeding trial. adding 2%
more water each time.

The resistance was taken by penetrating the sample with g
penetrometer needle at the rate of 1/2 ' per second.

The size of the needle used and the resistance values are also
shown in table IV.

A Proctor curve is plotted on page 27 which shows the relationship

between optimum moisture and maximum density.

-2 5..

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Graph showing Optimum moisture: \
and maximum density. Z...- \
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10 11 12 13 14 15 l6 1?

Moisture Content 3; of Dry Weight

TABLE XVI
-27-

m." 0’. '1 l 9 “"5? “3“ ' n 1 34.1.5.“ “fl fl.‘ '

_ .uaxnn..£q»w.aaghlmi43.4521». .5
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Holding 9;. _'I‘_e_§_t_ glinders

With the maximum density and optimum moisture content of the soil
known. and the percentages of cement decided upon, the test cylinders are
ready to be molded.

It is assumed in this test that the optimum moisture and maximum
density of the specimens (after the cement has been added) will be the
same as that of the raw soil. Although this is slightly erroneous, the
degree of error is so small that to compute the values for each cylinder
would not be worth the time. and would only tend to defeat the purpose of
this report.

The amount of soil. cement. and water to be used for each test
cylinder is computed in the following manner.

Cylinders (8% cement)

Maximum density : 116.0 Optimum moisture : 14.8%

Wt. of cement I .08 x 94 8 7.52
wt. of dry .611 = 116 - 7.52 = 108.481bs.

% cement by wt. of oven dry 8011 3 .1553..— 3 633%
108.48

Oven dry wt. of 3011 per specimen : 108,48 ; 3.61 lbs. of dry 3011
30

Usually add 10% for manipulation and 1/20th for moisture content.

Total dry soil 3 3.61+— .36 +.20 = 4.17 lbs.

9.9911315; 4'17 x €633. : .289 x 454 : 131 9113.
gr-Dry Soil: 4.17 x 454 : 1890 gms.
Water: (“0174—0289) I 1 08 = 081‘. X 1456.. = 300 00.
100
Add 1 1/2% of dry soil to take care of evaporation. As there are 3
cylinders of each % cement to be made each quantity shall be multiplied

by 30

A” .25.: ! Q‘r'. 1.. -.

'a"E‘ 1:“

i"? -

“‘4

Cylinde rs (10% cement)

Maximum density 3 116.0 Optimum moisture : 14.8%
Wt. of cement : .10 x 94 : 9.4 lbs.
Wt. of dry soil . 116 - 9.4 = 1066 lbs.

% cement by wt. of oven dry soil =__2=4__ x 100 z: 8.3%
106.6

Oven dry wt. of soil per specimen :__1_0_6_._§__ :: 3,55 11,3. of dry 3011
30

Usually add 10% for manipulation and l/20th for moisture content.
Total dry soil : 3,355+ .55 + .20 = 4.11 lbs.

Cement; 4.11 x_%.)%__: .342 x 454 : 1.55 gms.

Air-dry Soil; 4.11 x 454 : 1860 gms.

Water: (4.ll+ .342) X M. : 298 00.
100

Add 1 1/2% of dry soil to take care of evaporation. : 2934-45 ., 343 cc.
As there are 3 cylinders of each % cement to be made each quantity shall

be multiplied by 3.

blinders (121.272.11.21

Maximum density : 116.0 Optimum moisture : 14.8%
Wt. of cement = .12 x 94 : 11.3 lbs.

Wt. of dry soil : 116 - 11.3 : 104.7 lbs.

% cement by wt. of oven dry soil : 11,3 x 100 : 10.8%
104.7

Oven dry wt. of soil per specimen s 10;”: z 349 lbs. of dry 3011
30
Usually add 10% for manipulation and l/20th for moisture content.
Total dry soil : 3.49 + .35 +- .20 : 4.04 lbs.
Mont: 4.04 x 10.8 3 4.36 x 454 : 198 gms.
100

Aim-12:1 Sci . 4.04 x 454 = 1830 ens.
‘Waters (heOh'+'eh36) x %%88 x 454 3 301 000

Add 1 1/2% of dry soil to take care of evaporation. : 346 00. AB there are
3 cylinders of each % cement to be made each quantity shall be multiplied

by 3.
-29-

gylinders (l4% cement)

Maximum density : 116,0 optimum moisture : 14.8%
Wt. of cement a .14 x 94 : 13.2 lbs.
Wt. of dry 8011.: 116 - 13.2 : 102.8 lbs.

2 cement by'wt. of oven dry soil : 13.2

102. - 12.8%

Oven dry‘wt. Of soil per Specimen : 102.8 - 3.43 lbs. of dry soil
0

UBually add 10% for manipulation and l/20th for moisture content.
Total dry soil : 3.43-f .34-+-.20 : 3.98 lbs.

ens nt: 3.98 x 12.8
100

ALL-magi: 3.98 x 454 = 1810 sms.

m i (3098 + 0510) 13%.:3-1: 454 : 302 cc.
00

: 0510 X 1151]. 2 231 gms.

Add 1 1/2z of dry soil to take care of evaporation. : 302-f 45 g 347 go,
As there are 3 cylinders of each % cement to be made each quantity shall
be multiplied by 3.

Twelve specimens shall be molded for a complete investigation of the
properties of soil-cement mixtures -.three for each cement per cent.

One sample or specimen of each cement content shall be used in running
the wetting and Drying Test. These specimens shall be brushed.

Two samples or specimens of each cement content shall be used in
running the Freezing and Thawing Test. One sample of each shall be brushed.
The remaining sample shall be used in the determination of the compressive
strength of the material.

After the required number of specimens have been molded and properly
identified. they shall be placed into the moist rocm.fcr a seven day curing
period. The molding of the specimens shall be carried out as previously

outlined.

-30-

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LAQORATORY DURABILITY TEEES AND RESQLTS

 

Freezing and Thawing Test

If the soil-cement were to be part of an airport runway, it
naturally must be tested under alternate freezing and thawing. This
test is designed for determining the soil-cement losses and changes of
volume of the compacted specimens due to repeated freezing and thawing.

Two samples of each trial mix:will be used in this test, designated
as specimens B and C. After the seven day curing preiod the B and C
specimens shall be subjected to cycles of alternate freezing and thawing.
The specimens and stands shall be placed into a refrigerator having a
constant temperature of 10°F belowzero and frozen for a period of 22 hours.
The specimen B shall then be weighed and both Specimens put in the moist
room, also for a period of 22 hours. During the cycles. free water shall
be available to the sanples by means of absorbent pads placed under them.

After 22 hours in the moist room, specimen B shall be weighed and
giVen two firm strokes on all areas with a standard wire brush. This is
to remove all the material which has been loosened during freezing and
thawing. Sample B shall be reweighed after brushing, and the oven-dry
(110 °c) weight of the material brushed off calculated.

The procedure described above constitutes one cycle (48 hours) of
freezing and thawing. The specimens shall then be placed back into the
refrigerator and the process repeated.

This test Varies from the standard A. S. T. M. test in that only
7 cycles were run. The standard test calls for a series of 12 cycles;
otherwise the tests are identical.

Data and results of this test are shown in the tables XVII - XXI.

-31-

 

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LABORATORY DURABILITY TESTS

 

 

LABORATORY DURABILI'H 'gs‘rs

 

 

 

Wetting and 221195 Test
This test is to determine the soil-cement losses and volume changes

produced by repeated wetting and drying of the soil-cement mixtures.

One specimen of each cement content shall be used in running this
test.

After the seven day curing period. the specimens shall be submerged
in water for a. period of 4 hours . removed and weighed.

One sample shall then be placed in an oven with a constant temperature
of 110°C for a period of 20 hours, and then weighed.

After the 1; hour wetting period. each specimen shall be given two i‘irm
strokes on all areas with a standard wire brush. Immediately after brushing.
each sample shall be weighed. and the weight of the loosened material
calculated on the oven-dry basis.

The procedure outlined above constitutes one cycle (24 hours) of
wetting and drying. This test varies from the standard A. S. T. M.
procedure in that the latter calls for 40 hours of drying, while these
specimens shall be dryed for only 20 hours. Otherwise this procedure and

the A. S. T. 11. standard procedure are identical.

The date and results of this test are shown in tables m - XXIV.

-38-

 

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TAELB.XXV

cycle No.

ggmpression Tests

The remaining unbrushed samples of the freeze-thaw test shall be-
subjected to compression loads. The test shall be run by placing each
sample in the compression machine and noting the load (in pounds) at the
time of failure. Failure occurs when the beam can no longer be kept balanced.
Then, by calculating the area of the specimen, the pounds per Square inch may
be computed.

The data and results of the compression tests are shown in table XXVI.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sample Area in sq. in. Load in pounds Strength -
at failure. Lbs./sq. in.
8 C 12.50 2750 220
10 a 12 .50 3680 295
12 C 12.50 5130 411
14 c 12.50 5980 478
TABLE XXVI

jgathering_Testa

One soil-cement cylinder was put out-doors to be exposed to continual
‘weather changes. After 15 days of continual exposure. no ill-effects of
'the sample were noted. Although this period was not of sufficient length
'to determine accurate results. soil-cement is very rarely seriously effected

'by weathering during the months of mild climate.

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Additional Tests

It was desired. in this report,to run additional tests on the soil-
cement specimens to test the durability and strength of the samples with
various cement contents.

For example it was desired to run a test to determine the effect of 100
Octane gasoline on soil-cement, but due to rationing, it was impossible to
obtain even a small amount of this airplane fuel.

As it is obvious that the soil—cement would be subjected to continuous
drippings of gasoline, oil. grease etc.. if part of an airport runway, this .

test would be imperative to the soils engineer if any detrimental effects

 

were possible. F

Conclusions from Durability Tests

From the freezing and thawing test. it is easily seen that the addition
of a small amount of cement to the soil makes the material much more resistant
to the cycles it must undergo. The soil-cement loss per cycle decreased
(on an average) as the cement content increased. The soil-cement losses for
each specimen are shown in the freezing and thawing tables XVII a—ng

Various factors have been set up, through long years of testing and
field experience, as criteria of cement contents required to produce specimens
of satisfactory hardness, durability and serviceability. One of these standards
is that all soil classifications.£al, £92 and ‘93 (which includes the sandy-.
loam soil contained in the cylinders being tested), shall not lose over 1h

per cent by weight during 12 cycles of either the freeze-thaw test or the

wet-dry test.

Table XXV on page 44 shows the accumlative soil losses for a sample of

each of the cement contents. From this graph. it is evident that both the
12% and 1h% cylinders conform to the requirements. Thus. it is obvious that
the additional 2% of cement does not increase the strength and durability

of the product enough to warrant using lmz cement in the mixture.

The photographs of the soil-cement samples show the effects of brushing
upon the cylinders of various cement contents. They are compared to the
unbrushed samples to show the loss in shape as well as the loss in weight.

From the wetting and drying test. similiar conclusions are drawn. The
addition of a small per cent of cement greatly increases the stability of
the material. Photographs of the wet-dry Specimens are shown, but are not
compared to pictures of unbrushed samples. It is again evident that the 12%
cement content is much more practical than the 14%. and since it passes the
necessary qualifications. the 12% cement content is recommended for use.

For soil-cement used in airport construction. specifications state that
the compressive strength shall not be less than 400 lbs. per sq. in.

Table XXVI on page 45 gives the compressive strength of the soil-cement
specimens after 7 cycles of freezing and thawing. It is apparent that the
greater the cement content, the greater will be the compressive strength.

Thus. from this test. it is shown that both the 12% and the 14%

cylinders exceed the #00 lbs. per sq. in. compressive strength required.

ProtectionI or Armor Coats

The soil-cement type of construction. if prOperly controlled and
supervised, will produce a surface capable of withstanding considerable
traffic. The soil-cement surface should be exposed before any bituminous
mat is applied so that the mat may be firmly bonded to the soil-cement

pavement.

-47-

 

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The surface should be b1aded.écleaned with a power broom and blower before
applying the bituminous prime. All areas in the surface which are exception-
ally rough or not hard and knit together. should be removed or repaired as
they may later cause the bituminous top to loosen. shove. or produce ruts.

It is recommended that the soil-cement surface be left open for use. with-
out a bituminous covering. for several months. or for at least the first
winter. 0n military construction work. however. the surface must be used
almost immediately. Therefore. on this type of construction. the mat may be
placed immediately after 7 days of moist covering and 1h days exposure.

On military construction work, the bituminous covering should be part
of the contract. and should not be forgotten!

During the past several years. it has been advocated to build extra
cement surfaces into soil-cement as a part of final finishing operations.
'where the surfaces are to serve special purposes. Several trial sections of
extra cement surface have been built. which have demonstrated the ease of
construction. and the completed sections have given good results.

A very significant installation of extra cement surface was made on a
soil-cement runway in the northeastern part of the United States in 1940.
Inspection of the product two years later. after considerable freezing and
thawing weather. showed the project was giving excellent service. A.norma1
crack pattern at 25 feet intervals had developed. but the surface texture
‘was very good. This method is usually not recommended in military con-
struction work. however. as the added cost. and especially the added time

are definitely not desirable.

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AIRPORTS AND T UNWAIS
ggivate and:gommercial Flying

From the very beginning of aviation. there has been a demand for
airports. It was relatively unimportant in the earlier days. and was not
given much notice. but with each succeeding year the industry developed.
the demand became more acute. Today the aviation industry has taken. and
is continuously increasing. its place among the leading industries of the
nation. Airport development. however. has not matched this pace - due
primarly to the fact that there never has been an organized planned program.
either national. state or local. National planning is fundamental for the

reason that civil aviation. perhaps more than any other type of transporta-

 

tion. benefits the nation as a whole. rather than any particular state or
city.

Increased activity in private flying. especially in the largely
pepulated cities. will necessitate constructing several additional airports.
for it is to the best interests of both private and commercial flyers that
private activity be separate from scheduled airline operations. thus.
reducing congestion at terminal airports. The provision of additional
airports for the use of private flyers will enable them to more conveniently
house and store their planes and equipment. in addition to providing an
added stimulus to private ownership and private flying.

Performance characteristics of commercial and private aircraft.
together with the military aircraft. determine to a large extent the
facilities that an airport must provide for the safe cperation of such
craft. These requirements. when established. remain constant. and as a
result. the minimum landing area requirements of the aircraft may be

readily established.

In order to determine whether or not a given airplane may be safely
Operated in or out of a given airport. it is necessary to compare the distances
required for the airplane to take off or land at that airport with the
distances available. The available distances obviously remain fixed for a
given airport. The various factors which influence the distance required for
an airplane to take off and reach a certain height above the ground or to
clear a certain height above in landing may be classified as follows: a

A. Characteristics of the site;

1. Actual altitude.

2. Nature of runway surface.
B. Weather conditions;

1. Barometric pressure.

2. Temperature. 3
3. Wind direction and velocity. 5

 

0. Characteristics of the airplane:
1. Wing loading.
2. Power loading.
3. Maximum lift
h. Engine characteristics.
5. Prepeller characteristics.

D. Operating technique:
1. Mostly a collect selection of throttle speeds.

From the Civil Aeronautics Authority. the following specifications for
Class 2 landing areas. (landing areas which are not built to take care of
exceptionally heavy planes). are taken: 'Class 2 lending areas shall have
sufficient size to permit the safe operation of the larger sized private and
smaller sized transport planes. as well as all military planes except the
heavier banbers. For purposes of airport planning. a landing area located at
sea level. whether its landing area. be of the all-way or landing strip type.
wilI be considered qualified for inclusion under the '2' classification if
the landing area provides a sufficient number of landing strips at least
500 ft. wide and having a minimum effective length of 2500 ft... or permits

¢ Fran civil Aeronautics Authority
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the possibility of laying out such strips if an all-way landing area, making
possible landings and take-offs to be made within as 1/2" of the prevailing
wind direction for at least 80% of the total winds of over 5 miles per hour
velocity. In addition. the landing area shall have one hard surfaced runway.
or its equivalent. usuable under all weather conditions for each landing strip:
the may to have a minimun width of 100 feet. an effective length equal

to that of the landing strip. and the center line of the runway to coincide
with that of the landing strip.- Air navigational equipment and ground
facilities provided shall include modern lighting equipment. satisfactory

drainage. hangar and meling equipment. weather bureau facilities. mid

.'-T"I—‘"flh' -QLT. “. -i_I".

adequate shop. office andwaiting room Space. A11 landing areas should ’.

 

be adequately fenced.“
233.5322 M £9; Military _;_an_(_1_ givilian Egg

A: the war has taught us. it is a mistake to concentrate a large
number of aircraft on one airport. It is equally foolish to depend upon a
few large airports in any defense area as enemy air action would quickly put
these few out of commission. It is desirable to have not only a large number
of airports but also a large number d' “flight strips' upon which to base and
disperse our military aircraft. A 'flight strip. is defined as an area of
land with clear approaches located adjacent to a public highway for use as
an auxiliary landing area for aircraft.'

By means of flight strips. landing areas may be provided at many places
where the cost of an airport would not be justified. in terms of money.
materials. transportation. and man power. Although a flight strip has only
one runway. it is believed that. by a careful study of the winds prevailing
at any location. the runway can be located so as to be available for safe
operation during the greater part of the time.

- 51 -

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Although military considerations are naturally uppermost in our minds at
the present time. some thought must be given to the post-war aspect. With
the any program training thousands of pilots. immediately after the war
there will be a very large number of people in the country who have learned
to fly. It is an important reaponsibility of the government to see that
future air transportation is not retarded due to lack of planning and lack
of ground facilities.

The part that the flight strip program is expected to play in the post-
war world may be listed as follows;

1. Provide landing facilities for the civilian flier.

2. Provide basic landing facilities for small cities for
air cargo service.

3. Provide auxiliary landing facilities for all types of
aircraft.

While the flight strip serves the same purpose for take-off and landing
as an airport. it does not have the various facilities found at an airport.
such as terminal buildings. hangrs. gasoline storage. and lighting systems.
Therefore. the cost of a. flight strip represents only a part of the cost of
an airport. While a flight strip provides only one runway. these that are
contemplated for the future provide for long runways and approach areas of
greater widths and flatter glide angles than can be found at most airports.
Flight strips have the twofold purpose of providing facilities for military
and civilian aircraft.

Although flight strips have been thought about and eXperimented with
for years. no suggestion of using soil-cement has been brought forth. It is
the author's opinion that soil-cement would be the final touch and ultimate
goal for flight stripsl Table XXVII shows the leads and pressures on surfaces
caused by the loads of modern aircraft. and it is easily seen that soil-
cement would be ideal for all types of craft with the exception of heavy

 

bombers. This would not only cut the cost of the 'flight strip program!
a thousand-fold. but it would enable the program.to be completed in a
phenomenally short time.

The practicability of building numerous relatively inexpensive
landing fields has been demonstrated by the Operations of great numbers
of military aircraft. Following the settlement of the present time conflict.
and progressing into a postdwar world. the great turnover in all kinds of
aviation will give rise to an expansion of air tranSport facilities which
will find widely dispersed landing areas not only essential. but imperative! i

Thus a dual purpose - military and civilian is served. and soil-cement

 

flight-strips certainly seem destined to play a.major role. i .

Approximate Bearing Pressures of Four Classes of Planes.

Used for the Design of Runways

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Type of Plane Traffic Approximate Loaded Approximate Static Pressure
Weight Load of Tire on.Runway Surface
Trainers and 6000 lbs.
Pursuit Planes to 16.000 lbs. 10.25 lbs. per sq. in.
Light Bombers 25.000 lbs.
and Transports to 35.000 lbs. 15q50 lbs. per sq. in.
Heavy Bombers 50.000 lbs.
to 60.000 lbs. 30-15 lbs. per sq. in.
Heavy Bombers
of the Future 100.000 lbs.
(Douglas B-19 etc.) to 160.000 lbs.. $0.90 lbs..per sq. in.
TABLE XXVII

-53-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

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«tangfi .1 an. aims. aw ,

 

W

Housel. William S. Applied Soil Mechanics Ann ubor.

Michigan. Lithoprinted by Edwards Bros. Inc.. 1939.

Amorican Society of Civil Engineers. Civil ginseng
Volume 13. Number 2. 1910.

United states of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry

Soil Survey 331351132 gounpy. Michigan.
Series 1933. No. 36 March 191.1.

The Portland Cement Association. Soil-Cement Beads.

Chicago. Illinois. Second Edition 191.1 and Third Edition 1912.

The Portland Cement Association. Soil-mom Mixtures

Chicago. Illinois 1942.

Civil. Aeronautics Authority. Planning. and Development

Division. Eoposed gational grport Plan
(A typewritten paper. 1914.2.)

Ross. B. M. Materials Engineer. Barber-Greene Company
Materials and Methods £23; Military Airport gonstruction. Aurora. 111.
B-G Manual 1001- 19153.

The Portland Cement Association - Soilflent m

and papers and pampheta put out by the Association. Mill-1943.

-51.-

 

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