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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING FROM SMALLER
CONCEPTS TO LARGER USING DATA AND
OBSERVATIONS IN PLATE TECTONICS

presented by

Matthew L. Schuchardt

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

Master's degree in Physical Science-
Interdepartmental

 

 

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING FROM SMALLER CONCEPTS TO
LARGER USING DATA AND OBSERVATIONS IN PLATE TECTONICS

By.

Matthew L. Schuchardt

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Physical Science- Interdeparmental

2010

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING FROM SMALLER CONCEPTS TO
LARGER USING DATA AND OBSERVATIONS IN PLATE TECTONICS

By

Matthew L. Schuchardt

This purpose of this project was to test the effectiveness of teaching from smaller
concepts toward larger concepts, using data and observations in plate tectonics. By
following this method the students became more like the scientists themselves who took

observations from the physical world to build theories of plate tectonics.

It was presented in three sections earthquakes, volcanoes, and plate tectonics. Each
section had a pre and post assessment to measure student learning. Within each section
there were labs and active learning activities that build upon each other so students could

activate prior knowledge and construct the theory of plate tectonics.

Overall student learning showed a significant increase.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my parents for always pushing me to do my best in school and the
encouragement along the way. Also thank you to my 2009-2010 Earth Science students
for being willing to take part in this project. Most of all thank you to my wife Ashleigh

for her support while I have been completing this graduate program.

iii

Table of Contents

List of Tables .......................................................................................... v
List of Figures ........................................................................................ vi
Introduction ............................................................................................ l
Rationale ...................................................................................... 1
Literature Review ............................................................................ 4
An Overview of the Science .............................................................. 11
Demographics .............................................................................. 17
Implementation ...................................................................................... 1 9
Results and Evaluation ............................................................................. 28
Discussion and Conclusion ........................................................................ 33

Appendix I: Assessment Instruments

I-A: Pre Survey and Post Survey ........................................................ 38
I-B: Earthquake Pre Test ................................................................... 42
LC: Earthquake Post Test ................................................................. 45
I- D: Volcano Pre Test ..................................................................... 49
I-E: Volcano Post Test ..................................................................... 52
I-F: Plate Tectonics Pre Test .............................................................. 56
I-G: Plate Tectonics Post Test ............................................................. 59

Appendix II: Activities

Activity 1 Investigating a “Faulty” Diagram ........................................... 64
Activity 2 Seismic Waves ................................................................. 66
Activity 3 Mercalli’s Scale Lab .......................................................... 68
Activity 4 Locating an Epicenter Virtual Earthquake Lab ........................... 78
Activity 5 Earthquake Proof Buildings .................................................. 79
Activity 6 Location of Earthquakes and Volcanoes ................................... 83
Activity 7 Observations of Rock ......................................................... 88
Activity 8 Types of Volcanoes and Eruptions .......................................... 90
Activity 9 Assessing Volcanic Hazards ................................................. 93
Activity 10 Ocean Profile Activity ...................................................... 96
Activity 11 Crustal Plate Map Lab ...................................................... 99
Activity 12 Plate Tectonics Computer Lab ............................................ 101
Appendix 111: High School Content Expectation Standards ................................. 104
Bibliography ....................................................................................... 105

iv

List of Tables

Table 1 —— Teaching Schedule for Earthquakes section ......................................... 20
Table 2 — Teaching Schedule for Volcanoes section ................................. t .......... 23
Table 3 — Teaching Schedule for Plate Tectonics section ..................................... 25
Table 4 -— Earthquake Locations ................................................................... 83
Table 5 — Volcano Locations ...................................................................... 85

List of Figures

Figure 1 — Earthquake Pre and Post Test Average Percentage ................................ 28
Figure 2 — Volcano Pre and Post Test Average Percentage .................................... 29
Figure 3 — Plate Tectonics Pre and Post Test Average Percentages .......................... 30
Figure 4 — Pre and Post Survey Average Results ............................................... 31

Figure 5 — Student Rating of Effectiveness for Activities Taught ............................ 32
Figure 6 — Earthquake Pre Test: Normal Fault Diagram42
Figure 7 — Earthquake Pre Test: Reverse Fault Diagram ....................................... 42

Figure 8 — Earthquake Pre Test: Row of Trees ................................................... 42
Figure 9 —— Earthquake Pre Test: Fault/Earthquake Diagram .................................. 43
Figure 10 — Earthquake Pre Test: Seismogram Diagram ........................................ 44
Figure 11 — Earthquake Pre Test: World Map ................................................... 44
Figure 12 — Earthquake Post Test: Normal Fault Diagram ..................................... 45
Figure 13 - Earthquake Post Test: Reverse Fault Diagram .................................... 45
Figure 14 — Earthquake Post Test: Row of Trees ................................................ 45
Figure 15 — Earthquake Post Test: Fault/Earthquake Diagram ................................ 46

Figure 16 — Earthquake Post Test: Seismogram Diagram ...................................... 47
Figure 17 — Earthquake Post Test: World Map .................................................. 47

Figure 18 — Volcano Pre Test: Types Diagram .................................................. 49

Figure 19 - Volcano Pre Test: Volcano Labeling Question ................................... 49
Figure 20 —- Volcano Post Test: Types Diagram ................................................. 52
Figure 21 — Volcano Post Test: Labeling Question ............................................. 52
Figure 22 — Plate Tectonics Pre Test: Diagram Question ...................................... 57

vi

Figure 23 - Plate Tectonics Pre Test: Plate Locations ......................................... 58

Figure 24 — Plate Tectonics Post Test: Diagram Question .................................... 60
Figure 25 — Plate Tectonics Pre Test: Plate Locations ......................................... 61

‘ Figure 26 — Activity 2: Seismogram Example ................................................... 66
Figure 27 — Activity 3: Map of Southern California ............................................ 69
Figure 28 — Activity 3: Magnitude Scale Discussion .......................................... 77

Figure 29 — Activity 5: Mercalli Scale of New Madrid and Northridge Earthquakes. . . ...81

Figure 30 — Activity 5: Template For Earthquake Proof Buildings ........................... 82
Figure 31 — Activity 6: Map for Plotting Earthquake and Volcano Locations .............. 84
Figure 32 — Activity 6: Map of Tectonic Plate Boundaries .................................... 87
Figure 33 - Activity 6: Map of World Wide Earthquake Locations 1963-1998 ............ 87
Figure 34 — Activity 9: Map of Montserrat ...................................................... 94
Figure 35 — Activity 10: Age of Atlantic Ocean Floor ......................................... 98

vii

Introduction
Rationale:

Since every rock tells a story, it is the expectation of the middle school student to
look at evidence in those rocks to learn about what happens on the Earth. The setting for
the Earth Science student is the outside world. It is a different type of science where
direct experimentation is not used as often in the classroom as making inferences based
on evidence and data that students manipulate, and use to draw conclusions. This
evidence can range from things that can simply be seen with the naked eye to data
collected in the field and brought to the student. More specifically I wanted to study
aspects of learning the overall theories of plate tectonics using data collected in the field
and data studied with the naked eye.

The question is whether it is effective to teach the overall concepts of plate
tectonics first, followed by the smaller concepts that support it, or to teach from the
smaller concepts and build up towards the larger theory. In my 8th grade class this meant
determining which order to teach the topics of Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Plate
Tectonics. These topics are all inter-related. Essentially, the question is which way is
easier for students to learn the concepts. This is a question that I, and fellow Earth
Science teachers in my building, have discussed and have not formally found an answer.

When looking at various textbooks from middle school level up to college level,
there does not seem to be a clear answer as to which order to teach the material related to
plate tectonics. At the college level, Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology 6th
edition (Tarbuck and Lutgens 1999) differs in order from their 8th edition (Tarbuck and

Lutgens 2005). On the middle school level, Earth Science published by Heath in 1994

(Spalding et. al 1994), differs in order from Earth Science published by Prentice Hall in
2002 (Exline et. al 2002). I have spoken to a few teachers in other districts and get
answers that indicate both ways have been done. If you look at the history of science,
scientists have had to work from smaller observations and data towards forming larger
concepts, which is the way that material was presented to students in this project

The school year 2008-2009 was my first year teaching Earth Science in a middle
school. Before this I have taught mixes of physical science, chemistry, life science, and
some aspects of Earth science at various grade levels from seventh grade to high school
seniors. The unit in my classroom on earthquakes, volcanoes and plate tectonics needed
to be improved with more labs based on student interpretation of data and observations,
making them more like the work of scientists who developed the theories. Based on the
research presented in the literature review, incorporating these types of activities is
critical to student learning. The unit was designed to answer the question of the
effectiveness of teaching from small to big concepts. It also served to make the students
be able to think more critically, which is one of the most important aspects of science. I
taught this unit in three smaller sections of Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and finally Plate
Tectonics. Within each of those smaller units I will also teach from small concepts
towards large.

These units were taught in the fall semester of 2009. The course is broken into
two semesters with the first being mostly about solid earth geology and the second more
about the hydrosphere. I expected this unit to take several weeks (upwards of 9) to be

completed. My time on campus was mostly spent developing labs/activities that work

from the small perspective to the large concepts. I also spent time developing pre/post
tests that reflect this type of learning.

This project addressed the effectiveness of teaching a unit on plate tectonics from
smaller observable concepts and data towards the overall theory. I predict that by
working from smaller observations and evidence students can grasp concepts easier and

build on that knowledge to understand bigger concepts.

Literature Review:

How do students learn? That seems to be the question that teachers continue to
try to solve. The basis of teaching this unit is that students will build knowledge based on
their experiences in the labs and activities implemented. Students will work on labs and
activities to interpret patterns, examine evidence, work collaboratively, critically think,
and solve problems. Ultimately, my goal of this unit was to show that students who
utilize smaller observable concepts first would better understand global tectonics.

Much of the following review of literature on how students learn falls into the
broad category of constructivism, which means how students generate knowledge and
meaning from their experiences. In my unit I used several constructivist methods, such
as hands on lab work, analysis of data, observations, small group work, and discussion. It
is my point of view that it is effective for students to learn from smaller observable
concepts and data towards larger theories and is part how a student can construct
knowledge though inquiry. My research of the literature did not find much information
specifically about plate tectonics or Earth Science, however, there was information on
inquiry and the construct of knowledge in general.

Students learn from building on prior experiences. It is a part of our minds to
associate new material with something for which we already have a construct. “The
principle that people learn by using what they know to construct new understandings can
be paraphrased as “all learning involves transfer from pervious experiences (Bransford,
Brown, et al. 2000).” According to Colbum (2007), students will do this in their minds
and connect prior experience and knowledge. In 1938, John Dewey had similar ideas in

that students brought with them a set of behaviors and expectations from the past. He

argued that students had to construct knowledge by the process of solving problems
(Hickman, 2009). After doing these activities they should get more experiences to build
on and clear up misconceptions.

Learning is an active process. An inquiry based classroom environment has
students mentally engaged and figuring out things on their own. It often has hands on
based experiences for them to do (Colbum 2007). The use of labs and activities includes
observation, imagination and reasoning to understand content. What it does for the
student is to allow them to make a connection to what they have experienced in daily life
and use that to provide insight to the new information. (Bransford, Brown, et a1 2000).
Including these types of activates in instruction is important to learning any science.
Without the hands on experience the amount of critical thinking skills are lessened, and
the students are not as engaged. This makes the learning of concepts harder for a student
(Johnston and McAllister 2006). It is important for a student to understand the thinking
process of a scientist. When a student develops the skills of critical drinking and problem
solving, they can be applied to various aspects of their lives beyond school. Problems
solving, and thinking skills are important to any field.

Learning from smaller concepts towards larger concepts through the use of data
and observations requires students to think critically. What thinking critically does for
students is to have their thinking focused and more deliberate and shape scientific ideas
into an answer that fits the observation. “Thinking enables you to distinguish between
what you see, what you think you see, and what it means (Moriarty 1997).” This is the
basis for the objective approach that science requires. According to the National Science

Teachers Association (Texly and Wild 2004), once students have been given this

opportunity to think critically and examine evidence, they will not be satisfied with
traditional textbook bound lessons. They suggest the way to facilitate this type of
thinking is through the use of inquiry learning.

The use of inquiry in a science classroom has been around since the times of
Dewy, who lived from 1859-1952. Inquiry learning became a more debated topic than
traditional lecture style learning around his time period. “Before 1900 most educators
viewed science primarily as a body of knowledge that students were to learn through
direct instruction (National Research Council 2000).” Inquiry learning is important for
understanding how scientists solve problems. “The use of inquiry teaching and learning
has many aims: to develop student process skills, to develop critical thinking skills, to
better learn science content, and to better illustrate the nature of science by mimicking
scientist’s work (Martin-Hansen 2009).”

Scientific inquiry is similar to learning from data and evidence. When using
scientific inquiry, a scientist needs to study the natural world and give an explanation
based on the evidence their work presents. The units in this study followed a similar line
of thinking as it implied that inquiry learning should reflect the nature of scientific
inquiry (Anderson 2002).

The role of the small group is critical for active learning. It is important for the
students to interact socially with each other to discuss and construct new knowledge.
When a student works in a small group they can challenge each other’s thinking. Any
type of discussion or extended response allows a teacher and the students to uncover

misconceptions. Once misconceptions have been identified, they can be discussed with

the larger group. The small group facilitates an environment for students to explore
concepts rather than being told concepts (Colbum 2007).

Cooperative learning has positive impacts on student learning, according to
Robert Marzano and his coworkers (2001). His findings show that grouping of students
is important to their learning. Not only is it important for them to group, but also that
they have a heterogeneous group, where students of all levels can share their ideas with
each other. His findings also suggest that when there is some form of competitiveness
among the groups, that more is learned. This is similar to a real world environment
where scientists routinely work with other types of scientists to solve problems.

The way a teacher approaches a classroom also plays an important role to students
being more willing to participate. According to Brooks and Brooks (2001) the classroom
environment should be organized so that student-to-student interaction is encouraged,
cooperation valued, and assignments and materials are interdisciplinary. This will
produce a situation where students are more likely to take some risks and accept
challenges to their current construct of an idea. The atmosphere of an inquiry classroom
is one that students feel that the teacher, as well as their peers, has value in their ideas and
thoughts (Llwellyn 2005). It is important for students to feel they are discovering and
learning concepts rather than just passively listening to a lecture on concepts. Science is
for solving problems, not the memorization of fact.

Others, such as Piaget, have looked into how students construct knowledge in
general. According to Piaget, middle school students are in the Concrete-Operational
Stage (Woolfold, 1998). Some guidelines for teaching this age include:

1. Use props and visual aids, such as three dimensional models

2. Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas.

3. Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly

complex levels.

4. Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking.

Following Piaget’s thought process, it seems that learning plate tectonics from a scale of
smaller observable ideas and working towards larger concepts is a logical approach. The
activities and labs presented in this project follow all four of these ideas, and the results
of the project support them.

The process of learning from smaller concepts to larger concepts using data and
observations, students gain more knowledge of the nature of science. Science is more
than remembering facts that are written about the natural environment, it is a process.
This can sometimes be forgotten when thinking about the amount of material that has to
be covered in a given year, with more being added to the curriculum and expectations.
“The nature of science addresses the importance of creativity and imagination in
scientific work; how scientists invent explanations for phenomena; the difference
between observation and inference; how scientific ideas are subject to change; and how
culture and society influence science (Hanuscin & Lee 2009).” Plate tectonics, in
particular, is an area of science that has changed with time, as new evidence is uncovered.
Many students are uncomfortable with the idea of science changing.

Not understanding that science is a process can lead to the public
misunderstanding concepts in science. As McComas et. al (1998) puts it, “all levels of
science teaching and textbooks emphasize the factual recall of science and not the

process that generated the science.” Understanding that science is a process is

increasingly important as science topics continue to be part of the main stream, for
example, green technologies and alternative energies. These “new” fields of science are
being played out in front of students through everyday media.

It is important for students to understand that scientific ideas are always changing.
Knowledge in science is a temporary construct, by which we attempt to make sense of the
world. It is subject to change when new evidence is uncovered. Scientific knowledge is
constantly being questioned, re-evaluated, and tested, so that changes in what we teach
will inevitably occur (Matson & Parsons 1998). Because of this nature of science it is
important for students to be able to look at evidence and be able to form inferences based
on what they observe, even if that evidence is presented to them and they do not generate
it themselves. Not all sciences follow a hypothesis-experiment-conclusion model. In the
geological sciences a hypothesis, observation, conclusion model can be more common. It
is difficult in Earth Science for students to directly collect some types of data, especially
in Michigan, where we have few earthquakes and no volcanoes. In my classroom the
students used data generated by other people to make their observations and draw
conclusions.

Science demands evidence. Ultimately, how valid a scientific claim is will be
decided by observations of phenomena. These observations and evidence can come in a
variety of ways. Sometimes these observations are passive, such as data generated by
seismometers during earthquakes. Some are from active probing, like drilling a borehole
in the Earth. Others take place in controlled lab settings such as measuring the strength

of different rock types (AAAS 1990). In the case of Alfred Wegener, his theory of

continental drift had some evidence, but it was not until after his death that enough
evidence was found to support his hypothesis.

Middle School students are able to look at data sets or evidence and follow the
process of analyzing it, discussing it with peers, and building it into a scientific theory.

In the context of this study, much of what the students will do falls into the category of
“guided inquiry” and “student directed inquiry.” (Liang and Richardson 2009). In guided
inquiry the teacher provides the question, while students design the procedure and
analyze the data, and present conclusions. In student directed inquiry the teacher presents
a problem, and lets the students develop their own questions and designs (Liang and
Richardson 2009).

In summary, students who are engaged in inquiry are able to become more like
the scientists who first discovered concepts of plate tectonics. The use of problems
solving, critical thinking skills, small group discussion, and activities that use inquiry,
allows students to be able to tie prior experiences together to understand science as a
process. This study was designed to be this way so that students could learn from small
observable concepts and data and build towards the larger overall theory of plate

tectonics.

10

An Overview of the Science:

I like to start out the school year by asking the students a very simple question.
That question is “why study the Earth?” In other words why are we going to be spending
the next year together talking about and discussing different parts of the Earth? The
range of answers is usually interesting (aside from “my mom makes me come to
school”). Some of the better ones are:

“To learn about what happened in the past about Earth”

“To learn about Earth’s physical features”

“To learn about the Earth so we can protect it”

“To see how the Earth has changed and how its changing affects people”
I particularly like the last answer. That seems to strike at what Earth Science is all about.
I tell the students that it is because we live on the Earth and everything we do is related to
the Earth. Throughout the year I will ask them this same question about each unit that we
learn about. Why study this?

The plate tectonics unit is tied to the units on earthquakes and volcanoes. Really,
these topics are connected and interrelated, as is much of Earth Science. In this thesis, I
am using evidence and knowledge of earthquakes and volcanoes to build into the plate

tectonics theory.

Earthquakes: (Source—Tarbuck and Lutgens 1999)
Earthquakes are felt when energy is released in the form of seismic waves as parts
of the crust move past each other along faults. The energy released radiates in all

directions from its source, the focus. There are three types of faults each caused by

11

different types of stresses in the Earth that are discussed in my classroom. Normal faults
are caused by tension, Reverse faults are caused by compression and shearing causes
Strike-Slip faults.

The seismic waves travel through the Earth (which is how we understand the
layers of the Earth) and scientists can use these to quantify earthquakes. A seismograph
is used to create a seismogram that can be interpreted to determine the size, depth,
location, and type of earthquakes. Larger earthquakes produce more energy and can
cause a variety of damage depending on the geology of an area as well as the building
materials. The depth of earthquakes can help to determine the type of plate boundary
present. Deep earthquakes are associated with convergent boundaries, while shallow
ones can be associated with passive boundaries.

Primary and secondary waves arrive first and are both “body” waves that travel
through the Earth. A surface wave travels along the surface of the Earth. P waves are
“push-pull waves” which means they compress and expand. S waves shake the particles
at right angles to direction of travel and are transverse. Surface waves arrive later and are
the destructive waves. One of the key reasons that these waves are studied is to
understand how to prevent damage to human life, and infrastructure.

When plotting the locations of earthquakes there is a distinct pattern that emerges
around the globe. The locations of these earthquakes help to solidify the location of plate
margins and give more evidence to continental and plate tectonics theories. There is also
a strong correlation to the location of volcanic activity. The motion between the Earth’s

tectonic plates is the cause of most of these earthquakes and volcanic activity. Why the

12

plates move to begin with is another question that scientist’s such has Alfred Wegener

began to address in the 20th century.

Volcanoes: (Source-Tarbucks and Lutgens 1999)

IA volcano is a mountain formed from lava flows or pyroclasts that erupt from the
mountain. Scientists can study them to understand more about how the tectonics plates
of the Earth interact, much like earthquakes. Different types of volcanoes emerge
depending on the tectonic boundary.

What determines the type of volcano and eruption that it has is related to the
magma’s composition, its temperature, the amount of dissolved gases it contains, and
ultimately its tectonic setting. The major composition of a rock depends on its silica
content. Granite and rhyolite are high in silica and therefore are very “sticky.” Dissolved
gases also play an important role; the harder it is for the gas to escape, due to relatively
low temperatures, the more violent the eruption as well. An example of a composite
volcano is Mt. St. Helens, which erupted very explosively and violently sending ash for
miles into the air.

Shield volcanoes are on the other end of the spectrum with lower amount of silica,
higher temperatures, and gas that escapes easily. Volcanoes, such those on Hawaii and
Iceland, tend to erupt less explosively and have much more fluid lava that flows on the
surface.

Between these two types is another called cinder cones. They tend to form near
composite volcanoes and erupt mostly with loose pyroclastic materials. These are the

smallest type, while shield volcanoes are the largest.

l3

Why we have volcanoes to begin with also leads us towards plate tectonics theory
as well. Earthquakes are often associated with volcanoes as magma from beneath the
surface rises towards the top.

The types of volcanoes and rocks are directly related to their location at plate
boundaries. Much of the volcanic rock that is made on the Earth forms at mid-ocean
ridges. As the lithosphere pulls apart, the pressure on the rock below lessons, this lowers
the melting point of the rocks and partial melting forms along the diverging plates, which
tends to form basalts. Basalt is a fine-grained igneous rock of mafic composition, so it is
high in iron and magnesium and low in viscosity.

Composite volcanoes tend to form along converging plate boundaries. Oceanic
crust made of basalt is denser than granitic rock that forms continents. As the ocean plate
slides beneath the continent it drags volatiles like water down with it. As these melt they
rise towards the surface as magma.

The evidence and observations seen from both volcanoes and earthquakes

contribute to model for plate tectonics.

Plate Tectonics: (Source-Tarbuck and Lugens 1999)

Global maps were not something readily available until after the “Age of
Exploration” from the latter half of the fifteenth through the sixteenth centuries.
(V oorhies 2002) when people like Christopher Columbus starting making the world
economy more global. Most middle school students can see the continents and how they
look like a jig saw puzzle waiting to be put together. They do fit crudely together and

much better when you include continental shelves.

l4

Alfred Wegener took this idea even further with more lines of evidence that the
continents were once lumped together in a “super continent” called Pangaea. His theory
was called continental drift. Wegener had help from other researches from a few
different fields of science. The other lines of evidence, aside from fit of the continents,
came from: fossil evidence, rock type and structural similarities, and paleoclirnatic
evidence. Wagener ultimately was openly criticized for his idea, mainly for his inability
to explain the mechanism to move such great amounts of rock. Sadly, he died before
being shown correct. New evidence emerged later from paleomagnetism, polar
wandering, geomagnetic reversals, and greatest the evidence from seafloor spreading.
Plate tectonics is a newer theory for continental drift that encompassed all of this
evidence.

Seafloor spreading gave continental drift its driving mechanism. It explains how
new ocean floor is created at mid-ocean ridges, and how old ocean floor is destroyed at
subduction zones. The evidence from earthquake data and from volcanic eruptions
shows us today in real time the dynamics of the boundary zones.

There are three types of plate boundaries: Divergent boundaries, Convergent
boundaries, and Transform boundaries. Their names describe the motions associated
with them.

Divergent boundaries are where plates move apart, from an upwelling of new
basaltic ocean crust. These boundaries are not limited to oceans and can be found on
land; for example in Iceland or the East African Rift Valley. Typically this results in new
ocean basins after millions of years. The motion of this type of boundary results in

shallow earthquake data and shield volcanoes.

15

Three types of convergent boundaries exist: Ocean-ocean, continent-continent,
and ocean-continent. The plate that is denser will sink below the other plate. Ocean-
ocean, and ocean-continent this interaction results in earthquakes and volcanoes.
Continent-continent interactions results in large mountain ranges such as the Himalayas
as neither plate can subduct due to low density.

Transform boundaries do not produce or destroy parts of plates, but they do allow
for the motion of the plates to occur. Their motion will result in the production of
earthquakes. The driving mechanism for the plates is somewhat debatable.

A popular mechanism for the driving mechanism of plate tectonics is convection
currents in the mantle. Warm mantle rises at ocean ridges and slides beneath the
lithosphere dragging the plates like a conveyor system. As it cools it sinks down
dragging the plate with it at subduction zones.

A more recently proposed mechanism is slab-push, slab pull. Again, this is driven
, by density. As ocean plates age they become cooler and therefore denser. When it gets
cool enough the ocean plate sinks into the asthenosphere, pulling the lithosphere with it at
a subduction zone. At ocean ridges the lithosphere slides under the influence of gravity.
It is less dense due to being warmer and forms small mountain ranges like the mid-ocean
ridge.

In other theories, both convection and slab-push/pull work together.

16

Demographics: (Source Mona Shores Annual Report)

This study was conducted at Mona Shores Middle School, located in Norton
Shores, which is a suburb of Muskegon located in Muskegon County. The city has an
area of 24.5 square miles and a population of 22,500 people. The average household
income is $59,300. There are 4,072 students district wide. The percentage of
homeowners in Norton Shores is 77%, and 30% of people over the age of 25 have a
college degree (Public SChool Review 2008). There are (4) elementary buildings, (1)
middle school of grades 6-8, and (1) high school with grades 9-12. The teaching staff in
the district is 226 teachers. All of the teachers in the middle school are “highly qualified”
for their positions.

The middle school has 959 students, the majority of them are Caucasian. The
next highest student population is Afi'ican American. The percentage of students who are
eligible for free lunch is 18%, with another 8% for reduced lunch (Public School Review
2008)

Mona Shores consistently does well on standardized tests, such as the MEAP,
which is taken in the middle school, and is measured by the AYP/Education YES, as an
“A” school. On the science section of the MEAP (taken in 8th grade) in the last three
years, the middle school has scores of 90%, 85% and 91% respectively.

The community cares greatly about the success of its students. In the 2007-2008
school year 92% of parents were at the fall parent teacher conferences. Mona Shores has
taken great initiative to include technology in the classroom. Bond issues have been
passed to improve the way technology is used in the classroom. The middle school has a

student to computer ratio of about 1 computer for every 3 students. This includes six sets

17

of computers on wheels, “COWS” as we call them. Each COW has 15 laptops for student
use. All classrooms are equipped with a “smart cart” which includes a computer,
projector, document camera, a speaker system, and Internet connection among other
features. The “smart cart” truly improves a teacher’s ability to integrate technology into
the classroom.

During the year this study was conducted (2009-2010) I taught 8th grade science
for three of my five hours a day. We were on a traditional 55-minute semester class
schedule. My other two sections were 7th grade science, based on the Grade Level
Content Expectation Standards (GLCES). My 8th grade class was Earth Science and was
based on the High School Content Expectation Standards (HSCES). There were other
teachers in the science department that taught the same classes as myself, with me being

the only “split” science teacher. All students were required to take 8th grade science.

18

Implementation

Over the course of my unit, the focus for the student learning was centered on labs
and activities. There were forty eight (48) participating students in the study. The unit
was broken into three sections. Part 1 was on earthquakes, Part 2 on volcanoes, and Part
3 on plate tectonics. At the beginning of the unit I gave the students a pre survey
(Appendix I-A), which gauged their thoughts on how they perceived how they learned
using “small” concepts and data. At the end of the unit there was a similar post survey
(Appendix I-A) given, as well as their evaluation of each lab activity. At the beginning
of each part there was a pre test (Appendix I-A, I-C, I-E) to be compared to their post test
(Appendix [-8, I-D,I-F). I used these for each part to measure the amount of material
that the students learned. The activities/labs (Appendix II) in each part were designed to
emphasize learning small concepts using data and observations and build towards larger
concepts in plate tectonics. Each part also followed the trend of learning from small
concepts to larger concepts.

Tables 1,2,and 3 show the schedules that were followed in my classroom for this
unit. They do not include notes/discussions or other worksheets. The activity number
corresponds to the post survey order, where students evaluated the usefulness of the
activity. The order taught is listed chronologically. Note that students on the post survey
did not rate a couple of the activities. Each activity was scored for correctness on any
questions that were assigned within the activity and lab. The students also received some

points for completion of different sections of the activities.

19

In the first part of my unit I taught them about earthquakes and their relationship

to plate tectonics. The sequence of activities was designed for students to learn from

smaller concepts and evidence and build towards larger theories.

Part 1 — Earthquakes Schedule

 

Date

Activity and Titles
(See Appendix II)

HSCE Objective
Addressed
(See Appendix III)

Brief Description
of Activity

 

Wednesday 10/6

Pre Survey Given

Comparison piece

5 question survey

 

Thursday 10/7

Earthquake Pre Test

Comparison piece

20 point Pre Test

 

 

 

(Activity 5)

Friday 10/16 and Investigating a Faulty E3.4f, P1.1f Make 3D models
Monday 10/19 Diagram (Activity 1) of Faults
Monday 10/26 Seismic Waves Lab E3.4, P1.1D Use Slinky to

(Activity 2) model Earthquake
waves

Tuesday 10/26 - Earthquake Proof E3.4, P1.1g Build a building
Thursday 10/28 Buildings Lab and test with

shake table

 

Monday 1 1/2

Locating an Epicenter
Virtual Earthquake

E3.4A, E3.4B, E3.4C,
P1.1D, P1.1E

Use computer to
find epicenter of

 

 

Lab an earthquake
(Activity 4)
Tuesday 11/3 - Mercalli’s Scale Lab E3.4C, P1.1g, P1.1D Earthquake
Wednesday 11/4 (Activity 3) intensity lab.
Wednesday 11/1 1- Location of E3.4A, E3.4C, E3.3d, Shows how

 

 

 

 

Thursday 11/12 Earthquakes and P1.1g, P1.1D Earthquakes and
Volcano’s Lab volcanoes relate to
(Activity 6) plate boundaries
Tuesday 1 1/17 Earthquake Post Test Comparison 20 point Post Test
piece/assessment

 

 

 

Table 1 — Earthquake Section Schedule

Overview of each activity: (All activities found in Appendix II)

Investigating a Faulty Diagram:

 

The purpose of this activity was to introduce the ideas of faulting. The students

made a 3D paper model of a piece of “crust” out of paper. They then colored it in and

modeled how the earth moves along a Normal, Reverse, and Strike Slip faults to see the

effects of them on the surface of the Earth. This activity served as a starting point for
observable effects and corresponded with the notes that show pictures of these types of
faults. The average score on this assignment was a 85%, and was rated a 3.6 out of 5 for
effectiveness on the student post survey.

Seismic Waves:

After understanding how the Earth moves along fault lines, the students explored
how energy travels through the Earth. The focus was on body waves and not surface
waves. The students used a slinky to model the motion of energy through the Earth.
How the energy traveled through the slinky also served to introduce the idea of how a
seismometer works, and how scientists use evidence to understand earthquakes and
ultimately plate tectonics. We did more with surface waves in notes and pictures in
addition to this lab activity. The average score on this assignment was 80%, and was
rated a 4.0 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post survey.

Earthquake Proof Buildings Lab and Activity:

The purpose of this lab was for the students to determine that seismic waves and
earthquakes have an effect on human lives. Tectonic plates shifting under their feet result
in the earthquakes that damage buildings and people. In this lab the students built and
tested their own “buildings” on a shake table that I built. It represented a real world
problem and allowed them an opportunity to solve this problem using their knowledge of
seismic waves. The average score on this assignment was a 79%, and was rated a 4.7 out
of 5 for effectiveness on the student post survey. Most of the errors on this lab were from

neglecting to finish the written part.

21

Locating an Epicenter Virtual Earthquake Lab

Students used an online program (http://www.sciencecourseware.com)to help
them locate the epicenter of an earthquake. The program modeled for them plate
boundaries. They were also able to find the magnitude, or how much energy released, of
an earthquake similar to how a scientist would do this. The average score on this
assignment was 93%, and was rated a 3.4 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post
survey.

Mercalli’s chle Lab:

Students worked with real data collected from an earthquake in southern
California to determine its intensity on the Mercalli Scale. The data given were from the
1994 Northridge earthquake. Students worked with actual data in a way that a scientist
would to understand how the tectonic plates of the Earth shift and move. The students
read through eyewitness experiences to determine the intensity and location of an
earthquake. The average score on this assignment was a 85%, and was rated a 3.5 out of
5 for effectiveness on the student post survey
Logtion of Ear_tMu_akes and Volcanoes La_b_:

In this activity students plotted on a map the locations of various earthquakes that
have occurred around the world. This allowed them to have a visual representation using
data to make the connection to the location of plate boundaries using evidence. The
activity also served as a link to volcanoes (Part 2) and their connection to tectonic plate
locations. After they noted the location of both earthquakes and volcanoes and saw that
they are they same, it also shows the students that the two are connected. The activity

was the most important one in allowing students to discover and experience how

22

earthquakes relate to plate tectonics. It was completed after they have seen the smaller

data and have applied it towards the larger theory of plate tectonics. The average score

on this assignment was a 91%, and was rated a 3.4 out of 5 for effectiveness on the

student post survey.

Part 2—Volcanoes Schedule

In the second part of my unit I taught them about volcanoes and their relationship

to plate tectonics. Again, in this section I start with smaller concepts and evidence and

build towards larger theories.

 

 

 

 

Date Activity and Titles HSCE Objective Brief Description

(See Appendix II) Addressed of Activity

(See Appendix 111)

Wednesday 11/18 Volcano Pre Test Comparison piece 22 point Pre Test
Thursday 11/19 Observations of Rock E3.1A, E3.lB Granite and Basalt

Lab E3.1d, E3.2C comparison

(Activity 7)

Tuesday “/24 Famous Eruptions lab E3.4C, P1.2k Familiarize with

 

 

 

 

 

 

piece/assessment

 

(Not rated by students world wide
on post survey) eruptions and
locations
Monday 11/30- Types of Volcanoes E3.4d, E3.1A, E3.lB Understand
Tuesday 12/ 1 and Eruptions different types and
(Activity 8) tectonic settings
Monday 12/7 Assessing Volcanic E3.4C, Pl .2k Real world
Hazards problem
(Activity 9)
Friday 12/11 Volcano Post Test Comparison 22 point Post Test

 

Table 2 — Volcano Section Schedule

Overview of each activity: (All activities found in Appendix III)

Observations of Rock Lab:

This activity began with small differences students can observe between granite

and basalt. After making observations and discussing the different rock types, the

students drew the tectonic settings where basalt formed and granite is located. They

learned the differences in silica content and the corresponding eruptions that occur based

 

partially on silica content. They also measured the differences in density of the two
rocks, which come out very small. After doing this lab I found the differences to be
small, and probably inaccurate due to the small differences and the measuring techniques
of middle schools students. This served as an introduction to the role density plays in
tectonic settings. The average score on this assignment was 91%, and was rated a 3.4 out
of 5 for effectiveness on the student post survey.

Famous Eruptions Lab:

The purpose of this activity was to illustrate to the students the impact that
volcanic eruptions have had on human activity throughout history. This is an important
piece considering the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland. It also was pointed out
to the students how different types of volcanoes occur in different tectonic settings. The
average score on this lab was 84%.

Types of Volcanoes and Eruptions Activity:

Students drew a diagram of each type of volcano in its tectonic setting. They
needed to label the different parts of each volcano and point out differences in size, what
is ejected, size of eruption, amount of silica and trapped gases present, and type of rock
present for examples. The main goal was to explore how the types of volcanoes are made
because of their different tectonic settings. The average score on this assignment was
82%, and was rated a 4.0 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post survey.
Understanding/ohmic Haaards Activig:

Students played the role of a geologist on the Caribbean island of Montserrat.
After analyzing data from maps of ancient pyroclastic flows, students were asked to make

a prediction on where people should be relocated on the island. It allowed them to make

24

 

a real world type of decision based on scientific data and facts. The average score on this
assignment was 93%, and was rated a 3.4 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post
survey.

Part 3 — Plate Tectonics Schedule
After working through the first two parts of this unit, the students should have a fairly
good idea of the concepts underlying Plate Tectonics. The third part presented some of

the other lines of evidence that support the theory of Plate Tectonics. Again, this unit

built from smaller ideas and concepts towards larger ones.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Date Activity and Titles HSCE Objective Brief
(See Appendix II) Addressed Description of
(See Appendix [11) Activity
Monday 12/14 Plate Tectonics Pre Comparison piece 25 point Pre Test
Test
Wednesday 12/16 Wandering Continents E3.3A, P1.1g, Pl.2g, Wegener’s
Evidence P1 .2k Evidence
(Not rated by students
on post survey)
Friday 12/ 18 Ocean Profile Lab E3.3A, P1.lg, P1.1D Map’s Ocean
(Activity 10) Floor showing
ridge
Monday 12/21 Crustal Plate Map E3.3, E33B National
(Activity 11) Geographic Map
with Plate
Names and
Boundaries
Wednesday 1/6- Plate Tectonics E3.3, E3.3A, Animations and
Thursday l/7 Computer Lab E3.3B,E3.3C questions
(Activity 12) showing
boundary types
and mechanisms
Monday 1/1 1- Hawaii Lab E3.3C, P1.1g Shows
Tuesday 1/ 12 (Not rated by students movement rates
on post survey) of Hawaii
Thursday 1/14 Plate Tectonics Post Comparison 25 Point Post
Test Piece/Assessment Test
Friday 1/ 15 Post Survey Comparison Piece Survey of
activities

 

Table 3 — Plate Tectonics Section Schedule

Overview of each activity: (All activities found in Appendix II)

25

 

Wandering Continents Evidence Activity:

Students retraced the lines of evidence that Alfred Wegener used for his
wandering continents hypothesis. They used the library and computers to find out what
Wegener had to say about the following: the fit of the continents, fossil evidence, rock
type and structural similarities, paleoclimatic evidence, paleomagnetism, and
geomagnetic reversals. This was a simple activity that showed students how evidence is
used to build a theory.

Ocean Profile Lab:

Students worked with depth to the ocean floor data between Nova Scotia, Canada,
and Soulac, France on the 45th parallel. From these data they plotted a graph, which
revealed that the ocean floor is not flat, but has mountain ranges. In the second part of
the lab they colored in the age of each part of the ocean floor showing the symmetric
pattern around the mid ocean ridge. This allowed them to discover the driving
mechanism that Wegener was missing, sea floor spreading. The average score on this
assignment was 81 %, and was rated a 3.4 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post
survey.

Crustal Plate Map Lab:

How the plates move around the earth was illustrated in this lab. It showed the
different geologic features around tectonic boundaries. After doing this lab the students
should have a firm grasp on how the plates of the earth interact and move to produce the
surface features that we see around the world. It also asked them to make some small

calculations on how fast certain plates are moving. A goal of this lab was to have the

26

students be able to look at surface features and infer some of the processes involved in
producing them.
flate Tectonics Computer Lab:

This lab was based on information from the computer program that accompanied
Earth: An introduction to Physical Geology (Tarbuck and Lutgens 1999). It had very
useful animations and helped to reinforce and relate the ideas of how the tectonics plates
of the earth move to produce surface features. In many ways it is similar to the Crustal
Plate Map Lab (Appendix II). The computer helps to visually show similar ideas in a
more engaging way for the students. One of the more important aspects of this lab was
that it discussed driving mechanisms for plate motion. The average score on this
assignment was 82 %, and was rated a 3.8 out of 5 for effectiveness on the student post
survey.
Hawaii Lab:

The GLG 201 course instructors at Michigan State University wrote this lab. It
did, however, meet the needs of our students and addresses the HSCES. Students
performed calculations for the rate of movement of the Pacific plate, using the Hawaiian
Islands as a reference. In the end of the lab it also has the students make predictions on

how the plate has moved over the course of its history.

27

Results and Evaluation

Each of the three sections of this unit had a pre test and a post test (Appendix II)
to gauge student learning over the course of the time spent on it. A pre test was
administered before I did any teaching on each part, so any knowledge they used to
answer the questions was based on prior learning experiences. The post test for each part
was given after teaching and served as the assessment for each of the three sections as
well. There was also a pre survey and post survey (Appendix I) given which did not
seem to tell me as much as the actual non-subjective numbers did. Each section showed
student performance increased significantly after instruction. This was based on a paired
t test (http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/stats/Paired_t-test_NROW_form.htrnl) for each of
the three pre and post tests. Also a significant increase in percentage was found from
each pre test to post test.

Earthquake section (Part 1):

 

Earthquake Pre and Post Test Average Percentage

100%
80%
60%
40%
20% -

0%

 

 

 

 

El Pre Test %
I Post Test %

 

Percentages

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre and Post Test
n=48

 

 

 

Figure 1 — Earthquake Pre and Post Test Average Percentage
The pre and post tests had a possible 20 points to be scored and there were 12 questions.

On the pre test the scores ranged from a low of (1) correct to a high of (12) correct. The

28

post test had a range of scores from (9) up to (20). The average score increased from a
31% before any formal instruction up to a 77% after formal instruction. The t-test
indicates a significant increase in student understanding.

The post test for part 1 showed that there were still misconceptions about fault
types. Many students were still not able to distinguish between normal and reverse type
faults which accounts for most of the missing points from this assessment. The average
on the post test was 77%.

Volcano Section (Part 2):

 

Volcano Pre and Post Test Average Percentages

90%.
80%.
70%.
50%.
50% 1:) Pre Te st
40% IPost Test
30%, .,_- ...

20%.
10%.
0%.

 

 

 

 

Percentages

4‘
f

' 4896 9 7996

 

rean lo e
n=48

 

 

 

Figure 2 — Volcano Pre and Post Test Average Percentages
The pre and post tests had a possible (22) points that could be scored. On the pre test the

scores ranged from a low of (4) correct to a high of (16) correct. The post test had a
range of scores from (9) up to (22). The average score increased from a 48% before any
formal instruction up to a 79% after formal instruction. This shows a significant student
increase in understanding as indicated by the t-test results.

A common mistake made on the post test for Part 2 was in labeling the

differences between a composite and shield volcano. Even after instruction the

29

misconception that a composite volcano is larger than a shield volcano still existed.
Many students labeled them in reverse because the composite volcano has “bigger”
eruptions, and is therefore the “bigger” volcano, when this is not the case.

{Etc Tectonics Section Q’art 3):

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Plate Tectonics Pre and Post Test Average
Percentages

100% ]
g 80%
‘2 50% * D Pre Test
:2 40% - ‘1": . u- 1 I Post Test
.1’ 20% T 45% 77% j

0% ‘
Pre and Post Tests
n=48

 

 

 

Figure 3 — Plate Tectonics Pre and Post Test Average Percentages
The pre and post tests had a possible (25) points that could be scored. On the pre test the
scores ranged from a low of (2) correct to a high of (20) correct. The post test had a
range of scores from (9) up to (25). The average score increased from a 45% before any
formal instruction up to a 77% after formal instruction. This shows a significant student
increase in understanding as indicated by the t-test analysis.

Students seemed to struggle with their explanations for how the San Andreas
fault, and how the Mt. St. Helens eruption in 1980 are related to plate tectonics. The
questions (Appendix II) were designed to make the students apply what they had learned
to a real life situation.

The results from each section are encouraging and indeed show that learning from

smaller concepts to larger concepts using evidence and data is an effective method.

30

Student Pre aad Post Survey Results: (Appendix I)

 

Pre and Post Survey Average Results

 

4-4 4.3 [:1 Pre #1
D Post #1
[3 Pre #2
CI Post #2
[:1 Pre #3
[:1 Post #3
13 Pre #4
a Post #4

Questions D Pre #5
n= 48 El Post #5

 

Student Responses (5 max)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4 — Pre and Post Survey Average Results

The surveys gave a baseline for comparison to opinions and ideas after they were
taught using this paradigm. The results did not show a noticable change. I found this
interesting since the pre and post tests showed such a large difference.

The two items from both of the pre and post surveys that stand out as most
interesting to me is that students consistently ranked learning from things they can see,
like data (question #2), and doing labs with real examples (questions #4) as being
important to them. As a teacher, that is valuable information and agrees with what I
learned during my teacher preparation. It also agrees with my hypothesis that learning is
effective when students work with smaller observable concepts to build towards a larger

theory.

31

Student Rating of Effectiveness for Activities Taught: See appendix for questions
On the post survey I had an additional section than the pre survey in which I
asked the students to rank each of the learning activities that we did through the unit and

smaller sections.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Student Rating of Effectiveness for Actlvltes Taught

5
'9 4.5
it 4.7
E 4
g 3.5 ~ 36 4.0 . 4 3.8
g 31 35 341 34 34h ”34'3A‘ 35
g 2.5 ‘ 1 l . .
U 2 a '11 J
a l
m 1.5 ‘ “ H fl I I
31 1 ‘ 1 1 L
E 05 a 1. N n J I:
< 0 . . .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Activitiy Number
n=45

 

 

 

Figure 5 — Student Rating of Effectiveness for Activities Taught
Each activity ranked in a range that I would consider to be helpful to a student,
but what I found to be interesting about this rating is that the only activities that scored a
(4) or above where ones that had a lot of hands on involvement. Their ratings told me
that students did find the method effective. However, to a larger an extent, it suggests
that students who are engaged in hands on activities is an even more important aspect of

learning.

32

Discussion and Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to address the effectiveness of teaching from
relatively small-scale observations of earthquakes and volcanoes data towards the larger,
encompassing theory of plate tectonics. It started with the concept of seismic waves and
how they move through the earth, giving us what we feel as earthquakes. From there the
unit progressively addressed larger scale ideas: folds and faults, how waves transfer
energy, how the crust of the Earth moves, how and why volcanoes erupt ultimately
upwards in size of concepts towards global tectonics. Each step along the way of
teaching this unit was built upon prior knowledge that was constructed, which is critical
(Bradsford et. a1, 2000 and Colbum, 2007) for student learning.

The study of how people build and understand knowledge, or construct
knowledge, is not a new one. How students learn is still an important question today.
The question that was asked at the beginning of this project was about the effectiveness
of teaching a unit on plate tectonics from small-scale observable ideas to larger theories.
The lab activities in this unit were to provide data and evidence for students to look at,
manipulate, and build/discover the theories of plate tectonics. This is similar to how
scientists have discovered scientific phenomena, by making small-scale observations.
Bradsford et. al (2000) suggested these types of activities were important for learning.
Many of the activities that students experienced were hands on, which are important for
student learning (Johnston and McAllister, 2006).

This method was effective in educating and constructing knowledge among my
middle school students. The data generated support this idea. Figures 1, 2, and 3, as well

as the t-tests show that significant learning took place in each of the smaller parts within

33

this unit. That said, it would be interesting to me to try teaching the smaller sections in
the order of “earthquakes,” “plate tectonics,” and concluding with the topic of
“volcanoes,” since some textbooks follow this order. I chose the order that I followed
because it seemed to be a logical approach to building from smaller concepts towards
larger concepts. It would be an interesting comparison to this study. As stated earlier in
the introduction, both orders of presentation can be found depending on which textbook it
is that you use. Even among teachers the order can be different. The way that I taught
the unit for this project was effective, as indicated by my data, suggesting a good order of
presentation.

Some of the individual lessons were more effective than others. The student
survey (Figure 4) does not show a large difference in how the students rate the
effectiveness of the activities. However, as someone who has spent time educating
youth, some lessons seem to “stick” better with students than others, for example
activities (2), (5), (8), and (11). In the post survey (Appendix I) I asked a few open ended
questions of the students to answer and explain what they liked and disliked about the
activities. One of the more consistent answers that showed up on the survey was the
students liked doing “labs” the best because they make “learning easier.” Other students
mentioned how they liked observing rocks, or building earthquake proof buildings.

There was a consistency in the students’ need for active learning. This supports the
findings of Martin-Hansen (2009) that students can learn the nature of science by
mimicking scientists’ work.

Something that also struck me as interesting was how many students mentioned

that the direct instruction portion of the class did not teach them as much, or at least they

34

said it was the least interesting portion of the class. This was similar to what The
National Research Council (2000) mentioned in their work and how scientists use inquiry
to solve problems. One student even mentioned how working with small groups was nice
because it allowed them to interact socially, and at the same time do the process of
science. This echoes what Brooks and Brooks (2001) and Llweellyn (2005) found.

Activities (2), (5), and (8) were rated the highest by the students. Activity (2)
simulated Primary and Secondary waves observed in an earthquake. It had the students
simulate two different types of earthquake waves using a small slinky and it required
them to connect what they had learned in the notes with what they had witnessed in
experimentation. Activity (5) had the students make and experiment with a “building”
made of cardstock paper, tape, and a few other items. Both of these activities were very
student centered and hands on oriented. My observations of the students while they were
working through the lab indicated to me that they were highly engaged during these
times, and were solving problems. I found this type of learning to be very useful to the
students. Activity (8) was centered on diagramming the various types of volcanoes. I
suggest that they found this activity effective because they like to see how different
volcanoes work and perhaps they enjoyed drawing diagrams and using colored pencils. It
is a dynamic topic that seems to engage students.

The modified Mercalli lab (Activity 3) seemed to be effective for students
because it had a tie in to real world experiences of the observers. I would use this lab
again, but most likely shorten it, as the students said that there were to many observations
to examine. Since this lab was also based on the Northridge earthquake of 1994, there

were many great visuals to use with the activity.

35

Each one of the labs had an advantage and disadvantage. The more I teach these
subjects in the future, the more they can be fine-tuned. There were, of course, things we
discovered along the way while doing the labs that could be changed for next year as
well. For example, in the earthquake proof building lab, I would limit the tape more
carefully for the next time I teach it. The seismic waves lab needed some clarification on
the questions. Mercalli’s Scale lab needs fewer observations for the students to look at
and reach the same conclusions. These are the types of things as an instructor can
improve upon after many students have gone through the activity.

What seemed to work well was that every step of the way through this unit I could
refer back to the previous activity to draw out prior knowledge and help students to make
connections. That seemed to be a powerful aspect of teaching the unit from smaller
observable concepts to larger theories. Each lab flowed into the next. With the addition
of class discussion, notes, video clips, and photographs, it seemed like the students were
able to make the connections that they needed to retain information and even make
predictions. If the students were given enough help though class discussion, they were
able to develop hypothesis and theories.

After completing this study, I believe that every lab used would be good to use
again after minor revision. After using something for the first time in a classroom
situation, there is always something that can be changed to be made clearer, or to help
student understanding more. Based on the findings of this study, I will continue to
develop activities that have students work with real data/observations and to build small
ideas into larger ones. I see potential for developing activities like these in other areas of

science that I teach, such as the astronomy unit. To have a student that is able to think

36

and problem solve is what makes for a good scientist, and citizen. McComas et. al
(1998) stated the understanding of the science process to be important, as science
becomes more reported in the everyday media. The importance of understanding Earth
Science is apparent when you look at the news headlines. Examples from the year 2009-
2010 include: magnitude 7.0 Haitian earthquake, the eruption of the Eyjafjallajdkull
Volcano in Iceland, and the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Students must understand the

importance of the process of science and of the Earth.

37

Appendix I: Assessment Instruments

Appendix I-A
Pre-Survey

Please answer the following questions honestly while thinking about the way that you
learn in science class.

Use the following ranking system to answer the grestions with 5 being strongly agree and
1 being strongly disagree.

1) Science is a class that I have interest in taking.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

2) Learning from things that I can see, like data, helps me.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

3) Understanding smaller concepts helps me get the big picture.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

4) Doing labs with real examples helps me understand larger concepts.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

5) Answering questions related to labs helps me understand larger concepts.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

38

Post-Survey

Please answer the following questions honestly when thinking about your experience in
our plate tectonics unit.

Use the following ranking svstem to answer the questions with 5 beigstrongly agree and
1 beingstrongly disagree.

1) Science is a class that I have interest in taking.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

2) Learning from things that I can see, like data, helps me.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

3) Understanding smaller concepts helps me get the big picture.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

4) Doing labs with real examples helps me understand larger concepts.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

5) Answering questions related to labs helps me understand larger concepts.

Strongly Disagree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5

39

Having done these labs/activities think back to themJand rate them on effectiveness in
helping you understand the bigger aicture of plate tectonics. Use the scale of 1 beingnot
helpful apd 5 beingvery helpful.

 

1) Investigating a “Faulty” Diagram
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
Why:
2) Seismic Waves
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
Why:
3) Mercalli’s Scale
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
4) Locating an Epicenter Virtual Earthquake computer activity
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
5) Earthquake Proof Buildings
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
6) Location of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5

7) Observations of Rock

Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5

40

8) Types of Volcanoes and Eruptions

Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
Why:
9) Assessing Volcanic Hazards
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
Why:

10) Ocean Profile and the Sea Floor
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
11) Plate Tectonics Map Lab
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
12) Computer lab: Plate Tectonics
Not Helpful Very Helpful
1 2 3 4 5
Why:
This next section is free response. Feel free to slam your thoughts and opinion with me.
They will be helpful for my thesis and more importantly for next year’s students. Your

thoughts count!

1) The parts of this unit that I liked the best were what, and WHY.

2) The parts of this unit that I disliked the most were what, and WHY.

3) If you were Mr. Schuchardt, what would you do differently for next year’s students?

41

1.

Appendix I-B
Earthquake Pretest

What direction of force would have to be applied to the following diagram to
make the house appear to move upward (normal fault)?

A) A Push from both sides (compression)
B) A pull from both sides (tension)

C) A push from the right

D) A push from the left

 

 

 

 

‘-—--__.--_

I chose this answer because...

Figure 6
(source: www.geology.ar.gOV)

What direction of force would have to be applied to the following diagram to
make the house appear to move downward (reverse fault)?

A) A Push from both sides (compression) k .
B) A pull from both sides (tension) ##3##
C) A push from the right . I, :
D) A push from the left L-.. .. -. .

I chose this answer because...

Figure 7
(source: www.geology.ar.gov)

Write a sentence explaining why there is an off set in the row of trees in the
following picture.

Explanation:

 

Figure 8
(Source http://www.geology.wisc.edu)

42

4. Which type of seismic waves causes rock particles to move in the same direction
as the wave movement?
A) P —Wave
B) S-wave
C) Tension Wave
D) Shear Wave

I picked this answer because...

5. Which type of seismic waves causes rock particles to move in the opposite
direction as the wave movement?
A) P — Wave
B) S — Wave
C) Tension Wave
D) Shear Wave

6. Label the following parts of a fault/earthquake diagram. Put the letter on the
diagram next to where it belongs and explain what each one is.

Word Explanation:
A) Haging wall A)
B) Footwall - B)
C) Epicenter C)
D) Seismic Wave D)
E) Focus E)
F) Fault F)

 

G

7. Why would the Modified Mercalli scale be something that a middle student can
use to determine the intensity of an earthquake without seismic equipment?

 

Figure 9

8. Why would an engineer in California have different building standards than one
in New York? What could some of these be?

43

9. Geologists know that wherever plate movement stores energy in the rock along
faults,

A) Earthquakes are not likely

B) Earthquakes are likely

C) An earthquake is occurring

D) An earthquake could never occur

I picked this answer because...

10. Label the following seismogram with P, S, and Surface wave locations.

I

I

“AMWMT’H W11 ’1 '“11 11:91.11“ . If. "1111). (Source http://iphoneincubator.com)

11'
Figure 10

11. On the following map place dots, on the locations where you would expect to
find the most earthquakes in the world.

 

 

 

 

Figure 1 l
(Source:http://www.ej umpcut.org)

Explain why you chose these locations.

12. Give a short explanation of how these locations relate too global plate tectonics.

44

1.

Appendix I-C
Earthquake Post-test

What direction of force would have to be applied to the following diagram to
make the house appear to move upward (normal fault)?

A) A Push fi'om both sides (compression) g A A; L -

B) A pull from both sides (tension) w

C) A push from the right 1 .
D) Apush from the left ‘ ‘ . . . .

 

 

 

I chose this answer because...

Figure 12
Source: www.geology.ar.gov)

What direction of force would have to be applied to the following diagram to
make the house appear to move downward (reverse fault)?

A) A Push fi'om both sides (compression) g .

B) A pull from both sides (tension) ##1##

C) A push from the right ‘ . ’ .

D) A push from the left . ‘ ,_ 1- . .
I chose this answer because...

Figure 13
(source: www.geology.ar.gov)

Write a sentence explaining why there is an off set in the row of trees in the
following picture.

Explanation:

 

Figure 14
(Source: http://www.geology.wisc.edu)

45

4. Which type of seismic waves causes rock particles to move in the same direction
as the wave movement?
A) P —Wave
B) S-wave
C) Tension Wave
D) Shear Wave

I picked this answer because...

5. Which type of seismic waves causes rock particles to move in the opposite
direction as the wave movement?
A) P -— Wave
B) S — Wave
C) Tension Wave
D) Shear Wave

6. Label the following parts of a fault/earthquake diagram. Put the letter on the
diagram next to where it belongs and explain what each one is.

Word Explanation:
A) Haging wall A)
B) F ootwall B)
C) Epicenter C)
D) Seismic Wave D)
E) Focus E)
F) Fault F)

 

 

Figure 15

7. Why would the Modified Mercalli scale be something that a middle student can
use to determine the intensity of an earthquake without seismic equipment?

8. Why would an engineer in California have different building standards than one
in New York? What could some of these be?

46

 

9. Geologists know that wherever plate movement stores energy in the rock along
faults,

A) Earthquakes are not likely

B) Earthquakes are likely

C) An earthquake is occurring

D) An earthquake could never occur

I picked this answer because...

10. Label the following seismogram with P, S, and Surface wave locations.

I
1

-_ — diWW..l'i1'1‘.'"f‘-.‘l‘.“"“~'1‘ll’-x'l“ll1“ . 1 11112:? .‘11 (Source http://iphoneincubator.com)

.li Figure 16

11. On the following map place dots, on the locations where you would expect to
find the most earthquakes in the world. (Note: the dark squares represent large

 

 

 

 

crtres)
w 5.—
Id... ‘- .: I,
‘ o h V L ‘ V _
‘V— :9 ‘ I” ‘1
(‘ f
_ .' C
t — “(a
t V '11
5.; .: " - '-
D
4 M ' u 1 \
I
l 1"." '1.-. I
_ r, '.
a - J \
"-“‘.-‘ g
r ‘ I
\ I
s , .
5‘ ‘
Figure 17

(Source:http://www.ejumpcut.org)
Explain why you chose these locations.

12. Give a short explanation of how these locations relate too global plate tectonics.

47

13. A rock that bends upward into an arch is called a(n)
A) anticline
B) syncline
C) plateau
D) canyon

14. The point beneath Earth’s surface where rock breaks under stress and triggers an
earthquake is called the
A) Syncline
B) F ootwall
C) Epicenter
D) Focus

15. What does the seismograph record?
A) The Mercalli scale rating for an earthquake
B) The speed of the seismic waves
C) The ground movements caused by seismic waves
D) The location of the epicenter

16. What is the primm cause for a Tsunami?
A) Continental earthquakes
B) Earthquakes under the ocean
C) Volcanoes erupting on land
D) Meteor impacts in oceans.

48

Appendix I-D
Volcano Pretest

Look at the following diagram to answer the first two questions. From big to small in
size is a shield volcano, composite, and then cinder cone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Shjeld Crater
Volcano Sea W
A 0 10 20 km
4 ml
Crater Composite .
V; Volcano Crater Cinder Cone Volcano
' B. “‘ l ’ c, A
Figure 18 Copyright 2006, Prentice Hall

 

 

 

 

1) Which volcano is most likely to have a large explosive eruption?

I chose this type because. . ..

2) Which volcano is mostly likely to have flowing lava come out of it.
I chose this type because.
3) Label the following parts of a volcano: Pyroclastic Material, Pipe, Magma

Chamber, Crust, Lava, Side Vent, Vent. Put the letter on the diagram next to
where it belongs and explain what each one is.

Word: Explanation:
A) A)
B) B)
C) C)
D) D)
E) E)
F) F)

 

Figure 19

www.cnchantedlearning.com / R

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4)

5)

6)

Before lava reaches the surface it is called
a. Rock
b. Magma

c. Volcanic ash
(1. Liquid fire

I chose this answer because. . ..

The formation of the Hawaiian Islands is one example of
a. Volcanoes forming over a hot spot
b. Volcanoes forming along plate boundaries
c. The Ring of Fire
d. Continental drift

I chose this answer because. . ..

Which of the following helps to determine how easily magma flows?
The amount of silica in the magma

The diameter of the pipe

The size of the crater

The number of vents on the volcano

9.057!”

I chose this answer because. . ..

7) If a volcano is made out of rocks that are made of granite and ryolite you can

8)

9)

determine that the type of eruption that it will most likely take place will be
a. Small/non violent because there is not much silica content
b. Large/ violent because there is not much silica content
c. Small/non violent because there a lot of silica present
d. Large/violent because there is a lot of silica present

If a volcano is made of rocks that are made of basalt and gabro you can determine
that the type of eruption that will most likely take place will be

a. Small/ non violent because there is not much silica content

b. Large/violent because there is not much silica content

c. Small/non violent because there a lot of silica present

(1. Large/ violent because there is a lot of silica present

Where is a volcano that explodes violently most likely to be found?
a. Along the west coast of the United States because of a subduction zone.
b. Along the east coast of the United States because of a subduction zone.
c. Along the west coast of Africa because of a spreading center.
(1. Near Hawaii because it is in the middle of the ocean.

50

10) The reason that magma rises to the surface is because of
Density differences

Differences in salinity

Plates that melt

It is hot

999'.”

I chose this answer because...

11) Draw an example of each type of the following types of areas and the location of
any possible volcanic activity. Label the major rock types present. (Granite and
Basalt)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Convergent Boundary Hot spot Divergent Boundary
(Like Mt. St. Helens) (Like Hawaii) (Like Mid-ocean ridge)

51

Appendix I-E
Volcano Post-test

Look at the following diagram to answer the first two questions. From big to small in
size is a shield volcano, composite, and then cinder cone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

r-
Shield Crater
Volcano Sea level
1 Ah ' 0 10 2011111
. 4 ml
1 (‘ Composrte ,
. .ratfr Volcano Crater Cinder Cone Volcano
A 1. a“ . n A -. V. -
I Figure 20 Copyright 2006, Prentice Hall

 

 

 

 

 

1) Which volcano is most likely to have a large explosive eruption?

I chose this type because.

2) Which volcano is mostly likely to have flowing lava come out of it.
I chose this type because...
3) Label the following parts of a volcano: Pyroclastic Material, Pipe, Magma

Chamber, Crust, Lava, Side Vent, Vent. Put the letter on the diagram next to where it
belongs and explain what each one is.

Word: Explanation:
A) A)
B) B)
C) C)
D) D)
E) E)
G) F)

 

Figure 21

 

 

 

 

 

www.enchantedlearning.com

4) Before lava reaches the surface it is called
3) Rock
4) Magma
5) Volcanic ash
6) Liquid fire

I chose this answer because.

5)The formation of the Hawaiian Islands is one example of
e. Volcanoes forming over a hot spot
f. Volcanoes forming along plate boundaries
g. The Ring of Fire
h. Continental drift

I chose this answer because.

6)Which of the following helps to determine how easily magma flows?
i. The amount of silica in the magma
j. The diameter of the pipe
k. The size of the crater

l. The number of vents on the volcano

I chose this answer because. . ..

7) If a volcano is made out of rocks that are made of granite and ryolite you can
determine that the type of eruption that it will most likely take place will be
a. Small/non violent because there is not much silica content
b. Large/ violent because there is not much silica content
c. Small/non violent because there a lot of silica present
d. Large/violent because there is a lot of silica present

8) If a volcano is made of rocks that are made of basalt and gabro you can determine
that the type of eruption that will most likely take place will be
a. Small/ non violent because there is not much silica content
b. Large/violent because there is not much silica content
c. Small/non violent because there a lot of silica present
d.Large/ violent because there is a lot of silica present

9) Where is a volcano that explodes violently most likely to be found?
a. Along the west coast of the United States because of a subduction zone.
b. Along the east coast of the United States because of a subduction zone.
0. Along the west coast of Africa because of a spreading center.
(1. Near Hawaii because it is in the middle of the ocean.

53

10) The reason that magma rises to the surface is because of
a.Highly fluid
b.Less dense than the surrounding material
c.Highly magnetic
d.More dense than surrounding material.

11) Draw an example of each type of the following types of plate boundaries and the
location of any possible volcanic activity. Label the major rock types present.
(Granite and Basalt)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Convergent Boundary Hot Spot Divergent Boundary

12) What are the three major gasses that erupt out of a volcano? Which gas is the
most abundant?
l.
2.
3.
Abundant

13) In one complete paragraph, explain what the “Ring of Fire” is all about and where
it is located

14) Which of the following volcanoes is likely to erupt in the near future.
a. Dormant
b. Active
c. Extinct
(1. Old

15) Tall, steep, mountains in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash are
called

shield volcanoes

cinder cone volcanoes

composite volcanoes

lava plataues

9-9 9‘!»

54

16) When many layers of thin, runny lava build up high, 3-10 degree sloped area, the
result is a

lava plateau

shield volcano

cinder cone volcano

composite volcano

9199‘.”

17) Pahoehoe is
a. Cooler, slower-moving lava
b. F ast-moving hot lava
c. Volcanic ash
d. Lava with a rough, chunky surface

18) In volcanic area, groundwater heated by magma is a source of
a. Lava flows
b. Silica
c. Geothermal energy
(I. Pyroclastic flows

19) If geologist detect many small earthquakes in the area near a volcano, what can
they infer about the volcano?
a. It is dormant
b. Its is probably about to erupt
c. It is extinct
d. It is a good source of geothermal energy

20) The main hazard from a quiet volcanic eruption is
a. Volcanic gases
b. Lava flows
0. Geysers
d. Pyroclastic flows

55

Appendix I-F

Plate Tectonics Pretest
1) Continental crust consists mainly of the rock

a. Nickel
b. Basalt
c. Mantle
(1. Granite

2) In the convection current of a pan of soup, the cooler, denser fluid
a. Rises to the top
b. Sinks to the bottom
c. Stays where it is
d. Stays on top

I chose this answer because...

3) Scientists think that convection currents flow in Earth’s
a. Continents
b. Asthenosphere
c. Lithosphere
(1. Inner core

I chose this answer because...

4) Which rock type is less dense compared to the other: (Circle one): Granite or
Basalt

5) Subduction is
a. The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath continental crust
b. The direct transfer of heat through solid materials
c. The process that continually adds ocean floor
(I. A device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects

6) What erupts through the valley of the mid-ocean ridge?
a. Molten material
b. The lithosphere
c. Deep-ocean trenches
(1. Continental drift

7) In a short answer, describe what you think causes the plates of the earth to move.

56

8) Scientists have used evidence from which fields of study to help the theory of
plate tectonics?

a. Volcanology (study of Volcanoes)
b. Seismology (study of Earthquakes)
c. Paleontology (study of Fossils)

d. Climatology (study of Climate)

e. All of the Above

f. None of the Above

9) Label the diagram with the following:, Convergent Boundary, Ocean Crust,
Continental Crust, Mantle, , Younger Ocean crust, Convection Current, Divergent
Boundary, Older Ocean Crust, Volcano.

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
1)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C 52...”. fl
V5,.) V 4'
I E Figure 22

 

 

 

10) As ocean crust moves away from the mid-ocean ridge, it cools and becomes more
dense. (circle one) True or False

11) Explain in a short answer how plate tectonics is responsible for observable things,
such as the San Andreas Fault.

12) Explain in a short answer how plate tectonics is responsible for observable things
such as the eruption of Mt. St. Helens.

57

13) Draw arrows representing the direction of motion for the Earth’s Plates for each
of the following boundary zones:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Transform Convergent Divergent

14) Label the following plate locations: African, North American, South American,
Indo-Australian, Naza, Eurasian, Antarctic, Arabian, Philippine, Caribbean, Juan
De Fuca, Pacific Plate.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A) G)
B) H)
C) I)
D) J)
E) K)
F) L)
" ”‘0‘” I)
(31‘. W V V
v D A
J
‘91:» 0 H t'
F ’ I

C

’ G
E l 1
. J ‘ '17.
K
B
N “T Figure 23

(source: www.geographyalltheway.com)

 

 

 

 

15) If new ocean floor is continually being created, why does the Earth remain the

same size?

58

Appendix I-G
Plate Tectonics Post-test

1) Continental crust consists mainly of the rock

a. Nickel
b. Basalt
c. Mantle
(1. Granite

2) In the convection current of a pan of soup, the cooler, denser fluid
a. Rises to the top
b. Sinks to the bottom
c. Stays where it is
d. Stays on top

I chose this answer because...

3) Scientists think that convection currents flow in Earth’s
Continents

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere

Inner core

P-PP‘P

I chose this answer because...

4) Which rock type is less dense compared to the other: (Circle one): Granite or
Basalt

5) Subduction is
a. The process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath continental crust
b. The direct transfer of heat through solid materials
c. The process that continually adds ocean floor
d. A device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects

6) What erupts through the valley of the mid-ocean ridge?

m. Molten material
n. The lithosphere

o. Deep—ocean trenches
p. Continental drift

7) In a short answer, describe what you think causes the plates of the earth to move.

59

8) Scientists have used evidence from which fields of study to help the theory of
plate tectonics?

a. Volcanology (study of Volcanoes)
b. Seismology (study of Earthquakes)
c. Paleontology (study of Fossils)

(1. Climatology (study of Climate)

c. All of the Above

f. None of the Above

9) Label the diagram with the following:, Convergent Boundary, Ocean Crust,
Continental Crust, Mantle, , Younger Ocean crust, Convection Current, Divergent
Boundary, Older Ocean Crust, Volcano.

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
1)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.1
fl

 

 

 

I E Figure 24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10) As ocean crust moves away from the mid-ocean ridge, it cools and becomes more
dense. (circle one) True or False

11) Explain in a short answer how plate tectonics is responsible for observable things,
such as the San Andreas Fault.

12) Explain in a short answer how plate tectonics is responsible for observable things
such as the eruption of Mt. St. Helens.

60

13) Draw arrows representing the direction of motion for the Earth’s Plates for each
of the following boundary zones:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Transform Convergent Divergent

14) Label the following plate locations: African, North American, South American,
Indo-Australian, Naza, Eurasian, Antarctic, Arabian, Philippine, Caribbean, Juan
De F uca, Pacific.

A) G)
B) H)
C) I)
D) J)
E) K)
F) L)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mid m

igure 25

 

 

(source: www.geographyalltheway.com)
15) If new ocean floor is continually being created, why does the Earth remain the
same size?

 

 

61

16) Describe the mechanisms we discussed in class on what drives the motion of the
plates(3sentencesminimum)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

l7) Scientists rejected Wegener’s theory because he could not
a. Explain why continental crust was denser than oceanic crust
b. Describe the climate of Pangaea
c. Explain what force pushes or pulls continents
(1. Describe how seeds moved from Africa to South America

18) In the process of sea-floor spreading, where does molten material rise from the
mantle and erupt?
a. Along the endges of all the continents
b. Along the mid-ocean ridge
c. In deep-ocean trenches
d. At the north and south poles

19)A collision between two pices of continental crust at a converging boundary
produces a

mid-ocean ridge

deep-ocean trench

rifi valley

mountain range

9.09:2»

20)A place where to plates slip past each other, moving in opposite directions, is
known as a

a. Transform boundary

b. Divergent boundary

c. Convergent boundary
d. Rift valley

21) The risk of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions is high along the Pacific coast of
the United States because

There have been no earthquakes there lately

Serious earthquakes are rare east of the Rockies

Satellites have detected increasing elevation of the ground surface

That’s where the Pacific and North American plates meet

9.09:.»

62

22) Write a short answer about the following: How have scientists used evidence
from earthquakes, volcanoes, paleontology, paleoclimatic, and sea floor spreading
to build a larger theory of plate tectonics. (5 sentences minimum)

 

 

 

 

 

63

Appendix II: Activities

Activity 1
Investigating a “Faulty” Diagram

Introduction:

Faults are fractures in the crust along which displacement has taken place. The
many rock types making up the Earth’s crust and will break when enough stress is
applied to quickly or when it is too great. The motion of the Earth along the fracture that
occurs is called an earthquake. We will be studying three types of faults; Normal,
Reverse, and Strike Slip. In this activity you will be making a 3D model representing all
three of them and analyze some of the effects of them.

Background:

Use your textbook as a reference to make a small diagram of each type of fault.
This must be colored and labeled. When you are finished make sure you label the type of
stress associated with each type of fault.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Normal: Reverse: Strike Slip
Stress Type: Stress Type: Stress Type
Directions:

1) Color each of the templates labeled “template 1” and “template 2.” You should
maintain the same color scheme for Limestone, Clay, and Granite. Make sure you
color in the water main running on panel E of template 1.

2) Color panel “B” of Template 1 in your own scheme.

3) After you have them colored cut out each template. Cut along the solid lines, and
fold along the dotted for template 1.

4) Fold template 1 into a pyramid shape so you can see the colored panels. Tape this
together to form a pyramid.

5) Repeat for template 2.

6) Set the model on your desk so that it makes a rectangle when placed together.

64

Questions:

1).

2).

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

3)

9)

Pull the two half blocks apart. The type of stress associated with this is called

 

If the two blocks are pulled apart, predict what will happen to the river on panel
B.

What type of fault does this represent?

 

Push the two blocks together. The type of stress associated with this is called

 

If the two blocks are pushed together, what will happen to the water main running
through panels “E” and “4”. Why would it be important for employees of the
water company to know about the fault line running through your diagram?

What type of fault does this represent?

 

Slide the two blocks past each other laterally. The type of stress associated with
this is called .

 

If the two blocks slide laterally and the fence were to continue further, predict
what the new fence line would look like. ( You May draw this)

What type of fault does this represent?

 

10) What do you think are some reasons why the Earth would move this way? (Don’t

worry about using scientific words here)

11) Where on the Earth do you think you might find some of these types of motion in
the Earth?

65

Activity 2
Seismic Waves
Lab based on Earth’s Dynamic Geosphere “An Earthquake in your community”
Introduction:
Think back to your 3D models that we built. Each time you moved the blocks it
represented energy being released in the form of an earthquake. That energy travels
through the Earth and we can sometimes feel that energy. Scientists use seismographs to
measure this energy and also study the structure of the Earth (more on that another day).
The ancient Chinese were some of the first people to attempt to measure these waves of
energy. A scientist will collect this information on a seismograph, which records these
waves on a seismogram. The information recorded looks like the one below.

P S Wave
wave t

 

 

W”

(source: thJ/samjsh .files.wordpress.com/2008/O7/seismgram-1.gif)

 

 

 

Figure 26

 

 

 

The waves that travel in the Earth do not all travel in the same way. Someof the waves
travel through the Earth itself (body waves) and some travel along the surface of the
Earth (surface waves). Our focus of this lab will mostly be about body waves.

Materials:
Slinky
Activity:
Wave A:
1). Place the slinky on the ground and stretch it out about 3 meters. Be careful
not to stretch it too far.

2) Strike the end of the slinky gently once. Observe the motion of the slinky.
(you may have to repeat this a couple of times)
3) Describe in words what you saw (your observations).

4) Draw a diagram of what you saw including the following labels: Direction of
energy, direction of slinky motion.

66

5)
Wave B:

l)

2)

3)

4)

5)

The energy travels (parallel/perpendicular) to the motion of
the slinky.

 

Place the slinky on the ground and stretch it out about 3 meters. Be careful
not to stretch it too far.
Quickly jerk one end of the slinky up and then down quickly. You don’t have

to move it more than a few inches.
Describe in words what you saw (your observations).

Draw a diagram of what you saw including the following labels: Direction of
energy, direction of slinky motion.

The energy travels (parallel/perpendicular) to the motion of
the slinky.

 

Questions:

1) Which wave appeared to travel across the slinky first?

2) Which wave would arrive first in an Earthquake?

3) Which wave is a primary wave?

4) Which wave is a secondary wave?

5) Looking at the diagram in the introduction, which type of wave do you think
causes the most amount of damage? Why did you say this?

67

Activity 3
Mercalli’s Scale Lab
Based on lab created by The California Partnership for Safety and Preparedness as well
as the United State Geologic Survery
Introduction:
How people feel the earthquake in a given area is described as Intensity. In the United
States, we use the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, a qualitative scale of earthquake
effects that assigns an intensity number to the ground shaking for any specific location on
the basis of observed effects. Mercalli intensity is expressed in Roman numerals.
Intensity varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location
of the observer.

Scientists will use a seismograph to measure the Magnitude, or amount of energy
released in an Earthquake. Seismographs record the amplitude of the seismic waves,
from which Magnitude is determined. An earthquake has only one magnitude, although
the magnitude might be altered from initial reports as scientists refine the measurement.
Magnitude is reported as an Arabic numeral.

In the first part of this lesson, students will record a variety of individual accounts into a
zip code map to determine the intensity of the earthquake using the Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale. In the second part of the lab we will investigate the Richter Scale.

Part 1:
Materials:
Copy of Modified Mercalli Scale (classroom set)
Copy of map with zip codes
Colored Pencils
Copy of Earthquake experiences (classroom set)

Directions:
1. Work in groups of 3 or 4 people.
2. Create a color code you are going to use on the bottom of the zip code map
3. Read the narratives and give them an intensity number based on the Modified
Mercalli Scale. You WILL want to break this up amongst your group
members for time sake.
Hint: An earthquake has one magnitude, but many different “intensities."
Hint: The intensity of shaking generally decreases with distance from the
epicenter.
6. Hint: The intensity of shaking also is influenced greatly by the type of
underlying material — soft sediments shake more than hard rock
7. Color in the map to match your assigned values and color code.
8. Answer Questions
9. Move on to part 2

2"?

68

% USGS

 

 

 

 

 

 

scioncoforaclungingmdd
USGS Community Internet Intensity Map for Northridge (JAN 17 1994)
Magnitude 6.7
‘ ‘ w
93243 .' \~.\ M,‘ 93536 93535
5 93532 \“\ \ r \
mm 1 9355‘ PAL «DALE 93591
I 0 93552 _
91384 . ——._ “-2-
CAST.AIC moo - 93550935.,
93023 p g . 93510 9%]
L” 93015 91350 91397 I \i i ’
93000
' NORTHRIDGE ¢ 91342 _
W 93021 93003 NODATA
‘ ‘ - 91042
“emu. ‘ 93065
93010 ._--'~"
m _ 930.12 9~uj6091362 913.” 91307 at, 91331
93933; ’,7- 3' “91361, 3:— 91302 91403 PASAPENA
K . "‘7‘ 1 1
91320 90077 91706
* ‘x - Los ANGELES
90265 .
WW . 90016
34 N - ANTA MONIN
90240
9°24” CentraMSouthLA
km
1 0 1O 20 30
r . . . \ f
119 W . 118 W
Figure 27

 

 

 

69

 

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
I. Not felt. Marginal and long-period effects of large earthquakes.
II. Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed.

III. Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration
estimated. May not be recognized as an earthquake.

IV. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of heavy trucks; or sensation of a jolt
like a heavy ball striking the walls. Standing cars rock. Windows, dishes, door rattle.
Glasses clink. Crockery clashes. In the upper range of IV, wooden walls and frame
creak.

V. Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers awakened. Liquids disturbed, some
spilled. Small unstable objects displaced or upset. Doors swing, close, open. Shutters,
pictures move. Pendulum clocks stop, start, change rate.

VI. Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows,
dishes, glassware broken. Knickknacks, books, etc., off shelves. Pictures off walls.
Furniture moved or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small bells ring
(church, school). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to rustle.

VII. Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers. Hanging objects quiver. Furniture broken.
Damage to masonry D, including cracks. Weak chimneys broken at roof line. Fall of
plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, also unbraced parapets and architectural
ornaments. Some cracks in masonry C. Waves on ponds, water turbid with mud. Small
slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation
ditches damaged.

VIII. Steering of cars affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to
masonry B; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some masonry walls. Twisting, fall
of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated tanks. Frame houses moved
on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel walls thrown out. Decayed piling
broken off. Branches broken from trees. Changes in flow or temperature of springs
and wells.

IX. General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damage, sometimes with
complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. General damage to foundations.
Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames racked. Serious
damage to reservoirs. Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous cracks in ground. In
alluviated areas, sand and mud ejected, earthquake fountains, sand craters.

X. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well- built
wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Serious damage to dams, dikes,

7O

embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes, etc.
Sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land. Rails bent slightly.

XI. Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out of service.

XII. Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted.
Objects thrown into the air.

71

Earthquake Experiences Narratives

93065, 91362, 91367--I was driving home from work and it felt like I had a flat tire. I
pulled off the road to check and as I stopped the car I saw the chimney on a nearby house
collapse. It fell right on a new Lexus that was parked in the driveway.

93012, 91301, 91361, 91360, 93033, 93004, 93021, 93010, 91320-- I hadjust gotten up
to give my baby daughter her bottle when I felt a violent jolt. I knew we were having an
earthquake so I tried to run into her room to get her but it was so hard to walk! I could
hear things outside falling and hitting the ground, and all of the pictures in the hall were
falling and breaking. I was so scared!

90248--I am a nurse at a local hospital. I was attending to Mr. Jones when I first felt the
earthquake. He woke up and we watched a glass of juice on his bedside table slide back
and forth -- I caught it before it tipped. Most of the patients woke up -- let me tell you, it
was a long night!

90265--My parents were out of town visiting my brother at college so my best friend
John and I decided to have a party. The party was pretty much over and we were doing
damage control in the back yard when I felt something weird. I thought it was just me but
then everything started to shake. I mean, even the pool had waves in it and the water was
spilling out over the edges! And so much stuff in the house had fallen over and broken
you couldn't even tell we had a party!

91387--I work the late shift at Denny's. I was outside on my break when I felt the first
shake. Then everything started shaking so hard I could even hear the bushes rattling!

The people inside felt it too. Their plates and glasses were shaking and bouncing and a
bunch of them came running outside. I don't know where they thought they were going to
go, it was shaking outside too!

93510--I am from Virginia and I was in California visiting my grandchildren. In the very
middle of the night I woke up and felt a strange rumbling. Then things started to shake a
bit and my grandson ran into my room and told me to stand in the doorway, that we were
having an earthquake. Well, that door was swinging back and forth and I told him that I
would stay right where I was thank you very much! I wasn't going to get knocked out by
some door and have to be taken to the hospital in my nightclothes!

91706--I am a really heavy sleeper and I didn't even wake up, but my husband was up
getting a snack and he said he felt it. He said the dishes in the cupboard rattled and he
could see the hanging plants swaying.

91042--I am a seismologist with the USGS and my first thought when I felt the
earthquake was "I'm going to work tonight!" My husband and I watched as several
picture frames slide off the mantle, and then we ducked under the table. We had to hold
on because the table was trying to slide away. Lots of our dishes were broken and we
have a lot of cracks in the walls to fix.

72

90016--I was sleeping soundly when I was suddenly thrown out of bed. I could hear my
kids crying and I was trying to run, trying to get to them. The walls were shaking and
cracking and pieces of plaster were falling from the ceiling. I could barely stand. The
noise was deafening. By the time I got to my kids, the whole thing was over. We have a
lot of damage to our house but not as much as our neighbors. Their house partially
collapsed.

91331--I'm a night watchman at an apartment complex. It was pretty late and everything
was real quiet. I was making my rounds when I felt a strong jolt-it almost knocked me off
my feet! I ran out into the middle of the street and it's a good thing I did too! Bricks were
falling off of the building and the trees were shaking so hard that branches were breaking
and falling off. All of the parked cars around me were shaking and bouncing and the car
alarms were all going off.

91384--My daughter had just arrived home (WAY past her curfew) and we were arguing
in the den. When we felt the shaking, we just stared at each other. The sound of a glass
smashing snapped us out of it. We both ran to the China hutch where I keep my mother's
china-- it was just about to tip over! We held it up and we could hear other things around
the house falling and breaking. Needless to say I wasn't worried about the curfew
violation anymore!

93015--I was up late working on a briefing when I first felt the earthquake. It didn't seem
too bad at first so I stayed put to see if it would get worse. It did! I tried to get up and
could barely stand. I remembered that you’re supposed to get under a table if it's a bad
earthquake so I got down on my hands and knees and crawled under my table. Just as I
got under there, my big bookcase fell and smashed on the table. IfI had still been sitting
there it would have crushed me.

93543 «We were out of town when the earthquake hit. Of course, we were scared for our
friends and family and for our home. We called our son and he said that everyone was all
right, but they had a lot of structural damage to their house, and had lost some personal
items. We called the neighbors and they gave us a grocery list of damage to our house:
chimney broken at the roofline, cracks in the masonry, fallen bricks, stuff like that. I'm
afraid to go home and see the damage inside.

93532, 93243, 93536--My husband woke me up yelling that we were having an
earthquake. We stayed in bed and held on tight. I could hear the plates and cups banging
and rattling, and all of the pictures were falling off the walls. I knew we were going to be
all right because our house is retrofitted and all of our things are secured, but I was
worried about my mom and dad, who live in an older home.

93060, 93023--I was asleep when the earthquake came. I was so scared and I didn't know
what to do. The house was shaking so bad that I couldn't even walk. My dad came into
my room and got me and we got under the table. We could see the refrigerator sliding
back and forth across the kitchen with its door opening and shutting and all of the stuff

73

falling out onto the floor. Our TV went flying across the room and smashed into the wall.
All over we could hear things breaking. Then the lights went out. After it stopped and we
went outside we could see all of the other people outside too. They were crying and
looking around. Part of our apartment building fell down and now those people have to
find another place to live. We might have to too.

93 591--I was just finishing a great Tom Clancy novel when I felt the earthquake. At first
I thought it was a passing truck but then I noticed that the blinds were swinging a little
bit. I thought about calling my buddy to see if he had felt it but it was late and I was
pretty sure it wouldn't have woken him up.

93551, 93 534--I was sleeping over at my friend's house when the earthquake came. We
were supposed to be asleep but we were telling stories so we felt it first. She said that her
family had an earthquake plan and we were supposed to go into the dining room and get
under the table. It was kind of scary because all of the furniture was moving around and
her dad's computer fell on the floor and broke, but I wasn't really scared because her mom
and her dad said that we were prepared and we'd be okay.

91377, 91301—1 was driving home from my late shift when it felt like the car wasn’t
driving normally. Then I noticed dirt sliding down the steep side of the ditch next to the
road. I stopped the car on the side of the road and got out. That’s when I noticed the new
cracks in the concrete wall on the other side of the ditch. By that time, the shaking had
stopped, so I got back in my car and drove home.

93552, 93535, 93550—1 was working on my computer when the earthquake struck, and it
was scary. My desk chair was rolling back and forth across the floor, and all the pictures

fell off the bookshelves. My computer almost fell off the table too!

91342—1 had fallen asleep watching TV when I felt a tremendous jolt. Things were
things flying through the air and I ran to get under cover. There was a huge crash and part
of my ceiling fell in. My chimney had collapsed!

91302—It was exam week and I was coming home late from the library when I felt the
shaking. I had to run into the middle of the street to get away from the tree branches.
They were breaking off and falling all around me!

90404——I was out of town for the earthquake, but my neighbor says our house has
sustained a lot of damage. It fell off the foundation. I guess we shouldn’t have put off that
retrofitting.

93066—1 thought the earthquake was great! What a ride! Our panel walls fell down, and
we have some damage to the masonry, but it was such a fun experience! I can’t wait to
tell my fi'iends back east!

74

91350—1’m a bus driver on the graveyard shift. I thought I must have blown out a tire
because it was so hard to drive. I pulled over to the side of the road and turned my head
just in time to watch the old factory tower fall down!

91390—Our big surprise from this earthquake was the next morning when we went
outside and saw big cracks in the hillside behind our home. Scary!

90240—My wife woke me up and asked me if I felt anything. I told her the only thing
that I felt was her shaking me! She said she thought we were having an earthquake, and
when I stopped and listened I could hear the glasses in the kitchen rattling and clinking.
There was an earthquake-and a pretty big one! Who knew?

93553—1 was sleeping when I felt the first jolt. I got out of bed but it was hard to stand,
so I sat down and held on. I was amazed by all the noise -- car alarms were going off,
things were falling and breaking, and the church bells across the street were even ringing!
Can you imagine? Those things are huge!

91403—1 had just gotten up to go to the bathroom when the earthquake came. It was
unbelievable. It threw me off my feet. My roommate and 1 ran to get underneath the
dining room table. As I was running I saw my computer flying through the air. Once we
got under the table we held on for dear life! It felt like it lasted forever but really it was
only a few seconds. Once it stopped we went outside and saw the mess. Pipes had broken
and everything was flooding, there were little sand volcanoes in the front yard.

There was lots of damage to people’s houses and chimneys but nobody on our block was
badly hurt. It was the most frightening experience of my life.

93063—1 was at a soccer game when the ground started shaking really hard. Our whole
team was really scared, and most of us sort of fell to the ground because it was so hard to
stand up. It was really weird when some sand sprayed up from a couple of places in the
field. When the shaking stopped, we saw some of the houses on the street looking
lopsided, with collapsed porches. There was even one that had collapsed!

Central & South LA--I was asleep in bed when I felt the earthquake. It woke up my
whole family, and we shouted to each other to stay put and hold on. It shook pretty hard,
and we heard the rumbling of the ground and a lot of rattling. A glass fell off the table
and broke, but that was all. It was a thrilling way to experience the power of nature.

75

my

. Based on your findings, where would you place the epicenter of this Earthquake?

. Is it possible for people who are equally as far from the epicenter to experience

different things during an earthquake? Explain why you think this might be.

. If scientists use seismographs to determine the amount of energy released and
therefore the “size” of an earthquake, why does the modified mercalli scale exist?

76

Part 2 — Magnitude Scales Discussion

The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the
California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of
earthquakes. There is a pattern in the richter scale. Every time the magnitude increases
by 1 unit, the amount of energy released is 32 times greater. For example, a magnitude of
5.0 earthquake releases 32 times more energy than that of a 4.0. Scientists use the
seismic waves discussed in our prior lab to determine that magnitude number the
following way:

 

 

A . =—- 30 mm
24 sec. mplltude :—
l‘—_—’l- 23 mm @- 20
p E—
. i S\ 3g“— 10
Seismograph record ;—
. |
Time |“”|“”|'“'IH'II'HII
sec“ 0 1o 20
Distance, 843,
km sec. Magnitude, Amplitude,
500 -_ ML mm
50
4oo~ ‘ ’100
”4° 6‘ ~50
300— ~
‘30 ~20
200‘220 4 ~10
4‘ ~5
100-_1o —
60—‘8 3— L2
_6 1
4o~_4 “ ”
2‘ ~05
20__ 1 _ —1.2
05~_2 — ~01
. 0 j

 

 

 

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

 

Figure 28

 

 

 

77

 

Activity 4
Locating an Epicenter
Virtual Earthquake Lab
http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/VQuakeExecute.html

Introduction:

In this lab you will be combining your knowledge of seismic waves and seismographs to
locate an epicenter and also predict a location and magnitude in a similar way that a
scientist would.

Directions:
1. You may work with a partner.
2. Go to the following link and follow the instructions provided.
http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/VOuakeExecutehtml
3. Make sure you print your certificate at the end of your lab experience.

78

Activity 5
Earthquake Proof Buildings

Introduction:

Depending on where you live, there are different building codes that architects and
builders must accommodate. These laws are set into place for good reasons, as they help
to protect the people that live in the structures. Fortunately larger earthquakes are more
rare than smaller ones that occur all the time. As of today we can not accurately and
reliably predict earthquakes.

Historic Earthquakes:

Largest Earthquakes: Deadliest Earthquakes:

1960 Chile 9.5 2004 Inodnesia 200,000 Deaths
1964 Alaska 9.2 1556 China 830,000 Deaths
2004 Indonesia 9.0 1976 China 255,000 Deaths
1952 Kamchatka 9.0 ~ 2005 Pakistan 54,000 Deaths

When looking at this information it is important to note that the largest earthquakes do
not necessarily result in the most amounts of deaths. Only one reason for this Could be
because of building standards, but many others exist. What others can you think of? List
five other reasons:

.V‘PS’JNT"

Procedure.
In this lab you will work with your group members and design a building that can
withstand our simulated earthquake waves. HINT: THINK BEFORE YOU WORK

Rules:

Building must stand 30 cm tall Must hold a weight on each floor
Building must have 3 floors

Only use materials provided

Materials:

4 strips of 30 cm cardstock paper
12 strips of 10 cm cardstock paper
4 “floors”

2 Popsicle sticks

10 toothpicks

80 cm of tape

Scissors

glue stick

79

Questions:

. What were some of the difficulties that you had building this?
1)

2)

3)

4)

. What would happen if a building was constructed properly but was built on a
sandy foundation?

. Describe the three types of seismic waves discussed in class.

1)
2)
3)

. List a few examples of what made the more successful buildings work

1)
2)
3)
4)
. Where in the United States would you expect the strictest building codes to exist
with respect to earthquakes? Why would you expect this?
Where:

Why:

80

6.Look at the map of the 1895 New Madrid earthquake and the 1994 Northridge
earthquake. The darker shaded areas represent a larger magnitude.

miles 500

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 29

(Source http://www.showme.net/)
Based on what you see here, where in the United States should there also be
building codes that call for earthquake safety?

Locations:

Considering the deadliest earthquakes take place in areas with no building standards,
the debate is if we should consider new standards as far as Michigan. Tell me what
you think about this in one paragraph.

81

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 30

 

 

 

82

Activity 6
Location of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Introduction:

Searching for patterns is data is often something that a scientist will do to help explain
observable things. In part 1 of this lab you will be looking at the locations of earthquakes
globally and searching for a pattern. In part 2, you will also take a look at the locations
of volcanoes. The larger pattern that you observe is something scientists have used as
evidence for larger plate tectonics.

Procedure:

Part 1:

Plot the following earthquake locations on the map using longitude and latitude. Plot
them with ONE COLOR even though there are two columns of colors here.

The R I“ I) coordinates go together and the BLUE coordinates go together. (Saves Paper

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Earthquake Locations
Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
9.8 N 124.7 E 6.0 S 77.2 W
9.7 N 124.6 E 45.8 N 26.7 E
31.7 N 121.0 E 45.8 N 26.8 E
34.1 N 117.7 W 3.6 S 144.4 E
22.1 S 175.2 E 11.8 N 121.9 E
51.5 N 175.0 W 47.9 N 85.1 E
9.9 N 84.8 W 27.4 N 65.7 E
11.4 N 86.3 W 37.0 N 49.4 E
15.1 N 147.6 E 21.6 S 176.5 W
39.4 N 74.9 E 15.7 N 121.2 E
1.2 N 122.9 W 16.5 N 121.0 E
36.0 N 100.2 W 154.4 S 167.5 E
37.9 N 122.0 E 48.0 N 85.0 E
6.9 N 82.6 E 29.6 N 137.6 E
49.0 N 141.8 E 19.4 S 169.1 E
40.3 N 176.1 E 11.2 S 162.0 E
5.3 N 31.8 E 33.3 N 138.6 E
5.1 N 32.1 E 23.5 S 179.0 E
5.4 N 31.9 E 11.0 S 70.8 W

 

Table #4 —Earthquake Locations

(table from www.saratogaschools.org)

83

 

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Figure 31

 

 

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84

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Source:www.ench_antedlearning.com

 

 

Part 2:

Plot the following earthquake locations on the same map using longitude and latitude.
Plot them with ONE COLOR that is different than the Earthquake one, even though there
are two columns of colors here.

The R 111) coordinates go together and the BLUE coordinates go together. (Saves Paper)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Volcano Locations
Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
0.1 N 77.7 E 6.1 S 105.4 E
16.2 S 70.8 W 12.2 N 93.8 E
34.2 S 69.9 W 36.4 N 25.4 E
52.3 S 73.4 W 40.8 N 14.4 E
38.6 N 28.0 W 29.0 N 13.7 E
63.6 N 18.9 W 50.3 N 155.3 E
71.0 N 8.0 W 58.3 N 155.0 W
13.6 N 40.6 E 46.9 N 121.8 W
1.5 S 29.2 E 40.5 N 121.3 W
11.9 S 43.3 E 27.5 N 112.7 W
19.5 N 155.9 W 19.5 N 102.1 W
77.5 S 168.0 E 10.2 N 84.2 W
18.1 N 145.8 E 51.9 N 177.2 W
2.9 S 38.1 E 30.2 S 178.9 E
33.4 N 126.5 E 18.8 S 174.6 W
13.3 N 123.7 E 22.3 S 172.1 E
0.3 N 127.4 E 10.4 S 165.8 E
1.4 N 124.8 E 5.6 S 150.6 E
6.3 S 130.0 E 35.4 N 138.2 E

 

Table #5 -Volcano Locations
(table from www.saratogaschools.org)

85

 

Discussion Questions:

1. Write in this space any observations that you notice about the locations of earthquakes

1)
2)
3)
2. Write in this space any observations that you notice about the locations of volcanoes.

1)

2)
3)

3. Which coast of North America has the greatest amount of earthquakes and
volcanoes?

4. Which ocean has the greater amount of earthquakes and volcanoes along its
coasts?

5. According to your map what is the probability of either an earthquake or volcano
occurring in your region?

6. How are earthquakes distributed on the map? Are they scattered evenly over
Earth’s surface? Are they concentrated in definite zones?

Did you notice the pattern in the location of the earthquakes and volcanoes? Take a look
at the following map of locations of tectonic plate boundaries.

86

 

 

\xJ
\

 

 

 

 

Figure 32
(Source: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov)

Preliminary Determination of Epicenters
358,214 Events, 1963 - 1998

I“ " “’1. (*r“'-hf\}
u '-' .fl - '_ V! (W‘- a 'hd’:
l A. ' ‘ I a.

. n
o '. ‘0‘. .

 

Figure 33
(Source: http://jupiters.narod.ru/puls/zemO1 .png)

Scientists have used the evidence from earthquakes we have studied as well as volcanoes
to understand a more global concept called plate tectonics. The energy that is released as
these plates move past each other are what we call earthquakes. In the next unit we will
discuss volcanoes and understand more about these tectonic plates.

87

Activity 7
Observations of Rock

Introduction:

Every rock tells a story. When a geologist looks at the rocks and “reads” them, they are
looking into the past history of an area. By simply noticing what types of rocks are
present a person can get a general idea of a tectonic setting. This is an over simplified
explanation, and there are many other types of rock.

The following two rock types that you will be looking at are granite, and basalt.
Activity:
In your small group look at the two rocks sitting in front of you. Make a minimum of

three observations you notice about the rocks. In the second column give a reason why
you think this rock looks like this.

Observations: Reason:
1) 1)
2) 2)
3) 3)
4) 4)
5) 5)
Discussion:

The first type of rock that you saw is called granite. (Yes the stuff countertops are made
of). This term is BROAD and includes a lot of types of textures and colors. What is
important to us is that it is an intrusive rock, which means it forms and cools under the
ground. When tectonic plates collide it can form volcanoes in the following setting:

Draw This from the board. . ..yes color it too. This rock is HIGH in silica, which makes it
very sticky and hence has large eruptions. Type of location: Cascade Mountain Range.

88

 

 

 

 

The second type of rock that you saw is called basalt. This type of rock comes from
magma that is very fluid and flows out onto the surface before cooling. The tectonic
setting that this can form at is the following:

Draw this from the board. . .yes color it too. This rock is LOW in silica, which makes it
less sticky and can flow easily. Type of location: Hawaiian Island.

 

 

 

 

Determine the density of the two rock types using the submersion method. Remember
that Density = MassNolume

 

 

 

 

Mass of Basalt Mass of Granite
Volume of Basalt Volume of Granite
Density of Basalt (g/ml) Density of Granite (g/ml)

 

89

Activity 8
Types of Volcanoes and Eruptions

Intro:

We will be looking at three types of volcanoes in this activity and how they erupt
differently. When taking into account different tectonic settings we can understand why
this is. The three types are Shield, Composite, and Cinder Cone. You will need to make
a diagram of each type, as well as answer the questions. Your textbooks will be very
helpful for this from pages 193-197 as well as your NOTES.

Shield Volcano:
An example of a shield volcano would be the Hawaiian Islands.

 

Diagram including:
Slope of sides

Scale for size
Rock Type
Magma Chamber
Vent

Lava Flow
Crater
Temperatures
What is ejected
Lava

Magma

Yes Color it

 

 

 

Questions:

1. The type of eruption associated with a shield volcano is (explosive/non-
explosive/mixed)

 

2. In terms of danger to people, how dangerous is a shield volcano eruption?

3. The type of lava that comes from a shield volcano would flow (easily/not flow)

 

4. Describe the role of trapped gasses and silica in the eruption of a shield volcano.
Gasses:

Silica:

90

5. Based on your answer to number 2, what would the rock type that you expect to
seen be in Hawaii.
Rock Type:

6. Describe the tectonic setting that a shield volcano is found.

Composite Volcano:
An example of a composite volcano would be Mt. St. Helens.

 

Diagram including:
Slope of sides
Scale for size
Rock Type
Magma Chamber
Vent

Lava Flow
Crater
Temperatures
What is ejected
Lava

Magma

Yes Color it

 

 

 

Questions:
1. The type of eruption associated with a composite volcano is (explosive/non-
explosive/mixed)

 

2. In terms of danger to people, how dangerous is a composite volcano eruption?

3. The type of lava that comes from a composite volcano would flow (easily/not
flow)

 

4. Describe the role of trapped gasses and silica in the eruption of a composite
volcano.
Gasses:

Silica:
5. Based on your answer to number 2, what would the rock type that you expect to

seen be in the cascade mountain rage? (Where Mt. St. Helens is).
Rock Type:

91

6. Describe the tectonic setting that a composite volcano is found.

Cinder cone volcano:
An example would be Mt. Pelee, located in the Caribbean.

 

Diagr_am including:
Slope of sides
Scale for size
Rock Type
Magma Chamber
Vent

Lava Flow
Crater
Temperatures
What is ejected
Lava

Magma

Yes Color it

 

 

 

Questions:
1. The type of eruption associated with a cinder cone volcano is (explosive/non-
explosive/mixed)

 

2. In terms of danger to people, how dangerous is a cinder cone volcano eruption?

3. The type of lava that comes from a cinder cone volcano would flow (easily/not
flow)

 

4. Describe the role of trapped gasses and silica in the eruption of a cinder cone
volcano.
Gasses:
Silica:
5. Based on your answer to number 2, what would the rock type that you expect to
seen be in the Caribbean? (Where Mt. Pelee is).
Rock Type:

6. Describe the tectonic setting that a cinder cone volcano is found.

92

Activity 9
Assessing Volcanic Hazards
Lab by Dr Jess Trofimovs, Dr Howard F alcon-Lang and, Alexandra Borowik.

Background: Montserrat is a volcanic island in the Caribbean. It has three volcanic
centers: an extinct volcano in the northern part of the island (Silver Hills), an extinct
volcano in the middle part of the island (Center Hills) and an active volcano in the
southern part of the island.

You are a geologist working on Montserrat and the volcano has started to erupt lava and
produce small volume rock falls. All the signs from monitoring the volcano point to a
future large explosive eruption forming pyroclastic flows. This could be extremely
hazardous to the 12,000 people living on the island.

You decide to map out where past volcanic pyroclastic flow and mudflow deposits have
been emplaced. You produce the following map (see over the page).

Based on the signs pointing to an impending eruption, the closeness of the capital city to
the volcano and the distribution of the prehistoric deposits, what do you propose to do?

Exercise:
0 Draw on the map overleaf where you think the safe areas to live would be (if
any).
° In a letter to the Governor of the island, explain where you think the safe areas
will be, and why.

0 Include advice on whether or not the capital city of Plymouth should be
evacuated, explaining your reasons.

0 If you do recommend evacuation of Plymouth, where would you relocate the
residents?

93

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prOhlSIOflC pyroclastic flows x,
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Prehistoric mudflowsl’lahars (I .1. . ' ' ‘ ,4

Capital City

 

*

Figure 34
Source(http://www.earth4567.com/talks/volcanoes/volcano_ex2.pdf)

94

Solution:

This exercise is based on a real-life scenario. The staff of the Montserrat Volcano
Observatory had to make the same decisions when the Soufriere Hills volcano began to
erupt in 1995.

The decision they made was to relocate the people from the capital city to the north of the
island, to other islands in the Caribbean or to the UK. After this relocation only 3,500
people were left living on the island. This however, was a good decision because in 1997
the capital city of Plymouth was destroyed by pyroclastic flows. The good news was that
no one was injured in this eruption as the city was empty.

The Soufriére hills volcano is still active today with large volume pyroclastic flows
traveling down the sides of the volcano approximately every 6-12 months. The people
left on Montserrat (4,500 residents) have to live every day with the volcano. The map
below shows where the staff at the volcano observatory currently have their exclusion
Zone (the area that no one except scientists may enter). How did your answers match up?

95

Activity 10
Ocean Profile Activity
Part 1
Based on Prentice Hall: Science Explorers: Earth’s Waters:

The first attempt at measuring the ocean floor’s depth was by the H.M.S. Challenger
from 1872-1876. The problem was this required the lowering of a weight until it struck
bottom. Time consuming, yet gave us a new image of the ocean floor, that is NOT flat!

Electronic depth sounding was invented in the 1920’s, which gave us an easier way to
plot depth in the ocean. This, coupled with Harry Hess’s later discoveries, gave Alfred
Wegners’ Continental Drift hypothesis more evidence.

Imagine you are an oceanographer traveling across the Atlantic along the 45° N latitude
lines. You and your crew are using sonar to gather data on the depth of the ocean
between Nova Scotia, Canada, and the town of Soulac on the coast of France. In this
activity, you will plot depth data to create a profile of the ocean floor. After that we will
look at some of Hess’s discoveries as well.

 

 

Activity:
Your group will need to plot the following points in the graph on the next page.
Ocean Depth Sonar Data

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1 564 55 0 I 5 a5
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35 555 132 5
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165545 55 5 555 5 5 {20525215 55 5 l
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115525552775" 5 55 15159555 ’5 5 5 !
113.25 5 [3146 55 5 5 1
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11555551555 55 5 555 55 55W‘ 5 5 5 1
1156531505 5 5 5 5 5 55554975 555 55 555 l
ll7._05__ _ 14317 J

96

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£18.04 ” H 3146

15015555555 5 55 _5 f 550555

Table. #5 -

1. Draw the axes of a graph. Label the horizontal axis Longitude. Mark from 65° W
to 0° from left to right. Label the vertical axis Ocean Depth. Mark 0 meters at the
top of the vertical axis to represent sea level. Mark -5000 meters at the bottom to
represent the depth of 5000 meters below sea level. Mark depths at equal
intervals along the vertical axis.

2. Examine the data in the table. The numbers in the Longitude column give the
ship's location at 19 points in the Atlantic Ocean. Location 1 is Nova Scotia, and
Location 19 is Soulac. The numbers in the Ocean Depth column give the depth
measurements recorded at each location. Plot each measurement on your graph.
Remember that the depths are represented on your graph as numbers below 0, or
sea level.

3. Connect the points you have plotted with a line to create a profile of the ocean
floor.

1
l
l

 

 

 

 

 

97

Question:

1) What do you notice in the middle of the ocean profile?

Part2

The following map shows the ages of basaltic ocean crust in millions of year on either side of the
mid-ocean ridge you just plotted in the previous graph. Color in the picture based on age ranges
using a color scheme. You will need to extend the lines to the end of the picture.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0-20 million years . 21-35 million . 36-55 million .
56- 84 million , 85-118 million , 119-156 million . 157+
million
11101201 111512101 £65,}
156
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// . ./ /
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’ 118

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9

(5“

Figure 35 l

1) What is the pattern you see between the United States and Europe in ocean floor
age?

 

 

 

 

 

Question:

2) What does this suggest about what is going on at the mid Atlantic ridge?

98

Activity 11
Crustal Plate Map Lab

Directions:
Using the map provide (National Geographic), answer the following questions.

1.

10. Name the great composite volcano in Northern California.

Name the minor plate that is causing the volcanic activity in the Cascade
Mountains and Mt. St. Helens.

 

What do the yellow spots represent in the areas of Hawaii, Yellowstone, and
Iceland? '

 

Name the volcano in south central Mexico that has had a devastating effect on
that region.

 

Movement of what minor plate subducting beneath Mexico caused the 8.1
earthquake that destroyed Mexico City in 1985.

 

Locate the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. What is the Latitude and
Longitude of this trench? What is the significance of this trench?

 

 

List the famous volcanoes in and around the Mediterranean Sea (List 3)
1)
2)
3)

What does the pink color along the mid-ocean ridges represent. The bold red line
shows the ridges. See the paragraph near 0 degrees longitude and 60 degrees
south latitude for a hint!

 

 

 

Into what trench is the Nazca Plate subducting?

 

The Pacific Plate is being subducted into what two trenches in the northwest?

 

 

11. Locate the North Magnetic Pole. What is the Latitude and Longitude of this

point?

 

99

12. Explain what happens to lava as it cools in relation to the North Magnetic Pole.
(Think of paleomagnetism)

13. How far does the Cocos Plate move each year to the north into the Middle
America Trench?

 

14. Locate Iceland. What is the unique thing about this island?

15. Where would the oldest rocks be found in Iceland (central part, or eastern &
western shorelines)?

16. Explain “Hot Spots”. Give an example of a surface feature produced by Hot
Spots.

17. Explain in detail how the Himalayas were created.
18. The African plate is moving into the Eurasian plate. What type of boundary is

occurring there? What is happening to the size of the
Mediterranean Sea?

 

 

19. Locate the Eltanin fracture zone in the southern Pacific Ocean. In which direction
is the seafloor crust moving on the north side of the fracture? In which
direction is it moving on the south side of the fracture? What type
of boundary is the Eltanin fracture zone?

 

 

20. Use the handout to label the direction the plate is moving on your map. Some may

 

 

 

NOT be moving.
American plate Australian-Indian plate
Philippine plate
Pacific plate Eurasian plate
African Plate Arabian plate

 

100

Activity 12
Plate Tectonics Computer Lab
Lab based on Ta_rbuck and Lutgens GEODe II CD
Directions:
Log on. Click on the “GEODe ”file on the desktop. Double click on the “GEODe16.exe ”
icon. It looks like a movie projector. Click on Internal Processes. Choose Plate
Tectonics (flame 744)

1. Watch frame 315 and replay as many times as you need to answer the following
questions.
Look at specific continents and explain which direction they have moved through

 

 

time.
a. N. America c. Eurasia
b. Australia (1. South America

 

 

2. Locate India and replay a few times. Explain how its location changed over time
(where did it begin and where is it now?)

 

3. Frame 746-750. What is happening to the Red Sea? It is becoming a

 

What happens to old seafloor?

 

What 3 boundary features (or characteristics) are caused by plate movement?

9 9

4. Frames 755-759. What portion of the earth do the plates form?

 

Where is this located? (notes)

 

How does the asthenosphere differ from the lithosphere? ,

 

 

5. Where are the lithospheric plates the thickest?

 

Where are the lithospheric plates the thinnest?

 

6. What role does the asthenosphere play in Plate Tectonics?

 

 

 

101

7. Frames 760-763. Where do mountain building, volcanoes, and earthquake activity
happen? . Why do these things happen here and
not at the center of plates?

 

 

 

 

8. Frames 764-67. There are types of plate boundaries: List them and include the
type of plate and movement
Boundary type Movement Plate type

(continental/oceanic)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9. Frames 767-762. Explain how new seafloor is produced -

 

 

 

At what rate is seafloor produced?

 

10. Frames 773-76. If new seafloor is produced at the divergent boundaries, why is the
Earth staying the same size?

 

 

 

11. Fill in the table below with the type of convergent boundary and the type of crust
involved.
Boundary type Arrows showing movement Crust type(s)

involved

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12. Frames 777-783. What type of “zone” occurs when oceanic plates collide with
continental plates?

 

. Why does it get this name?

 

 

 

13. (Notes) What is now thought to be “driving” the subduction zones?

 

 

 

102

14. What is the name of the volcano-types in frames 781, 782? “(notes)

 

What is peculiar about the lava in these volcanoes?

 

How do they occur?

 

 

15. What causes the “trench” in these boundaries?

 

 

16. Frames 784-89. What causes the volcanoes of the Philippines and Japan?

 

The islands of Japan and the Philippines are part of

 

17. Frames 790-95. Collision zones. What accounts for ocean sediments and rocks

found at collision zones
(think!)

 

18. What (3) mountain ranges were built from this process?

 

 

19. Frames 796-805. Transform faults occur when
without or

 

 

of crust.

 

Locate and label the transform faults on the diagrams. Include arrows showing plate
motion and motion at the fault.

103

Appendix 111
High School Content Expectations Standards (HSCES)

http://www.michigan. gov/documents/Earth_HSCE_l 68206__7.pdf

104

10.

11.

12.

13.

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106