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ABSTRACT

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION
AND BROADCAST EDUCATION

by Edward Francis Sarno, Jr.

During the last ten years, increased attention
has been directed toward an educational technique known
as "programmed instruction." Programmed instruction is
a method of teaching Where a student is led logically
through a body of information in a series of relatively
small steps. This process of teaching enhances learning
by breaking the subject matter up into small easy-to-
learn steps--each step logically building upon the
previous one.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate pro-
grammed instruction as a possible teaching aid in broad-\
cast education. The methods used in this study are: ‘
-(l) to examine significant research findings concerned
with programming; and (2) to develop an experimental
programmed unit dealing with a phase of television and
radio training.

Three types of studies are included in the review

of the available literature on programmed instruction.

1‘}

I
' a
1

. r
*

These are: (l) evaluative studies of the effectiveness
of programmed instruction in relation to other forms of
instruction; (2) analyses of the various techniques
utilized in developing programs; and (3) studies which
exemplify the use of programmed instruction in different
subject-matter areas and grade-levels. The review of
the literature covers the period 1926-l963.

' An experimental program concerned with the basic
. _physics of radio broadcasting is presented by the author
as one possible use of programming in broadcast educa-
tion. The fifty-one frame, constructederesponse linear
program has been validated and developed as an inexpen-

sive educational aid;

2

Edward Francis Sarno, Jr.

Two major conclusions are reached concerning the

value of programmed.instruction: (l) the review of the

literature indicates that programming does teach effec-
tively--in many cases more effectively than conventional
instructional methods; and (2) research is needed in
experimenting with programmed instruction in different

and varied subject-matter areas. ‘This thesis is an

attempt to include broadcast education within this poten-

tial scope of programmed instruction.

PROGRANmED INSTRUCTION
AND BROADCAST EDUCATION

BY

Edward Francis sarno, Jr.

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS‘

Department of Television and Radio

1963

Approved by: . ..,,, .3 h . ~,1‘

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer owes a debt of gratitude to the Offi-
cers of Resources Development Corporation, East Lansing,
Michigan, for allowing him to attend a nine-day seminar .
on programmed instruction. Drs.John Ball, Donald Lloyd,
and George Klare are responsible for much of the material
which is included in this thesis and were especially
helpful to the writer during the preparation of the
experimental programmed unit.

A special note of thanks goes to my adviser,

. Dr. Gordon Gray who gave me much time and assistance
.during the preparation of this study. ' ‘ ‘9 \
And last, but by no means least, a debt of grati-
' tude is owed to my wife, Kirky, who helped immensely
during the final editing but most of all provided the

incentive for me to write this thesis.

ii

Chapter

I.

II.

Ill,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . S . . .

EARLY RESEARCH, 1926

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, 1954 - 1963

Pressey, 1927 . . . . .
Peterson, 1931 . . . .
. Pressey, 1932 . . . . .
Little, 1934 . ..} . .
Hovland, Lumsdaine, and

Current State of Programmed

InStI'LICtiOD o ‘0 o , 0
Purpose of the Study .-.
Limitations of the Study

I
P
<0
01
03
C

Pressey, 1926 .

1949 . . . . _. . .
Angell and Troyer, 1948 .
Angell,1949 . . . . . .
Jensen, 1949 _. . . . . .
Briggs, 1947 . . . . . .
Jones and Sawyer, 1949 .
Pressey, 1950 . . . . .
Michael and Maccoby, 1953
Stephens, 1950 ; . . . .
Jones, 1950 . .‘. . . . .

.Severin, 1951 . . . . .

Skinner, 1954 . .'. . . .
Della-Piana, 1957 . . . .

Greenspoon and Foreman, 1956

Wittrock, 1963 . . .

Sh

0.000.000.00000000

O‘oOQQOOOOOO'HOooO.

Kromboltz and Weisman, 1962 .

Silberman, et al., 1961 .

iii

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p.
H

‘o~oooooocoo.Q000°o

.5000

00.0...

Page

@0501

' 11

11
13

17'
19

21
23'
24
24

26
27
29
50
31
‘33

55

55
38
4O
41'
42
43

Page

Chapter ‘
Roe, Case, and Roe, 1962 . . . ... 45
Levin and Baker, 1963 . . . . . . 46
Shay, 1961 . . . . . . . 47
Coulson and Silberman, 1960. . . . 48
Keislar, 1959 . . . . . . . 50
Ferster and Sapon, 1958 . . . . . 51
Keislar and McNei1,1961 . . . . . 53.
Smith, 1962 .'. . . .‘. . . . 55
Reed and Hayman, 1962 y. . . .'. . - 57
Evans, Glaser, and Homme, 1962 .,. 58
Rushton, 1961 . . . . ; . 6O
Coulson and Silberman, 1961 . . . 61
Shafer, 1961 .'. . . . . . . . . . 62

-. Lawson, Burmester, and Nelson,
1960 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 62
Programmed Instruction Today . . . 64

IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM IN BROADCAST EDUCATION . . 69

Intended Use of the Program . . . 70
Material Included Within the

Program . . . . . . . . 71
Behavioral Objectives of the

Program . . . . . . . . . 73
Type of Program Chosen . . . . . . 77
Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . -78
Format of the Program . . . . . . 79

V. A PROGRAMMED UNIT ON THE BASIC PHYSICS
OF RADIO BROADCASTING . . . . . . 82

VI. CONCLUSION 105

Summary of Findings . . . . . . . 103
Suggestions for Further
Research 0 O O O O O O O O O O 106

‘x
\

BIBIJ IOGRAPHY 1. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 110

iv

Figure
1.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS '

View of programmed unit within
felder O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Panel one: The process Of radio
broadcasting . . . . . . . . . .

Panel two: Comparison of a cycle of
radio energy to an ocean wave .

Panel three: Section of the
electromagnetic spectrum . . . .

Panel four: Cycles of radio energy
in terms of amplitude and
frequency . . . . . . . . . . .

Panel five: AM broadcasting .. . . .
Panel six: FM broadcasting . . . . .
Panel seven: Propagation
characteristics of ground,
sky, and direct waves . . . . .
Panel eight: Effective broadcast

frequencies and distances for
ground, sky, and direct waves .

Page

81

95

97
98
99
100

101

102

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Programed instruction is emerging as a subject of
vital concern to educators. Because the field is
growing so rapidly, however, the state of knowledge
about it is uneven. Many teachers and school adminis-
trators have never seen a program or a teaching machine.
At the other extreme, some educators have begun to
think of programed instruction as a revolutionary
educational technique that may help to solve teacher
shortages, and at the same time individualize and
accelerate instruction.

The field of programed instruction is one which
has witnessed a tremendous surge of interest and
development in the past few years, and which shows as
yet no signs of abating its phenomenal rate of growth.
The term programed instruction" deserves a word of
comment. In a generic sense, programed instruction
‘can refer to any form of pre-prepared, pre-sequenced
instruction directed toward a specific educational or
training objective. In this broad sense, it compre-
hends instructional television and instructional
motion pictures, as well as the somewhat more special-
~ized (though still quite varied) forms that center
around the concept of the teaching machine and related
devices. The latter, more specific form of programed
instruction . . . deals with.forms of reproducible
instructional sequences in which the individual learner

 

1The United States Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare and the Center for Programed Instruction,
Programed Instruction and Teaching Machines, A Report
,PfeparedOto Accompany a National Demonstration Exhibit
(Washington: The United States Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare and the Center for Programmed
Instruction, 1963), p. l.

is made a central participant in the instructional
process.

More specifically, the learner is called upon to
‘reSpond frequently in interaction with an instruc-
tional program, in a matter suggestive of the Socratic
dialogue and the rate at which instruction proceeds
is governed individually by each learner's responses.
An educational technique is thus created in which
differences among students in background and aptitude
are taken directly into account in the management of
the learning process, in a way that is hardly possible
in the fixed-pace instruction typical of the classroom
lecture or its filmed or televised counterpart.3

The above comments refer to a relatively recent
innovation in education called "programmed instruction."
Generally speaking, this concept refers to a method of
'teaching where the student is guided through a series of
sequential steps which hopefully lead to.a particular
desired behavior. The techniques utilized are many and
varied and much experimentation is being done to seek the
.best methods of programming. The forms which programmed
instruction may take are likewise varied; textbooks have
'been programmed as have been film strips and television,
lectures. Devices ranging from simple punch-boards to
complex "teaching machines" have been built to help pre-
sent programmed materials effectively.

- Underneath this mate of different ways of present-
ing programmed materials lies a fundamental unity. Hughes

lists the following essential components of programmed

 

fir—

2A. A. Lumsdaine, "Foreward," in J. L. Hughes, .
Programed Instruction for Schools and Industry (Chicago:
Science Research Associates, Inc., 1962), pp. V-VI.

..instruction:.

1. Each student works individually on the programed
instruction materials at his own pace. As an in-
dividual method of instruction, it allows more lati-
tude for individual differences in learning ability
than does a group method. It thus differs from
lecture, TV, and movie presentations, which are
typically made to. large audiences working at a fix ed
pace.

, 2. A relatively small unit of information is pre-
sented to the student at a time. A statement to
be completed, or questions to be answered, about
this information is also included. This is known
~technically as the "stimulus." -

5. The student is required to complete the state-
ment or answer the question about that specific

bit of information. In technical terms, he is said
to be making a "response" to the stimulus presented.
The statement or question is usually designed to
make it probable that the student will give the cor-
rect response.

4. The student is then immediately informed whether
his response is correct or not. If it is wrong,

he may also be told why. By this kind of "feedback, "
he is rewarded (told he is correct) if he gives the
correct answer; in more technical terms, his response
is "reinforced." In learning experiments, psycholo-
gists have found that reinforcement increases proba-.
bility of making the correct response to the same
stimulus in the future.

5. The student is next presented with the second
unit of information, and the cycle of presentation-
answer-feedback or - more technically - stimulus-
response-reinforcement of the correct answer is
repeated. The same cycle is repeated again and
again as all the necessary information is presented
in a logical sequence. Provision is also made for
the pragtice and review of previously learned infor-
.mation.-\

\

 

3J.,L. Hughes, Programmed Instruction for Schools
and Industry (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc.,
1962), pp. 2-5.

Although all programs contain some form of the
above five characteristics, two basic types of programming
have evolved. The first type is called "linear program-
ming," requiring a constructed-response on the part of the
student. Linear programs are carefully sequenced small
units of information (called frames). In a linear program,
students are required to proceed sequentially through the
entire program constructing or writing-in answers to each
frame as they proceed. V

The second major type of programming is called
"branching" or "intrinsic" programming. The basic differ-
ence between a branching program and a linear program is
the fact that in branching, the student's future sequence
of frames is determined by the responses he makes to pre-

vious frames.

\ \' \.

The student is given the material to be learned
in small logical units (usually a paragraph or less
in length) and is tested on each unit immediately.
The test result is used automatically to control the
material that the student sees next. If the student
passes the test question, he is automatically given
the next unit of information and the next question.
If he fails the question, the preceding unit of infor-
mation is reviewed, the nature of his error is explained
to him and he is retested. The test questions are
multiple-choice questions and there is a separate set
of correctional materials for each wrong answer that
is included in the multiple-choice alternatives. . . .
Each piece of material that the student sees is deter-
mined directly by that individual student's immediately
precedent behavior in choosing an answer to the multiple-
choice question. Since the student's behavior in
choosing an answer to the multiple-choice question is
determined, presumably, by his state of knowledge at
the time he makes his choice, . . . [branching] adapts

the prdgram of material directly to the present
state of knowledge of the individual student.4
Current State of Programmed Instruction

Although the philosophy inherent in programmed
instruction can legitimately be traced as far back as the
.dialectic teaching of ancient Greece, modern concern for
it is generally believed to have begun in the early 1920's.
S. L. Pressey at Ohio State University is often referred
to as the "father of programmed instruction" as his research
in the 1920's first outlined the potential value of pro-
gramming as an educational technique. Most of the research
of the 1930's and 1940's concerned itself with the testing
rather than teaching opportunities of programming and was
met with an apathetic acceptance by the educational com-
munity.

B. F. Skinner at Harvard University was responsible
for giving programmed instruction the boost it needed.- In
'1954, he explained_how principles of learning, observed in
laboratory animals for Some time, could be applied to human
' learning through programming. This impetus provided by . .
' Skinner was such that educational concern for programming
I multiplied during the late 1950's and early 1960's.

I Educators' reactions to programming have been mixed

in terms of acceptance or rejection. There.are some

 

4Norman A. Crowder, "Automatic Tutoring by Means
of Intrinsic Pregraming," in Eugene H. Galanter (ed.), -
. Automatic Teaching: The State of the.Art (New'Yorkz. John.
Wiley and Sons, Inc.,'1959)7+pp. 109-116. .

educators who believe all programming can do is make
"education automatic and students into robots." On the
other hand, some educators feel that programmed instruc-
tion is the greatest educational technique ever devised.
They feel by taking over the responsibility for rote learn-
ing it will enable teachers to concentrate on more important
aspects of their profession by permitting more individual-
ized attention to each student.

I The bulk of the reaction toward programming falls
somewhere between.these two polar viewpoints. Studies

have shown that programmed instruction is a valuable aid

to learning, but much more research is needed before any
conclusions can be drawn as to how much of the teaching
burden can be, and rightfully should be, assumed by pro-
gramming. ’

Commercial interest in programming has also boomed
in the last five years. Production of programs has grown
from merely a handful of companies in the late 1950's to
a point where at least sixty-five firms are involved in

preparing programs, according to a recent survey.5

Purpose of the Study
On the following pages is presented a history of
programmed instruction in American education. The purpose

of the study is to look at programming in some detail in

 

5James D. Finn and Donald G. Perrin, Teaching
Machines and Programed Learning: a Survey of the Industry -
1962 (Washington: The United States Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1962), p. 21.

order to ascertain whether it might be utilised to some
degree in broadcast education.

A sample linear program concerning the basic physics
of radio broadcasting has been developed and validated by ‘
the author and is included as one possible use of programmed
instruction in television and radio training.

Specifically, the contents of this study include:

1. -A historical look at the background of pro-
grammed instruction in the United States.' Starting with
the pioneering work of S. L. Pressey, this section traces
the early research to 1954. _

2. Beginning with B. F. Skinner's classic state-
ment on programming in 1954, recent research is surveyed
up until the summer of 1963. .

' 5. The characteristics of a short programmed unit
on the basic physics of radio broadcasting is presented in
terms of: (a) the intended use of the program; (b) material
included within the program; (c) the behavioral objectives
of the program; (d) rationale for the type of program" ‘
developed; (6) validation of the program; and (f) program
format. V '

4.. The program itself--a fifty-one frame, con-
structed-response, linear program with eight accompanying
panels.

5. Some concluding remarks about the potential of
programmed instruction in broadcast education and sugges-

tions for further research in the area.

8

Studies included in the two historical sections of
the thesis were selected because the author felt they were
significant dealing with either: (1) a comparison of
programmed instruction with other forms of instruction;
(2) an evaluation of different programming techniques; or
(5) an example of a subject-matter area or grade-level

\ \ \.

where programmed instruction has been employed.

Limitations of the Study

There are three major limitations of the study
involving the research cited:

1. Only studies which dealt with programed instruc-
tion in relation to formal educational situations were
included in the thesis. No attempt was made to include
the many examples of programming found in either indus-
trial or military settings.

2. Only research dealing with programmed instruc-
tion in the United States has been included in this thesis.
Recently, there has been indication that some studies
regarding programming have been done in Great Britain and
,probably also in Japan and West Germany.6

3. No special attention is given to "teaching
machines."_\These devices, whether they be simple or com-
plex, are only ways to present pregrammed materials effec- '

tively and are not essential to the learning process. In'

 

6Wilbur Schramm, Pro ramed Instruction Today and
Tomorrow (New‘York: The Hung for the Advancement of Educa-
tion, 1962), p. 47. ' '

9

fact, they are "little more than a case to hold the pro-
gram."7

Two texts deserve special mention. The first of
these is A. A. Lumsdaine and Robert Glaser's Teaching
Machines and Programmed Learning: a Source Book. This
book provides an excellent survey of the early research in
the area. The second book deserving credit is a recent
paperback publication of the Fund for the Advancement of
Education entitled Programed Instruction Today and Tomorrow,
edited by Wilbur Schramm. This short text is probably the
best statement concerning programming available at the
present time.

One final note regarding the study. The terms
"programmed instruction," "programmed learning," and
"programmed teaching" are used synonymously throughout the
thesis. Although some critics object to certain of these
terms, they are all referred to in the literature and are
thereby included in this study.8 Furthermore, the word
"programmed" is sometimes written with only one "m." This
trend to distinguish programmed instruction from.computer
programming is not widespread enough at present, however,
to exclude both spellings of the word from the following

\

pages 0

 

7Ibid., p. 1.

8Some educators, for example, feel that the term
"programmed learning" is inaccurate as learning cannot be
insured with this or any other educational technique.

10

To the best of the author's knowledge, this study
is the first attempt to investigate programmed instruction
in terms of its poSsible implications for broadcast educa-
tion. Before any implications can be drawn, however, a
survey of programmed instruction's history as an educational
technique is needed. The next two chapters trace this his-
tory from 1926 to 1963.

CHAPTER II
EARLY RESEARCH, 1926 - 1953.

Pressey,,l926

Although the concepts of programmed instruction
date back as far as learning itself, the first teaching
machine, labelled as such, was described by Pressey in
1926.9 The apparatus consisted of a little window in
which a typewritten or mimeographed question appeared, and
a Set of four keys, each corresponding to one of four
multiple-choice answers to the question. The subject chose
an answer,.punched a key, and the next question appeared
in the window. A counter on the back of the apparatus
recorded the number of correct responses, simplifying the
task of scoring. Although the device was primarily con-
ceived as a testing device, Pressey visualized a secondary

function as an "automatic teacher."lo A lever could be

 

9Edward J. Green, The Learning Process and Pro-
grammed Instruction (New Yfirk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1962), p. 127.

 

10S. L. Pressey, "A Simple Apparatus Which Gives
Tests and Scores and Teaches," School and Society, XXIII
(MarCh 20, 1926), pp. 573-3760

.

ll

12

raised on the back of the machine to prevent the next
question from appearing until the correct response was
chosen to the current question. The subject was forced,
therefore, to select the right answer before he could pro-
ceed with the program. One of the unique features of
Pressey's machine was its immediate feedback as to the sub-
ject's progress. If the machine moved forward he knew his
last answer was correct, saving time over the conventional
method where tests had to be corrected and returned to the
subject before he knew the results. Also, since the ‘v
counter on the machine could be set to record wrong as
well as right answers, a significant score could be tabu-
lated. Lastly, if the subject went through the material a
second time, an effective measure of progress could be
found between the two scores..

Pressey concluded a list of the machine's advan-
tages by stating, "In short, the apparatus provides, in

all

very interesting ways, for efficient learning and con-

cluded his paper by listing three distinct possibilities ‘
for his machine.

(1) It is pointed out that objective tests naturally
suggest the possibility of a simpler mechanism for
testing. There are also some reasons for supposing
that some of the teaching of-drill material might

be done by machines.

(2) An apparatus is described which gives and scores
tests, and informs the subject with regard to the right

 

lllbid. ’ p. 375.

13

answers (an attachment will reward the subject after
any given number of right answers has been made).

(5) It is emphasized that teachers are now heavily

burdened with routine and clerical tasks Which might

well be handled mechanically - thus freeing the

teacher for much more real teaching, of the thought-

stimulating and ideal-developing type, than is now

possible.1
Pressey, 1927

Pressey mentioned in his 1926 paper that he had

worked on a device which would delete a question after a
correct answer had been given twice in succession. The
next year he described such a machine.13 The theory behind
this program was that a subject was confronted with a cer-
tain question just until he mastered it,14 and then his
attention was shifted to more difficult items. Repetition
was confined to areas where the subject was weakest. After
successfully answering each question twice, and thereby
ending the program, the device stopped itself and released
a coupon to the subject, indicating mastery of the exer-
cise and serving as a reinforcement to success.

Since Pressey was the first to concern himself

with programmed instruction in terms of learning theory,

 

l21mm, p. 376.

13S. L. Pressey, "A Machine for Automatic Teaching
of Drill Material," School and Society, XXV (May 7, 1927),
PP o 549 -552 0

14Although Pressey describes two successive right
answers as the criterion for mastery, the machine could
also be set to progress after-three or four correct
answers. '

14

he pointed out his device's function in regard to certain

principles or "laws."

. . . the "law of recency" operates to establish the
correct answer in the mind of the learner, since
always the last answer chosen is the right answer.
The correct response must always inevitably be the
most frequent, since the correct response is the only
response by which the learner can go on to the next
question, and since whenever a wrong response is made
it must be compensated for by a further correct reac-
tion. The ”law of exercise" is thus automatically
made to function to establish the right response.
Since the learner can progress only by making the
right reaction, is penalized everytime he makes a
wrong answer by being required to answerthe question
one more time and is rewarded for two consecutive '
right responses by the elimination of that question,
the "law of effect" is constantly operating, to
further the learning. Finally, certain fundamental
requirements of efficiency in learning are met. The
learner is instantly informed as to the correctness
of each response he makes (does not have to wait until
his paper is corrected by the teacher). His progress
is made evident to him by the progressive elimination
of items. And - most important of all - there is that
-individual and exact adjustment to difficulty men-
tioned at the beginning of the paper, by which waste-
ful overlearning is avoided and each item returned to
until the learner has mastered it.15 ' ‘ v

Pressey, in the year between his first and second
articles on teaching machines, had shifted much of his
emphasis from merely a testing device to the much broader
implications of programmed learning. He recognized, how-
ever, two questionable features of his machine which would
have to be further investigated: (1) whether the multiple-
choice system of response hindered learning by exposing

the subject to wrong as well as right answers; and

 

15Pressey, "A Machine for Automatic Teaching of
Drill Material," op. cit., pp. 251-252.

15

(2) whether the response of punching a key is so different
from the real-life reaction to the learned material as to
pose a threat to transfer. The first of these questions

was to later prova a major difference between Pressey's

system of programming and others.

After hinting at an upcoming machine to be used in
arithmetic drill, Pressey stated the major purpose of his
article was to stimulate research in developing machines
which could perform certain important functions of teach-

ing. He concluded:

(1) The paper reports an effort to develop an
apparatus for teaching drill material which

(a) should keep each question or problem before

the learner until he finds the correct answer,

(b) should inform him at once regarding the cor-
rectness of each response he makes, (c) should
continue to put the subject through the series of
.questions until the entire lesson has been learned,
but (d) should eliminate each question from con-
sideration as the correct answer for it has been

mastered.

(2) Such an apparatus is described (a) as it appears
-to the learner and (b) as to "inner workings."

(3) It is reiterated that labor-saving devices

should be possible in education. Such devices might
well handle certain types of routine work even bet-
ter than the teacher. They should save the teacher's
time and energy from such routine, so that she may
do more real teaching of the ideal-developing and

thought stimulating type.l.6

Peterson, 1951\*

One of the early experiments based upon Pressey's

multiple-choice response machine was done in 1951 by a

 

151b1d., p. 552.

16

former student of Pressey's, Hans J. Peterson, and his
brother John. A year earlier they had described two test-
ing techniques affording knowledge of immediate results.17
The first consisted of an envelope containing several
layers of cardboard. The subject would punch a pin through
-one of several holes, each hole corresponding to an answer
to a multiple-choice question. If the pin went through
the envelope, the subject had answered the question cor-
rectly. The second device consisted of a sheet of multi-
ple-choice questions upon which the answer column was
chemically treated. The subject touched the appropriate
answer block with a strip of moistened felt called a
"chemopen." If the answer were correct, the block turned
a predetermined color._ If incorrect, a different pre-
determined color appeared. 'Therefore, a record of
_responses could be kept while informing the subject of
his progress.'

Recognizing an application of this second device
in testing and alSo self-instruction, the Peterson brothers
.ran an experiment on the latter function.18. A group of

students in an elementary psychology class was divided

 

l7JAC. Peterson, "A New Device for Teaching,
Testing, and Research in Learning," Transactions of the
Kansas Academy of Science, XXXIII (1930), pp. 41-47.

18J. C. Peterson, "The Value of Guidance in Read-
'ing for Information," in A. A. Lumsdaine and Robert Glaser
(eds.), Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning (Washing-
ton: The National Education Association,'l960), pp. 52-58.

17

into an experimental and control group ranked equally in
ability by results of a previous test in psychology. The
experimental group was given the chemically treated self-
checking device, whereas the control group took only "
standardized tests. Even though the control and experi-
mental groups were reversed during the five experiments

_ carried out, the experimental group consistently scored
better than the control group; this led the authors to.
remark, "this marked shift in gains always in favor of
the group who used the self-checking device when other

factors were constant, must apparently be attributed to

the influence of the device on learning."19

In conclusion, it may be said that of the five
comparisons here made between performance with and
performance without the self-checking feature of
the self-Instructor and Tester, all comparisons
showed statistically valid differences in favor of
performance with the self-checking feature. On the.
average, the group . . . that used this feature of
the device in reading gained from 2.4 to three times
as much information-as did those who used only the
questions as a guide. Gains were practically as
great when study-test questions were reworded and
changed to completion form as when the same multiple
choice questions were given both in the study test
and in the final test. Almost invariably students
express a strong preference for the entire device,
including the self-checking feature, as comBared
with the mere list of objective questions.2

Pressey, 1932.!

 

‘\

In 1932, Pressey described two more devices con-

cerned with saving time and energy in testing:21 The

 

19Ibid., p. 55.

201bid., pp. 57-58. .

215. L. Pressey, "A Third and Fourth Contribution
Toward the Coming 'Industrial Revolution' in Education,"

 

is
first, a separate answer form to a set of multiple-choice
questions consisted of a 3" x 3" card; and the second,
a mechanical punchboard, was similar to the "envelope"
- described by J. 0. Peterson in-ieso. This second device
was designed to tabulate by item.as well as score and total
tests. Although these two devices served primarily test-
ing rather than teaching functions, they did provide the
subject with knowledge of progress quicker than conven-
tional methods. Pressey concluded his paper with two
predictions concerning the future possibility of an "indus-
trial revolution" in education:

1. Education is the one major activity in this
country which is still in a crude handicraft stage.-
But the economic depression may here work bene-
ficially, in that it may force the consideration of
efficiency and the need for laborsaving devices in
education. Education is a large-scale industry; it
should use quantity production methods. This does
not mean, in any unfortunate sense, the mechaniza-
tion of education. It does mean freeing the teacher
from the drudgeries of her work so that she may do
more real teaching, giving to the pupil more adequate
guidance in his learning. There may well be an
"industrial revolution" in education. The ultimate
results should be highly beneficial. Perhaps only
by such means can universal education be made effec-
tive.

2. The advantage of a science is closely dependent
upon the development of instruments in that science.
There has so far been relatively little development
of instruments specifically for the very extensive

- yet analytical research typical both of modern educa-
tional investigation and also more generally of the
social sciences. New instruments and materials,

 

Sghool and Society, xxxv: (November 19, 1952), pp. 658-
572;

19

greatly facilitating research, may soon appear.
There may theBZbe sweeping research advances in
these fields.

Little, 1934

Another early study designed to evaluate the
effectiveness of programming devices was carried out by
Little.23 The purpose of his experiment was to test the
effectiveness of both Pressey's 1952 test-scoring punch-
board device and a modification of his 1926 drill-machine
as instructional techniques. .

Fourteen groups were formed from students enrolled
in a course in educational psychology. Four of these
sections had their tests automatically graded by the test-
scoring device and therefore had immediate feedback as to
their progress in the course. Subjects in these groups
receiving less than a B grade on a test were required to \\
take a make-up examination and the average of the two .
grades was considered their score on the test. .

Another four groups took their tests on the drill-
machine and had all the advantages of the test-device
groups as well as being able to go back later and correct

their errors (although their first answers constituted

their grade on a particular test).

 

221bid., p. 672.

' 23James K. Little, "Results of Use of Machines for
Testing and for Drill upon Learning in Educational
Psychology," Journal of Experimental Education, III
September, 1934), pp. 45-49.

20
The other six sections, the control groups, took '
'their tests in the conventional manner and received their
scores the next day. All the subjects were given a pre-
test as well as the University Intelligence Test to insure
I'matching of ability and preparation in each section._

The course was divided into 14 teaching units;
for each, two 30-item-true-false tests were avail-
able. There were also used: (a)'a l40-item pretest
(reliability .80) covering the entire course and
given to all sections at the beginning of the quar-
ter, (b) a lOO-item selective answer (five choice)
midterm covering the first half of the course,

(c) a similar lOO-item test covering the second half,
and (d) three broad essay-type questions sampling '
from the entire course. 'In working up results, the
midterm and final objective examinations were com-
bined and considered one final test (reliability

.92).24 ’
After tabulating results for the three kinds of
groups, Little concluded:

1. _Students immediately apprised of their test
results, and given opportunity to correct deficien-
cies by make-up tests, profit markedly in terms of
final examination results over students who do not.
have such advantage. -

2. Students immediately apprised of the correctness
or incorrectness of their responses to each item of

a test, and given opportunity to correct deficiencies
by drill and by-make-up tests, likewise so profit.

3. The greatest benefit accrues to students who
usually score in the lower half of the distribution,
although the entire group moves upward.

4. Mechanical self-scoring and drill devices have a
practical use in the classroom. They are convenient
for students, time- and laborsaving for teachers, and
make possiblg instructional techniques not otherwise
practicable. 5

24Ibid.,p. 46.
251bid.,p. 49.'

21

Little reported two general conclusions concerning
his study: (1) he believed his experiment to be the first
instance of programming as a systematic part of a univer-
sity course; and (2) the study Was in direct contrast to
present educational planning which stressed a strong
tutorial approach, more elaborate physical plants, and an
emphasis on the "personality" of the teacher. "In con-
trast, one purpose of this experiment has been to show
that an impersonal attempt to organize procedures in college
- instruction for greater efficiency may produce demonstrable

results and, at the same time, save lab-0:526

Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, 1949

..The little work done with programmed instruction
in the early 1940's was by the United States Armed Forces
during World War 11.: They experimented with several
machines which provided_subjects with immediate knowledge
of results, but most of these devices were both cumber- .
some and expensive and therefore not practical for every-
day educational uses.

One interesting experiment carried out during the

war concerned teaching the military phonetic alphabet to

two groups of Signal Corps men.27 'Two film strips, One

 

26Ibido’ pp. 48-490

27Car1 I. Hovland, A. A. Lumsdaine, and Fred D.
Sheffield, Studies in Social Psychology in world-War II,
Vol. III: Experiments on Mass Communication (Princeton,
N. J.: Princeton University Press,Il949), pp. 228-246.

 

22

for each group were prepared on the subject. Both films
were identical, although the experimental strip called
for active-participation from the viewers in the form of
reciting responses in review sequences. The control strip
merely presented standard review material to a passive
audience. The results in number of phonetic names recalled
showed a significant difference in favor of the active- .
participating group: V
within 2 seconds within 15 seconds
after seeing letter after seeing letter

mean per- mean . per-

number '. centage number centage

recalled recalled recalled _recalled
Participation 17.6 68% '21.9 , ' 84%
Standard 12.6 _ 4a - 17.2 .66
Difference 5.0 20% 4.7 18% 28

The study also indicated that the active-partici- '
pation technique was most effective for Slow subjects
~learning difficult material. -

An interesting implication of the study was drawn
- concerning the value of overt versus passive responses in
I a learning situation.. This consideration was to later play
a major role in programmed learning theory. .

The motivation should not just provide a "motive

to learn"; rather, it‘should provide an incentive to
perform (as voluntary "active practice" during the

 

28Ibid., p. 256.

23

film Showing) implicit or overt responses that will
transfer readily to the performance situation that
defines .the objectives of the film. 29

~Angelland Troyer, 1948.

 

In 1948, Angell and-Troyer described a new device
-for test-scoring which once again indirectly focused atten—‘
tion on programmed instruction.3o It consisted of a punch-
board similar to the one used by J.‘C. Peterson eighteen
tyears earlier. The subject punched a hole with his pencil.
in one of five perforated answers to each multiple-choice
item tested. If he were right, a red spot became visible.
where he answered and he proceeded to the next question.

If he were wrong, no mark appeared and he chose another
‘alternative. .

- This device had the following advantages: (1) it
afforded the subject with immediate knowledge of results;
(2) the subject could proceed at his own rate; (5) the
items could be answered in any order the subject wished;

(4) the device was self-scoring and a grade was easy to
tabulate; and (5) it afforded a simple, economical means
of testing while offering no mechanical problems.

Feeling that learning was enhanced by a subject's

immediate knowledge of results, the punchboard was

 

29Ibid., p. 246.

30George W. Angell and Maurice E. Troyer, "A New
Self- -Scoring Test Device for Improving Instruction,"
School and Society, LXVII (January 51, 1948), pp. 84-85.

24

experimented with and results were published the following

year.

AngellL71949

 

. Angell reported in 1949 a study examining the
effect of immediate knowledge of quiz scores as measured
by performance on~the final examination.31 He used as
subjects students enrolled in a freshman college chemistry
course. Angell found that students using a punchboard
technique in taking quizzes scored higher on the final
examination. Moreover, he found that students receiving
immediate knowledge of results by means of the punchboard
favored this teChnique over conventional teaching methods

and looked upon their quizzes as learning experiences.32

Jensen, 1949

 

Jensen found with a group of mature, superior
students, studying educational psychology on an independ-
ent study basis, that use of a punchboard on practice tests
increased chances of success in the course.33 _Final grades

for the twenty-four accelerated laboratory subjects were

 

‘

51George W. Angell, "The Effect of Immediate Know-
ledge of Quiz Results on Final Examination Scores in
Freshman Chemistry," The Journal of Educational Research,
XLII (January, 1949), pp. 591- 594.

321bid., p. 594.

33Barry T. Jensen, "An Independent-Study Labora-
tory Using Self-Scoring Tests," The Journal of Educational
Research, XLIII (October, 1949), pp. 154-157.

. 25
compared with students in twenty-seven regular sections of

the course. The results showed:

Grades: 27 regular 2 accelerated
sections laboratories
A 10% ' -54%
B 18 ' - 15
C 42" 55
D 19 ' --
E 11 , " -_ 54

Besides ranking much higher than those students
in the regular sections of the course, the accelerated
students covered the material much quicker. Furthermore,
two-thirds of them were found to have used the saved time
in part-time employment, extra courses or extra-curricular
activities. This led Jensen to comment, "the students
not only did well academically, but gained in capacity for
independent and cooperative work. .They saved time, which
in most instances was used to advance or enrich their pro-

grams."35

Briggs, 1947

A similar experiment using superior students was

36

Icarried out by Briggs. Again students in the acceler-

ated or experimental groups had use of a punchboard

 

34Ibid., p. 156.

55Ibid., p. 137.
36Leslie J. Briggs, "Intensive Classes for

Superior Students," Journal of Educational Psychology,
XXXVIII (April, 1947), pp. 207-215.

26

self-test device. When the experimental and control
groups were paired as to sex, intelligence and grade-

point average, the following final grade results were

noted:
Grade Accelerates Controls
A 26 17
B 58 ' 52
C 52 41
D 5 « 7
E 1 5 37

Briggs summarized his findings by stating:

0n objective tests given both to the special sec-
tions and to the regular classes, both types of
experimental groups were superior. Even when paired
with others of equal ability in regular classes, the
'seminar' students still scored somewhat higher.

Questionnaire results indicated that the 'seminar'
students were almost without exceptibn carrying addi-
tional academic and outside work without sacrificing
health, social activities, or efficiency in their
Work. 0 o o

The results appear to justify employment of such.
special procedures for superior students. . .-.
Similar measures, including careful selection and

- special methods, might well in the future save supe-
. rior students at least one or two quarters in com-
pleting an educational program, 5and also save in

staff time and classroom space.3

Jones and Sawyer, 1949
An evaluation of the Angell-Troyer punchboard was

undertaken by Jones and Sawyer’ts’9 in a freshman course.

A
fl

37Ibid., p. 212.
38Ib:d., pp. 214-215.

39Howard L. Jones and Michael 0. Sawyer, "A New
Evaluation Instrument, " The Journal of Educational Research,
XLII (January, 1949), pp. 581- 585.

(\_~
‘0... n"

' ‘ ‘\’ \.

entitled "Responsible Citizenship" at Syracuse University.
They found that students having the advantage of the
punchboard in taking exams scored higher than students
not using the device. An interesting finding of this
study was that when a questionnaire was distributed to
those students using the punchboard asking whether they
liked it or not, 85% of the students answered "yes."

Three interesting reasons given by the students in favor
of the punchboard were: (1) they felt they were learn-
ing while they took the tests; (2) they had the advantage
of knowing immediately their grade on a given test; and
(5) they felt the punchboard encouraged greater care in
their work and discouraged guessing. These findings led
.Jones and Sawyer to remark, "Perhaps the most important
value of the use of the Angell-Trqyer punchboard is the
fact that students enjoy using it; 'it's fun' and students.

learn best when they enjoy that learning."40

Pressey,_1950 .

An interesting appraisal of testing and self- - - .
instructional devices was reported by Pressey in 1950.41
In this rather lengthy article he described instances

where such devices had been used successfully to teach

 

'4OIbid., p. 585.

413. L. Pressey, "Development and Appraisal of
Devices Providing Immediate Automatic Scoring of Objective
Tests and Concomitant Self-Instruction," The Journal of
Psychology, XXIX (April, 1950), pp. 417-447.

28

subjects ranging from nonsense syllables to technical
material in Naval R.0.T.C. Experiments were also cited
where punchboards had been employed in helping students
prepare for credit by examination courses and as an aid
in self-instructional laboratories. Again, the results
were favorable. It is interesting to note here that as
experiments with self—instructional devices progressed,
the emphasis had slowly shifted from mainly testing func-
tions to a realization of great instructional potential.

After reviewing a sample of the research for the
past twenty-five years, Pressey offered four conclusions
concerning programmed instruction:

1. It has demonstrated a simple way to telescope
into one single simultaneous process the taking of

a test, the scoring of it, the informing of students.
as to their errors, and their guidance to the find-
ing of the right answers. . . .

2. The investigation has shown that such a tele-
scoped testing process, which informs each student
immediately as he answers each question whether his
answer is correct, and guides him to the right

'answer when he is wrong, does indeed transform test-
taking into a form of systematically directed self-
instruction. . . .

5. The investigation has shown that when the self-
instructional tests were used systematically in _
college courses as an integral part of the teaching
method, gains were substantial, and sufficiently
generalized to improve understanding of a topic as
a whole--even help in related topics. . . .

4. . . . the total project has shown that there are
various promising means for automatic scoring and
self- instruction .2. . In short, "human engineering"
can aid educational and training programs by test-
teach devices of various types. The major purpose
of this project has been to evidence the value of the
basic idea, as illustrated by the punchboard, and

- determine ways of using such a device so as substan-
tially to improve instruction or training. The value

1 , -v.___—_~——_— _fi.—r—Assvgvss_r

.___——V— _—m——— v‘vr

'participation to afilm.4

29

of such devices; and the need for carefully planned
—methods for their use, if those values are to be
realized, both seem clear. Research aiming still
-more to realize these values, and to appraise cer-.
tain of the other devices mentioned above, is now
under way.4 - -

Michael and Maccoby, 1955
Michael and Maccoby, in an effort to try to iso-

late effective factors involved in verbal learning, ran an_

experiment which required differing degrees of audience
3 .

Theirpurpose was to determine

°whether subjects learned more when required to make an

active response during.a training film because: (1) moti-
vation to learn was heightened by requiring a response;

or (2) the practice involved in making the response itself
increased learning.44 .

Designing the experiment to evaluate several in-
structional techniques, Michael and Maccoby found that
subjects who were required to make responses to questions
on the film learned more efficiently.the verbal material.
preSented than subjects not required to make responses.
Moreover, these gains in learning were attributed to the
practice gained in making a response rather than any

heightening of motivation in making a response.

 

42Ibid., pp. 444-447.

43Donald N. Michael and Nathan Maccoby, "Factors
Influencing Verbal Learning from Films under Varying Con-
ditions of Audience Participation," Journal of Experi-
mental ngchology, XLVI (December, I933), pp. 411-418.

44Ibid., p. 411.

30

The most important implication for programmed
learning found by Michael and Maccoby, however, was that
learning was increased most by informing subjects of cor-
rect answers to questions after they had made their '

responses.

Stephens, 1950

Stephens reported in 1950 a study undertaken at
Ohio State University which attempted to evaluate a modi-
fication of the Pressey punchboard and a device called

"46

the "Drum Tutor. The subjects took a series of multiple-

choice tests dealing with nonsense syllables, elementary
Russian vocabulary and advanced English vocabulary.
Testing was done under three conditions in an
attempt to isolate the most effective method of present-
ing material:‘
1. Subjects were informed as to correctness or
incorrectness of their responses but were required
to remain at a given question until a correct i-ww-H
response was made.
2. 'A normal test situation where only one response
was allowed for a given question and subjects were
not told whether this response was correct or not.
5. Only one response was allowed for a given ques-

tion but Subjects were informed whether the reSponse
was correct or incorrect.

 

45Ibid., p. 418.

46Avery L. Stephens, "Certain Special Factors
Involved in the Law of Effect," Abstracts of Doctoral
Dissertations - The Ohio State Ufiiversity, LXIV*(Summer
Quarter, 1950-517, pp. 505-511.

31

After evaluating these three conditions of test-
ing, Stephens found that learning was most effective when
subjects were required to remain at a given question until
a right response had been given. Results of retests over
the material presented Showed a lower error rate for the
more meaningful material (Russian and English vocabulary)
as compared to the nonsense syllables.

An interesting result was obtained when one sec-
tion of a course in educational psychology was allowed to
take practice tests on the "Drum Tutor." Although this
experimental section was inferior to the control sections
in general ability and previous college work, subjects
using the "Drum Tutor" scored higher on the midterms‘andv
final examination than the better students not using the
practice device. Not only did the experimental subjects
do better on material repeated or rephrased from the prac-

tice tests, but they also did better with new items.

Jones, 1950

The use of self-scoring devices in remedial situa-
tions was reported in a study by Jones.47 Use of a punch-
board in a practice test situation proved not only bene-
ficial for average students but also helped slower students

in educational psychology. When poorer students in the

 

47Robert S. Jones, "Integration of Instructional
with Self-Scoring Measuring Procedures," Abstracts of
Doctoral Dissertations - The Ohio State University, LXV
(Autumn-Winter Quarters, 1950-51), pp.'157-l65.-

 

32

experimental groups were encouraged to do extra work with

the punchboard, increased gains in learning were noted.
Perhaps the most important finding of Jones'

_Study concerned the relevance of items used on the prac-

tice tests in terms of learning value rather than measure-

ment. This finding indicated a need for attention to what

a subject was learning as well as how well he performed

on a given test.

A basic issue concerns criteria for a good
instructional test item. An attempt was made to
develop methods for appraisal of test items for
this use. It was believed that such criteria would
be, in important ways, different from criteria of
items for the more common test which is used simply
for measurement. . . . Evidently a practice test
item may be so easy that little gain is possible.

. . . But difficulty may be due to obscurity; a good
instructional test question should so elucidate its
topic that the punchboard group does Show gains.
Comparison of punchboard and control groups appraises
questions still further, and may show great differ-
ences. Thus of 50 questions repeated from a practice
test to a mid-term examination, 1 showed a punch-
board superiority of 74 per cent and 12 a superiority
of 20 per cent or more. However, the punchboard
classes did a little less well than the control group
on 5 questions; they were too easy and a little con-
fusing. An attempt to identify the characteristics
of items high in instructional value indicated that
they were of substantial initial difficulty, but
presented a clear and significant problem . . . One
.of the most revealing outcomes of the detailed analy-
sis of items was that relatively few questions could
be called good in terms of learning value. Many of
the alternatives were weak - nearly 50 per cent of
all the alternatives were chosen by less than 10 per
cent of the students - and differences between experi-
mentals and controls indicated that most of the gains
came in connection with only one of the alternatives.
These weaknesses of items are not peculiar to this

‘ ‘ "‘ \.

33

analysis; however, as a method, it brings the problem

_thatg“230$?anxieties:emu“
Severin, 1951 '. ‘

Concerned with the relevance of test questions used
in testing devices to learning value, Severin49 found that
two possible alternative answers to multiple-choice ques-
tions permitted as much learning as four possible alterna-
tives. Moreover, when he presented material dealing with
vocabulary, Severin discovered that paired-alternatives
proved more effective in terms of learning than simple
multiple choice answers.50 When the subjects were tested
'a week after taking the practice material, he found that
no appreciable difference showed up in regard to whether
the subjects had repeated the practice tests or not. In
other words, the same amount of material had been learned
by using the punchboard once as by going through the prac-
tice test twice.5l
Although early experiments in programmed instruc-

tion were concerned primarily with the testing applications'
of such techniques, the emphasis slowly shifted to a point

 

48Ibid., pp. 162-165.

49Daryl G. Severin, "Appraisal of Special Tests
and Procedures Used with Self-Scoring Instructional Test-
ing Devices," Abstracts of Doctoral Dissertations - The
“Ohio State University, LXVI (Spring Quarter, 1950-51)}
pp. 5235330. .

'5OIbid., p. 527.

 

51Ibid., pp. 528-529.

54
where the research placed more and more stress on the
learning potential inherent in programming. Although
almost twenty-five years had passed since Pressey first
described his "teaching machine," not much sophistica-
tion had resulted from the ensuing research, and educators
had viewed the whole area apathetically.

It took Harvard psychologist, B. F. Skinner, to
shake loose the apathy and give programming the boost it

needed.

CHAPTER III
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, 1954 - 1965

Skinner, 1954

 

In March of 1954, Skinner presented a paper to a
conference of psychologists assembled at the University
of Pittsburgh to discuss current trends in psychology.52
In this now classic statement, he outlined how many
principles of behavior, which had been observed in the
laboratory for some time, could be applied in correcting
some of modern education's shortcomings.

Skinner had already proven that the behavior of
an animal could be controlled (or 'shaped' as he called
it) by applying the principle of reinforcement. By
rewarding a pigeon with food for correctly performing a
predetermined action, Skinner was able to build up com-
plex behavioral patterns within relatively simple organ-
isms. .Why, he asked, couldn't these same principles used
in the laboratory be applied in guiding or shaping human
learning?

52B. F. Skinner, "The Science of Learning and

the Art of Teaching," Harvard Educational Review, XXIV“
(Spring, 1954), pp. 86-970

35

36

Skinner envisioned if material to be learned could
be broken down into small sequential steps, where one C
step logically followed and built upon the previous step,
even involved learning experiences could be achieved.
Modern educational practices, according to Skinner,
had many serious shortcomings. Reinforcement was nega-
tively applied in most cases as what seemed to motivate
a child to perform.effectively his daily school choreS'was.
the fear of low grades, the teacher's displeasure, compe-
tition With classmates or disapproval from parents.
In this welter of adverse consequences, getting
the right answer is in itself an insignificant»
event, any effort of which is lost amid the anxi-
- eties, the boredom, and the aggressions which are
the inevitable by-products.of aversive control.53
Even when positive reinforcement was applied to
school activity, Skinner felt'that the time which elapsed
between a student making a response and its related rein-
' forcement was often long enough to make the response-

. reinforcement bond ineffectual. A good example of this
_was a student taking an exam (response) and getting the ‘
paper back in two days with a good grade on it (reinforce-

ment). This two-day period was long enough to destroy
the effect of the reinforcement on the response. Skinner
remarked that "It is Surprising that this system.has any

effect whatsoever."54

 

sslbido’ Pp. 90-91.

54Ibid., p. 91.

37

Another shortcoming outlined by Skinner was the
material to be learned itself could be broken up into
much smaller sequential steps which would seem much more
palatable to the student. If a system of reinforcement
was applied to each successfully completed step, the stu-
dent could progress quite easily and painlessly from simple
to complex learning patterns in a relatively short time.

Because it would be impossible for a teacher to
reinforce each student for every small step completed in
such a program, Skinner described a simple mechanical
device which included the advantages he had outlined. The
programmed material consisted of a series of questions
built around small, sequential units of information. As
the subject answered a question successfully the device
presented the next logical bit of information. If the.
subject answered a question wrongly, he was not allowed
to proceed until he selected the right response. A sub-
ject could proceed through a programmed unit of material
at his own rate receiving reinforcement from the device
itself. If this reinforcement of knowing immediately
whether an answer was correct or incorrect and being able.
to progress successfully through the program.did not v
effectively motivate the student, Skinner suggested the
teacher could then provide supplemental reinforcement
when needed.‘ '

Although he knew technological innovations would

38

meet with some opposition, Skinner concluded that:

there is a simple job to be done. The task can be
stated in concrete terms. The necessary techniques
are known. The equipment needed can easily be
provided. Nothing stands in the way butocultural 'v \.
inertia. But what is more characteristic of America
than an unwillingness to accept the traditional as
inevitable? We are on the threshold of an exciting
and revolutionary period, in which the scientific
study of man will be put to work in man's best inter-
ests. Education must play its part. It must accept
the fact that a sweeping revision of educational
practices is possible and inevitable. When it has
done this, we may look forward with confidence to a
school system which is aware of the nature of its
tasks, secure in its methods, and generously sup-
ported by the informed and effective citizens whom
education itself will create.55

Even though the recent interest in programmed
instruction can be traced to the impetus created by
Skinner in 1954, Schramm notes, "the research.that fol-
- lowed took five years and the National Defense Education
Act before it reached any considerable volume."56

On the next few pages are presented some of the
recent studies dealing with programmed instruction in
terms of both areas in.which it has been employed success-

fully and also in terms of research devcted to improving

the techniques of this educational aid.

Délla-PianaL_l957
In an effort to explain how knowledge of results

. may best influence learning, Della-Piana suggested three

 

55Ibid., p. 97.

5.6Wilbur Schramm, Programed Instruction Today and
- Tomorrow (New Yorkzi The Fund for the Advancement of

Education,'1962), p. 43.

59
possible processes:57
(a) showing progress and thus "motivating" the learner.

(b) presenting a standard and thus "guiding" the
learner's trial responses.

(c) indicating errors and allowing the learner to find
out why the response was wrong, thereby "acti-
vating a searching orientation' in the learner.58
An experiment was designed to evaluate which of

two methods of feedback of results was most effective in

.—w-
l‘.
'5.

learning concepts. The first method informed a subject

.as to the correct answer after one incorrect answer to an
item was given. The second method encouraged the subject
'to.keep "searching" for the correct response up to five-
trials at a given question. The concepts to be learned ‘
were some common attributes of certain geometric shapes.
.Each of the concepts was given a nonsense syllable name
and presented to the subjects on 5" x 5" cards.

In comparing results of two posttests, Della-Piana
found the following comparisons between subjects informed
of a correct response (D-group) and those required to‘
search for the correct response (S-group).

(a) No significant differences in number of concepts
named correctly.

‘(b) No significant differences in number of Series
presentations required to name concepts correctly.

 

5'7Gabriel- M. Della-Piana, "Searching Orientation
and Concept Learnin ," Journal of Educational Psychology,
XLVIII (April, 1957 , pp. 245-255.

581bid., p. 245.

40

(c) S-group learns to recall and recognize signifi-
cantly more definitions of concepts than D-group.

(d) S-group (more than D-group) learns to recall
definitions of a greater percentage of concepts
they learned to name correctly.59
These findings indicated a need in: Della-Piana

for more research into feedback methods of how best to

inform a subject,in terms of knowledge of results.

Greenspoon and Foreman,-l956

Greenspoon and Foreman conducted an experiment to
measure differences in learning associated with the time
elapsed between attempting a motor skill response and
being informed as to its being correct or incorrect.60
The task chosen involved drawing three inch horizontal
lines while blindfolded. The-subjects were arranged in

five groups: in four of these groups, knowledge of results

was presented‘to a subject either immediately after com-
apleting a response, or ten, twenty or thirty seconds after
completion of the task.- The fifth group (control section)
was never told whether their responses were correct or
incorrect.,

Results showed delay in feedback was related to
the rate of learning. Those subjects who were given imme-

diate knowledge of results did better than those given

 

 

60Joel Greenspoon and Sally Foreman, "Effect of
Delay of Knowledge of Results on Learning a Motor Task,"
Journal of Experimental Psychology, LI (March, 1956),
Pp. 226-228.

Mum-g]

 

41

delayed feedback. Also, the rate of learning dropped off
as the time between response and feedback increased. All
four experimental groups, however, did better than the

control group which was not given any knowledge of results.61

Wittrock, 1965
An attempt to evaluate response mode in an ele-
mentary science program was made by Wittrock.62 Forty

elementary school students took a completion item program

I i

by responding aloud the answers in an experimental sec-
tion. A control section of forty pupils received the same
program but were not required to speak the responses.

Both groups were matched as to sex, IQ, mental age and

as nearly as possible chronological age.

Immediately after completion of the program, a ten
minute standardized interview and a multiple-choice writ-
ten test were administered to both groups. Results indi-
cated that overt responses seemed to enhance the learning
of those children of average or below average intelligence
but seemed an irrelevant variable for those students with
an above average IQ. Results of a retention test one
year later, however, showed loss in retention was statis-

tically insignificant for both groups. These results

 

61Ibid., p. 228. «

62V. C. Wittrock, "ReSponse Mode in the Program-
ming of Kinetic Molecular Theory Concepts," Journal of
Educational Psychology, LIV (April, 1965), pp. 89-95.

 

42

indicated a need for more research concerning optimum

response modes.

Kromboltz and Weisman, 1962

 

Kromboltz and Weisman conducted a study to evaluate
overt and covert responses in terms of immediate and re-
tained learning.63 The subjects consisted of fifty-four
undergraduate students enrolled in an educational psy-

chology course. Each of the students was given a program

P—TI-mzxn use:

made up of 177 frames concerning test interpretation.

Four test groups were formed: (1) subjects were instructed

to write down a response to each frame; (2) subjects were

told to "mentally compose" a response in their mind; I

(5) subjects read a form of the program where the responses

were proVided; and (4) the control group took a completely

different 150 frame program on writing test questions.
Analysis of an immediate posttest indicated little

difference in performance existed for either the overt,

covert or reading experimental groups. Results of a~reten- \-

tion criterion posttest two weeks later, however, showed -

the overt response group to have scored much higher than

the other three groups tested. Results seemed to indicate

that a written response is most effective in terms of

retention of material.

 

.55John D. Kromboltz and Ronald G. Weisman, "The
Effect of Overt Versus Covert Responding to Programed
Instruction on Immediate and Delayed Retention," Journal
of Educational Psychology, LIII (April, 1962), pp. 89-92.

43

Silberman, et al., 1961

A study which attempted to evaluate the relative
merits of "branching" (allowing a subject to skip certain
sections of a program) versus fixed sequence linear program-

ming was reported by Silberman, Melaragno, Coulson, and

Estevan.64

The study consisted of two experiments, the
first of which attempted to evaluate a program where a
subject was allowed to branch at his own option. The
'second experiment was concerned with developing a cri-
terion of branching built upon errors made in the program.
The subjects for the first experiment were chosen
' from the junior and senior classes of five high schools.e
The prOgram preSented to all subjects in this experiment
consisted of sixty-one multiple-choice frames concerned
' with logic. Three methods of instruction were employed
in the experiment. The first group of subjects were I
instructed to proceed through the-program in a fixed
sequence. They were to read an item, make a covert re-
sponse, check to see if their response was correct and.
then proceed to the next item in linear fashion. The
second group proceeded as the first group but were per-

mitted to "back branch" or go back and review previous

. frames. The third group received a standard text unit:

 

64Harry'F. Silberman et al., "Fixed Sequence Versus
Branching Autoinstructional Methods," Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, LII (June, 1961), pp. 166-172.

 

44

based on similar material and were instructed to study the
material in any way they wished. A posttest of 24 multi-
ple-choice questions and 24 free response items was
administered to all three groups. Half of these questions
tested material covered in the program and half were
application-type requiring transfer of learning.

Results of the posttest showed the "textbook"
section did best, the fixed-sequence with no review group
did next best, and the "back branching" section did least
well. Results in terms of mean score and time required
to complete the posttest for each section showed:

treatment mean score mean time
Tin minutes)

 

 

Fixed Sequence 28.4 52.8
Back Branching 30.8 31.8
Textbook 33.7 31.5 55

The second experiment was concerned with evalu-
ating a branching program determined by error rate with a
fixed sequence linear program. Again, both programs con-
cerned logic, and subjects were chosen from four high
schools. Members of the branching group were given 364
quences of frames determined by their error rate on items
in the program. Use of a computer in selecting a sequence

of items for each individual made this procedure possible.

 

65Ibid., p. 167.

45

Each student in the branching section was paired with a
corresponding subject in the fixed sequence group, and the
sequences of frames picked for a branching subject were-
also given his equivalent in the fixed sequence linear
group.

Posttest results showed no significant differences
between the fixed sequence and branching groups as far as
amount of learning but the authors admit one of the inade-

quacies of the study might be the use of error rate as

\ ‘s‘

the branching criterion.

The results show that the particular method of
providing for individual differences used in this
experiment was not a sufficient condition for effec-
tive learning of the logic lesson. Perhaps the
common principle of teaching that one should "pro-
vide for individual differences" needs to be quali-
fied with the specific conditions for its accomplish-
ment. It may be conjectured that some measures such
as response latency or subject's self-evaluation are
more appropriate than error rate, and that the com-
puter should have considered these behavior measures
for its branching decisions instead of, or in addi-
tion to, errors.

Roe14Casei and Roe, 1962
A study to investigate the effect sequencing of
frames had upon a program in terms of learning was done

67

by Roe, Case, and R06. A seventy-one frame programmed

unit was administered to thirty-six freshmen psychology

 

661bid., p. 171.

67K. Vlachouli Roe, H. W. Case, and A. Roe,
"Scrambled Versus Ordered Sequence in Autoinstructional
Programs," Journal of Educational Psychology, LIII (April,
1962), pp. 101-1040

46

students. One half of the subjects received the linear
program in correct sequence, the other half in scrambled
order. Subjects were ranked in ability by means of scores
on the College Board Entrance Examination. -A criterion V
posttest was given both groups immediately after comple-
tion of the program.

Results showed no significant difference between
either group in terms of error rate or completion time on
both the program and criterion test. Also, differences
in sequencing seemed to have little effect in terms of a
subject's ability range. The authors concluded in light
of such results that more research was needed on sequen-

cing in terms of subjects' age level, different length

programs and varied areas of subject matter.68

Levin and BakerL 1963

p A recent study attempting to evaluate the effect
of program sequence upon learning was done by Levin and
Baker.69 Subjects for the program on elementary geometry
. were thirty-six second graders who were broken into two
matched control and experimental groups of eighteen sub-
jects each. The programs used for both groups were iden-

- tical except for a unit on angles toward the middle of the

 

68Ibid., p. 104. _

69Gerald R. Levin and Bruce L. Baker, "Item
Scrambling in a Self-Instructional Program," Journal of
Educational Psychology, LIV (June, 1965), pp. 138-143.

47

experimental program Which was scrambled randomly while
the whole control program was arranged in fixed sequence.
This procedure allowed not only for a comparison of learn-
ing between the scrambled series of frames and its equiva-
lent fixed sequence but also learning in terms of subsequent
portions of the program in order to determine if sequence
change affected future learning in a program.
Results indicated performance on the program as
well as on a posttest was similar for both groups. Inser-
Ition of the scrambled sequence in the experimental program
did not seem to hinder nor enhance learning to any great
degree nor did it seem to affect future performance in.
the program. The authors concluded: I
While the present findings failed to support

the assumption that item sequence is important, it

seems neither appropriate, nor even tempting to

abandon the hypothesis that the order of presenta-

tion matters under some oonditions.'7O
sag, 1961 A
' Shay conducted a study to determine the role intel-
ligence plays in a programmed instruction situation.71
He hypothesized there was no relationship between it and.
the size of steps in a program. A programmed unit on

roman numerals was_developed which included three forms:

 

7
OIbid. ’ p. 143.

71Carleton B. Shay, "Relationship of Intelligence .
to Step on a Teaching Machine Program," Journal of Educa-
tional Psychology, LII (April, 1961), pp. 98-153.

48

a 103 frame large-step program, a 150 frame medium-step
program, and a 199 frame small-step program. As the .
programs decreased in level of difficulty more review.
' material was also added.' ' A
Subjects included ninety fourth graders; one-third
having above average IQ, one-third having an average IQ,
and one-third having below average IQ. Nine experimental
' groups were formed from the subjects so that ten students
'from each ability range could take each of the three ver-
sions'of the program... .
When performance on a posttest was analyzed in
' terms of the numbers of errors and time required to com-
plete the program, no relationship could be found between
a subject's intelligence and the st ep-size program he
took. Shay concluded, "if there is a relationship between
intelligence and step size, it is not a strong one. This
would suggest that alternative programs are not necessary

on the basis of ability alone.72.

. Coulson and Silbermany 1960
The effectiveness of three variables employed in
programmed instruction were studied by Coulson and Silber-

man.73 They were interested in evaluating the multiple-

 

721bid., p. 103.

73John E. Coulson and Harry E. Silberman, "Effects
of Three Variables in a Teaching Machine," Journal of
Educational Psychology, LI (June, 1960), pp. 135-143.

49

choice versus constructed modes of response; the extent to
which small steps in a program enhance learning; and the
effectiveness of a fixed sequence linear approach as com-
pared to a branching approach. Eighty experimental college
subjects were chosen to take a programmed unit on elemen-
tary psychology and 104 control subjects were used as a

- comparison to judge whether any significant learning had

been achieved in the experimental group.

Results of a criterion posttest administered imme-
diately after completion of the program and again three

weeks later indicated:

1. Use of the simulated teaching machine led to
significant learning by the Ss [experimental group],
as determined by comparison with the control group.

2. The multiple-choice response mode took signifi-
cantly less time than the constructed response mode.

No significant difference was obtained between response
modes on the criterion test.

3. Small item steps required significantly more
training time, but also yielded significantly higher
test scores than large item steps on the constructed
response criterion subtest.

4. The branching conditions required less training
than nonbranching, but were not significantly differ-
ent on the criterion test. A significant interaction,
was obtained between the mode of response and branch-
ing variables on the constructed response criterion..
This interaction resulted from a high mean criterion.
score obtained by the constructed response - non-
branching group.

5. Ho significant ’ifferences were obtained ancng the
experimental groups on the multiple-choice criterion
subtest, or on the total (multiple-choice plus con-
structed response) criterion test.74

 

74Ibid., p. 143.

50
‘flKeislar, 1959

A multiple choice program designed to promote
arithmetic understanding was developed by Keislar and
adapted to a teaching machine called the Film Rater.75
The program concerned rectangles and consisted of 120
frames, ten of which outlined the objectives of the pro-
gram and explained operation of the machine.

Subjects were chosen at a fifth and sixth grade
level and were divided into fourteen experimental groups
on the basis of sex, intelligence, pretest scores and
reading ability. The experimental groups were allowed
to operate the machine on successive days for two or
three periods a day. The control groups received no
special instruction during this time. A posttest con-
sisting of the eight questions included on the pretest
plus eight more difficult questions was administered to
both the control and experimental groups at the end of
the training period.

Although the experimental groups performed sig-
nificantly better in their understanding of rectangles
on the posttest than the control groups, the program

appeared too difficult and suggestions for revision of

the program included the following three items:

 

753van R. Keislar, "The Development of Under-
.ng in Arithmetic by a Teaching Machine," qurnfl

- . . - Q . . = ’ fl
n 2132;. :g:cnc-c:y, a (decanter, .9.:), pp. 44 -

 

51

1. Since the reading load was probably a major
obstacle for many pupils, sentences should be shorter
and the total amount of reading less for each

item . . .

2. The steps in many if not most cases could be made)
smaller . . .

3. A wider variety of items should be used for each
new process. . . . Although completion items may be
necessary to teach this type of behavior, better
results in this program could probably have been
obtained if, instead of the single form, a variety
of multiple-choice forms had been used . . .'76

 

Ferster and Sapon, 1958

An application of programmed instruction in the
area of foreign language was reported by Ferster and
Sapon.77a A program was developed to teach the equivalent
of a college semester course in German within a much
shorter period of time. After completing the programmed
material the subjects were given a posttest covering the
following areas: (1) a test of vocabulary on a recogni-
tion basis; (2) a test of the ability to write German
sentences by the translation of English material; (3) a
measure of active vocabulary independent of structural
mastery.78 _ ‘

.Results of the posttest showed:

 

761b id of, p. 252 0

77Charles B. Ferster and Stanley-M.-Sapon, "An
Application of Recent Developments in Psychology to the‘
Teaching of German," Harvard Educational Review, XXVIII,
(Winter, 1958), pp. 58-69.

781bid., p. 65.

52

0 ‘ “

The mean time spent on material was 47.5 hours.
The range of scores in recognition vocabulary was
76 to 98 per cent, with a mean of 88 per cent; sen-
tence translation 70 to 93 per cent, with a mean of
22mm“; ataxia grazing 9° 1°

, .

Ferster and Sapon found that the major factor
affecting the subjects' motivation toward the program was
the difficulty of the material presented. Whenever the
level of difficulty rose and errors became more frequent,
motivation dropped off. The authors suggest that disposi-
tion to return to the study material probably decreased
because the increase in errors probably made the task one
in which the amount of work required was disproportionate
to the reinforcements received.

Another modification suggested by the authors con-
cerned the bulk of labor required in taking the program.
Instead of making the reaponses longer as the material
became more complex, they decided only to require the sub-
ject to reapond to the material currently being taught.
This shortening of responses would.probably increase
' motivation towards the program. . I

A third modification involved Sequencing the items
in the program so an item would build upon a previous one
in such a way that probability of correct responses could
be improved. In other words, in a utopian Sense:

. . a series of materials could probably be con-

structed in which each item is scientifically designed
'so that the student will progress from a zero knowledge

 

79Ibid 0 , pp. 65-66.

53

of German to a complicated reportery of the level of
a year of college German without ever having made an
error. An achievement of this kind would be made
possible through use of processes by which new verbal
behavior is created rather than by the traditional
pr cesses of recal1 and vercal memory.8
Keislar and McNeil, 1961
In an effort to teach scientific explanations of.
physical phenomenon to first grade students, Keislar and
IcNeil turned to programmed instruction.81 They believed

the reason previous experiments in teaching scientific

theory had not proven successful was a theoretical lan-

.' guage had not been effectively presented to the youngsters.

The program consisted of 432 frames broken down
into thirteen daily lessons.. The sequence of the program
was arranged to prepare the student to answer the later
more difficult questions by requiring him to answer each
frame correctly before proceeding to the next. “The.theo-I
retical and scientific terms and concepts of the program
were related to everyday occurrences in the child's world
by means of analogies and pictorial prompts.._Two matched-
-groups of children were formed: the first, the experi- I
,mental group, went through the program on a'machine called

the Videosonic Tutor; the second group, the control group,

 

a

80Ibid., p. 68.

81Evan R. Keislar and John D. McNeil, "Teaching
Scientific Theory to First Grade Pupils by Auto- Instruc-
tional Device," Harvard Educational Review, XXXI (Winter,
1961), pp. 73-83.

 

54
received no such special instruction.

At the conclusion of the program, a posttest in
the fbrm of a ten minute interview was given both groups.
All but one subject from the experimental group scored
'higher on the postteSt'than did their matched controls.

' The one exception in the experimental section seemed with-
drawn during the interview but answered five questions--

all correctly.

As a result of posttest Scores Keislar and McNeil

drew three conclusions:

1. While there are great individual differences,
.first grade pupils can learn an abstract scientific _
language- . . . The kinds of behavior called for by'
the program and the performance of the children on

the post-test demonstrated that children had acquired _
general understanding, not mere rote learning. . . .
The program is still too difficult for most first
grade children. Revision of the items should include
a more detailed sequence, more adequate reviews, and

a wider sampling of the phenomena being discussed.

-2. Even though the multiple-choice method was used‘
throughout as the sole means for reSponding, most of
these children were able to use previously unfamiliar
terms as well as their own words. ... . A few of the
children showed some hesitation in verbalizing scien-
tific terms. This might have been because these
children had never before been called upon to say

the words overtly. Future experiments with the Video-
sonic Tutor should provide for recording the child's
voice. With practice in speaking out loud, pupils
would probably show (a) more facile expression and
(b) more accurate use of scientific language in the
solution of new problems.

- . -.3- A “J 6.5 'n q" OD’A {*6 ” “fly; '6 a
c. -ne .11e-sc 1c 11-cr ne11 .1: 1n1e1e est an- att1n
" -- -. - 1.: '0 I'm- c‘n n ’ff‘fi :- r... n f 7‘ ‘n’f‘

of almost three weeks. while it is important to con-
clude that this interest will continue on the part of
young children for a full school year, it seems highly
probable that effective programming is the key to
motivation.82

 

82Ibid., pp. 82-83.

55

Smith,l962

 

Two hundred and twenty-eight cadets at the United .
States Air Force Academy were subjects in an experiment
to evaluate programmed instruction against conventional

classroom teaching.85

The subject matter area chosen was
elementary statistics. The subjects were broken down_into
four ability levels of thirty-three students each as deter-
mined by previous mathematical.achievement. Half of the
subjects from each of these four ability ranges were ran-

domly assigned to experimental sections; the other half
comprised the control groups. Eight groups were thus :
formed from the.four ability levels. The experimental
sections were given a programmed textbook on statistics
while the control sections were taught the same material
in the conventional manner.

Two hypotheses were tested. The first was the
assumption that no significant differences in learning
would occur between the two methods tested, and the second
hypothesis was that ability level of the subjects was not
a factor in one treatment being more effective than the
other.

Results of a posttest given both groups indicated:

 

83Norman H. Smith, "The Teaching of Elementary
Statistics by the Conventional Classroom Method Versus the
Aethod of Programmed Instruction," The Journal of Educa-
tional Research, LV (June-July, 1962)} pp. 417-420.

56

(1) No statistically significant differences,
ascribable to differences in the method of instruc-
tion, exists between overall achievement of the.
two theoretical populations from which the treat-
ment groups were assumed to have been drawn. '

(2) No statistically significant differences,
ascribable to differences in the methods of instruc-
tion, exist in achievement at any of the four ability .
levels of the two theoretical populations from which
the treatment groups were assumed to have been drawn.84
In terms of time required to complete the program,
however, the following figures indicated some superiority

on the part of the subjects using the program.

 

Ability Level Time Consumed
’ (in minutes)
Experimental Control
Group Group
1 698 982
2 568 997
3 819 '1,l32.
4 840 1,135
Mean 738 1,117 85

One interesting aspect of the investigation con-
cerned the experimental students' appraisal of programmed
instruction. _Over eighty-three per cent of the subjects
n s-ei taking the
program and over sixty per cent preferred it to conven-

tional instruction. Over half felt they learned with less

 

84Ibid., p; 418.
851bid., p. 420.

57
effort by means of the program and received more individ-
ualized attention from it than traditional methods.

Smith concluded that although the experiment
failed to indicate any significant differences in learn-
ing between programmed instruction and conventional tech-
niques, there was a possibility programming might affect
various ability levels differently; more research was

needed before any definite assumption could be made.

Reed and Hayman, 1962

' A study using a published programmed textbook,
English 2600, was carried out in the Denver Public Schools
and reported by Reed and Hayman.86 Two tenth grade English
classes in each of five high schools were given the pro-
grammed text. Each experimental section had a matched
control section which received regular classroom instruc-
tion on similar material during the experiment.' Students
were grouped as to high, average or low ability so a com-
parison of the program's effectiveness at different
ability levels could be made.

A comparison of pretest and posttest results

indicated the program seemed to be most effective for
students of high achievement. The more able students

using English 2600 did better than their matched control

 

86Jerry E. Reed and John L. Hayman, Jr., "An
Experiment Involving Use of English 2600, an Automatic
Instructional Text," The Journal of Educational Research,
LV (June-July, 1962), pp. 476-484.

58
subjects, but low ability experimental students scored
.lSEEE than their counterpart controls. No difference
could be found for either experimental or control subjects
of average ability. Moreover, gain in learning was sub-
stantial but about the same as a result of either method
of instruction. As expected, high ability students com-
.pleted the program quicker than average students who in
turn completed it faster than students of low ability.

Reed and E yman summarized their findings by

b -:
5.81.12 3

(N

. . . learning was substantial for all students, and
overall, those who worked with English 2600 learned
about the same.amount as those with—the more tradi-
tional learning experiences. The results indicate,
however, that English 2600 was more effective with

high achievement students than it was with low
achievers.87

 

Evans, Glaser and Homme, 1962

Evans, Glaser and Homme developed a program on
symbolic logic and administered it to sixty college stu-
dents in an effort to identify effective variables in
programmed instruction.88 Of the six sections tested,
two sections followed similar linear programs, but one

group had review material whereas the other group did not.

 

87Ibid., p. 479.
' 88James L. Evans, Robert Glaser, and Lloyd E.
Homme, "An Investigation of 'Teaching Machine' Variables
Using Learning Programs in Symbollic Logic," The Journal
of Educational Research, LV (June-July, 1962), pp. 433-
452.

59
The other four sections received programs which had been
developed in less orderly systematic fashion. The third
and fourth groups were required to construct their answers
to the frames in the program but only one section received
knowledge of results of their response where alternative
responses were involved. A fifth group was given the cor-
rect answers to the frames and not required to make a
response. The sixth group was given a set of multiple-
choice alternatives from which to choose the correct
response.

Results of performance and time spent on the pro-
gram as well as analysis of immediate and three delayed
sets of pretests and posttests indicated the following
conclusions to the authors.

1. Experimental variations in mode of responding
.significantly affect learning time. 88 [subjects]
not required to make an overt written response‘to ‘_
each item can complete a learning program in about
sixty five percent of the time required for composed
or multiple-choice responding. '

2. Criteria performance in terms of error scores is
not significantly affected by mode of responding,
including no overt responding at all.

3. systematically constructed programs can produce,
in less learning time, criterion performance com-
parable with that of a less systematic program.

4. Ss who responded covertly to learning programs
take significantly more time on performance tests
Which immediately follow the program than do 38 who
make their responses overtly. Such differences in
test time disappear after retention period of one

. week.

5. 'Differential retention effects were observed as a
function of the type of criterion performance measured.

Error scores on true-false tests decreased signifi-
cantly; error scores on recall tests showed slight

60
but significant increases; on tests involving deduc-
tive proofs no Significant changes were observed.

6._ No significant relationships were observed between
performance following the programmed learning sequence
employed, and sex, mathematical experience, or college
class. -
7. Implications of the results for the area.of verbal
learning were discussed.‘ It was hypothesized that
' the relevance of variables such as response mode and

immediacy of feedback are inversely related to the
probability of correct responding in the course of
learning.8 '

.Rushtony 1961 . .

The city of Roanoke, Virginia, initiated an experi-
ment where accelerated learning of algebra was accomplished
through use of a programmed textbook.90 A demonstration .
class of thirty-four eighth grade students were given a"
programmed unit in algebra without the aid of a teacher
or homework. Scores on the Lankton first year algebra
tests showed that forty-one per cent of the experimental
subjects did better than the average ninth grader on the
national examination. (Only one of the subjects tested
fell into a low ninth grade category. These results led
to an expanded use of programmed material in Roanoke.
During the 1961-62 school year, pregrammed texts were used
to help teach algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and calcu-

lus to 847 pupils. School officials are so pleased with

 

89Ibid,, pp. 450-451.

9OE. W. Rushton, "Greatly Accelerated Learning
of Algebra Through Use of Programed Materials is Demon-
strated in Roanoke, Va.," The Nation's Schools, LXVII
(February, 1961), pp. 76-79.

61
.the results of programmed instruction that they plan to

program other subject-matter areas in the near future.-

Coulson and Silberman, 1961

Coulson and Silberman reported a study where
eighty junior-college students were given a programmed
unit in elementary psychology.91 Learning variables inves-
tigated included fixed sequence versus branching frames,
multiple-choice versus constructed response mode, and small
versus large-step size. ‘
Results of the study indicated the following four
points:
1. Training with the manually controlled machines
yielded significant student learning in each of the
experimental groups.
2. "Branching" students required significantly less
training time than "fixed sequence" students, and did
not differ on a post-training criterion test.
3. Students receiving many items with small steps
learned more than students with fewer large-step
items, but also required significantly greater train-
ing time.
4. "Multiple-choice" students required less training

time than "constructed response" students; the two
groups did not differ on criterion performance.9

Wurtz, 1960

An interesting experiment utilizing programmed

 

91John E. Coulson and Harry F. Silberman, "Auto-
mated Teaching and Individual Differences," Audio-Visual
Communication Review, IX (January-February, 1961), pp. 5-
15.

 

921bid., p. e.

 

62

instruction was carried out in Los Angeles with students
in a driver training class.9:5 By employing a device
called the Aetna Drivotrainer which simulated actual driv-
ing situations, students were trained more economically

and as well as those receiving conventional instruction.

Shafer,.l96l

‘ . Shafer developed a social studies program and
tried it out on an eighth grade class of above average
intelligence.94 She drew three conclusions concerning
the experiment: (1) frames must be carefully constructed
so as to lead to the desired response and eliminate un-
wanted answers; (2) programs should be geared explicitly
to ability level of the intended subjects; and (3) stu-
dents' reactions are essential to program revision.

Although programming seemed to lend itself to use

in social studies, Shafer felt much refinement was needed

before a "teacher will have on hand at all times the right

 

 

95
program for the right student."
1’37 1' T“: - 37-31121 Dar; an: i e 1.2 '91; 1125;,
At Ficn1gan State Trivereity, a ;:egramnec gnit
93

Roger Wurtz, "A Teaching Machine for Driver
Training," California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXV
(May, 1960), PP. 301-304.

94Susanne M. Shafer, "Teaching Machines and the
Social Studies," Social Education, XXV (February, 1961),
pp. 85-86 0

951b1d., p. 86.

63

on heredity was developed and administered to students in
a freshman natural science course.96 Five experimental'
sections used the programmed material and five control
sections used the conventional course manual.

The program was developed by the Natural Science
department to help alleviate the growing number of stu-
dents per staff member. Three criteria were set up which
the program had to meet:

(1) It should be almost completely self-administering,
thereby not increasing the work-load of the staff

member even if more students were assigned to him.

(2) It must not result in a deterioration of quality
of learning on the part of the student.

(3) It must be regarded by a majority of both the
students and staff members as a genuinely useful

and stimulating aid to learning and not as a
mere novelty.9

A thirty-item objective test administered to both
the experimental and control groups at the end of the

training session indicated the following results.

experimental control
number of students 144 131
mean of scores ' 19.75 17.93 98

 

96Chester A. Lawson, Mary A. Burmester, and
Clarence H. Nelson, "Developing a Scrambled Book and
Measuring Its Effectiveness as an Aid to Learning Natural
Science," Science Education, XLIV (December, 1960),
pp. 347-358 0

97Ibid., p. 354.

98Ibid.

64

Student and staff questionnaires concerning the
program tended to indicate approval and favor for the pro-
gram. Results of this study have led Michigan State
University to program more units for inclusion in the

freshman Natural Science program.

Programmed Instruction Today
As the above research has indicated, educators

have paid more and more attention during the last few
years to programmed instruction. Although at the present
time most utilization of this relatively new educational
technique is at the elementary and secondary school levels,
each year shows an increase of programming at the college
level. Most colleges and universities have begun experi-
' menting with programmed instruction in one or two basic
courses, but a few have already delegated programming a
major role in their curriculum planning.. A good example
' of this type of institution is Earlham College which has
' already developed and tested programs in elementary Rus-_
sian, genetics, English, music, statistics, Spanish and

religion.99 Earlham reports such favorable results with
I programming that it intends to increase its use in the_
near future.‘ . ‘ I

'More and more subject matter areas are being

 

99John A. Barlow, "The Earlhaerollege Self- ‘
Instructional Program," Audio-Visual Communication Review,
VIII (July-August, 1960), pp. 207-209.

65 _
programmed for various educational levels.‘ Programs deal-
ing with special education, such as training for the deaf
and instructing students to.use the library, are.being
developed and tested. If one scans the latest issues of
the journals, he can find articles explaining programmed
instruction and suggesting implications for the particular

(fields involved. Speech educators have recently realized
great potential for their field and one author has devel-
oped sample programmed units concerning speech.100 This
same author states: -

While the basic course appears the obvious place
to test out programming, parts of more advanced
courses may be supplemented by program procedures.
The mechanics of television, debate techniques,
operation of the vocal mechanism, stage vocabulary
and many other speech topics can be partly or com-
pletely programmed by existing techniques.10

Programmed-Instruction is big business. The

United States Office of Education estimated that some 122
commercial programs were available by the end of 1962.
Hundreds of schools are now administering programs to mil-
lions of students.102 Unfortunately this emphasis upon
the commercial potentialities of programming has stunted

its growth a bit. For several years the quality of the

 

100L. S. Harms, "Programmed Learning for the Field

of Speech," Speech Teacher, X (September, 1961), pp. 215-
219.

lOlIbid., p. 219.

 

10QSchramm, Programed Instruction Today and Tomorrow,

op. cit., p. 6.

66

programmed material took a back seat to fascination with
the gadgetry involved in teaching machines and the speed
with which a salable commercial program could be produced.
Many talented educators were lured away from doing the
valuable research necessary to a new field and persuaded
to produce salable commodities. Fortunately, stress is
~now. being placed on the quality rather than quantity of
the programs written, and worthwhile research is being
undertaken in an attempt to further perfect this teaching
aid.

Programmed instruction is not a panacea. At best,
all it can hope to accomplish is what a good teacher can
do under ideal learning conditions. Around ninety-five

per cent of the programs produced today are Skinnerian in

103

nature, requiring a constructed response to each frame

of a linear program. Branching or "intrinsic"104 program-
ming is also becoming more popular. There are also various
combinations of linear and branching programs being devel-
oped and much experimentation is being done as to which

approach or combination of approaches is the most effective

presentation style for a particular situation.

.V—Oq’ Ava": ‘— -0 "A.F ‘PF- '4- A’ ;P-’& pv -an ”Pw”~
«so... I‘- c 4". o 3;: 1.... a... ”av ~97... at a- O oo-L :. at. “out
-.- : ‘- - 5... §: . a. .p ‘ .- : A n. I ’
a- Q -~ .. - o-o 0-. P“ a ”A“ c n c
...

 

ADV-“1.3,: 2
.

104Norman A. Crowder, "Automatic Tutoring by Means
of Intrinsic Programing," in Eugene H. Galanter (ed.),
Automatic Teaching: The State of the Art (New York: Jehn
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959), pp. 109-116.

67

areas as response mode, size of step, sequencing, format,
length of program, as it relates to particular learning
situations. Future plans for programming are fantastic

in nature. There are even plans to use programmed com-

puters in research on programmed instruction itself.105

(Experimentation to date, however, has been optimistic
enough to assume that programming will occupy a larger
role as an educational technique in the future. Schramm
has offered the following guidelines which programmed
instruction might beneficially follow:

(1) More of the effort at making programs must be
placed on the growing edge of the art, rather than
the safe and conservative commercial "center."

(2) More research must be directed toward the larger
implications and theoretical problems of programed
instruction; in order to accomplish this, long-term
commitment of top-leVel researchers will be required.

(3) The schools must make more imaginative applica-
tions of programed instruction, accompanied by -
'developmental research and testing.

(4) Teachers must be trained to use programed methods
expertly; and the possibilities of making and using '
programs should be explored as one introduction to
the human learning process in teacher training.

(5) Other channels of teaching - such as television,
textbooks, films and other audio-visual means, work-
books, class teaching, and group study - must be
-examined to see where they can beneficially apply
some of the principles of programed instruction.

 

105Harry F. Silberman, "A Computer as an Experi-
mental Laboratory for Research on vAutomated Teaching
Procedures," Behavioral Science,V (April, 1960), pp. 175-
176.

68

(6) The-skills and understandings of programed instruc-
tion must be shared with the developing nations, and
used where possible to speed economic and social devel-
opment. '

(7) Adequate channels of information must be estab-
'lished among the many and diverse people interested
in the development of programed instruction.

This represents a very large program, but the
stakes, tooi are very large, and the goals most
attractive. . '

 

106Schramm, Programmed Instruction Today and
Tomorrow, op. cit., pp. 3 -40.

CHAPTER IV

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
IN BROADCAST EDUCATION

A review of the literature concerning programmed
instruction indicates that this educational technique can
be employed beneficially to some degree in broadcast
education. Two conclusions can be drawn from the studies
cited in the two previous chapters of this thesis.

1. Programmed instruction can be utilized suc-
--cessfully in college level training.107

2. Research.has indicated that programmed instruc-
tion is effective in subject-matter areas containing a
high percentage of factual materials.108

This section of the thesis describes the character-
istics of a short program developed on the basic physics
of radio broadcasting. This subject matter was chosen for

two reasons: (1) it is basically factual material; and

 

.g., Roe, Case, and Roe, 1962 (page 45 of this
thesis); Coulson and Silberman, 19 60 (page 48); and Evans,
Glaser, and Enzyme, 1262 (cage 58).

11E

Zlgm.’5mit;,'L§§2 "page 25 :i‘tmix :taxi.;
Lanso.., Burmester, and Nelson, WES (page 62); Coulson

ad Silberman; 1961 (page 61); and Ferster and Sapon,

1958 (page 51

69

70

(2) appears to be an area of radio and television train-
ing which most students find fairly difficult to grasp.
Therefore, if programmed instruction proves effective in

teaching this subject matter, it could possibly be uti-
lized as a regular part of course instruction in the

future.

Intended Use of the Program

The program about to be described was developed
as an aid to teaching the physics of radio broadcasting."
It is intended to provide an elementary explanation of
the subject as might be found in a non-technical intro-
ductory broadcasting course. The program aims to supple-
ment lecture and assigned reading on the subject, not to
replace it. The program could be used in two ways:

1. As a single program integrated with lecture, ‘
discussion and textbook readings. ‘ 1

2. As the first in a series of programmed units
describing the physics of broadcasting in some detail.109

Although the author favors the first of these

’ approaches, because it integrates the program with other

 

109Although programming has been used for some
time as a supplement to regular classroom instruction,
self-contained series of programs are beginning to appear
on the market. Examples of programmed series available
for various subject-matter areas can be found in James D.
Finn and Donald G. Perrin, Teaching Machines and Programed
Learning; A Survey of the Ifidust - 1962 (Washington: -
The United States Department f Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1962), pp. 53-71.

0

71

forms of instruction, a short description of each use
follows.

As a supplement to conventional instructional
techniques the program offers the advantage o'f'preparing‘~
students with selected basic material, which would provide
a groundwork for further instruction in this relatively
complex subject-matter area. By covering this basic mate-.
rial, the program can enable the instructor to integrate
the material into a more complete discussion of broadcast
physics. Supplemental textbook readings may be imple-
mented to further unify discussion.

‘The second possible approach to use of the program
is as an initial step in a series of programmed units.

In this case, the series of programs would be presented
in a given order as each unit would follow logically and
build upon the previous unit. The program described in
this section could very well serve as the first in such

a series of programmed units.

Material Included Within the Program

.The program here under discussion was prepared to
include the following areas of broadcast physics. .

l. A description of the process of radio broad-
. casting from the time sound is produced in_a.radio studio
until this sound reaches a listener's ear. Particular.
attention is given to the various types of energy employed

. in radio broadcasting.

72

2. A brief discussion of electromagnetic energy
(particularly radio energy).

3. The electromagnetic spectrum with emphasis
upon the frequencies presently utilized in radio broade
casting. '

4. An explanation of the terms "amplitude" and ‘
"frequency" as they relate to electromagnetic energy.

5. A description of AM and FM broadcasting related
to the modulation of either the amplitude or frequency of '
the radio energy involved. 1

6. A discussion of ground, sky, and direct waves
with emphasis upon the characteristics of each.

‘7. The distance and frequency characteriStics of
ground, sky, and direct waves as they apply in present AM
and FM radio broadcasting. .

The above areas of the physics of radio broadcast?
ing were included in the programmed unit because they are
the basic concepts on which a more complete discussion of
the subject is built. Definitions and'terms.used in the).
-program are in accordance with those found in the standard
_textbooks in the field such as Head,}10 and Chester, Gar-
rison and Willis.111

noSidney W. Head, Broadcastin in America: A
§prvey of-Television and Rao_e oug ton Mi in
00., 1956), 3-41.

111Giraud Chester, Garnet R. Garrison: and Edgar E.
Willis, Television and Radio (3rd ed. rev.; New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, I963), pp. 239-256.

    

73
Behavioral Objectives of the Program,

Mager defines teaching or behavioral objectives as:.

. . . an intent communicated by a statement describ-
ing a proposed change in a learner--a statement of
what the learner is to be like when he has success-
fully completed a learning experience. It is a
description of a pattern of behavior (performance)
we want the learner to be able to demonstrate. As
Dr. Paul Whitmore once put it, 'The statement of
objectives of a training program‘must denote measur-
able attributes observable in the-graduate of the
program, or otherwise it is impossible to determine
whether or not the program is meeting the objec-
tive.'112 '

 

Behavioral objectives are as necessary in writing
a programmed unit as they are in any other educational
endeavor. If you do notknow what you specifically expect
a student to get from an educational experience, it is
impossible to know exactly what content to include in the
program or what method to use to convey this content.
Also, when it comes time to evaluate a program in terms
of its.usefulness and efficiency in teaching a given sub-
ject, how can it be evaluated without knowing what the
student was expected to get out of the program?

In order to be useful, behavioral objectives have
to be stated in rather concrete terms. To ask a student
to "understand" or "know" a given topic is abstract and
less definitive‘than asking him to "list" or "define"

aspects of a certain topic. These latter objectives are

_.

112Robert F. Ma er, Preparing Objectives for
Egegrammed_Instruction San Francisco: Fearon Publishers,
1962), p. 3.

74

also more simple when it comes to evaluating a program.
Reliability is higher when one measures how effectively
a student "defines" a topic than when one measures how
. well he "understands" this same subject. 'Vague terms
like "understand" and "know" are difficult to measure
effectively through testing.

In light of the above discussion, the behavioral
objectives set up for this experimental program on the
physics of radio broadcasting, in terms of what a student
should be able to do after completing the program, are:

1. To be able to list the steps involved in
radio broadcasting in terms of the type of energy employed
from the time sound is produced in a radio studio until
this sound reaches a listener's ear. These steps are:
(a) SOUND ENERGY produced in the studio and changed by
the microphone into (b) ELECTRICAL ENERGY which travels
to the transmitter and is changed into (0) RADIO ENERGY.
This radio energy travels through space to the radio
receiver which changes it to (d) ELECTRICAL ENERGY and
releases it to the listener as (e) SOUND ENERGY.

2. To be able to define the term "cycle" as it
applies to radio energy. Cycle is defined as pulsations
or impulses of energy.

3. To be able to define the term "frequency" as
it applies to cycles of radio energy. Frequency is de-

0 \ v‘.

fined as the number of cycles occurring per second.

75

4. To be able to list the frequencies on the
electromagnetic spectrum presently being employed in AM
radio broadcasting. 'The frequencies 540-1600 kilocycles
are listed as the AM broadcast band in the program.

5. To be able to list the frequencies on the
electromagnetic spectrum presently being employed in FM
' radio broadcasting. The frequencies 88-108 megacycles are
listed as the FM broadcast band in the program. -

6. To be able to define the term "amplitude" as
it applies to cycles of radio energy. Amplitude is defined
as the distance between the positive peak and negative
peak of a cycle of radio energy.

7. To be able to define AM radio broadcasting in
terms of whether the amplitude or frequency of the radio
energy is modulated. AM broadcasting is defined as the
system of transmission where the amplitude of the radio
energy is modulated while the frequency is kept constant.

8. To be able to define FM radio broadcasting in
terms of whether the amplitude or frequency of the radio
energy is modulated. FM broadcasting is defined as the
system of transmission where the frequency of the radio
energy is modulated while the amplitude is kept constant.

9. To be able to define "ground waves" in terms
of the propagation characteristics presented in this pro-
gram. Ground waves are described as those radio waves

‘Which tend to follow.the curvature of the earth.

76
. -L'~i‘il\.l 1L....,-

10. To be able to define "sky waves" in terms of

its “\‘u

the propagation characteristics presented in this program.
Sky waves are described as those radio waves which reflect

‘ ‘ I'lJLL(\\\J

off the ionosphere before reaching earth./

11. To be able to define "direct waves" in terms
of the propagation characteristics presented in this P???
gram. Direct waves are described as those radio waves k

i he 1.1 . A ‘J

which tend. to travel in a straight line.

\ouny U!

12. To be able to list the effective frequency k“
range'and distance characteristics of grounduwaves as ,
presented in this program. Ground waves are effective at.
the AM broadcast frequencies for short range transmission.

13. To be able to list the effective frequency V
'.'range and distance characteristics of sky waves as pre-'
sented in this program. Sky waves are effective at the
AM broadcast frequencies fer short distance transmission
during the day and long distance transmission at night.

14. To be able to list-the effective-frequency
'range and distance characteristics of direct waves as

presented in this program. Direct waves are effective at

the PM broadcast frequencies for short range transmission.

The terms and concepts used in this programmed unit.
'on the basic physics of radio broadcasting comply with
“those found in the two textbooks previously mentioned in

this chapter . 1'13

 

fi.

113Head, loc. cit., and Chester, Garrison, and
‘Nillis, loc. cit.

 

77
Type of Program Chosen
A linear-type program requiring a constructed-
response to each frame was chosen to present the material
for the following reasons:

1. There seems to be a single logical sequence in
developing the material.

2. Material can be broken down effectively into
frames requiring simple responses from the student.

3. Small steps seem necessary to prevent misinter-
pretation of the material.

4. Linear programming can be controlled, so small
review sequences can be built in where needed.

5. Frequent responses. prevent a student from reading
too quickly or carelessly, forcing him continually to
redirect his attention to the program.

6. Linear programming seems to be effective in cases
where a student can not pace himself effectively or
when he has poor study habits.

7. It allows use of the constructed-response mode
which recent research.has indicated to be an effec-
tive learning factor.

8. Little or no prior knowledge of the subject matter
is required on the part of the student.

9. Linear programming permits better utilization of
accompanying panels (charts, diagrams, etc.).

‘lO.’ It seems to follow existing learning principles
more closely than other forms of programming.

11. Controls on linear programming allow for more
exact measurement of acquired learning in an evalua-
tive situation.

 

114These advantages of linear programming are
taken from remarks made by Dr. George Klare at a seminar
meeting held at ResourCes Development Corporation, East
Lansing, Michigan, on July 9, 1963. Dr. Klare is a
Professor of Psychology at Ohio University in Athens,
Ohio.

78

The final program consists of fifty-one linear
frames requiring a constructed-response to each frame.
Eight accompanying panels were developed to supplement the
program. Use of "copy frames," or frames which include“
the response to be given within the frame, were kept to a
minimum and only used where the author felt they directly
contributed to the development of a sequence.v The rate
of redundant and review frames was also kept low, as one
of the major criticisms against linear programming is it
often becomes too easy and boring. Since the program was
planned for a college undergraduate student, use of review
sequences were included only where pretesting indicated.

’ The terms and concepts presented in the program
were sequenced carefully and the relationship between
them were stressed, Material was presented in what seemed
to be the logical order by the author. The entire program
was designed in a specific sequence which introduced
terms and concepts only where they directly fit in and

built upon previous material.

Validation

' The program during its several stages of revision,
was pretested on sixteen undergraduate students who pro-
fessed no prior knowledge of the physics of radio broad-
casting. A ten per cent tolerance for error rate was ,
“established in advance as the criterion for acceptibility

of the program. TherefOre, if any subject taking the

79

program missed more than five of the fifty-one frames in
the program, the faulty frames were rewritten and the
program administered to another subject. 'The last six_
students taking the final revision of the program scored
less than ten per cent in terms of error rate and the
prcgram was deemed acceptable. This ten per cent toler-
ance for error, although it is arbitrary, is a quite
common standard in program pretesting and:

_ experienced programers feel that by the time
eight or ten individual tests and revisions have
been completed, the program is capable of teaching
98 per cent of all the students who approximate
the school and ability level of the students so far
tested. This process is a very important one be-
cause: (a) it focuses attention on the individual .

‘learning process in a way that group teaching seldom-
does, and (b) it virtually guarantees that a pro-
gram so made will "work." About a program so made,
one feels a confidence that few textbooks can come
mand.115 . _' '

Format of the Program

A decision on the format of the program was made
' in light of the economics and ease of duplicating the
.program. The method chosen presented the sequence of,
frames in order on a sheet of paper. The answer to frame
number one was printed to the left of.frame number two,
and so on. This method had the advantage of being able
to present the entire program on only eleven sheets of

paper and yet separated each frame from its corresponding

 

115
Wilbur Schramm, Programed Instruction Today

and Tomorrow (New York: The or the Advancement of
Educatfon, 1962), pp. 3-40

 

L80
answer. By using a plain manila folder with the upper
_left-hand corner cut away, the program could be slipped
through the folder in such a way that a frame appeared-
along with the previous frame's correct answer. An example
of this procedure is shown on the following page. An
instruction sheet explaining how te proceed through the

.program was distributed to each subject taking part-in ,
the validation.116 '

 

116The‘instruction sheet included with.the experi-
mental program is similar to one used at Resources Devel-
opment Corporation, East Lansing, Michigan.

 

11

1‘1» 8

er
One
1‘
2“ e u
f
1" 9 um

9

plain manila folder
with top left-hand corner

cut away

Figure l.

x \‘ \_

VIEW OF PROGRAMMED UNIT WITHIN FOLDER

CHAPTER V

A PROGRAMMED UNIT ON THE BASIC PHYSICS
OF RADIO BROADCASTING

82.

83

Instruction Sheet

Lay this instruction sheet_and the eight accompany-
ing panels to one side, and close the folder. '

Now, using the corner of the page showing through
the cut-out section of the folder, pull the first page
ahead until the first line across the page just shows
above the top edge of the folder. '

The part of the program now exposed is the first
"frame" of the program. Read the frame and decide how
you would fill in the blank. Write in the answer, in the
space provided. On several occasions you will be asked
to choose from alternative answers.' When this occurs,
circle the answer you feel to be correct.

.Now pull the page ahead further to see if your answer
is correct; the correct answer appears at the left above
the next frame. If your answer is correct, pull the sheet
ahead to the next line across the page, and continue with
the program; if your answer is not correct, mark it with
an (X) and review the frame before continuing. When a'
page is completed, place it in the back of the folder.

It is important that you WRITE YOUR ANSWERS DOWN and
that you write them before you look at the correct answer.
Do not bypass or skip frames. Take as much time as you
need to learn the material thoroughly.

energy

sound

energy

microphone

energy

84

The concept of energy is so bound
up with modern living that we seldom
realize that the phenomenon of_listen-
ing to the radio is dependent upon

 

To help explain this phenomenon of
radio broadcasting,J let's use an example.
The information which an announcer
speaks in a radio studio is present in
the air as sound. Therefore, the first

.kind of energy which occurs in radio

broadcasting is energy.

This sound energy reaches a micro-
phone which converts this sound energy
to electrical .

This electrical energy is converted
from sound energy by the .

Once this electrical energy leaves
the microphone it travels through the
control room equipment to the trans-
mitter where it is converted to a third
kind of energy known as radio .

transmitter

'receiver
or
set

sound

two

.changed
or
varied

85

' \

Much like the microphone which
changes the original sound energy to
electrical energy, the
changes this electrical energy to
radio energy.

 

The radio energy radiating from
the transmitter's antenna travels
through space until it reaches your
home radio .

There it is first changed to

' electrical energy and then released

from the radio receiver in the form
it started with at the radio studio:
‘ energy 0

Looking at panel one, you see that
from the time the information is spoken
at the radio station until you hear it
at home, three types of energy have
occurred, and ' - of these have
occurred twice. ' a

.If the announcer delivering the
information in the previous example
had spoken softly in some instances
and shouted in others, we could say
his volume or loudness had .

change
or
vary

changed
or v
varied

change'
or
vary

sound'

amplitude

frequency

86

This characteristic of loudness is
called amplitude. The ability to ,
amplitude is basic to radio

 

broadcasting.

If this announcer had also spoken
in a high tone in some instances and in
a low tone in others, we could say his
pitch had - . '

.This characteristic of pitch is.
called frequency. The ability to ‘
'frequency is also basic to

 

radioibroadcasting.

In speaking of the characteristics .

'of loudness and pitch produced by the

announcer's voice we.are speaking about
two characteristics of ' senergy.

Just as loudness and pitch are

{characteristic of sound energy their

corresponding terms am and
fr ___are present in—both eIEctrical
and radio energy.

'radio energy

energy

electromagnetic

electromagnetic
energy

cycles

87’

'NOW that we've briefly traced the

. process of radio broadcasting from a

radio studio until you hear it at home,
let's'take‘a closer look at the type of
energy which occurs between the trans-

mitter antenna and your home receiver,

namely, - - . ‘

Radio energy.is included in a
larger classification of kinds of

‘energy called electromagnetic - .

One characteristic of this class of
energy is that it travels through space'
at a constant speed. Radio energy being
a kind of energy travels
through space at a constant speed.

. This constant speed is 186,000
miles per second. Light energy, as
well as radio energy, travels at this
speed. Light, therefore, is a type of

 

Electromagnetic energy travels _
through space in pulsations or impulses
called cycles. Radio energy travels
in - .

cycle

positive peak

negative peak

positive peak

negative peak

frequency

A cycle can be compared '

to a wave
in the ocean. A wave rises to a crest
and than dips to a trough before another
wave comes along. This process is the

same for a .

In panel two, a comparison is made
between an ocean wave and a cycle. The
crest of the wave is analogous to the

A of the cycle.

 

Also, the trough of the ocean'wave
is similar to the
of the cycle.

 

As an ocean wave contains both a
crest and a trough, a cycle has both
a and a

 

 

The term frequency refers to the
number of cycles occurring per second.
One way of describing electromagnetic
energy is in terms of .

frequency

electromagnetic
spectrum

540'; 1600
as - 108

fewer

540 - 1600

.the

89'

When electromagnetic energy is
being thought of in terms of number
of cycles per second, or -, it
is often arranged numerica y on a
theoretical electromagnetic spectrum.

-Panel three shows the section of

' __ in which the
frequencies now utilized in radio
broadcasting lie.

Looking at panel three, the fre-
quencies now employed in radio broad-
casting are‘from to -
kilocycles (KC) and from to
megacycles (MC) on the '
Electromagnetic spectrum.

 

 

-One kilocycle equals one thousand
cycles and one megacycle equals one
million cycles. Therefore, frequencies
in the 540-1600 KC band have (more/fewer)
cycles per second than frequencies in
the 88-108 MC band.

The frequencies KC to
KC are known as the AM

 

broadcast band.

88 - 108

modulation

negative peak

amplitude

AM

90

The frequencies MC to
MC are known as the-FM
Broadcast band. ' '

The initials AM and FM stand for
"amplitude modulation" and "frequency
modulation" reapectively. The term
modulation means "change." In AM_and
FM broadcasting, a change or ‘ -
takes place.

.Before we can explain this change,
however, we must show the relationship
between amplitude and frequency. Panel
four depicts radio energy in terms of
both amplitude and frequency. The
vertical dimension of the diagram
'represents amplitude as the distance
between the positive peak and

of the cycle.

Panel five shows an example of radio
energy where the frequency has been kept
constant and the has been
modulated.

This system of broadcasting where
the amplitude is modulated and the
frequency is kept constant is called
broadcasting.

' frequency

. FM

frequency

shorter
or
smaller

AM amplitude
FM'frequency

91

Panel six shows an example of radio
energy where the amplitude has been
kept constant and the has been
modulated. '

This system of broadcasting where
the frequency is modulated and the
amplitude is kept constant is called
broadcasting.

Radio energy which radiates from a
station's transmitter antenna is spoken
of as radio waves. The length of radio
waves is related to the number of cycles
per second or the of the energy
involved.

This relationship between frequency
and length of waves is an inverse
relationship. As the frequency of
radio energy goes higher, the corre-
sponding wave length gets .

The radiation of waves through space
is called propagation. The character-
istics of wave propagation differ for
the two types of broadcasting discussed,

‘ namely ( modulation)

and L________ modulation).

' \ .‘.

ground waves
sky waves

direct waves

ground waves

sky waves

direct waves

direct
sky

ground

92

Panel seven depicts the three types

' of waves instrumental in radio propaga-

tion.. They are I ,
, and

 

 

 

The type of waves which tend to

‘follow the curvature of the earth is

called. . .

The type of waves which reflect
off the ionospheric layer of the
atmosphere is called . .

- The type of waves which tend to
travel in a straight line is called

 

Waves which travel in a straight
line are waves; waves which
bounce off the ionosphere are
waves; and waves which follow the
curvature of the earth are
an68.

 

 

--ground

direct

AM

sh ort

AM
short

long

93

Panel eight shows frequency and
distance characteristics for ground,
sky, and direct waves. Atmospheric
conditions make one wave type suitable
for short distance broadcasting during
the day and long distance broadcasting
at night at the AM frequencies. It is
the wave 0

Another type of wave effective for
short distance broadcasting at the AM
frequencies is the wave.

. Short distance broadcasting is
possible at the FM frequencies through
use of the wave. ,

In summary, then, ground waves are
useful in (FM/AM) broadcasting over
distances.

 

Sky waves permit (FM/AM) broad-
casting during the day over
distances, and at night over
distances.

 

94

Direct waves are useful in (FM/AM)
broadcasting over distances.

FM

short

END OF PROGRAM

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ue>msusm

fl Amz<m

 

 

Positive
Peak
Crest
L
Trough Negative
Peak
Ocean Wave Cycle of Radio Energy

Figure 3. COMPARISON OF A CYCLE OF RADIO ENERGY
TO AN OCEAN WAVE -

 

 

‘ Light Band
109 MC }
/
lO8 MC
FM Broadcast Band
’I
88 MC
1600 KC -
W?) AM Broadcast Band
540 RC

 

 

Figure 4. SECTION 023“sz Emcraomsmznc SPECTRUM

yo

23am: 4

Amplitude I

 

 

Frequency (in cycles per second)

Figure 5. CYCLES OF RADIO ENERGY IN TERMS OF AMPLITUDE
AND FREJUENCY

f‘fg

means i

 

Amplitude

 

 

 

Frequency (in cycles per second)

Figure 6. AM BROADCASTING

Amplitude

Figure 7e

 

lCO

 

Frequency (in cycles per second)

FM BROADCASTING

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102

 

 

 

 

ans 8
Ground Sky Direct
Waves Waves Waves
Broadcast
Frequencies FM
_“ra
Distances Short
,1

 

 

 

Figure 9. EFFECTIVE BROADCAST FREtUENCIES AND
DISTANCES FOR GROUND, SKY, AND
DIRECT WAVES

 

CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION

Summary of Findings

The concept of programmed instruction is still
in its infancy. Some valuable research.has been done in
the last thirty years on this relatively new educational
technique, but much more carefully-controlled study is
needed. Programmed instruction is not, nor will it ever
be, a panacea capable of solving all the problems of
education. It has come a long way since Pressey first
described its use primarily as a testing device in 1926,
and Skinner's boost in 1954 helped considerably, but
programmed instruction has a long way to go before it
reaches any degree of perfection. Even ardent proponents
of programming admit it will never take over the full
responsibility of teaching. The question is rather one
of degree: How much of the teaching load can be more
effectively presented by means of programmed instruction
than by conventional methods of teaching? All program-
ming can do is equal a good teacher working within an

103

\.

104

ideal learning situation. Dr. James Finn has remarked
that "any teacher who can be replaced by a machine

should be."117 Programmed instruction will never replace
teachers but it is capable of being a valuable educational
paid. I ‘ '

I Schramm believes very little of programming's
vast potential is being realized today and sums up the
current state of programmed instruction with three propo-
.sitions.

(1) Although the research gives us little reason to
be satisfied with the theories and the standards
of teday's programing, and every reason to believe
that it will be possible some day to make programs
vastly more effective than today's programs, never-
. theless programed instruction shows signs of harden-
ing, partly under commercial pressure, into a fixed.
and mechanical technology, with theories and pro-
cedures taken for granted.

(2) Although programed instruction has within it the .
potential to turn the attention of education and
educational research more intensively and produc-.
tively than ever before to the processes by which
humans learn, there is very little sign that it is
being used productively to test theories of human
learning or theories of cognitive process, or to
enlighten the teacher concerning the process  by

which she teaches.

(3) Although programed instruction is essentially a
revolutionary device, in that it has the potential
to help free man from some of his bondage - the waste
of human resources where there are no teachers or
where people cannot go to school; the waste of time
and talent where all students are locked into the
same pace, and all teachers into the same routine;
the tyranny of tradition which permits the study of
a certain topic to begin only at a certain age, and

 

117Resources Development Corporation, Pr_g£ammed

Lem in ,July, 1963, A.Monthly Newsletter (East Lansing,
MIcH.: Resources Development Corporation, 1963), p. l.

105

expects a student to accomplish only so much as a
questionable test of his ability says he can do; and
the inadequacy of outmoded and inadequate curricula -
despite this, programed instruction is yery slow to
rise to such a revolutionary potential. 8

The recent enthusiasm over the last decade has.
produced a feeling of optimism towards the future of pro-
grammed instruction. As one author has stated in regard
to its potentialities:

What might we legitimately expect of this new tech-
nique? We cannot expect that it will make learning
painless. ‘We shall never, science fiction not
withstanding, be able to put our heads into a gadget
that will instantaneously impart to us the wisdom
of the ages or fluency in a new language. Learning
is behavior, and behavior is work. Programmed
instruction will not solve all the educational ills
of our society. It will not singlehandedly Win the
ideological struggle against our enemies. They can
use it too. Much more is involved here.

If the student-tutor relationship is an effec-
tive teaching situation, then insofar as programmed
instruction approximates that relationship, it, too,
will be an effective teaching situation. If the
best tutors program their knowledge into good pro-
grams, the educational gain could be tremendous.
.Imagine what it could mean to the student in the
rural high school or small college to be able to
learn in such a setting from the Einsteins, the
Pasteurs, the'Shakespeares, and even the Toscaninis
of our civilization. 19

Even in its infancy, programmed instruction has
already been adopted by many educators to teach many more

students. Aside from a few negative comments as to the

 

118Wilbur Schramm, Programed Instruction Today
.Efid Tomorrow (New York: The Fund for the Advancement of
Educatien,II962), pp. 37-38.

 

119Edward J. Green, The Learning_Process and
Programmed Instruction (New Ybrk: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 1962), pp. 212-213.

106

"mechanization" of education and potential unemployment
of teachers, overall reaction to programming has been
favorable. As techniques improve and research becomes
more refined, the outlook seems to indicate more and
varied uses of programming in the schools of tomorrow.
Yet in light of even the limited research already com-
pleted, it seems safe to assume two major conclusions
concerning programming.

1. Programmed instruction is an effective method
of teaching--in most-cases more effective than traditional
instructional methods. .

2. More experimentation is needed into different
subject-matter areas where programming might enhance"
“learning. .

The experimental program presented in this thesis
is an attempt to broaden the potential scope of programmed
.instruction. It is only a pioneer effort to try to
edevelop a programmed unit concerned with televisidn and
.radio training. 'The basic physics of radio broadcasting '
is only one small piece of the total broadcast education
.pie, but if programmed instruction proves successful in
teaching this one segment, it is possible it would prove

effective in other areas of broadcast training.

.Suggestions for Further Research
One type of research which might be undertaken

is to experiment with programmed instruction in other

107

phases of broadcast education. In selecting the follow-
ing areas of broadcast education as being potential for
programmed instruction, the same criteria are used as-_

for the experimental program on radio physics. These
criteria are: (1) the subject matter be basically

factual in nature; and (2) it be the type of material on
which a more complete discussion of the topic is based.

It is important to remember here that the author envisions
programmed instruction as a supplemental aid to conventional
teaching, not a replacement for it. In light of these ‘ I
criteria, the following areas of broadcast training might
possibly lend themselves to programming.

1. A second unit could be developed on the
physics of radio broadcasting. This section could build
upon the experimental program presented here and possibly
include the problems of frequency and power allocation
in relation to wave propagation. A unit could also be
written to cover the physics of television broadcasting.

. ' 2. Programming could possibly be employed in a

broadcast regulations course to outline the structure and
function of the governmental and self-regulating agencies
concerned with overseeing radio and television in America,

3. A programmed unit could be developed for use
in a radio production course. This unit could contain
material dealing with the nature of sound, micrbphone

characteristics, control board operation, etc.

108

4. A similar manual could be programed for use
Lin teaching teleViSion production. Material included.in
such a unit might be areas such as lens characteristics, .
'lighting and set requirements, and scanning.

5. Programming might be used beneficially in an
vinternational broadcasting ocurse to help demonstrate
comparisons between the different broadcast systems
throughout the werld.

I _6. Programmed instruction might be utilized where ‘
a specific vocabulary or "jargon" is necessary to class- .
room discussion. Examples of courses of this type would
ibe broadcast advertising or broadcast programming.

7. One rather unique possibility for programmed
[instruction is in preparing a specially programmed pam-f
phlet for incoming students in television and radio.

This unit could present an overview of the whole field

of broadcasting which might help put all its specific
parts into perspective before the student begins to study
the subject. I

The above list of areas in broadcast training
which might lend themselves to programmed instruction is
by no means exhaustive. These are merely possibilities
where programming might be employed on an experimental

basis.

109

attempt to compare this program on the basic physics of
radio broadcasting with a similar branching program on
the same subject. The material included in the present
program could be rewritten into a branching format and
the relative effectiveness of each type of program could
be measured.

This_thesis is part one of a two phase project.
The purpose of this part has been to survey the field of
programmed instruction in order to determine if any rela-
vance existed for broadcast education. An experimental
program was developed and validated for one area of tele-
vision and radio training and suggestions for the possible
use of programming in several other areas were made.
Although the experimental program was validated, research
is now needed in actual classroom situations in order to
determine the program's effectiveness in relation to
conventional teaching methods. This comparative evalu-
ation will be the function of part two of this project.

If programming should prove an effective teaching
aid in broadcast education, perhaps much more advanced and
creative work could be accomplished in the short space of
a college education.' Furthermore, if programmed instruc-
tion could undertake effectively a large share of the
teaching responsibility, instructors would be able to
devote more time and energy to individualized student
attention--a problem which is becoming more acute as

college enrollments increase.

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Epstein, Sam, and Epstein, Beryl. The First Book of
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Finn, James D., and Perrin, Donald G. Teaching_Machines
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Galanter, Eugene H. (ed.) Automatic Teaching: The State
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Hughes, J. L. Programed Instruction for Schools and
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Mager, Robert F. Preparing Objectives for Programmed
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.‘- \‘

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.r .... “'-—~. ..- -

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Resources Development Corporation. Programed Learning,
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Smith, Robert G., Jr. Research Memorandum: Teaching
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The United States Department of Health, Education, and
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'Programed Instruction. A pamphlet prepared to
accompany a national demonstration exhibit.
Washington: The United States Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, and~ '
the Center for.Programed Instruction, 1963.

Other Sources -

 

Resources Development Corporation, East Lansing, Michigan.
The author was permitted to participate in a
seminar on programmed instruction directed by .
Drs. John Ball, Donald Lloyd, and George Klare,
Officers of the Corporation. July 8-17,1963.

118

The United States Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, Office of Education, and the Center for
«Pregramed Instruction. A national demonstration
exhibit at the College of Education, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, Michigan. July 9,
1963. ’

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