WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS MICHIGAN APPLICATION Thesis for the Degree of M. S. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JACK ROBERT SCHOON ' 1970 'uA-r, LIBRAF; ‘1' L Michigan State .- University W 3 ”‘9“ 'M” " ABSTRACT WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS MICHIGAN APPLICATION BY Jack Robert Schoon For many years small communities have been plagued with the problem of sewage treatment. Many methods have been developed and utilized for the treatment of sewage. In 1960, the Michigan Department of Public Health accepted lagooning as a treatment method. Treatment by lagooning is based on natural processes of self-purification. The design and Operation of lagoons have been based on empiri- cal practices. Waste stabilization lagoons have three major advan- tages: (l) lagooning is most favorable to small communi- ties, (2) the treatment which wastes receive in lagoons is comparable to conventional secondary systems, and (3) the operating cost of lagooning is much less than conventional systems. This study was designed to gather and compile data on stabilization lagoons in Michigan. The presentation of the material is arranged so that it may be used as a Jack Robert Schoon reference source or in total. The natural processes as well as the variables of light, temperature, and wind are discussed. An elaboration of the design criteria as well as the advantages and disadvantages of lagooning are pre— sented. A summary is provided in place of a conclusion. This work helps bridge the information void concerning sewage lagoons in Michigan. WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS MICHIGAN APPLICATION BY Jack Robert Schoon A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Resource Deve10pment 1970 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. C. R. Humphrys, my major advisor, for his encourage- ment and assistance throughout this investigation. Apprecia- tion is also expressed to Dr. S. Brunn and Dr. M. Steinmueller for their many helpful suggestions during the investigation. I wish to thank Mr. Thomas Wasbotten of the Michigan Department of Public Health for his many helpful comments. A sincere thanks is given to all who have assisted me in the preparation of this thesis. I also wish to acknowledge the assistance and patience which my wife, Connie, has shown throughout this educational undertaking. Jack Robert Schoon ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . v LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapter I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O 1 II. THEORY OF OPERATION. . . . . . . . . 6 Characteristics of Sewage. . . . . 6 Operational Theory . . . . . . . 7 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . 8 Anaerobic Bacteria . . . . . . . 8 Aerobic Bacteria. . . . . . . . 8 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . 9 pH 0 O I O O O C O O O O 0 lo Summarization. . . . . . . . . 12 III 0 VARIABLES O O O O O O O O O O O 0 14 Location . . . . . . . . . . l4 Climatic Consideration. . . . . . 15 Light 0 O O O O O O O O O O 15 Temperature . . . . . . . . . 16 Wind. 0 O O O O O O O O O O 19 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . 20 IV. DESIGN CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . 22 Land Acquisition. . . . . . . . 22 Cell Configuration . . . . . . . 22 Size of Lagoon Installations. . . . 23 Embankments (dikes). . . . . . . 24 Pond Bottom . . . . . . . . . 25 Pond Depth. . . . . . . . . . 27 Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . 28 Influent Lines . . . . . . . . 28 iii Chapter Detention Time Effluent Outlets. Interconnecting Piping. Fencing. Warning Signs. Multicelled Operation Testing and Records. V. DISADVANTAGES-PROBLEMS. VI. VII. LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDICES Ground Water Erosion Control Odors Insects. Weeds Ice Cover Animals. Land Area Flexibility ADVANTAGES. Cost. Salvage Value. Construction Benefits Results of Stabilization SUMMARY. Required iv Page 29 3O 31 31 32 32 32 36 36 39 4O 42 43 44 45 47 48 48 49 52 52 52 53 55 62 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Stabilization Lagoons in Michigan, June, 1970 O O O O O O O O O O O O I 3 2. Waste Stabilization Lagoon . . . . . . 4 3. Stabilization of Organic Matter in Lagoons . 13 4. Oxygen Relations in a Typical Raw Sewage Pond O O O O O O O I O O I O 0 l7 5. Diurnal Variation in pH and Dissolved Oxygen Within the Aerobic Zone of a Facultative Lagoon . . . . . . . . . . . . l7 6. Schematic Diagram Showing Percolation of Contaminants Through the Zone of Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . 37 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH RECORD SHEETS . . . . . . . . . . 63 B. ECONOMIC COMPARISONS. . . . . . . . . 70 C. CASE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . 75 D. WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS IN MICHIGAN . . 83 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Waste stabilization lagoons which have been used for municipal sewage treatment have only recently been accepted by the Michigan Department of Public Health as a workable sewage treatment method. Michigan's first stabilization lagoon, for the treatment of raw municipal sewage, was put into Operation in 1961 in the community of Lawton. Today, 62 Michigan communities are using stabilization lagoons for sewage treatment. More than 130 other Michigan communities are considering or constructing stabilization lagoons. Effective sewage treatment has three basic objectives-- to protect the health of the general public, to avoid nui- sance conditions, and to protect the high quality of natural waters. Sewage may be a nuisance to the health of the public because it contains pathogenic bacteria and other disease producing organisms. Untreated sewage is a nui— sance as it is offensive aesthetically as well as to the senses. Many methods have been found to minimize the objec- tionable properties of sewage. This paper will discuss one of the more elementary methods but complex systems for the treatment of sewage, namely stabilization lagoons. Lagoons 1 are simply constructed and the basic Operation is easily understood. However, there are complexities which result from the interactions that take place in the stabilization process. Stabilization lagoons are shallow, diked structures used to receive raw sewage. The stabilization processes that are carried out in a lagoon are a combination of bio- logical, chemical, and physical processes. The processes that take place in a lagoon are referred to as natural self-purification. The purposeful addition of waste to ponds was prob- ably begun in prehistoric times. It has continued until the present and still serves as a means of disposal. In Germany, purification of sewage in fish ponds has been practiced; however, in the United States such ponds have not been used. The first stabilization lagoon in the United States was built about the turn of the century but was designed for the sole purpose of excluding waste water from natural waterways. The resulting effluent from these ponds was found to be of a higher quality than the influent. The waste purification which results from inponding was gradually realized. It is now widely recognized that when properly de- signed and operated, stabilization ponds will develop a population of organisms which will degrade organic matter and subsequently convert the low-energy prod- ucts of degradation into high-energy algal cells. . . . it may be said that whereas the normal treatment Doh- 0 Existing A Planned ‘ A“... ‘ o . i a“ ( A" 0--» ‘ ‘ ‘ 0‘ ‘. ‘ ‘ - f ‘ Iona. Figure l.--Stabilization Lagoons in Michigan, June, 1970. Source: Michigan Department of Public Health. .coommq cowummfiaflnmum mpmmzll.m mnsmflm V TIIIII Damsammm Ommmmmm W..... .\H .. BOHMGHTIIII X 833m \4 cofluosconm cmmmeIIwmmad QOHDODUOHO ocflxoflo coaumollmwumbomm \ mow mcmnumz \ coaumuomm>m coflpmpflmfiomnm Dnmflacsm system degrades organic matter to stable fertilizer compounds which remain in the water without exerting an oxygen demand, the pond system goes further to pick up a large fraction of these fertilizers and incorporate them into living cells again. It is the objective of this paper to present, in a meaningful way, Michigan's application of stabilization lagoons. Only the municipal application of sewage lagoons in Michigan will be considered in this work. 1P. H. McGauley, Engineering Management of Water Quality (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968I7 p. 210. CHAPTER II THEORY OF OPERATION To facilitate a better understanding of the theory The of Operation each component is discussed separately. characteristics of sewage are first discussed. Next the major activities of the treatment process are discussed. I ~ L 3 However, the activities of the treatment process take place together and ultimately affect each other. Characteristics of Sewage Before the processes of treatment which are carried out in a stabilization pond are discussed, a working know— ledge of the nature of the material being treated is neces- sary. Human excreta is the principal source of organic ‘wastes which are treated in lagoons. On a per capita per (flay average, excreta is composed of 83g of feces and 970g (If urine. The wastes are composed of large amounts of “Hater, some organic (putrified) matter which amounts to a~E>proximately twenty percent of the feces and two and one hiilf percent of the urine and small amounts of nitrogen, JPTMOSphoric acid and sulfur as well as other organic com- }?CNJnds. When diluted with water to form sewage, the solid Content of the waste becomes minimal. Present per capita dilution rates range from 30 gallons to 120 gallons per day. About three-eighths of the solids are in suspension and what remains is in solu- tion. Even though there are extremely small amounts of organic matter in sewage, it does possess the ability to become very odoriferous. The more important treatment aspect of sewage is that it contains many organisms which may cause disease. Human waste is not the only waste of which sewage is composed. Waste water from laundry, kitchen and bathing as well as from garbage grinders may be incorporated with the human waste. Many other forms of waste may be incor- porated in the sewage. Operational Theory The operational theory of waste treatment in oxida— tion ponds is understood by few. Ross McKinney, one Of the best known sanitary engineering microbiologists, points out in his book that: "One of the most confused items in bio— logical waste treatment is the theory behind oxidation ponds. Very few engineers really understand how and why an oxidation pond works and what results can be obtained."2 A review of the more recent works in the field also indi- cates a lack in the communication of basic Operational theory. 2Ross E. McKinney, Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), p. 239. Bacteria The actual stabilization of organic matter is carried on primarily by bacteria, with certain flagellated protozoa to assist. Bacteria are typically unicellular micro- organisms which do not have chlorophyll. Bacteria are classified by the habitat in which they live. Anaerobic bacteria are bacteria that live in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic bacteria live in the presence of oxygen. Bacteria which can function with or without oxygen are termed facultative. Under anaerobic conditions, bacteria form organic acid and under aerobic conditions carbon dioxide and water are produced. Anaerobic Bacteria Anaerobic bacteria is found in the lower levels of the lagoon. As the decomposition of carbonaceous matter takes place, carbon dioxide, organic acids, and methane are produced. From the proteins and other nitrogenous matter, ammonia and sulfur compounds are produced. The sulfur com- pounds are further reduced to hydrogen sulfide and a few other compounds. The hydrogen sulfide and other compounds are unpleasantly odorous; however, the solid stabilized material remaining after decomposition has little or no odor. Aerobic Bacteria Aerobic bacteria are located near the surface where dissolved oxygen is available. The aerobic bacteria qty! I‘kd a“: a,“ a. . . us‘ a.“ “I In“ R. a. I" (I) t!’ / stabilize waste materials wholly through aerobic oxidation. In this metabolic process of aerobic bacteria, carbon di- oxide is the resulting end product. In a facultative system, effort is made to keep the pond principally aerobic. "Since the B.O.D. of the effluent will be low only when carbon dioxide and water are the end products of metabolism, efforts are made to keep the system . 3 aerobic." Algae Algaeaxmaa group of plants which contain chlorOphyll and have no roots, stems or leaves. During the synthesis of protoplasm, the energy of the sun is used in the photo- synthetic process to combine carbon dioxide and water. As a by-product of this process, oxygen is produced. It has been felt by many engineers that the release of oxygen by the algae supplied the neces- sary oxygen for aerobic stabilization of the organic matter by the bacteria. Actually, the algae cannot produce enough oxygen to meet the demand of the bacteria and the protozoa unless they have another source of nutrients than that from the wastes being metabolized by the bacteria.4 Sedimentation Inert solids, which are not biologically metabolized, as well as many microorganisms, settle to the bottom of the pond. The rate of settling is dependent on specific gravity which indicates whether settling will occur and the 31bid., p. 240. 41bid. 10 rate at which it will occur. Size and shape also affect the settling rate. The solids which settle out produce a thin sludge layer. Sedimentation is a very important component in that the materials do not leave the pond. pH The value pH has a definite influence on the effi- ciency of biological activities in a lagoon system. The symbol pH represents the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration and pH is used to indicate acidity or alkalinity. A pH of seven indicates a neutral 2*; condition. Values of less than seven indicate acidity and a— values greater than seven indicate alkalinity. For algal photosynthesis, an energy source, mineral nutrients and a good source of carbon dioxide are required. The available dissolved carbon dioxide which results from bacteriological activities is soon exhausted during photo— synthesis. To have continued photosynthesis another source of carbon dioxide must be used. The carbonate buffer system then serves as a source of carbon dioxide. However, algae found commonly in lagoons cannot use bicarbonate directly; therefore they "must rely on carbon dioxide made available by the following reaction: 2HCOS + CO2 + C0: + H20. This reaction is accompanied by a shift in the monocarbonate- 5 bicarbonate rise in pH." The above reaction makes a supply 5Dorell L. King and Arliss D. Ray, "New Concepts for Design, Operation and Management of Stabilization Ponds," International Conference on Water For Peace, Vol. 4 (Washing- ton, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 275. ll of carbon dioxide available for photosynthesis until an alkalinity pH value of 9.2 is reached. At this level carbon dioxide becomes limited for photosynthesis and resulting oxygen production. After dark pH drOps rapidly from the daytime high. The rapid drOp in pH is the result of a build up of carbon dioxide created by respiring organisms. The increased carbon dioxide replaces the carbon dioxide used by the car- bonate buffer system. This results in a lowering of the pH value until it reaches its original value. The original pH value of the system is very similar to the pH value found in the incoming sewage. The pH fluctuation described above is a daily occurrence with values reaching a maximum in the afternoon and a minimum in the early morning. The rather marked similarity of daily variation of available dissolved oxygen and pH shows a direct interrelationship. Observation of pH values indicate, "When the influent pH is greater than 7.2 increasing detention period in- creases B.O.D. removal; but when influent pH is 7.2 or less, the converse phenomenon is observed."6 Research in- dicates that an increase in pH roughly corresponds to the intensity of the incidence of light. All organisms seem to have their own tolerance range for pH where metabolic activities are least affected. Lagoons should be designed 6Wesley O. Pipes, "pH Variation and B.O.D. Removal in Stabilization Ponds," Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 34 (November, 1962), p. 1149. .0 vv cup-'- s~v- q .vnu Iovl u.‘. .- '4- p ”I... 12 to Operate at the Optimum pH for the desired organisms. It has been found that higher pH values tend to favor a more rapid absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. From the above discussion it can be concluded that sudden variations in pH are not desirable. Summarization McKinney summarizes the stabilization process in the following manner: In essence, all that has happened is conversion of the organic matter from one form to another form. In the presence of sunlight the algae do not have a demand for oxygen since the sun supplies their neces- sary energy; but at night without sunlight, the algae would demand oxygen in the same manner as the bacteria for endogenous metabolism. The oxygen demand of the protOplasm formed is less than the oxygen demand by the cells forming the waste so that the rate of oxygen demand has been reduced by this conversion. The theory of oxidation was summed up quite adequately by Floyd L. Matthew in his article in the Water and Wastes Engineering Journal entitled "Operation and Maintenance of Aerobic Stabilization Ponds." A stabilization pond is nothing more than a manmade facility in which natural purification pro- cesses occur under controlled conditions while the wastewater is still on the owner's prOperty. The putrescible material in the wastewater is food upon which microorganisms thrive if the proper conditions exist. The process of stabilization can be compared to trash burning. The trash is stabilized and re- duced to an inoffensive "ash" by combining it with oxygen in the burning process. In the stabiliza- tion pond, bacteria biochemically "burn" the organic, putrescible materials in the wastewater by combining organics with oxygen. The stable "ash" falls to the 7McKinney, Microbiology, p. 241. 13 bottom or is carried out in the effluent. Hence, the name "stabilization pond." Most of the patho- genic bacteria are also removed by predators, sun- light, and other purifying effects. Organic Dissolved Excess Wastes J////////’Oxygen 'K\\\\\\\\\//////}'Algae Bacterial Algal Oxidation Photosynthesis Excess \‘ Chlorophyll / \Sola: Bacteria Energy Fig. 3.--Stabilization of Organic Matter in Lagoons. 8Floyd L. Matthew, "Operation and Maintenance of Aerobic Stabilization Ponds," Water and Waste Engineering, 5 (July, 1968), p. 64. CHAPTER I I I VARIABLES The sewage treatment which results from lagooning is accomplished through natural processes. The natural pro- cesses are influenced and affected by many variables. Location The location of the lagoon system is probably the most important decision a community will make concerning its treatment facility. Since a lagoon system is a sewage treatment facility, it should be located in a place where there is a minimal possibility of health problems. Past experience indicates that the lagoon should be away from residential areas and the site should not be easily acces- sible by the public. Michigan's regulations read that "A pond site should be as far as practicable from habitation or any area which may be built up within a reasonable future period."9 Due to Michigan's discharge policy, sites should be located relatively close to the discharge water- way. 9Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi Board of State Sanitary Engineers, Recommended Standards for Sewage Works (Albany, N. Y.: Health Educatibn ServIce, 1968), p. 94. l4 15 Other factors concerning location include: economic consideration, ground water, surface runoff and prevailing winds. These particular factors are discussed in other sections of the thesis. Climatic Consideration In Michigan, summers are warm while winters are moder- ately cold. Precipitation is rather well distributed throughout the year. Generally, precipitation is greater during the growing season. Precipitation ranges from 26 to 36 inches per year throughout the state. The state's average is 31 inches per year. During the winter, snow is expected throughout the state. The depth of snow varies fronI3O inches in the southeastern section of the lower peninsula to over 150 inches in the western portion of the uPper’peninsula. am Light is without a doubt the most important variable in tflae stabilization processes carried out in lagoons UUJMg, Arliss 1967) (Porges, Mackenthun 1963). Oxygen is nEicessary in the continuous stabilization process. Algae prcXi‘uces oxygen as a by-product of its photosynthetic prOCess. A large amount of research has been done on the effiects of light on sewage lagoons (Varma, Wilcomb 1963). LiEflTt penetration in lagoons is usually limited to the 16 upper two feet of the lagoon. The saturation level for photosynthesis in algae seems to be about 400-600 foot candles. At this point photosynthetic oxygen production is equivalent to total respiration. The amount of light that reaches a lagoon varies from Turbid conditions, as well as All day to day and hour to hour. floating solids, hamper effective light penetration. light that reaches the liquid surface does not penetrate. Some light is reflected back to the atmosphere. Prevailing atmospheric conditions also influence the amount of light available for photosynthesis. Ice cover greatly reduces the incidence of light. Intensity of light determines the amount of photo- synthetic activity that algae cells will have. The higher the light intensity the greater the photosynthetic activity. Conversely, at lower light intensities the photosynthetic irate will decrease. Research does indicate that algae can Ilse short flashes of light as efficiently as continuous Jdight. Light is only needed for initial activation and 6”(citation of the photosynthetic process. Due to algae's DENEd of light, it is established in the zone of light pene- trnation. It therefore follows that most available oxygen :18 found in this zone. Lem. Eerature As light, temperature is very important in waste sta- blliZation ponds. Temperature has a definite foECt on Photo. In' 0 24 6 81012141618 Time of Day 'bzfiw/Tiy -'- I ‘ —_ \ ‘ ‘ ' fle- / j. 474' I ...4/.. ’ l7 prod. Total resp. demand \ di- 2'02? 24 Figure 4.--Oxygen Relations in a Typical Raw Sewage Pond. Source: U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pol- lution Control Administration, Biology of Water Pollution-- .A Collection of Selected Papers on Stream Pollution, Waste Water and Water Trea ment PfIntIhg Office tment (Washington D. C.: , 1967), p. 265. U. S. Govern— 12 -- Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) U pH 4L 12 AM 6 PM Fj491lre 5.-—Diurnal Variation in pH and Dissolved Oxygen Within the Aerobic Zone of a Facultative Lagoon. SCNJJTCKH In-te EEr~._;§national Conference on Water for Peace, Vol. 11 U. S. Government PfInting Office, 1967), p. 275. 13. C.: Dorell L. King and Arliss D. Ray,-"New Concepts for Jdiing efficiency of the dikes. The County Agricultural iEDCtuension Agent or Soil Conservation Agent can usually afiixtise as to locally suitable permanent grass varieties. 251551 Bottom Great care should be exercised in constructing the bottom of the pond. "The ability to maintain a satisfac- tcxr)’ water level in the ponds is one of the most important aspects of design."]‘0 It is imperative that all vegetation \ lOIbid., p. 94. a... u I t A.“ r‘VFZF“ .v.‘v"'a .w. L S.§&Cb .‘Kv. q.- '-v-~~ ...C Q; a: "V4 p U jfiu .~§ \\U ‘- .h*~ \dl] «\v 2 5 SI». F. VAV “III .“e \.‘ ‘ 26 and other organic material be removed from the bottom. If the organic material was not removed, it would place an additional demand on the decomposition mechanism. The removal of relatively porous tOpsoil is recommended. The remaining subsoil should be compacted and pockets of sand and gravel should be replaced with clay or other tightly structured soils. To prevent ground water contamination, soils of a relatively tight structure are sought for bot- tom material. Areas of limestone and highly fissured or fractured rock should not be considered for a lagoon site. Loosely structure soils composed of a large portion of sand and (gravel should be avoided if possible. If a lagoon system i4; constructed on loosely structured soil, additional Hmathods of sealing should be sought. A clay blanket, bentonite or other sealing material may be used. Some Sealing does result from bottom deposits during Operation, hNJt: the amount of sealing may be considered negligible. In Michigan a minimum amount of infiltration is con— Sidered desirable. The infiltration potential can be de— tfiarinined by having a percolation test made on the bottom In‘E‘terial. The bottom should be relatively level. Some authori— ties state that the bottom should not vary more than three inClhes of grade. In Michigan a slight downgrading towards tIIEE outflow area is permitted. This is done to facilitate ‘ ”Av-a u). ..U n I '! nI-1 I L A: ;:?l in... 5A9 - IHO- l - R bit wan? u;_y q “C‘- i 27 pond drainage. A relatively flat bottom does not allow a build up of sludge, which may result in local septic con- ditions. Pond Depth Several factors determine Optimum lagoon depth. The ability of light to penetrate the water area is probably the foremost condition. Without adequate penetration, the algae could not carry out their function of oxygen produc- tion. On the basis of oxygen production, the optimum depth would be about two feet. Temperature also has a bearing on liquid depth. Shallow liquid depths cause the tempera— ‘ture to fluctuate greatly, which is not suitable for opti- Hunn biological activity. In Michigan, ice cover can be eExpected. Therefore, greater depth is required to prevent Scllid freeze-up or ice damage to piping and embankments. Aquatic vegetation growth also influences the depth req‘uirement of the ponds. It has been found that 18 to 24 inCihes of liquid depth discourages emergent aquatic vegeta— tiOnal growth. Aquatic vegetation is undesirable because th- interferes with pond circulation and acts as a habitat ECDI? insects. In Michigan a depth of two feet is considered minimum for any cell. In the raw sewage cell (primary) maXimum depth is six feet which results in an effective St(Drage of four feet. The secondary cells may be a maxi- Rulnn of eight feet while tertiary and subsequent cells are 11(31: to exceed ten feet in depth. 28 Surface Runoff Ponds in Michigan are designed to exclude surface runoff. If water is added to a functioning pond, it only increases hydraulic loading and serves no worthwhile pur- pose. However, in beginning a pond additional hydraulic loading is sought; and, therefore, surface runoff may be considered an advantage. If surface runoff is used in prefilling a pond, adequate safeguards must be used to minimize erosion. Precautions must also be taken to trap trash before it enters the pond. Influent Lines Any generally accepted material used in sewer con- :3truction will be given consideration as an influent line nuaterial in Michigan. The piping material selected should -b€3 adapted to local conditions. Manholes are required to 136! installed at the terminus of the outfall line or the fC>rN3e main and shall be located as close to the embankment a43 ‘topography permits. "Influent lines should be located along the bottom of the pond so that the top of the pipe 11 i43 just below the average elevation of the pond bottom." III jpractice the influent line is located 18 to 24 inches below the pond floor grade. This is done so the piping wj~11 not be damaged during the required compaction of the pol'ldbottom. The use of the dike to carry the influent \ 11Ibid., p. 95. 29 line is not allowed. This practice has been found to im- pede pond circulation. Discharge to a single cell shall be essentially center oriented. In multicelled installations operated in parallel, near center discharge is recommended. In multicelled installations Operated in series interconnecting piping is used. Influent lines of rectangular cells should be terminated at the approximate third point furthest from the outlet structure. Third point locating seems to pro- vide adequate circulation with a minimum of short-circuiting. The influent is to be discharged into a saucer shaped de- 'pression which should not extend below the pond bottom more 'than one foot plus the pipe diameter. The dish shaped de— Lxression should be made of concrete. The end of the in- fJJment line should rest on a concrete apron of dimensions SJITeater than two feet square. The saucer shape depres- Esirln and apron are employed to minimize erosion. EEEEaention Time With Michigan's relatively high quality waterways alléi intensified recreational use, pond discharge is limited t<> 'twice annually and in some situations only once a year. Tile: lagoons are discharged in the early Spring and late fEiJ.l. Effluent from the fall discharge may be of a higher qlléility than spring effluent. The two discharge periods CCDITIeSpond with maximum stream flow and minimum stream use. DuJii‘ing maximum flow, increased dilution provides a greater Ofia fl barf: L l n- .. ..‘.,\‘ ‘b'. F'"“ ‘1 “‘¢- Cfvc UH‘L . A :‘Ce 30 safety factor. The total detention during times of peak use and minimum flow decreases the possibility of lowering the quality of the receiving waterway. Effluent Outlets Michigan requires at least two cells to be equipped with outlet structures to permit independent emergency de- watering of the system. Outlet capacity should be one foot per day from all cells through all available outlets. Devices to control effluent discharge should be so designed to allow pond depth to vary from two feet to the maximum depth. To avoid picking up bottom deposits and creating ¢eroding velocities, draw off should be at least twelve iJiches above the bottom. It has been found that the highest CUJality effluent comes from several inches below the liquid SLerace. Subsurface draw off not only provides the best effluent but insures retention of floating solids. Con- Eiicieration may be given to a baffling system for excluding f loating materials . Many designs for effluent draw off mechanisms have prCD'Ven satisfactory. Individual preference determines Which system will be used. The draw off valves and other negCessary mechanical devices should be inclosed and pro- VTLCied with a locking mechanism to prevent unauthorized ac3(2ess to the draw off control facilities. Each cell must be equipped with a mechanism for com- pleEtely draining the pond. When possible the outlet ‘1‘ uh. "I. :yv» 5..., ~. ‘ N ¢ .,. ‘n. v 31 structure should be located on the windward side of the cell to prevent short-circuiting. Consideration in the design of the outflow mechanism should be given for ice damage and freezing under winter conditions. Interconnecting Piping Interconnecting piping enables adjacent cells to be Operated in series. Interconnecting piping must be fitted with valves, or other arrangements must be made to regulate flow between the cells and permit flexibility in depth con— trol. Michigan requires piping between cells to discharge horizontally near the bottom to eliminate the need for erosion control measures. Piping should be Of cast iron (Jr corrugated metal of ample size to handle liquid transfer. Fencing The pond area should be adequately fenced to exclude dOmestic animals and discourage trespassing. Michigan re- < feet in height. Two or three strands of barbed wire along the top of the fence are encouraged. Woven fence d‘Deas collect wind—blown material which, to preserve the weillkept appearance Of the lagoon, will require disposal. (Piles fence should be equipped with a gate which is wide enOugh to permit maintenance vehicles access to the facility. EEiczjh gate is required to have a locking mechanism. .~w~ .— v‘,... ”a. ‘ ,- 11; 03“ ‘1 A ..‘U U) (I) re (I) (1’ “A “L" r1 ‘1’ A I 32 Warning Signs Appropriate signs denoting the nature of the facility and advising against trespassing should be located around the facility. Intervals Of 100 to 200 feet along the peri- meter of the fence seem to be adequate. Multicelled Operation Michigan requires that multiple cells be used and designed to be operated in both series and parallel. This flexibility permits regulation Of liquid depth as well as If maintenance is required on a particular cell, loading. Series Opera- this flexibility permits continual operation. tion produces an effluent Of higher quality than parallel cqperation and should be used when a higher level of B.O.D. CH? coliform removal is required. Each subsequent pond in SEIries Operation acts as a clarifier for the effluent of thus previous pond. When installations are Operated in Seirries, the loading is calculated only on the first cell rNDt: the total pond area. During parallel operation, the IWaVV sewage is divided among the cells resulting in equal distribution of waste to each cell. Ikésiting and Records One of the most important aspects of lagooning is klie-wing what has been accomplished. This knowledge of Opera- t'iOns is gathered through testing and observation and is r63tained in records. Records are valuable in that they may . 9py- u-o- \. - A".‘ H 1", ~05 ' - ‘P— ..o 55“.~. . ’J. n n F V“. ...:Q 33 be used to coordinate past with present results as well as aid in the making of future decisions. _Records will help in budget planning and will aid in design of improvements. Records also give a composite ‘view of how the lagoon is functioning. The Michigan Department of Public Health requires three basic types of records. Each working day the opera- tor is required to fill out a record sheet indicating physical and environmental factors. The physical and environmental factors include: maximum and minimum daily temperature, weather type, wind speed, precipitation, flow in million gallons per day, liquid depth, dissolved oxygen, lpercentage Of ice cover, Odors and other remarks. The iJiformation is submitted to the state health department CH1 a monthly basis. A second information sheet is used at the time Of Ctischarge and a portion is used on a weekly basis. Periodi- Cétlly the raw sewage should be analyzed for pH, B.O.D. and Stu3pended solids (Total and Volatile). This analysis should b6! carried out by a reliable laboratory. On a daily basis dltring discharge, the above tests are performed as well as ‘teflsts for the following: ammonia, nitrates, phosphorus and CCfiliform bacteria. This last group of tests is performed bY‘tzhe Michigan Department of Public Health. The third record sheet that the state health depart- Huarrt requires is a supplemental remarks sheet. On this o . A 3.... n'vfi-A . ‘ r 1' $.AU- . ‘F-u .4 .-uu a I u: I r (I! F) £11 (I) a 34 form flow diagrams are provided where the Operator is to indicate which flow pattern has been followed and for what length of time. This sheet is to be submitted to the Michigan Department of Public Health monthly. (Examples of the record sheets presently used will be found in Appendix A.) The two major criteria which are used to measure lagoon efficiency are B.O.D. and coliform bacteria. The B.O.D. test is used to determine the organic strength of sewage and effluent. The biological oxygen demand test is the actual measurement of the oxygen used in stabilizing the organic matter by microorganisms over a period of five days at a constant temperature of 20°C. Studies by the [baited States Department of Health indicate that B.O.D. ‘ rweduction accomplished in lagoons range from a minimum of ‘43.6 percent which was recorded under ice conditions to a Huiximum of 98.4 percent. The average reduction range for -B.(D.D. is 75 to 85 percent. The majority of coliform bacteria are harmless or- gixnisms which are used as indicators. The coliform orga- r”Isms have their origin in the intestinal tract of humans as; well as the soil. They are used as a pollution indica- ‘tCXru Coliform removal by lagooning varies, however re- moVal usually approach 100 percent. During discharge, dissolved oxygen testing is per- fcxrned at least three times daily at the site. Lagoon A w l l \‘ y¢n1 a‘u . . .«h .. . FD h HJ ‘A “- nu 1f \rlr I 'sLE V'. ~ 35 performance can be measured by testing for dissolved oxygen. Since a facultative lagoon is primarily aerobic, a lack Of dissolved oxygen or a low reading may be indicative Of possible problems. Dissolved oxygen does affect the quality of the receiving waterway. It is desirable to have a dis- solved oxygen concentration Of greater than 4 mg/l. If the effluent has a concentration below 4 mg/l of dissolved oxy- gen, discharging should be discontinued until the lagoon recovers. Michigan regulations state that a raw flow meter and recorder are required for all lagoon systems. The health department prefers a pump station location for the meter .because Of the need for continuous accessibility and ser- ‘vice. An effluent measuring device is also required. v.‘.. “Q-J. 2P». ‘ : V\ V1._Q 51>- CHAPTER V DISADVANTAGES--PROBLEMS Waste stabilization lagoons are not the panacea of waste treatment. Problems may arise, but with an awareness of potential problems many may be minimized. Ground Water The possibility of ground water contamination must be considered when a lagoon is designed. When designing a lagoon system, knowledge of the geology and hydrology is .needed to determine what the subsoil conditions are. The iJiformation gathered on subsoil conditions should include tflie local soil type, depth and direction of ground water filow and the infiltration rate. A lagoon should not be dEHEp enough to contact the ground water table. Two important axioms hold when ground water contami- nertion is considered. First, the better sealed a lagoon true less chance there is for ground water contamination. It: has been found that lagoons constructed on materials COInposed of clay and silt are better insulated against pos— SiJDle ground water contamination than lagoons constructed 011 . -, ._ , » . A ' '0 . I s t 4. k .. ' , . . . a c ..- . 1 I . ’ . . 1 1 I ‘ ' u , a . 8333.31.33 _ [It'l- . .. . .. . .. \rplb DE) . .rP. .llulbllL . 1...?“ musmsflfimucoo mo OOHSOmW 38 ground water contamination. When considering ground water contamination, two distinct forms are usually indicated-- contamination resulting from biological sources and conta— mination resulting from chemicals. The extent of biological ground water contamination is very restricted. Stead (6) has pointed out that very few sewage bacteria are able to survive in ground water environ— ments; more than 99 percent die within two or three weeks after exposure to this environment. He states that, "Ground-water velocities vary but are usually in terms of not more than a few feet per day, so that travel horizontally of sewage bacteria for distances greater than a few hundred feet is extremely rare."12 The extent and persistence Of chemical contamination is not as limited as biological contamination. These inorganic liquids are not readily af- fected by the "filtering" effect that aquifers have on biological contaminants. Dilution with ground water is slow, so that heavy concentrations of chemi- cal waste may travel distances many times greater than bacterial contaminants.l3 All wirters concerned with ground water contamination irKiicate that more field data are needed. Each installation is Ininance can be lessened by artificially inducing oxygen in't<:>the system. Oxygen has been induced by the addition (bf. sodium nitrate which adds available oxygen directly to the lagoon . Other methods used to reduce the odors which result frOm anaerobic decomposition include the use Of masking ecuTlporunds. Masking compounds do nothing to the Odor or 42 its source. They simply make the Odor less Offensive, just as perfumes do. Their use has been limited. By regulating the depth of the pond, the duration of odors can be reduced. If the pond level is lowered, the total amount Of B.O.D. is reduced. Before the action of discharge is undertaken the Michigan State Department of Public Health must be consulted. Odors which result from decay are much less intense than odors resulting from anaerobic action. The odors of decay result when organic materials are accumulated on the surface of the pond. By the disposal of the accumulated surface organic material, odors can be eliminated. Research indicated that high concentrations of sul- fates in the water supply may aid in Odor production. Two theories have been put forth concerning high sulfate con- tent in the water supply. First, sulfates serve as a sup- ply Of sulfur for the formation of Odor-producing sulfide gas. The other theory postulates that the presence of sulfate retards biological activity. In either case the prevalence of high sulfate concentrations (more than 500 mg/l) may warrant special considerations. Insects Insects are seldom a problem on well maintained la- goons. Federal research has indicated that insect produc- tion is directly related to the amount of weed growth. 43 As with other treatment facilities, the close proxi- mity to human habitation increases the possibility of disease transmission by insects. The possibility Of disease transmission is even greater from Open ponds. Due care must be taken to minimize the possibility of a health hazard. Mosquitoes are usually the prevalent group of insects associated with lagoons. Some variaties of mosqui- toes found in Michigan are associated with the transmission of encephalitis. It has been found that the destruction of breeding areas is the most effective control of insects. Insecti- cides have been found very beneficial in the control Of insects, but great care must be exercised due to possible toxic effects. Minnows, as well as other aquatic predators, have been used to control insects. Weeds Aquatic vegetational growth interferes with the treat— ment process carried on in lagoons by hindering circulation, reducing sunlight penetration and overloading with organic material as the vegetation dies. The vegetation also pro- vides areas for insect breeding. Aquatic plants grow in the water with their roots attached to the bottom or along the shore line. Aquatic plants typical to lagoons include cattails, rushes and pond weed. Control of aquatic plants includes mechanical cut— ting, hand pulling and the use Of selective herbicides. 44 The fore-mentioned controls should not be needed if an adequate water depth can be maintained in the lagoon (two to two and one-half feet). Terrestrial weed growth on and around the dikes can be minimized by a regular maintenance program which includes mowing. Some of the more common terrestrial weeds include sunflowers, chickweeds, thistle and ragweed. Terrestrial weeds act as a breeding area for insects, interfere with air movement and subtract from the well kept look of the lagoon. A weed may be defined as a plant out of place. With this definition any plant with long roots growing on the dikes of the lagoon is considered a weed. Plants with long root structures such as alfalfa, shrubs, willows and cottonwood trees should be destroyed. These long rooted plants impair the waterholding capacity of the dikes. Ice Cover In Michigan during the winter ice formation on the lagoons is a common occurrence. Michigan can expect to have ice cover on its lagoons for up to four months. Ice cover conditions create two basic problems. First, ice cover excludes wind, air and sunlight which are necessary for aerobic conditions. Under ice cover conditions the anaerobic bacteria are the only active microorganisms. The gases which are produced by the anaerobic bacteria are trapped below the ice cover and are v-fi" .nvi F‘A. UM! 'Hu CIA,- Mu... .. NH“ um... 79‘ ' ."~ 0).;L 45 not vented until the spring ice breakup. As mentioned above at the time Of ice breakup, very objectionable odors may be emitted to the air. If ice conditions could be eliminated, odors could be minimized. Ice cover affects both the rate Of decomposition and the ventilation of odorous gases. Secondly, ice tends to cause problems with embank- ments, piping and control devices. As ice forms, it ex- pands with great force resulting in damage to the fore- I mentioned areas. With proper water depth in the lagoons and constructional consideration for ice conditions, the damage resulting under ice conditions can be minimized. Animals During lagoon Operation animals sometimes create problems. The fence is used not only to exclude humans but to keep domestic and wild animals away from the lagoon. Diseases could be carried by animals allowed around the lagoons. There are two major groups of animals which should be considered. Burrowing animals can cause extensive damage to lagoon installations. Some of the more common burrowing animals include muskrats, badgers, gophers and beavers. They may cause failure to dikes which is costly because of flood damage and possible health hazards. The tunnels which these animals create weaken the embankments. (q.- ..‘c Lll: 46 Recently Michigan has experienced problems with musk— rats. In the information bulletin "Muskrat Control," the Michigan Department of Public Health outlines several con- trol measures. Trapping during the muskrat season is ad- vised. If satisfactory control is not achieved, a special out Of season permit should be sought from the local con- servation officer. If control is still not achieved, shooting and use of an apprOpriate rodenticide is recom— mended. Due to the migratory habits of the muskrat, re- peating the controls through the Spring on a yearly basis is recommended. The department of health recommends that they, as well as the local conservation Officer, be con- tacted before a control program is put into Operation. Waterfowl also frequent the lagoon installations in .Michigan. The possibility of contamination of the meat of the wildfowl is greatly increased when waterfowl frequent 'the lagoons. They may also carry bacteria and virus at- ‘tached to their feathers. However, to date, the Michigan IDepartment Of Public Health has not received any complaints concerning waterfowl. The total effect Of lagoons on wildlife is not known. Limited research on the various forms of wildlife which Visit lagoons has been conducted. Animals which may benefit the stabilization process also deserve mention. First, turtles and other aquatic ani- Inéiil life are sometimes mentioned in lagoon literature as 47 stabilizing agents. In some countries lagoons are used to rear fish. Land Area Required Very small communities may need less land for lagoons than for conventional waste treatment facilities. This, however, is usually not the case. Michigan's criteria calls for one surface acre for each 100 persons. There- fore, for the average community of 3,000 people being served by a lagoon, a minimum of 30 acres of surface area is re- quired. Dikes and a buffer zone may increase the land requirement to 90 to 100 acres for the total lagoon facility. However, typical sites in Michigan are of about 50 acres. The land area requirements of conventional sewage treat- ment facilities are usually less than those for lagoons. f!”~ VJ“: QC. an. i as ya ya“ 036 L10: VAL 'UPx lkha 8. “IM- vu CHAPTER VI ADVANTAGES Stabilization lagoons have many advantages for small communities. For an evaluation of an installation, advan- tages as well as disadvantages should be considered. Flexibility Lagoons have more flexibility than other forms of sewage treatment. Operational flexibility is one of the Inajor advantages of lagoons. The loading rate of each cell can be controlled. Series Operation usually results in a liigh quality effluent while parallel operation allows a liigher loading rate. With the fore-mentioned flexibility (one cell can be taken out of service without halting Opera- 'tion or an appreciable lowering Of the effluent quality. A lagoon system can be built in stages as needed. (Zonstruction time is much less than any other sewage treat- nuant system. Some lagoon installations are considered ‘tEHMporary and are only utilized until the population is CKJnsidered large enough to construct a conventional sewage treatment plant. Lagoons are also used temporarily while interceptor sewers are being constructed. 48 ant-J nub: - I ‘r- w «p rr (7 a \f‘lu .- ' VAL. '1: £ ”\- A. h . 1'8. \ V'VH P‘s 55:“ ‘ U.“ 49 Flexibility of Size is another advantage Of the lagoon system. Lagoons can be constructed in a variety Of sizes depending on the community's needs. Lagoons have been used by communities ranging in size from 100 to 125,000 people. (The larger lagoon is in Australia.) Lagoons have been used for primary, secondary and in some cases tertiary treatment. The life expectancy Of a lagoon system is dependent on the maintenance program. Some writers indicate that bottom deposits will only amount to three to Six inches in 100 years. (The amount Of bottom deposits depends on the quality of inflow, clay, sand, silt, etc.) Many lagoon modifications have been tried and tested. Some have been put into operation. As long as the basic (Operational theory is followed many new modifications will loe found and used. (Zost A large portion of the literature reviewed indicated (economic considerations tO be a major advantage Of lagoons. Ihowever, very little data was supplied to support this sup- Exosition. Initial or construction costs as well as Opera- tlional costs are the two major cost considerations associ- ated with lagoons. Construction costs Of lagoons and conventional treat- Husryt facilities are very difficult to compare. NO two com- Inurlities have the same treatment needs or identical loca- t4L<>ns, therefore construction costs vary. There are three 50 basic ways in which cost comparisons can be made of initial costs. A per capita cost is sometimes used. However, this form of comparison has proven unrealistic in that economy of scale is not considered. The federal government also reports on construction costs. They use a national average on a per capita basis. This data are of little value when only considering Michigan. Sometimes comparisons of initial costs are made among various treatment facilities already in operation. This form of comparison has proven unsatisfactory in that needs and prevailing conditions are not the same and are very difficult to adjust for. A third type of comparison which is used is bid esti- Itation. When a project is approved, bids are sought for 'theecost Of the installation. If a particular treatment S)nstem is not indicated, several treatment systems are con- Sixflered each with its own estimated cost. When several cObstruction firms bid on the project each providing its <3finn alternative bid, some form Of comparison may be made. HOwever, these bids are not actual cost but only a repre- Ssintative estimate of cost. Each firm has its own pre- ifsirence as to facilities and the bids which are submitted idfixflicate this. Bid estimation is probably the best method th> use in making a decision as to which type of facility “’i-ll cost least. The type of facility chosen will depend (311- the degree of treatment desired. 63" .. boom -1'!‘ V'- Ffl'1 ..J Alq 1..; r. :V‘n uu'y, is (I) (J ft; 51 As can be seen from the preceding, initial cost com- parison is very difficult to evaluate. The Size population that is to be served and land acquisition costs are the two major considerations which determine construction costs. Lagoons do have a major advantage over conventional treatment facilities in that the Operational costs are much less. Lagoons need only a part time inspector and occa- sional maintenance personnel, while conventional facili- ties need a full time certified Operator and often require round the clock manning. The majority of actual maintenance a lagoon requires is occasional dike repair and monthly Inowing, while a conventional plant requires daily mainten- ance. In operating lagoons very little special equipment is; needed. The needs can usually be supplied from existing Slipplies. The part time personnel may also be supplied flnom an existing governmental department. At time Of dis- Cliarge, when special knowledge is necessary, the state ihesalth department supplies specially trained personnel. In D4ixzhigan post chlorination is not practiced on lagoons, ‘VPLile at conventional treatment plants post chlorination iis .required by Michigan regulations. This adds to the cost Oi? (Operation. Average operational costs of lagoons in Michigan are without a doubt less than present day conven- tional costs . '1: ‘1); l *4 . U) ..V w.- it“. A “‘1'“ an U s 35 v1.9 . an u“ vVV 30 (D (I) 52 Salvage Value The relatively high salvage value Of the lagoon site is another advantage. Lagoons are usually constructed Of earthen materials which can be easily reclaimed through the use of earth moving equipment. At a conventional treat- ment plant, moving or abolishing the facility is much more expensive and time consuming. A lagoon system may be built as a temporary structure where salvage Of the land is anti- cipated, while conventional plants are usually considered permanent structures. Construction Benefits The length Of time that it takes to construct a la- goon system is usually much less than that for a conventional plant. The major construction activity is associated with earth moving which can be done very rapidly with present day equipment. The lagoons need considerably less piping and controls than conventional plants which results in less .installation time. IQesults of Stabilization The results of the stabilization process carried out i1) lagoons are very good. Many authorities indicate that ‘tlle effluent of lagoons is comparable to or superior to the effluent of secondary plants. A limited testing program <2Eirried out by the Michigan Department of Public Health on Stlireams receiving lagoon effluent supported the fact that effluent is equal and in some cases superior to secondary e f f luent. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY The three objectives of sewage treatment can be met through treatment in stabilization lagoons. In prOperly Operated lagoon systems, protection of the public health, avoidance of nuisance conditions, and the protection of high quality natural waters are all achieved. The preparation of the thesis in individual sections to facilitate use as a reference has one major drawback, it does not adequately handle the interactions of sectors. A lagoon system is not made up of static sectors but is a dynamic whole composed of many variables. Costs are usually the determining factor in a com— Inunity's decision as to treatment method used. The land éiquisition costs are a major consideration in lagooning vvhile with conventional systems this is not the case. In nuost cases lagooning maintenance costs are substantially lfass than in conventional treatment facilities. Lagooning is not the panacea Of waste treatment. HO'wever, it does deserve attention as a treatment system. TI1e application of lagooning in Michigan has been limited t1C> small communities. The simplicity of Operation as well e343 economic considerations are usually favorable. A lagoon 53 54 system may create problems and may be the Object of community criticism. However, the majority of potential problems associated with lagoons may be either eliminated or minimized by conforming to the Michigan criteria, following an adequate maintenance program and using good sound management practices. LIST OF REFERENCES 55 M in“ m- . nu.“ h‘ (1.33 .,_ . inf: LI ST OF REFE RENCES Books Babbitt, Harold E., and Baumann, E. Robert. Sewerage and Sewage Treatment. 8th ed. New York: JOhn Wiley and Sons, 1958. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and McCabe, Brother Joseph, eds. Advances in Biological Waste Treatment. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., and O'Connor, D. J. Biological Waste Treatment. New York: Pergamon Press, 1961. Ehlers, Victor M., and Steel, Ernest W. Municipal and Rural Sanitation. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958. (Sloyna, Earnest F., and Eckenfelder, W. Wesley, Jr., eds. Advancements in Water Quality Improvement. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. Iiardenbergh, W. A., and Rodie, Edward R. Water Supply and Waste Disposal. Scranton, Pa.: InternaEiOnal Textbook Company, 1961. bchauley, P. H. Engineering Management of Water Quality. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968. Dchinney, Ross E. Microbiology for Sanitary Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. Eflgvernmental Publications Ntichigan Department of Conservation. Water Resources Commission. A Summary Of Water and Related Land Resources in Michigan. Lansing, Mich.: 1966. (1- S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Services--Division of Water Supply and Pollu- tion Control. Modern Sewage Treatment Plants-~How Much DO They Cost? Washington, D.C.: U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1964. 56 57 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service--Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Waste Stabilization Lagoons. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Prifiting Office, 1961. U. S. Department Of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Biology of Water Pollution-— A Collection of Selected Papers on Stream PollutiOn, Waste Water and Water Treatment. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Great Lakes Region. An Appraisal of Water Pollution in the Lake SupeFiOr Basin. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, April, 1969. U. S. Department of the Interior. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Sanitarijignificance of Fecal Coliforms in the Environment. Washington, D.C.: U. 5. Government Printing Office, 1966. JOurnals IBartsch, A. F. "Algae as a Source of Oxygen in Waste Treat- ment." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 33 (March, 1961), 239-49. IBrinck, C. W. "Operation and Maintenance Of Sewage Lagoons.‘ Water and Sewage Works, 108 (December, 1961), 466-68. IBurden, J. P. "Oxidation Ponds." Southwest Water Works Journal, 43 (December, 1961), 23-24. Cilark, L. E. "Soil Erosion at Sewage Lagoon Solved with Fiber Glass Mat." Public Works, 96 (May, 1965), 96-97. Eklrnbush, James N., and Anderson, John R. "Ducks on the Wastewater Pond." Water and Sewage Works, 111 (June, 1964), 271-76. imflcie, Howard. "How to Cure . . . Short Term Overloading Of Oxidation Ponds." Water Works and Waste Engineer- ing, 2 (November, 1965), 66-67. EiU‘IBaroudi, Hasson M., and Moawad, Sabhi K. "Rate Of BOD Reduction by Oxidation Ponds." Water Pollution Con— trol Federation Journal, 39 (October, 1967), 1626-46. Fitzgerald, George P., and Rohlich, Gerald A. "An Evalua- tion of Stabilization Literature." Sewage and Indus- trial Wastes, 30 (October, 1958), 1212-24. 58 Franzmathes, Joseph R. "Bacteria and Lagoons." Water and Sewage Works, 117 (March, 1970), 90—92. Geldreich, E. E.; Clark, H. F.; and Huff, C. B. "A Study of Pollution Indicators in a Waste Stabilization Pond." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 36 (Novem- ber, 1964), 1372-79. Golueke, Clarence G.; Oswald, William J.; and Gee, Henry R. "Effect of Nitrogen Additives on Algal Yield." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 39 (May, 1967), 823-34. Gunderson, M. D. "Break It Up." Water and Sewage Works, 111 (June, 1964), 281. ’— Halvorson, H. 0. "Are Domestic Sewage Lagoons Safe?" Public Works, 92 (October, 1961), 126+. Higgins, P. M. "Waste Stabilization Ponds--Hea1th Hazard or Effective Treatment Device." Canadian Municipal Utilities, 103 (February, 1965), 35-37. Hurwitz, E. "Conversion to an Aerated Lagoon Extends Pond's Life." Water and Sewage Works, 110 (October, 1963), 359-62. Kappe, Stanley E. "The Green Lagoon." Water and Sewage Works, 110 (December, 1963), 433-35. Klock, John W., and Durham, Howard V. "Wastewater Lagoon Modifications." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 39 (May, l967)79835-45. Kott, Yehuda, and Ingerman, Rivka. "The Biochemical Dynamics of Waste Stabilization Ponds." Air and Water Pollution, 10 (March, 1966), 603-09. Lawson, P. D. "The Role of Lagoons in Sewage Treatment." Canadian Municipal Utilities, 102 (July, 1964), 34-38. .Matthew, Floyd L. "Operation and Maintenance Of Aerobic Stabilization Ponds." Water and Wastes Engineering, 5 (July, 1968), 64-66. MCKinney, Ross E. "Overloaded Oxidation Ponds--Two Case Studies." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 40 (January, 1968), 49-56. Meyer, Gerald. "Geologic and Hydrologic Aspects of Stabili- zation Ponds." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 32 (August, 196OYT’820-25. 59 Mills, Donald A. "Depth and Loading Rates of Oxidation Ponds." Water and Sewage Works, 108 (September, 1961), 343—46. Myklebust, Roy J., and Harston, Fred C. "Mosquito Produc- tion in Stabilization Ponds." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 23 (March, 1962), 302-06. Okum, Daniel A. "Oxidation Ponds and Re-use." Public Works, 95 (March, 1964), 166+. Pierce, Donald M. "Symposium on Waste Stabilization Lagoons.’ Water and Sewage Works, 107 (October, 1960), 408-11. Pierce, Donald M. "Waste Stabilization Lagoons—-How They are Designed, Built and Maintained." Michigan Muni- cipal Review, XXXIV (April, 1961), 1+. Pipes, Wesley 0., Jr. "Basic Biology of Stabilization Ponds." Water and Sewage Works, 108 (April, 1961), 131-36. Pipes, Wesley 0., Jr. "pH Variation and BOD Removal in Stabilization Ponds." Water Pollution Control Federa- tion Journal, 34 (November, 1962), 1140-50. Preul, Herbert C. "Contaminants in Groundwaters Near Waste Stabilization Ponds." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 40 (April, 1968), 650-69. .Porges, Ralph, and Mackenthum, Kenneth M. "Waste Stabiliza- tion Ponds: Use, Function, and Biota." Biotech- nology and Bioengineering, V (December, 1963), 255-73. Ekorges, Ralph. "Design Criteria for Waste Stabilization Ponds." Public Works, 94 (January, 1963), 99+. Fkipp, William F., Jr. "Sewage Lagoon Maintenance." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 32 (June, 1960), 660-62. SfLindala, Adnan, and Murphy, William C. "Influence of Shape on Mixing and Load of Sewage Lagoons." Water and Sewage Works, 116 (October, 1969), 391-93. Stétnder, G. J., and Muring, P. G. J. "Employing Oxidation Ponds for Low-cost Sanitation." Water Pollution Con- trol Federation Journal, 37 (July, 1965), 1025-33. SVnDlre, Jerome H. "Sewage Lagoons and Man's Environment." Civil Engineeringg 34 (September, 1964), 54-59. 6O Towne, W. W., and Davis, W. H. "Sewage Treatment by Raw Sewage Stabilization Ponds." 'Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers (August, 1957). '— Van Heuvelen, Willis; Smith, Jack K.; and HOpkins, Glen J. "Waste Stabilization Lagoons-~Design, Construction, and Operation Practices Among Missouri Basin States." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 32 (Sep- tember, 1960), 909-17. Van Vuuren, L. R. J., and Van Duuren, F. A. "Removal of Algae from Wastewater Maturation Pond Effluent." Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, 37 (September, 1965), 1256-62. Varma, Man M., and Wilcomb, Maxwell J. "Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis." Water and Sewage Works, 110 (December, 1963), 156+. Reports--Pub1ished Great Lakes-~Upper Mississippi River Board of State Sanitary Engineers. Recommended Standards for Sewage Works. Albany, N. Y.: Health Education Service, 1968 ed. jKing, Dorrell L., and Ray, Arliss D. "New Concepts for Design, Operation, and Management of Stabilization Ponds." International Conference on Water for Peace. . Vol. 4. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office (1967), 271-80. bduller, William F., and Humphrys, C. R. Waste Stabilization Lagoons. Agriculture Experiment Station, Water Bulle- tin no. 9. East Lansing, Mich.: Department of Resource DevelOpment. Reports--Unpublished Michigan Department of Health. "Second Annual Conference on Waste Stabilization Lagoons." East Lansing, Mich., 1967. (Mimeographed.) MirInesota Department of Health. "Sewage Stabilization Ponds in Minnesota." Minneapolis, Minn., 1963. (Mimeo- graphed.) 61 Pierce, Donald M., and Richmond, Maruice S. "Waste Stabili— zation Lagoons in Michigan--a Three Year Review Of Performance." Preliminary Draft, Michigan Department of Health. Pierce, Donald M. "Wastewater Stabilization Lagoons Muskrat Control." Michigan Department of Health Interdepart- mental Letter, Lansing, Michigan. APPENDICES 62 APPENDIX A MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH RECORD SHEETS 63 64 5.: £5 .2: 3 an oa nu on nu vn an an a on o— .— «— @— n— '— n. a-NNVIDONQO mx¢<1w¢ 1ch £20» a «o: P: .JO) JCkOP ooo mODOm imam m1 5 ZQIISOU 4.3.1 In. .40) J.oc< 5.22: . 2.303 20:33.35 us; no :22. 22.533 op. 65 .Eoumzm :89: 05 .3325 Boa so 332 .8 563mm 2: God -Q I Ina—5 .625 9.580% 3208235 no mop—303m Lots .3 83%:— . Eaton. to...— Jousm woe—«80m Focus—33m om: ammo—a .bammouo: fl 33m 355%: = 620: on on? Esosm .529:ch 3 .033 .EBm .333 3386.: :33 man— an— 63.0%. up Ego—Ln ovum? van 9009: .2:va 35.80 2 3530 no 3:08:50 :33 use? .3092 05 E 3:393 vac ~28 9550c van mow—Ewan...“ 506 mcozazcoocoo cam—m no 2252030 5:2 35 ..o mtg .650 E 2632: so: c03a§8£ van 2039609? 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Source: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Services--Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, Modern Sewage Treatment Plants--How Much Do They Cost? (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1—5'964 , p. 33. COSt Per Million Gallons Per Day 74 $10,000,000 _ Primary Treatment fffivtv -e—e- Secondary Treatment w Stabilization Ponds $1,000,000 A +- in ~ r ~~ )- r $100,000 1- $10,000 1 1 1 11111 1 1 111411 1 J 1 11111 .01 .1 l 10 Million Gallons Per Day Design Flow Construction Cost per Unit Flow--Cost Comparison by Types Of Treatment Sc>1.:1rce: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Pl:llolic Health Services--Division of Water Supply and Pollu- tion Control, Modern Sewage Treatment Plants--How Much Do The Cost? (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing OffL—_—_1ce, 1964), p. 18. APPENDIX C CASE STUDIES 75 CASE STUDIES To aid in understanding this thesis, four municipal ILagoons were selected at random as case studies. The author ciid not visit these sites or talk with the operating perm ssonnel until a preliminary draft of the thesis was pre- Ipared. This was done for two reasons. It did not give a laias when writing the thesis and the completed preliminary draft served as a guideline for discussion with operating personnel. The interviews which were conducted were private and were usually held before visiting the actual lagoon site. Each operator had his own method of explaining how the lagoon functioned. In visiting the various lagoon sites, one can gain an appreciation for the reasons that Michigan's regulatory agencies have only a general guideline and evaluate each system on its own merit. The shape and size of each lagoon can be eXpected to vary due to individual community needs. Methods of operations, maintenance, and testing vary greatly from lagoon to lagoon; however, all operators indicated satisfactory lagoon Operation. 76 77 Kalkaska Pump Station Test Well 1 -------- Fence -------- Fence ' a Test Well 2 0 __, Borgman River The community of Kalkaska is located in the northern portion of the lower peninsula, east of Traverse City on the Borgman River. The lagoon site is located down river from the community and one-half mile away from the river and community. Only one cell of the three celled structure is being used (cell B). Cell A had been used as a primary cell; but due to overloading, odors were created and use of cell A was discontinued. Kalkaska is a community of about 1,500 people. The community is built on soil which is made up principally of sand. At the time of construction a clay blanket was ap- plied to each cell to aid in sealing. The operation of the lagoon system has created few problems. The establishment of a ground cover has been very difficult. Odors have been a problem to the nearest 78 :resident, who is located one-half mile down wind from the lagoon. However, operating personnel indicate odors to be Ininimal. To increase the knowledge concerning ground water <:ontamination, a very limited testing program was carried out on July 17, 1970. The following are the results of the testing program: Testing July 17, 1970 Analysis: July 20, 1970 Method of analysis: Quick Hack Method Sodium Total N Ortho- EQEEEiQE EEEEE Cloride (Nitrates) Phosphate l. 100 ft. 19' 2—1/2" 50 PPM 10 PPM 0 PPM North end 2. 100 ft.+ 6' 50 PPM 12 PPM 0 PPM South end Inlet 200 PPM 5 PPM 10 PPM Outlet 150 PPM 6 PPM 10 PPM 'Testing performed by Sejed M. Usman. 79 Potterville County Ditch X Pump Station The community of Potterville is located in the lower half of the lower peninsula of Michigan directly west of Lansing. The community has a pOpulation of about 1,250 and is using a two celled structure which is located about one- half mile northwest of town. The lagoons will be dis- charged into an open ditch owned by the county which is located 200 feet from the installation. The community has been using the lagoon system for 14 months. A weed problem had developed but has been reme- died by manual removal. No odor problem has been indicated. However, muskrats are being trapped. The site is 28 acres in size and the lagoon surface is a little less than 15 a(:res. The lagoon is checked daily, and a weekly testing for dissolved oxygen is carried out. Due to the high pre- Q:‘Lpitation this year, mowing has proven a problem. 80 c w Fowlerville N 5.4 ml L A) 8 10F l U o Of. '51 c o ‘J .X 53 Pump 3 Station a m .- i I “i Fowlerville is located southeast of Lansing. Since 1962 the lagoon system has been used by the community. About 2,000 peOple are now served by the three celled structure which is located on a 72 acre site of which 32 acres are pond area. In being one of the first communities to use lagoons, Fowlerville has had many problems. The site is on the flood plain of the east branch of the Red Cedar River. It is located in a marsh area. This year it has been too wet to mow. Aquatic weeds have been a major problem. They are now mechanically removed. The nearest resident is 1,500 feet away from the installation, and recently a new municipal well located 1,200 feet away was put into operation. Dis- persion of floating solids has been necessary for odor control. The lagoon site is checked two or three times a week. There is no testing program carried out. The operator did indicate that the community was satisfied with its operation. 81 Webberville ——— Red Cedar Z X Pump Station Webberville is located southeast of Lansing. The population is about 700. The lagoon has been in operation only one year. Only one Of the two cells are being used. The lagoon will be discharged into the Red Cedar River which is located about one quarter mile north of the lagoons. The lagoons are located north Of the community. The 40 acre site Of which 12 acres are pond has the appear— ance of a well kept pond area. The lagoons have been sealed with bentonite clay. The Operator did indicate that muskrats have proven to be a problem. 82 Conclusion Each lagoon site conformed quite closely to the de- sign standards which are followed in Michigan. The only exception would be the lagoon serving the community Of Fowlerville. The four lagoon installations which were visited had several things in common. For each community the lagoon system in use was the first community sewage treat— ment system. All fencing was Of the agricultural page wire variety with a single strand of barbed wire. Each Operator contacted indicated that in his own Opinion the lagooning method was satisfactory for his community. APPENDIX D WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS IN MICHIGAN 83 WASTE STABILIZATION LAGOONS IN MICHIGAN* (As Of May, 1969) Community» ngulation Estimate River Basin Ada Township Grand Auburn 1497 Kawkawlin Bangor 2109 Lake Michigan Beaverton 926 Tittabawassee Belding 5000 Grand ‘ Bridgman 1454 Lake Michigan Brown City 993 Black Brownstown Township 17200 Huron Capac 1235 Belle Carleton 1379 Lake Erie Cassopolis 2027 St. Joseph Cedar Springs 1768 Grand Chesterfield Township 4000 Lake St. Clair Crystal Falls 2500 Paint Eau Claire 562 St. Joseph Edmore 1234 Grand Fennville 705 Kalamazoo Fowlerville 1674 Grand Gaylord 2700 No Outlet Harrison Township Clinton Hart 1900 Lake Michigan Howard City 1004 Muskegon Ithaca 2900 Shiawassee Kalkaska 1321 Boardman Kent City 617 Grand Byron Center Grand Kent CO. Airport 5000 Grand 84 Community Lakeview Lawton Lexington Memphis Midmichigan Airport Morenci Olivet Ottawa County Ovid Pentwater Plainfield Township Potterville Sand Lake Scottville Shepherd Stanton Stockbridge Suttons Bay Union City Vernon Wakefield Webberville Yale 85 Population Estimate 1126 1402 722 996 3150 2053 1185 1505 1030 1481 1028 400 1245 1293 1139 1097 421 1669 754 3000 664 1621 River Basin Muskegon Paw Paw Lake Huron Belle Saginaw Tiffin Kalamazoo Grand Grand Maple Lake Michigan Augres Grand Grand' Pere Marquette Tittabawassee Grand Flat Huron Lake Michigan St. Joseph Shiawassee Black Grand Black *Source: Michigan Department Of Public Health.