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I ‘ I . ..l u. . o .I .0 . v 0. . (0o '0' o 'f . o . . v- u . ..l I ..\ . . . . v.. “-3. 4 - . . o .. . .rl o I. r. .1 ol’. DA 0.. 0 I I o . .. . . . .ol’.. .. .‘ .c g I: I. v 1 . . .4. . . I . I. . . . I '4 v v ... .In . . l ‘ . .II 4 O vllIOoO“ " C7 W" wwvres: EAST LANSING, MSH. 48824» MSU LIBRARIES \‘ LIBRARY Michigan State University *— L RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. Egggg wi11 be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. - 7" Z; L? T. ," ' ' ' '4 T L... 5‘. . 5“"...‘JLW1\ I 5mg "i --u-- MICHIGRQQ SJNE U‘7i'4’ETZSiTY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writing of this dissertation has been a demanding but rewarding experience which will prove of inestimable value to the writer in helping to confirm a life long pattern of self-discipline and striving for academic excellence. An accomplishment of the dimension required in writing a dissertation exemplifies the teamwork of a community of scholars which is necessary if it is to have enduring quality. I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to those individuals who performed so well as the advisory team for my endeavor. My sincerest appreciation is due to Dr. James N. Costar, my major professor and doctoral committee chairman, whose distinguished guidance, insight and understanding were a constant source of strength and encouragement enabling me to press vigorously for the highest standards of quality. I wish to thank each of the members of my committee for his helpful and timely counsel, encouragement, and suggestions: Dr. Walter F. Johnson, Dr. Hideya Kumata, Dr. Mary M. Leichty, Dr. Cole S. Brembeck. I feel extremely fortunate to have had the privilege of working with such a capable and conscientious committee. Among the several professional colleagues to whom I owe a debt of gratitude for their faithful assistance in gathering data and consul- tation are: Dr. M° Robert B. Klinger, Director of the University of Michigan International Center; Dr. Virgil Lougheed, Foreign Student Counselor at Wayne State University; and Dr. Victor Dahl, Assistant Director of International Programs at Portland State College. I greatly appreciate the support and interest of the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs and particularly the officers and staff: Albert G. Sims, president 1967-68; Dr. Clark Coan, president 1968-69; Hugh Jenkins, Executive Director; and Mrs. Charles Bang, Director of NAFSA Field Services. The support and interest of Michigan State University's International Programs and Institute for International Studies in Education were also very helpful in the completion of this research as part of a larger" unit of research. August G. Benson, Foreign Student Adviser, has been my colleague in this endeavor,and I deeply appreciate his faithful support and assistance and wish him good speed in the completion of his related dissertation. The neatness and orderliness of this dissertation are due to my secretary Mrs. Gloria Brinks who sacrificed so many evenings in typing the manuscript. My sincerest thanks to her for the supreme measure of dedication she showed in working for accuracy and perfection. I would also like to thank Dr. Sheldon Cherney, Dr. Floyd Parker, and Dr. Armand Hunter of Michigan State University, Continuing Education Service, for their continued interest and encouragement throughout the past year which helped me to sustain a concerted effort. Finally, there are the Foreign Student Advisers, faculty members and administrators in the many universities which c00perated in this study. They are too numerous to name, but I am grateful for their willingness to share of their insights in the hope of bringing further insight to the field of foreign student advising. ABSTRACT A Study p_f_Significant Elements iflflflfl‘fli‘fl Behavior gf_College and University Foreign Student Advisers Richard E. Miller The enrollment of foreign students in U.S. colleges and universities has increased from under l0,000 in 1940-41 to over 100,000 in 1966-67.1 The rate of increase of foreign students has been rapidly accelerating since the end of World War II, and leading United States educators antiCApate the continuation of this trend.2 This large influx of students from other countries, particularly from those countries which have greatly different cultures from that of the U.S., has confronted U.S. colleges and universities with new demands and challenges to meet the unigue needs of these students. The typical response has been to appoint special perSOnnel to work with foreign students in meeting_their needs. These Foreign Student Advisers (or persons bearing similar titles} have generally assumed their positions without any written Job description. The criteria for appointing Foreign Student Advisers has been equally vague. 1. Open Doors, 1967, The Institute of International Education, New York, June, 1967. 2. The College, The UniverSity and the Foreign Student, Committee on the Foreign Student in American Colleges and Universities, New York, 1963, p. l. The Problem .The problem today is the confusion and ambiguity regarding the job of the Foreign Student Adviser. While he has a professional organization (NAFSA) to relate to, his Own role within the organization and within his own institution is unclear. The reSponsibilities of Foreign Student Advisers vary greatly between universities, including different"status within the university, different kinds of inner-university relationships with faculty and staff, and different objectives of their programs for foreign students. There is much discussion currently focuSing on the development of foreign student advising as a profession. This study takes no position on this issue. However, it does make a detailed study of one particular area of the Foreign Student Adviser's performance from which some con- clusions are drawn related to the issue. The central problem investigated in this study was: Mgfthgm asgects g: the Foreign Student Adviser's QDfEDETJQQ behavior gg the Foreign Student Advisers themselves perceive tg_bg'significant‘lg facilitating the academic progress Egg/23,2ersonal development 9: the foreign students enrolled gt_their institutions. L/(Egg g: the Critical Incident Technique The CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE] was the primary research tool used in this study, serving both as the method of collecting the data and as an l. John C. Flanagan, "The Critical Intident Technique," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, No. 4, July, l94l, pp. 327-358. 2 instrument for analyzing the data. It is a technique that has been used increasingly in studying the on-the-job performance of individuais in specific occupations and to gain a description of their behavior yis:p;yj§_ a list of typical activities or characteristics of the job. The CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE provides a means of studying Foreign Student Adviser behavior in spite of the lack of uniformity of stated objectives among colleges and universities regarding their programs for advising foreign students. Each of the 48 Foreign Student Advisers in this study had at least one year of experience in the profession and‘was considered to be a qualified observer to report critical incidents involving his own behavior which he perceived as having a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students at his institution. No criteria or standards of effectiveness were imposed upon the 48 reporting Foreign Student Advisers by the researcher, but each Foreign Student Adviser used his own perspective and judgment in selecting and reporting "significant"1 incidents. All critical incidents were gathered by the researcher via personal interview with each of the 48 Foreign Student Advisers. This improved the quality and number of the incidents which were reported. Sumnary f the Main Findingp_f_ _t_h_e_ Study This study revealed 203 distinct critical elements or behaviors of Foreign Student Advisers which the responding Foreign Student Advisers l. The word "significant" was used in place of "critical“.in the communications with the Foreign Student Advisers. This is a common procedure in the use of the CIT which avoids the tendency of the respondent to think of only the crisis-type incidents. 3 perceived as having a significant (satisfactory or unsatisfactory)“ effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. This large number of different behaviors indicates something of the tremendous diversification and complexity of the Foreign Student Adviser's job . '“"“*"" The 203 distinct behaviors were grouped into l6 critical grgg§.of similar behaviors. The captions for these 16 critical areas are: I. Administered Foreign Student Adviser's Office -II. Consultant gpg_Advisory (Internal Communications) III. Planning gpg_Program Development IV. Academic Guidance Prpgram V. Financial Guidance Program VI. Inmigration (INS) M VII. Interviewed Student VIII. Personal Counseling Services IX. Referral Services X. MME Foreign Students XI. Coordinated Community Relations XII. Foreign Student Activities XIII. Gathering Information XIV. Relations witp_0utside Agencies XV. Emergency Situations XVI. .Miscellaneous Personal Services The primary purpose of this study was to identify those functions (on-the-job behavior) of the Foreign Student Adviser which, if perfonned in an effective manner, have a significant effect on the successful 4 performance of his job. In meeting this purpose, this study has revealed the following information:, y There are approximately 200 significant common functions which /‘ are performed by most Foreign Student Advisers. These functions ’ may be grouped into l6 areas of similar-type behavior.- Foreign Student Advisers have contacts with a large number of categories of persons (at least 53 different categories) in the performance of their Jobs. ' . Foreign Student Advisers must have many Specific skills and ) proficiencies to satisfy the extremely divergent demands of their position. Some types of Foreign Student Adviser behavior are more common than other types of behavior. A secondary purpose of this study was to develop some generalizations regarding which functions Foreign Student Advisers tend to perform most effectively, and which functions they tend to perform least effectively. In meeting this purpose this study has provided the following information: Foreign Student Advisers tend to perceive of themselves as being much more effective in areas where they work primarily in direct relationship with people than in areas where they work more with ideas, programs, or organizational structures. Foreign Student Advisers tend to perceive of themselves as being least effective in functions involving the academic advising of foreign students. Fareign Student Advisers tend to perceive of themselves as being more effective in working with non-university persons and agencies than with university personnel. Foreign Student Advisers tend to perceive of themselves as being more effective as they gain experience in their field. A STUDY OF SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS IN THE DN-THE-JOB BEHAVIOR OF COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISERS By Richard E. Miller A THESIS Submitted To Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology l968 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I II III INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY A Brief History of Foreign Student Advising in the U. S. Statement of the Problem Importance of the Study Basic Assumptions Approach to Design of the Study Scope and Limitations of the Study Definition of Terms Organization of the Thesis SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE General Studies of Foreign Students in the U. S. Orientation Adjustment Problems of Foreign Students Academic Adjustment and Achievement Studies of Selected Nationality Groups Administration of Foreign Student Affairs in U. S. Universities Major Contributions to the Study Literature Related to the Critical Incident Technique Origin and Development of the Technique Applications of the Technique Use of the Critical Incident Technique in the Field of Education Discussion of Previous Research METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE Introduction Selection of Method The Sample Developing the Critical Incident Report Form Establishing the General Aim of Foreign Student Advising Procedures and Criteria for DevelOping CIT Report Forms Request for Personal Data on Respondents Revision of the Original Report Forms Collecting the Data Procedure for Interviewing Foreign Student Advisers Classification of Critical Incidents Into Categories of the Foreign Student Adviser's Responsibility Description of Categories of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility ii PAGE n—l IV Development of Critical Areas Transferring Data fran Critical Incident Report Fonns to Work Sheets Development of Work Sheets Grouping of Critical Elements Into Critical Areas Smnnary of the Results of Each Phase of DevelOpnent of Critical Areas Tabulations Surrmary ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction 1. Characteristics of the Responding Foreign Student Advisers and Their Universities General Personal Data on the 48 Foreign Student Advisers II. Analysis of FSA Critical Incidents Reports Reviewing the General Aim of Foreign Student Advising Critical Incidents Reported and Categories of FSA Responsibility Critical Incidents Reported by Foreign Student Advisers with 10 Years or More of Experience or with Less than lO Years Experience Critical Incidents Reported by Foreign Student Advisers According to Size of Foreign Student Enrollment Summary III. Critical Elements and Critical Areas Implications of Critical Elements Occurrence of Critical Elements in Critical Incidents Significance of this Material Discussion of the Critical Areas of FSA Behavior ANALYSIS OF SUPPLEMENTARY DATA Introduction Categories of Persons Whom the Foreign Student Adviser Contacted University and Non-University Contacts Satisfactory and Unsatisfactory Relationships Between Foreign Student Advisers With the Types of Persons With Whom They Came in Contact Major Categories of Persons Contacted by Foreign Student Advisers and Critical Areas of FSA Behavior Analysis of the Returns by Size of Foreign Student Enrollment Relationship of Critical Areas of Behavior to the Categories of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility Male and Female Foreign Student Advisers Summary 96 96 97 100 104 106 106 109 109 110 110 114 119 120 121 124 127 130 131 133 136 136 156 170 170 170 172 176 178 182 189 197 200 | i1ll[[[{n[u[flll)l‘[[[7 VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECONMENDATIONS 202 Introduction 202 Description of the Study 202 The Problem 202 Use of the Critical Incident Technique 204 Design of the Study 205 Summary of the Main Findings of the Study 206 Critical Elements and Critical Areas 206 Satisfactory and Unsatisfactory Behavior 2lO Summary of Supplementary Findings le Evaluation of the Main Findings 2l5 The Findings and Purposes of the Study 215 Usability of the Findings 216 Limitations of the Study ,. . 2l8 Evaluation of the Critical Incident Technique 2l9 Conclusions 222 Implications of the Study 229 Discussion 236 BIBLIOGRAPHY 246 APPENDICES 259 iv TABLE III-1 III-2 IV-1 IV-2 IV-3 IV-4 IV-5 IV-6 IV-7 IV-8 V-1 V-2 V-3 v-4 V-5 V-6 LIST OF TABLES Dispersion of Critical Incidents Among the Foreign Student Adyiser's Categories of Responsibility The Development of Critical Areas from Critical Elements Sources of Critical Incidents Titles of Foreign Student Office Staff Members Characteristics of the 48 Foreign Student Advisers Grouped By Size of Foreign Student Enrollment Percent of Perceived Satisfactory-Unsatisfactory Critical Incidents in Each of the FSA Categories of Responsibility Critical Incidents Reported in Each Category of FSA Responsibility for FSA's with lO Years or More of Experience and for FSA's with Less than 10 Years of Experience Critical Incidents Reported in Each Category of FSA Responsibility According to Size of Foreign Student Enrollment Critical Areas of Foreign Student Adviser Behavior Effective and Ineffective Performance of the Critical Elements in Each Critical Area Categories of Persons with Whom the FSA Came in Contact as Reported in the Critical Incidents Percentage of Each Type of Person Represented in the 12 Major Categories with Whom the FSA Came in Contact in Each of the l6 Critical Areas The Twelve Major Categories of Persons Whom the FSA's Con- tacted as Recorded in Satisfactory or Unsatisfactory Elements Nine Critical Areas anleumber of Categories of Persons Contacted in Each Other Categories of Persons Whom the Foreign Student Adviser Contacted Distribution of the Critical Elements in Each of the 16 Critical Areas PAGE 88 105 - 113 115, 117 123 126 129 135 137 173 175 177 178 179 183 TABLE PAGE V-7 Distribution of the Critical Elements Among Critical Areas By Size of Foreign Student Enrollment Group 185 V-8 Comparison of Satisfactory and Unsatisfactory Elements in Each Critical Area According to Size of Each Foreign Student Enrollment Group 187 V-lO The Percent of Critical Elements From Each Critical Area Involved in Each Category of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility 193 V-ll The Percent of the Critical Elements in Each Category of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility Involved in Each Critical Area of Foreign Student Adviser Behavior 196 V-12 A Comparison of Satisfactory with Unsatisfactory Critical Incidents as Reported by Male and Female Foreign Student Advisers and Distributed Among the Categories of FSA Responsibility 198 V-13 A Comparison of the Number of Critical Incidents Reported By Male and Female FSA‘s as Distributed in the Categories of FSA Responsibility 199 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY The continuous increase in the number of foreign students enrolled in United States colleges and universities, over 100,000 for the 1966-67 academic year, has been one of the most dynamic developments in higher education in the United States in the past two decades. Although the rate of growth may slow down at some time in the future, it is now generally believed that the foreign student population in the United States will continue to increase consistent with the policies of our colleges and universities regarding admission of foreign students. In 1962, the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA), under a grant from the Dean Langmuir Foundation, appointed a national ad-hoc committee of distinguished educators to set forth their reconmendations for an immediate strengthening of foreign student exchange programs at American institutions of higher education. The committee, under the chairmanship of E. G. Williamson (Dean of Students at the University of Minnesota), forecast a continuing acceleration of foreign students studying in the United States: The third point is that the international commitments of the American college and university are pennanent; they are not merely here to stay, but here to increase. This means they can no longer be dealt with on an ad-hoc basis.(1) At the time of the committee report, the Institute of International Education's (IIE) annual report on international exchange2 accounted for 1. The College, The University and the Foreign Student, Committee on the Foreign Student in7American Colleges and Universities, New York, 1963, p. 1. 2- M2991; 1963, The Institute of International Education, New York, June, 1963. 77,792 foreign students studying in United States colleges and uni- versities. Just four years later, IIE's census report1 listed 100,262 foreign students in the United States. These figures, verifying the accuracy of the Committee's earlier predictions, have strong implications for foreign student advising in United States institutions of higher learning. In most of these institutions one or more persons have been hired to advise and counsel foreign students. The primary concern of this study is focused upon the significant aspects of the behavior of the Foreign Student Adviser within the structure of his university, particularly as it is perceived to relate to the academic process of the fbreign student. A_Brief Historyggf Foreign Student Advisigg_j__th§_y, S. Foreign student advising in the United States is of more recent origin than College Student Personnel work as a special aspect of education. Although the first adviser for foreign students (Arthur R. Seymour) was appointed at the University of Illinois in 1907,2 it was not until after World War II that foreign student advising in the United States had its greatest growth. Only thirteen of the 197 institutions of higher learning which now enroll one hundred or more foreign students had Foreign Student Advisers prior to World War 11.3 1. 0 en Doors 1967, The Institute of International Education, New York, June, 2. News Bulletin, Institute of International Education, 24:45, January, 3. M. Robert B. Klinger, "A History of Non-Governmental National Ser- vices in Behalf of the Foreign Student in the United States," 1960, pp. 7—8 (Unpublished). In 1960, Homer 0. Higbee1 surveyed the status of foreign student advising in the U. S. and found that only 16 of the 679 Foreign Student Advisers who responded to his questionnaire had been in foreign student work prior to 1940.2 The following Table gives a good overview of the numerical expansion of foreign student advising in the United States during the period from 1940-1960.3 TABLE I-2 DATES OF ENTRY INTO POSITION OF FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISER Year Became Foreign Student Adviser Number Percent 1940 and before 16 2.4 1940 - 1945 25 3.7 1946 - 1950 127 18.7 1951 - 1952 59 8.7 1953 - 1954 64 9.4 1955 - 1956 107 15.7 1957 66 9.7 1958 81 11.9 1959 105 15.6 1960* 6 .8 No Answer 23 3.4 Total 679 100.0% *The Survey was taken in 1960, and therefore the figures are incomplete. Another significant finding of Higbee's study was that: “Forty-two 1. Homer 0. Higbee is currently Assistant Dean of International Programs, in charge of Educational Exchange, at Michigan State University. 2. Homer 0. Higbee, The Status 9f_Foreigg_Student Advising in United States Universities and Colleges, East Lansing,7Institute of Researchion Overseas Programs, 1961. 3. Ibid., p. 3. percent of the respondents reported that they were the first Foreign Student Advisers to be appointed at their respective institutions."1 The National Association of Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA), now The National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, was founded in 1948 as the professional organization for those persons having specific responsibility in this field. Since its founding, NAFSA has been primarily an organ for professional expression and development of Foreign Student Advisers. However, its growing membership now includes a diversified group of pe0ple from many disciplines and private life who have a common interest in foreign students studying in the United States. A recent addition to NAFSA includes persons who have responsi- bility for American students studying overseas. Statement of the Problem The problem to be investigated in this study stems from the historical development of the profession. Several sociological factors have combined to create the need for Foreign Student Advisers or their equivalent, but universities have done little to establish a clear description of either their professional role or preparation. Factors influencing the development of the Foreign Student Adviser position include: 1) the tremendous diversity of the membership of NAFSA; 2) the mushrooming enrollments of foreign students at United States colleges and Universities; 3) the divergent interests, backgrounds, and goals of foreign students; 4) the varying structure of student personnel services within United States universities; and 5) the varying 1. Higbee, 92,.git., p. 3. expectations of the Foreign Student Adviser held by the administration, the faculty, and the foreign students themselves. Most American colleges and universities have concluded that foreign students have problems and concerns related to attainment of their edu- cations goals that are different - some in kind and some in degree — from those of American students. They have appointed someone on their staff to serve as Foreign Student Adviser, usually without any job description. The Foreign Student Adviser's duties vary greatly among institutions. often due to the fact that some institutions admit foreign students to their programs even though they do not have clearly defined admission policies or programs for those interested in international education. As a result, the institution often appoints someone to fill the Foreign Student Adviser position who lacks an interest in and qualifications for this unique assignment. The problem is well illustrated within the NAFSA organization it- self. Although NAFSA does not give an official membership number, the annual directory1 lists approximately 5500 individual persons and 2100 institutions which have a continuing affiliation with the organization. Foreign Student Advisers comprise less than 20 per cent of the individ- ual listings, and it is estimated that less than half this number are active in the organization. Within NAFSA there are now four separate interest groups: Community Section (COMSEC); Admissions Section (ADSEC); English Language Section (ATESL); United States Students Abroad (USSA). Each of these sections has subsections for those with more particular 1. The NAFSA Directory 1966-67, Washington, D. C., The National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, November, 1966. interests. The peculiarity of the structure is that there now exists no section for Foreign Student Advisers - the original founders of the organization. Some have argued that there is no need for an additional group since NAFSA is already so proliferated. Others have argued that the reason no such section exists is the lack of identity among the Foreign Student Advisers themselves. There does, however, seem to be a general consensus among NAFSA "embers that the major objective of the Foreign Student Adviser is to assist foreign students in attaining their goals.1 It has not been verified that college and university administrators agree. Lack of canmunication between the Foreign Student Advisers and their admini- strators has often resulted in confusion regarding the Foreign Student Adviser's role. A prerequisite for the development of a clear definition of the Foreign Student Adviser's role is that the Foreign Student Adviser and the administration of his institution concur on how the functions of the Foreign Student Adviser relate to the academic progress of foreign students and attainment of their professional goals. This study is an attempt to investigate one aspect of this total problem. The central question is: What _d_9_ Foreitm Student Advisers perceive to b_e_ the significant aspects (elements) 9: their 9wn_gg;thgfjgb behavior which may_affect the academic progress and/g: personal develgpment 9: foreign students. If this question can be thoroughly investigated and several meaningful 1. The writer constructed the research deSign to check on this apparent consensus and found it to be accurate. Chapter III relates to how the check was accomplished. hypotheses developed, future study of the role of the Foreign Student Adviser in the university may be more feasible. Importance 9f.£fl§.§£fl§l. This study is intended to identify the "critical areas” of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior on the job as perceived by the Foreign Student Adviser himself. Up to now educators have been able to do little more than intuit those aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's work related to the academic progress and personal develop— ment of foreign students. Foreign student advising, as a profession, has experienced little growth in relation to other aspects of the academic milieu of the university. Historically, foreign student advising has lacked the intellectual rigor and discipline necessary in order to apply scientific principles towards its own development. Higbee wrote: The whole area of thought about the role of the Foreign Student Adviser and the program he should provide is transfixed in what might be called suSpended animation. Great energy is expended to identify a satisfactory role, but there seems to be a barrier to thinking beyond a certain point.(l) Presumably any barriers to the development of foreign student adviSing are deep-rooted and stem from many sources. They will not be easy to overcome. There may be a psychological barrier to meaningful research in the role of the Foreign Student Adviser which stems from a defenSive posture toward "examining" or “evaluating" their perfonnance. The technique employed in this study has the potential for getting at primary data concerning what the Foreign Student Adviser does which he considers significant without asking him to identify it directly. 1. Higbee, 9p, Cit , p. 35. Previous studies and articles have tried the approach of asking the Foreign Student Adviser what he does, and invariably reaped an accumulation of statements about what the Foreign Student Adviser thought he should be doing. As the Foreign Student Adviser is willing and able to apply priori- ties and alter his program accordingly, he can improve the effectiveness of his work and increase his professional competence in contributing to the university's involvement in international educational exchange. This increased professional competence, together with a concern for the larger context of higher education, will enhance his ability and interest in developing a more creative philosophy for foreign student advising. Ultimately, the Foreign Student Adviser can become an important part of the international activity team at his university. Basic Assumptions 1. The work (on-the-job behavior) of the Foreign Student Adviser can be studied in a scientific manner. Even though the duties and responsi- bilities of Foreign Student Advisers vary greatly throughout the United States, there are enough common elements of the job to make a study worthwhile. This does not preclude studying specific differences within or between universities. 2. The Foreign Student Adviser's primary purpose is to facilitate or expedite the academic progress of foreign students, and secondly, to assist foreign students in attaining personal development goals. Although there may be some difference of opinion as to whether the Foreign Student AdViser is the agent of the institution or the agent of the foreign student, he attempts to foster the goals which apply to both the student and the institution. In 1955, the Committee on Educational Interchange Policy (CEIP) identified several such goals which are still applicable today:I a) To foster the general advancement of knowledge for its own sake and for the benefit of mankind. b) To help each individual through education achieve his fullest potential. c) To increase international understanding both through scholarly effort and through association in an inter- national community of scholars. d) To contribute to the development of other nations through the education of their students. e) To enhance the international dimension of the education of United States students and the United States community in general through close association with foreign students, and by using foreign students as resources for appropriate classes, club programs, etc. f) To fulfill the obligation to cooperate with the United States Government and other influential national agenCies in achieving their international goals. 9) To help fill staff needs from student assistant and gradu- ate research assistant to professor and research scholar which are difficult to meet from United States sources. The work of the Foreign Student Adviser is related to a broader pattern of university involvement in international education.2 The Foreign Student Adviser W111 have potential to contribute to the stated objectives of the university in proportion to the clarity with which his own role is explicated (or eluc1dated).3 Ivan Putman, Jr., "The Foreign Student Adviser and His Institution in International Student Exchange, Part I,” in Handbook for Student Advisers, New York: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, 1965. Higbee, 22: £13., pp. 2-3. Ibid., pp. 3-5. 10 5. It is to the best interest of a foreign student program in a university to have the responsibilities of the Foreign Student Adviser expressed in writing by the university's administrators.1 6. The Foreign Student Adviser is able to perceive the elements of his work which relate most closely to attaining his primary objective of facilitating the academic progress of foreign students and, therefore, he is able to define his role and to take steps toward improv1ng services for the foreign students at his institution. WEMEEM This is the first of two related studies in which the CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE will be used to identify those aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the-job behavior which are perceived by him to have a significant effect on the academic progress and/or the personal development of foreign students. In this study critical inci- dents will be gathered from 48 Foreign Student Advisers and analyzed in accordance with the CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE as conceived and developed by Flanagan and his associates.2 The second study, conducted by August G. Benson, will use the same technique to analyze critical incidents fron faculty members. The writer and Mr. Benson collaborated in gathering data. When one of the researchers visited a university campus, he interviewed both faculty nmmbers and Foreign Student Advisers. The two studies utilize different data in studying the same problem: 1) The first study analyzes critical ‘4 l. Higbee, QB" _c_i_'_t., p. 9. 2. John C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, No. 4, July, 1941. 11 incidents gathered from Foreign Student AdVisers, and 2) The second study analyzes critical incidents gathered from faculty members. Both studies seek to identify aSpects of the foreign Student Advuser's on- the-job behavior which have a significant effect on the academic prog- ress of foreign students. Each study is complete in itself, but the second study will attempt to correlate the findings of the two. Scope and Limitations gj_thg Studv This study is limited in scope to 17 univerSities in a seven-state 1 All of the universities have at region of Midwestern United States. least one full-time Foreign Student Adviser and an enrollment of 200 or more foreign students. The results will therefore be primarily applicable to institutions having full-time Foreign Student Advisers and a foreign student enrollment of at least 200 foreign students. The Critical Incident Technique 1S the primary research tool which will be used, serving as both the method of collecting the data and as a means of analyZing the data. Its limitations, which are applicable to this study, are discussed in detail in Chapter III. The Critical Incident Technique's main strengths are: 1) pr0viding a means of obtaining primary data regarding the job of the Foreign Student Adviser in terms of behav10r which is not generally limited by sampling pro- cedures frequently applicable in other techniques; and 2) generating new hypotheses. However, the technique depends on the capability of the respondent to recall critical inCidents accurately and his knowl- Edge of the objectives of the activity. It also relies heavily upon ‘ 1~ One of the univerSities is located in an Eastern state just outSide the seven-state region. 12 subjective interpretation of the researcher in analyzing and utilizing the data. This study is not an attempt to describe the complete role of the Foreign Student Adviser, but emphasis will be placed upon identifying those specific aspects (elements) of their own on-the-job behavior which Foreign Student Advisers perceive to have significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. This does not imply that only procedures or functions of the Foreign Student Adviser involving foreign students were studied. All aspects relating to the ultimate success or failure of the Foreign Student Adviser's work which they thought might have a significant effect on foreign students' academic progress were included. Generalizations resulting from this study are limited to associa- tional types of conclusions. Beveridge points out the fallacy in research of implying causal relationships.1 The most notorious source of fallacy in research is probably ... to attribute a causal relationship between what has been done and what follows, espeCially to con- clude in the absence of controls that the outcome has been influenced by some interference.... Much the same logical fallacy is involved in wrongly assuming that when an association between two events is demonstrated, the relationship is necessarily one of cause and effect. Consequently, conclusions or generalizations of a cause and effect type will not be developed in this study. The conclusions w111 be of the associational type. When two factors seem to be associated, the hypothesis is that such aSSOCiation is more likely to be true than untrue in any given situation. B. Beveridge, The Art of SCientific Investigation, New York: *9. N. I. W. W. Norton & Co., T951, pJTTll. 13 Definition 2f.1§:fl§ The following are definitions of important tenns related to the Critical Incident Technique: 1. Incident. An event in foreign student advising on-the-job perfonnance (behavior of the Foreign Student Adviser or equivalent in his daily work) involving one specific matter. It will have a cause, some action will take place during its happening, and it will have a result. It will involve the Foreign Student Adviser, one or more foreign students or faculty, etc. It may take place in an hour, it may consume several weeks from its beginning to its conclusion, or it may not come to a definite end. 2. Critical Incident. An incident which has had marked effect in either improv1ng or hindering a foreign student's adjust- ment (academic progress or personal adjustment). The criteria for naming a critical incident are left to a compe- tent observer. Thus, if a competent observer feels that an incident had marked effect, it is considered a critical incident. 3. Respondent 93 Observer. One who has sufficient experience in foreign student affairs to be familiar with the Foreign Student Adviser's job in general and the relationships with foreign students, faculty members, and other significant persons who have a role in foreign student work. The observer should have participated sufficiently in foreign student activities to be able to judge the effect of incidents on the academic progress or personal adjustment of the foreign student. 4. Element. A constituent part of an incident. An element is one specific procedure used by a Foreign Student Adviser during an incident. An incident may, and usually will, contain several elements. 5. Critical Element. Those elements which occur in critical incidents. Consequently, they are the elements which, if carried out in a particularly effective or ineffective manner, lead to judgments by observers regarding the effectiveness of the activity in which they occur. 6. Critical Area. A part of the duties or reSponsibilities of a Foreign Student Adviser which involves a number of related critical elements. 7. Non-Critical Elements. Those elements which do not occur in critical incidents. Consequently, they are elements which either bear little relationship to success in the total activity or in which there is a'most no variability of performance from Foreign Student Adviser to Foreign Student Adviser. While the performance of these elements may be important in Foreign Student Adviser-foreign student relationships (or in other relationships which are part of the Foreign Student Adviser's work), such performance is not found in critical incidents. If these elements are important, it must be assumed that the perfonnance of the element varies little from Foreign Student AdVIser to Foreign Student Adviser and, thus, the element is not critical. 8. a_priori Categories (Foreign Student AdViser Categories of Responsibility). Grouping of the critical inCidents into one of the pre-established categories according to the content of the incident. The National Association for Foreign Student Affairs has pUblished a set of Guidelines which lists eight categories which the work of the Foreign Student Adviser usually comes under. The writer has added three additional categories which also appear to be necessary. 9. .9 posteriori Categories (Critical Areas). Gr0uping of critiEaTIelements of Foreign Student Adviser's behaVior into areas of similar behavior. The categories relate to functional areas of the analysis of the critical incidents. These will generally be referred to in this study as "Critical Areas.” The following definitions are of terms related to foreign student advising: l. Foreigg Student AdViser. A person officially deSignated or appOinted(l) to the faculty or staff of a U. S. institution of higher education with full-time(2) responsibility for 1. Usually by Board of Trustees or equivalent group, or by university- administration. 2. Only Foreign Student AdVisers giving full time to Foreign Student advising are considered in this study. They may have other additional duties, such as adviser to American students planning to go overseas to study. Some universities have Foreign Student Advisers who are not on full-time basis, but they are not included in this study. 15 advising foreign students and for coordinating special services offered foreign students. The most frequent title for this person is “Foreign Student Adviser," but this may vary between universities. Other titles used are ”Foreign Student Counselor," ”Adviser to Overseas Students,” ”Dean of Foreign Students," ”Educational Exchange Coordinator." His duties may vary widely from institution to institution, but generally he is reSponsible for coordinating foreign student services. In some institutions the Foreign Student Adviser may work alone, while in others he may have a professional staff, i.e., Assistant Foreign Student Adviser, Foreign Student Counselors, who carry out essentially the same functions. All professional members of the Foreign Student Adviser's staff will be considered as a Foreign Student Adviser since this allows for inter-university comparison of Foreign Student Adviser behaVior. Therefore, the terms "Foreign Student Adviser" and ”Foreign Student Adviser's Office" are interchangeable. 2. Foreign Student. Any citizen of a foreign country (and not a citizen of the United States) who is enrolled as a full- time student in a United States institution of higher education and is working toward a designated academic goal or degree. 3. Professional Peer. A member of the faculty or administration of the university in which the Foreign Student Adviser is employed, whose position and duties are such as to presumably make him a competent observer and judge of the effectiveness of the Foreign Student Adviser's performance. 4. Academic Progress. Progress of the student toward the Educational goals he has set for himself, or must meet as requirements of the institution and/or the U. S. Immigration Service. 5. Function (on-the—Job behavior) 9f the Foreign Student Adviser. That activity which is performed by the Foreign Student Adviser in fulfilling his pOSition. It is not limited to those activi- ties which are prescribed as being his "duties.” It is anything which he does or says, or causes others to do or say, which in actual practice contributes to the fulfillment of his position. Organization 9f the TheSis In Chapter I the primary concern has been to define the problem being studied and to identify its scope and limitations. The basic assumptions relating to the study are briefly discussed, and the tenns pertaining to the Critical Incident Technique and foreign student advising are defined. Chapter II is a survey of literature relating to the field of foreign student advising and to the Critical Incident Technique. The professional organization for Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA) has begun to develop guidelines for the field which are included in the survey. Also, the particular uses of the Critical Incident Technique in Education are discussed. In Chapter III the methodology and procedures which were utilized in the study are explained including the selection and development of the sample and instrumentation. Procedures for Collecting and Analyzing data are discussed in detail. In Chapter IV the organization and interpretation of critical incidents received from the 48 Foreign Student Advisers included in the study is given. In addition to the a pglgrl, content centered, categories (for critical incidents) of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility, critical areas are developed as functional categories of Foreign Student Adviser behavior, by grouping similar critical elements which are extracted from the critical incidents. This a posteriori devel0pnent of critical areas of the Foreign Student Adviser's Job provides a framework for reporting and discussing the significant elements of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the-job behavior. In Chapter V an analysis of data, supplementary to the main findings of the study, is given. This data is pertinent to the performance of Foreign Student AdVisers but is placed in a separate chapter in order to avoid confusing it with the main findings. Included are categories of persons with whom the Foreign Student Advisers related, and differences 17 between the behavior of Foreign Student Advisers in institutions of varying sized foreign student enrollments. A summary of the findings and conclusions of the study are given in Chapter VI. The use of the CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE, as used in this study, is reviewed. The implications of the findings for university administrators, faculty, and Foreign Student Advisers are given. Recommendations for improving foreign student adviSing and hypotheses for future study are also included. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF RELATED LIT RATURE The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature per- taining to foreign student advising in the United States and to relate it to the problem being investigated in this study. Since foreign students and their particular problems and concerns are the reason for the Foreign Student Adviser's existence, this is a logical beginning point for such a review.. The majority of the literature in the field of international educational exchange has focused primarily upon the foreign student, including general studies of foreign students and studies of selected nationality groups. The first section of this chapter will review the most significant of these studies. The second section of the chapter covers the administration of foreign student affairs with emphasis on the development of the position of Foreign Student Adviser. Although there was a growing realization of the need for special services for foreign students expressed in pre-World War II literature, only thirteen Foreign Student Advisers had been appointed in United States universities by the time NAFSA (The National Association of Foreign Student Advisers) was officially organized in l948° The writer was unable to find any significant writing or research pertaining to foreign student advising as a profeSSion prior to this time. Thus, most of the literature reviewed which relates to the Foreign Student Adviser has been written during the past two decades. This chapter also includes a section on the literature related to the CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE as it has been employed in research. This Technique has been used increasingly in the social seiences including several 19 studies in the field of Education. The studies which are closely related to adaptation of the C.I.T. in investigating the problem (in this study) are reviewed in greater detail. lhey illustrate the adaptability of the C.I.T. in different situations, forming a natural link with the following chapter which discusses its usage in this study. I". General Studies _o_f_ Foreign Students _i___ the _U_.__S_;_ Three of the more significant publications which deal with the foreign students in American universities were written in the mid l950's by Cieslak,1 DuBois,2 and Beebe.3 Cieslak collected data for his study in l95l and l952 while serving as admissions officer at Wayne State University and originally submitted his findings as a doctoral disserta- tion. The study was designed to ascertain the prevailing problems and policies regarding foreign students in the United States from the pOint of view of foreign students as well as from the perSpective of the institutions. In rewriting the study for publication, he broadened it to include administrative organization of the Foreign Student Adviser's Office. He sent a questionnaire to over 200 United States colleges admitting foreign students and received a 61 percent return (12230 He also sampled foreign students and received a 44 percent (354) return. Cieslak's study is useful as an introduction to the field.for new Foreign Student AdVisers but lacks integration of the varied interpretations of l. Edward C. Cieslak, The Foreign Student in American Colleges, Detroit: Wayne State University Press, l955. 2. Cora DuBois, Foreign Students and Higher Education lg_the United States, Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, l956. 3. George A. Beebe, A Study of Foreign Students in Greater New York, New York: Greater New YoFR CounCil for Foreign Students, T955. 20 data. It is also difficult to generalize the findings since there is considerable question regarding the representativeness of the colleges and students sampled. Significantly, several of the baSlC problems raised by the author remain unsolved today. Beebe1 conducted a one-year study of foreign students in the New York City area. The study was funded by the Ford Foundation and the Rocke- feller Foundation, with the stated purposes: l) To improve the services offered to foreign students while they are here; and 2) To develop a greater understanding of other pe0ples and their problems on the part of American students in particular and the American people in general, to the end that our effectiveness in international relations may be increased.(2) A series of specialized committees were fonned to study major aspects of foreign student service. These committees met regularly to explore and discuss issues related to their area of concern. They also con- vened conferences of individuals working in the field to “discuss problems raised in the working paper and explore action needs in this field."3 Concurrently with the committee work, the director and his assistant engaged in an examination of the ”Over-all pOint of View ” This included a series of lengthy, unstructured interviews With 66 foreign students regarding what kind of experiences they had since coming to the city and how they were reacting to the new enVironment. Beebe concludes: There is an impressive amount of thought and energy directed to the foreign student on nearly all of the campuses visited. l. Beebe, 93. _c_i_t_. 2. Ibid., p. 2. 3. Ibid., p. 3. 21 However, our assumption has been that the pivotal factor in the entire exchange of persons program, governmental and non-governmental, is the academic experience, that is, we believe that a fruitful and generally utilizable study experience is the major factor in appraising the present foreign student situation in New York City.(l) Although Beebe's study is limited to foreign students in the New York City area, many of the recommendations regarding the role of the Foreign Student Adviser are applicable to other areas and institutions. Another strength of the study is its multi-discipline approach which probes into the perceptual and actual environment of the foreign student in depth. Cora DuBois' study2 is probably the most basic reference work for the new Foreign Student Adviser since it attempts to correlate the social and psychological factors related to foreign student adjustment. The stated objective of the study is to apply some of the findings of pure research to practical problems experienced by foreign students in American higher education. She draws upon quantitative and analytic materials from as far back as l9l5, when the Committee on Friendly Relations Among Foreign Students began its annual census. The book is divided into three main parts: Part One is a brief and generalized presentation of the contemporary trends with respect to study abroad. Part Two stresses some of the psychological and sociological factors that affect foreign students from the time they plan their foreign study sojourn until they return home. Part Three is addressed to the role that American educational insti- tutions can, or do, play with respect to foreign students.(3) l. Beebe, gp,.git., pp. 7-8. 2. DuBois, 99. git. 3. Ibid, p. x. 22 The second part of the book identifies five categories of pre-arrival attitudes which affect the nature of the foreign experience: l) self- esteem, 2) national status as felt by the student and/or perceived by the host culture, 3) finnness of anchorage at home, 4) cultural distance, and 5) international relations or foreign policy.1 DuBois postulates the now famous theory that foreign students go through a number of distinct adjustment stages during their sojourn in the United States. These stages are conceptual categories rather than physical realities. They can be overlapping, and the actual time dimen- sions vary from person to person and from culture to culture. The four adjustment phases are: l. The spectator phase, early in the student's sojourn "characterized by psychological detachment from the new experience," when the student still has a tourist attitude of enjoying the new environment without having to meet many of its demands. 2. The adaptive phase, "characterized by active involvement in the problem of adjustment," when he must master the skill required by the host culture in general, and by the academic environment in particular. It is the period of the most acute strain and stress, of "unresolved conflict when the so-called 'culture shock' may be most acute." 3. The comin -to-terms-phase in which an equilibrium is reached in the struggle for adjustment. Regardless of whether attitudes toward the host culture and the self are positive, negative, or objective, this stage is characterized by relative stability. 4. The pre-departure phase, which concludes the SOJourn. At this stage the expectation of return to the home country dominates the student's feelings and attitudes- The tenor of this period again may be negative or positive, depending on the nature of the adjustment and of life expectations upon return.(2) l. DuBois, 99, Eli: pp. 39-54. 2. Ibid., pp. 67-73. 23 The author also briefly sketches a series of stages after return home which closely parallel those outlined for the foreign visit. DuBois concludes that the extent to which the foreign visitor manages to enhance his self-esteem is the most important single factor in detennining the emotional texture, and frequently the academic success, of the sojourn. She identifies several major factors which are damaging to self-esteem: l. Lack of communication 2. Unfavorable attitude of the host culture toward the student's country. 3. Inability to achieve expected educational goals 4. Inconsistency of experiences 5. Financial stringencies] Several implications for foreign student adVising may be gleaned from DuBois' book. She emphasizes the need for a broader base of social and psychological understanding of foreign students as individuals. Each institution must not only continue to expand its knowledge in these areas but also has an obligation to express, fully and explicitly, its policies and practices in respect to foreign students. The most recent and cmnprehensive study of foreign students in the United States was done in l966 by the U. S. Advisory Commission on Inter- national Educational and Cultural Affairs.2 Personal interviews were conducted with l,486 foreign students fron 88 c0untries. These students l. DuBois, 92,.glt., pp. 96-98. 2. Foreign Students in the United States, A_Natignaleurvey, A report from the U. 3. Advisory CommiSSion on InternationaTTEdUEational and Cultural Affairs, Washington, D. C., T966. 24 came from llO colleges and universities in 37 states. The sample was structured in an attempt to get representativeness of the various characteristics believed to be relevant to the experiences of the foreign student population, e.g., geographical distribution, sex, type of insti- tution, academic status, region of origin, and major field of study. The questionnaire, forming the base of the interview, consisted of 73 ques- tions, some of which had several parts. Cooperation of the foreign students interviewed was reported as excellent, and the only question which a sizable proportion expressed reticence about answering was in regard to their chief source of financial support. The purpose of the study was to secure gross data on the foreign student population in the United States, which it apparently has accomplished very well. It delineates the external characteristics of the foreign student population and exposes the surface of students' subjective experiences. It also provides statistical profiles of various national, cultural, regional, and educational aggregates and identifies actual and potential problem areas. However, Russell expresses the feeling of several leading educators in his evaluation of the report: The report has some interesting items ... My Overall impreSSion, however, was that we already have a surfeit of such statistical surveys with their questionnaires, charts, and tables. We may not know all that there is statistically to know about foreign students, but we do know enough. And the real task now is not more such surveys but rather an exposition and clarification of policy issues, upon which firm deCisions can then be made. Statistical surveys have their place, but beyond a certain point they become an excuse for postponing deciSions, and I suSpect that point has now been reached in the foreign student field.(l) l. Foreign Students in the United States, A National Survey, 93. cit. 25 The research comnittee emphasizes that this is a pilot study, and that future studies should probe into the areas of foreign student environ- ment and adjustment in greater depth, with more sensitive instrunents. Although this study is by far the most comprehensive of its kind which has been conducted to date, it does not take the reader much beyond what is generally known, except that it tends to verify some of the commonly held beliefs about foreign students and their problems of adjustment. Orientation The term "orientation” has often been misused, leading to much con- fusion regarding orientation programs for foreign Students. Opinions of professionals in the field differ widely regarding the purposes and methods of orienting foreign students. Bennett, Passin, and McKnightI offer several insightful comments on the orientation programs which frequently have been provided for foreign students shortly after their arrival in the United States by community groups. The authors show parallels between the types of orientation programs offered to foreign students, e.g., kindly lecturing, discussions of social activities, and promotion of school activities, and the programs offered to high school and college freshmen. They point out that such programs ignore the greater sophistication of foreign students and tend to create a warped picture of academic life on the campus. They warn that an orientation program which is not geared to the SOphistication, needs, and goals of the foreign student can be as damaging as not haVing an orientation program.2 1. John Bennet, Herbert Passin and Robert McKnight, In Search of .igenf tit The Japanese Overseas Scholar in America and Japan, Minneapolis. University of Minnesota Press, T958 2. Ibid., pp. 307-310. 26 Moore1 examines the need for orientation of foreign students from a psychological perspective of the adjustment required of persons who move into a new culture to pursue academic goals. He illustrates, by specific examples, differences in perception between students from differing cultural backgrounds and indicates how orientation programs may be structured to bring about increased understanding of the differ- ences. Sasnett's publication,2 in which she edited a collection of reports from 32 foreign students, is very helpful in understanding foreign students' perceptions of the United States. These reports, reflecting on what the foreign students expected, saw, felt, were disappointed with, represent the kaleidoscopic opinions of many thousands of their compa- triots who have come from many parts of the world to study in American colleges and universities. An Australian student studying in the United States3 examined the complex issue involved in orientation from a foreign student's point of view. She identified and described the fonns of orientation which are available to the foreign student and discussed their application to particular needs. Written in a positive, constructive manner, the article places the orientation experience within the total perspective of the educational sojourn. l. Forrest G. Moore, “Some Ideas on Orientation and Cultural Rela- tivism: Implications for Orientation Programs,” An unpublished paper presented at the APGA National Convention, l96]. 2. Martena Sasnett (ed.), Foreign Students took at_the United States, Los Angeles: Cole—Holmquist Press, TOSO. 3. Margaret Gillett, "Orientation of Foreign Students in the United States," Overseas Education, l962. 27 The most sophisticated attempts to evaluate orientation programs have been undertaken in connection with orientation centers for State Department grantees, but have general significance for all groups of foreign students. One of the most extensive evaluation studies of orientation provided for foreign students was conducted with a sample of 150 of the 600 State Department grantees who attended a six-week program in one of the orientation centers in the United States in T955.1 A comparable number of carefully equated non-oriented students were used as a control group for comparison purposes. The oriented students were interviewed four weeks after arrival at the orientation center. All students, both oriented and control, were interviewed in their fourth week at the universities where they were studying, and around April of the following spring. All interviews were structured and individual. In general, the interviews were designed to measure the degree of success of the orientation program objectives: 1) adjustment to the social environment of the United States, 2) intro- duction to American society and culture, 3) preparation for academic and adninistrative procedures in United States universities, and 4) training in English as needed.2 Comparisons were made between Euro- pean, Asian, and Latin American students as they related to the pro- gram of the center and also regarding Specific characteristics which appeared generalizable to the entire group of State DeparUnent grantees. l. Stuart w. Cook, Joan Havel, and Jane R. Christ, The Effects of an Orientation Program for Foreign Students, New York: Research Center for Human Relations, New York University, l957, Vols. I to IX, mimeographed. 2. Ibid., pp. 24-25. 28 A number of significant differences were identified between the oriented students and non-oriented students in regard to attitudes concerning discrimination against Negroes, improving liVing condi- tions in the United States, American foreign policy, and general opinion of Americans. Oriented students tended to have more favorable attitudes and showed greater understanding of complex issues than did non-oriented students. However, over a period of a year the differences between the two groups became less marked. The researchers concluded that: l) More emphasis is needed on preparation for academic work in United States universities; 2) For ASIan students particularly, the social relations aspect of orientation is extremely important; 3) The orientation experience does not indoctrinate foreign students nor lead to distinctive changes in beliefs and feelings about the United States, but it does seem to make students more senSitive in recogniZing differences among individ- uals or subgroups in this country.1 Adjustment Problems 9j_Foreign Students A preponderant amOunt of the research conducted in the field of international educational exchange has related to the problems and concerns of foreign students. Porter,2 in devel0ping an inventory for detenmining problems of foreign students, reviewed Over a dozen major studies which identified specific lists of foreign students' 1. Cook, Havel, and Christ, op. git., Vol. 1X, 2. John N. Porter, "The Development of an Inventory to Determine Prob- lems of Foreign Students," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State UniverSity, East Lansing, Michigan, l962. 29 problems.1 His study refines the many lists. eliminates overlapping, and suggests a comprehensive list of foreign student problems which takes form in a 132 item inventory. The inventory is similarly structured to the Mooney Problem Check List. It lists problems in ll student personnel categories, with l2 problems in each of the categories. At UCLA, Morris studied the effects of perception of national status on adjustment to the United States.2 His foreign student smnple represented 65 nationalities with 318 total students. It was found that the national status which the foreigner felt reflected upon him, away from home, affected the impression of the United States which he himself reflected. A high correlation was found between the level of economic development and subjective national status, measured by the student's feelings about the relative standing of his own country on several criteria. Subjective national status was negatively correlated with favorableness of attitudes toward the United States, i.e., students who rated their own countries low tended to be more favorable toward the United States. Morris' study, while extremely limited in its scope, is characterized by a high level of research sophistication and is clearly based on theories of status mobility. It is the fifth in a series of monographs resulting from a program of research sponsored by the Committee on Cross-Cultural Education of the Social Science Research CounCil. The results of the study are difficult to Summarize because the findings are l. Porter, g2,.git., Chapter II, pp. 24-79. 2. RiChart T. Morris, The Two-Nay_Mirror, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, T9EOT' 30 complicated and their interpretation open to a good deal of conjecture. The author indicates the difficulty of applying the findings: We actually need two summaries, with very different emphases -- one for the social scientist and one for the practitioner who is in daily touch with the foreign student.... The practitioner, less interested in technique, can probably best use a set of infonned and informal guesses which will help him, or which he can at least try out, in solving his practical problems of counseling, selection of students who will be successful in this country, and the like.(l) Morris identifies the Foreign Student Adv1ser as a practitioner and suggests a threefold division of the Foreign Student Adviser's job: l) They try to help solve a variety of technical problems related to academic life -- transfer of credit, insti- tutional ground rules, programs, tutoring, examinations, and the like. 2) They assist in untangling the international red tape —- visas, work permits, transfer of funds, dealings with immigration and other government officials -- both at home and abroad. 3) They serve as cross-cultural translator, helping the student to understand and to get most out of his social experiences here.(2) Morris expresses the hope that his study Will be of practical value to the Foreign Student Adviser, particularly in the third area -- serving as cross-cultural translator. He emphasizes that the central task of the study was to show that national status was one of the most important of several conditioning factors, and that it operates in a complicated way. In response to the oft-mentioned argument that foreign students come from such varied backgrounds that each student 1. Morris, 92. 313., p. T35. 2. Ibid., p. l39. 3i is so unique that generalizations are impossible, Morris states: One of the most important findings of the present study is that generalizations do apply. There is such a thing as a foreign student who behaves in many respects like all other foreign students. There are certain things we can predict about them. They all face certain problems in common, regardless of their nationality, sex, age, social class, religion, or anythin else -- at least any charac- teristic that we studied.(l§ Naficy,2 Iranian Minister for Cultural and Educational Affairs, reported on the problems of Iranian students in the United States. His report covers the major stages of the foreign student's sojourn in the United States: 1) early difficulties, 2) troubles and temptations encountered during the study period, and 3) termination of the program and decision regarding return home and employment. Naficy's primary concern is the "brain drain” or non-return of highly trained people to take up needed positions in their home country. He relates the various problems of adjustment and the manner in which they are dealt with on the United States campus to the non-return issue. Kincaid, conducting a research project under the auspices of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the Department of State, surveyed 440 foreign students to "collect information useful in detennining the major achievements and difficulties in the Operational, academic, and personal aspects of the United States foreign student program.“3 The study was restricted to students from the Far East, the l. Morris, 23. Cit 2. Habib Naficy, "Foreign Students in the United States," Unpublished report, mimeographed by Iranian Embassy, l966. 3. Harry V. Kincaid, A Preliminary Study of the Goals and Problems of —-—,~- the Foreign Student in the United States, Vols I and II, Menlo Park: Stanford Research Institute, l96l. 32 Near and Middle East, Latin America, and Africa. Using a survey questionnaire, the researchers met with groups of foreign students at seven different campuses in California to ask the questions. This study differs from many others in attempting to relate goal aspirations of foreign students to the kinds of problems they experienced. On the basis of this exploratory study, then, the foreign student in the United States reports predominantly pragmatic goals. He reports, however, no overpowering problems, of the kind usually thought to be serious as interfering with his achievement of those goals.(l) The goals of the foreign students were detennined by asking each stu- dent to describe the most important thing he hoped to accomplish by coming to the United States to study. The student was also asked whether his goal had changed since his arrival. In addition, the student was asked for a description of the major factors that helped or hindered him in achieving his goals. The major importance of Kincaid's study seems to be clarification of the goals of foreign students. He places emphasis on orientation programs, academic pro— cedures, extracurricular activities, and on the personal adjustment of students as they relate to the students' goals. A control sample of 200 American students was used in order to ascertain which problems were common to students in general and not just foreign students. The study suffered from limitations of time and the corresponding inadequate rate of response. The "U Curve” hypothesis, referring to the periods of adjustment of foreign students in the United States, found favorable acceptance l. Kincaid, op. £13., p. 9. 33 when it was introduced in the 1950's. Several researchers have either expanded upon the hypothesis or based Other studies upon it. One of the more notable such studies was done by bullanorn and Gullahorn.1 The study is an interpretation of data (incidents gathered from inter- views) to cover the re-adjusunent phase of the foreign student as he returns to his home culture. They interviewed American grantees who had returned from an Overseas study experience, and found that their evaluations Of certain situations and practices had changed sufficiently as to necessitate a reacculturation process in their home environments similar to that experienced abroad. The study has some Significant implications for Foreign Student AdVisers contemplating pre-departure orientation for foreign students who have tenninated their academic programs and are preparing to return home. Walton2 was commiSSioned by the United States State Deparbnent Office of External Research to review the implications of foreign student research. She expressed the Opinion that there is a tendency to over-exaggerate the problems Of foreign students: In the surge of foreign students coming to the United States after World War II from ASia, Africa, and Latin America, it was discovered that a foreign student was not just a student, he was a "problem." A foreign student was conceived, almost by definition, as a problem because he was foreign. In an effort to identify and solve foreign student problems, a host of new administrative agencies and of new administrative 1. John T. Gullahorn and Jeanne E. Gullahorn, ”An Extension of the U-Curve Hypothesis,” Journal of Social Issues, Vol. XIX, No. 3, 1965, pp. 33-47. 2. Barbara Walton, "Foreign Student Research and Its Implications," Washington, D. C.: Office of External Research, U. S. DeparUnent of State, 1967, Unpublished manuscript - advance copy. 34 techniques came into being, giving rise to what one Observer called the ”foreign student industry “(1) Walton goes on to suggest that the ”problem“ approach to foreign stu— dent adjustment is not conducive to gOOd research, but that specific, identifiable problems of foreign students should continue to be researched to find their causes and possible means of alleviating them. She also cites the survey (described earlier in this chapter) by the United States Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs as an indication of the favorable aspects of foreign student life, thus bringing a balance to the previous ”problem" oriented research pertaining to foreign students. Academic Adjustment and Achievement Another large portion of research in international educational exchange has related to the academic adjustment and achievement Of foreign students. In 1961 a committee at the NAFSA Research Seminar2 reViewed the literature pertaining to academic achievement of foreign students and related academic problems. It was the consensus of the seminar participants, representing top-level leadership in the NAFSA organization, that the area of the foreign student's academic achievement should be foremost in the professional publications, and that research in this area should be encouraged: 1. Walton, op. 213., Chapter V, p. l. 2. The National Association of Foreign Student Advisers convened a seminar at Waldenwoods, Michigan, in 1961, for the purpose of reviewing relevant research in the International Educational Exchange field. The results Of the Seminar were published in a SpeCial "Waldenwoods Seminar" report. 35 Primacy g: the Academic Purpose. A successful academic experience is generally regarded in research and prac- tice as the primary purpose of international student exchanges. It is therefore essential that this purpose be a central concern of all with whom the foreign stu- dent comes in contact, his fellow students, the faculty, his academic adviser, foreign student adviser, and the community. The partnership of many in maintaining the prOper balance between the academic and non-academic is essential to a successful experience abroad.(l) Several doctoral dissertations have been written on the factors relating to academic success or failure of foreign students. Putman2 examined the relationship of admission data to the academic success or failure of the foreign student. He fOund that only about 10 percent Of entering graduate foreign students at Columbia University had serious academic_difficulty. Moore3 studied factors affecting the academic success of foreign students studying in the United States. HOuntras4 studied factors associated with academic achievement of foreign students at the University of Michigan. He found that students on scholarships were less likely to incur probation than non-scholarship students. Other factors correlated with academic success were inconclusive. l. Josef A. Mestenhauser (ed.), Rgsearch 19 Programs for Fore gn Students, A Report of the Waldenwoods Seminar, New iork: National AsSOCiation Of Foreign Student Advisers, l961, p. 36. 2. Ivan J. Putman, Jr., "AdmlsSion Data and the Academic Perfonnance of Foreign Graduate Students at Columbia University,”Unpub isned Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia UniverSity, 1953. 3. Forrest G. Moore, ”Factors Affecting the Academic Success of Foreign Students in American Universities,” Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, UniverSity Of Minnesota, 1953. 4. Peter T. Hountras, "Factors AssOCiated with Academic Achievement Of Foreign Students at the University of M.chigan from 3947 to 1949," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Univers ty of Michigan, 1955. 36 Liu1 studied the academic achievement of Chinese graduate students at the University of Michigan, 1907-1950, and found that field of study is a more significant variable than cultural differences. Bohn2 evaluated the educational program for foreign students at Wayne State UniverSity. Cajoleas3 studied the academic record of foreign students in relation to their professional development and return adjustment. He found that Anerican and foreign doctoral candidates at Columb a University perfonned along the same median, but the lower perfonners included a higher pro- portion of foreign students. Watson and Lippitt's study of German foreign students4 suggested four stages of learning by the student: 1) finding his role, 2) beginning to learn positively, 3) beginning to accept initiative, and 4) integrating learning. The study also suggested several causes of learning failure of foreign Students: l) contradictions between atti- tudes to be learned and deep-lying personality orientation, 2) defensive stereotypes, and 3) great differences in value concepts. lhe authors pOinted out that the general problem of tensions is impliCit in cross- l. Yung-Szi Liu, "The Academic Achievement of Chinese Graduate Students at the UniverSity of Michigan, l907-l950," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, 1956. 2. Ralph C. Bohn, "An Evaluation of the Educational Program for Students from Foreign Countries: EmphaSis Upon Orientation Procedures, Individual Problems, and Psychological Variables,” Unpublished Ph D. Dissertation, Wayne State UniverSity, 1957. 3. Lou15 P. Cajoleas, "The Academic Record, Professional Development, and Return AdJustments of Doctoral Students from Other Lands: A Study of Teacher's College Alumni, l946-l955,“ Unpublished Ph D- Dissertation, Columbia University, l958. 4. Dorothy Jeanne Watson and Ronald Lippitt, Learning “£L2i§.£gitur953 A_Studylgvaermans Visit ng_America, Ann Arbor: Research Center for Group Dynamics, institute for SOCiaI Research, University of Michigan, l955. 37 cultural learning and that learning readiness is not likely to develop if there are psychological problems. Studies 9f_Selected Nationality_Groups In the early 1950's the Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller Foundations commissioned a series of studies under the direction of the Social Science Research Council. The number of foreign students from Asia, Africa, and Latin America had risen sharply Since World War II and both foundations and universities were concerned as to whether cross-cultural education was meeting its intended objectives. There was an awareness that cross-cultural education, involving markedly different cultures, posed special problems for which there seemed to be insufficient experience and knowledge. On the assumption that difference in cultural background is an importance factor in determining the consequences of foreign educational experience, intensive studies of students from several countries of contrasting cultures were first undertaken, beginning in the fall of 1962. Scott1 studied a group of Swedish students who had returned home after completing academic work in the United States. Lambert and Bressler2 studied a group of Indian students during their academic program at the University of Pennsylvania. Beals and Humphrey3 analyzed the experiences of a sample of 52 Mexican students in the United States 1. Franklin D. Scott, The American Experience 9j_Swedish Students: Retros ect and Aftermath, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, |§56. 2, Richard D. Lambert and Marvin Bressler, Indian Students 21.21 American Campus, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, l956. 3. Ralph L. Beals and Nonnan D. Humphrey, Mg Frontier to Learning -- Mexican Students in the United States, MinneapoTTE: ThefiUniversity of Minnesota, 1957. 38 and of the case histories of 26 students who had returned to Mexico. Ten of the students still studying in the United States and ll who had returned were studied intensively. All of the studies relied primarily but not exclusively on prolonged personal interviews, and were particu- larly concerned with the relation of cultural background to the student's adjustment in the United States and to his readjusonent after return to his home country. One of the important values of studying foreign students from specific cultures is the advantage of cultural inSight in interpreting and evaluating responses of the partiCipants. Morris'1 study, the last of the five directed by the Social Science Research Council, calls attention to this important consideration in cross-cultural studies: . .. there is such a great difference between the kinds of data to be presented here and the data with which we struggled in an earlier study (reference to Scott's study of Swedish students). There, we dealt intimately with forty students from one cultural area, the Scandinavian countries. The members of the staff ... knew each stu— dent personally, spent many hours talking over problems, saw students in social situations and in academic diffi- culties, counseled them about immigration, money, and experiences with American girlfriends. In that study we had the feeling that we knew in detail, and from the inSide, the culture they came from, and the problems and satis— factions arising from their stay here. This kind of knowl- edge stands comfortably behind each statement of interpre- tation made about the results of the study.(2) In addition to the numerous Specific conclusions relating to the particular cultural group which they studied, the authors of the three studies shared several common conclusions: 1. Morris, 92, git. 2. Ibid., p. ix. 39 l) The American visit does not become explicit until the student returns to his home country and resumes his life in his own occupation, family, and community. 2) Although easing the cultural adjustments in toning in contact with a new culture is a worthy humani- tarian goal, the researchers could find no sub— stantial evidence that ease of difficulty of physi- cal adjustment, comfort, or discomfort, was sub- stantially related to subsequent adjustment here in the U. S. or after return to their home country. 3) Those aspects of the American experience that do not survive the long voyage home are illusory gains -- or losses -- in the cross-cultural educational process.1 Another specific conclusion from the Lambert and Bressler study is that some of the traditional applied courses in engineering, architecture, and agriculture can and should be refashioned to more adequately meet the unique needs of students from underdeveloped countries. Although these courses would start from different assumptions of available resources, they need not be inferior in any way to present offerings.2 Wide differences between nationality groups were found in problems of adjustment and characteristic responses to these problems and situations after returning. Academic problems seemed most predominant for the Scandinavians. Although these problems were also Significant for the Asians, they were overshadowed by adjustment problems. The study by the Useems3 is one of the better examples of exploring the results of a foreign education for the person, for his society, and for cross-cultural relations. Changes in the character of the individual, l. Lambert and Bressler, op. cit., p. 92. 2. Ibid., p. 99. 3. John Useem and Ruth Hill Useem, The Western-Educated Man in India: A_Study 9f_His Role and Influence:_New YEFFT'_The“Dryden Dress, 1955. 40 the use of foreign educational training in India, and the implications of foreign education for international understanding are analyzed. The Useems found that the most important residue of a foreign edu— cation was the change in the "character and outlook of the visitors." Ninety percent reported an enhancement of self-confidence, 60 percent. an enlarged vision of social life, 50 percent a discovery of India while in the West, 40 percent democratic ways of behavior. 40 percent improved methods of working, 20 percent improved methods of thinking. In general, they found these changes to be in the direction of greater self-confidence, increased social perspective, and more equalitarian types of interpersonal relations.1 The only study which interviewed the same persons both during their sojourn and after return to their home country was done by Watson and Lippitt, involving a group of German students.2 Since a principal purpose of the exchange program was development of "democratic atti- tudes in the visitors and of increased goodwill toward the United States," the research project sought to discover (1) what impact the training program had on Gennan visitors, and (2) possible ways of improving the program. The sample consisted of three succeSSive groups of German visitors, 29 persons total, who stayed in the United States for about a year. Matched samples of American students were used for compari— son. The researchers found "little change in the ideas and values which the viSitors felt were evidence of German superiority,”3 but found l. Useem and Useem, op, cit., p. ll]. 2. Dorothy Watson and Ronald Lippitt, 99. ELL- 3. mm, p. 3. 4l changes in attitude in ”non-threatening areas of difference” such as democratic government and family life. The solution of certain problems were found to be crucial in determining the amount of learning and attitude change which took place. These were: l) Achieving personal security and self-esteem in relation to the host culture. 2) Ambivalence about responsibility, authority and autonomy. 3) Transforming differences between the home culture and the host culture into learning experiences rather than alienation and withdrawal. 4) Maintaining appropriate cognitive and emotional relationships with the home country. 5) Maintaining and using the new ideas back home.1 This study sheds some light on the problem of the optimum study abroad. The authors tentatively concluded that a six-month stay was best for the long-term growth of attitudes desired by the sponsors of the Gennan program. Walton‘s conclusions regarding the compleXity and problems involved in research relating to foreign students is an appropriate summary for the studies thus far reviewed: The findings of the research on foreign students, then, are not simple and straight-forward. They are tantalizing, tentative and complex, as befitting the subject they deal with. Some of them support our fondest hopes for exchange and some do not. Some illuminate the subject wonderfully and others add to the confusion. Most do neither one nor the other. Rather they establish certain facts, clarify the social and psychological processes involved, and place the exchange experience in an historical and cultural context. Sometimes ambiguous, occasionally contradictory, the research at the very least contributes to a more precise formulation of-the questions asked so that they can more nearly be answered. If any generalization at all can be made from the research, l. Watson and Lippitt, op, £13,, pp. 59-64. 42 however, it is that the basic value of student exchange lies in what it does for the individual, both personally and professionally, and for cross-national and cross-cultural understanding in a politically fragmented world.(l) Administration 9j_Foreign Student Affairs ln_U, S, UniverSitieS One of the most obvious conclusions fron the preceding review of literature pertaining to foreign students in the United States is that foreign students do have unique problems, some in kind and some in degree, which necessitate special services for them on the campuses of United States univerSities. Many research studies and reports refer to the need for Special counseling services for foreign students. ”More cognizance should be taken of the ability of the foreign visitor to function as an independent, SOphisticated adult.“2 "Foreign students have more problems than American students in each of the categories.“3 "They (foreign students) need a great deal of freedom if they are to get the most out of a study in a foreign country. But they need some guid- ance, too, and someone to whom they can turn when problems arise.”4 "Sixty percent of the (foreign) students are getting along pretty well."5 . there should be rechecks occasionally with the more obvious problems li+ Walton, op, £15,, Introduction, p. 2. 2. Cook, Havel and Christ, 92, 913,, Part IX, p. 33. 3. U. S. Deparument of Health, Education, and Welfare, The Exchange .9: Persons: 'Afl Evaluation of the Experience and Traininq_gj_ Indian Grantees Under Fulbright and TCM Programs, New Delhi, India: *American Embassy, I953, p. 9l. 4. John Garraty and Walter Adams, From Main Street to the Left Bank: Students and Scholars Abroad, East LanSIng: Michigan State Uni- verSity Press, I959, p. I997 5. James Peterson and Martin Newmeyer, ”Problems of Foreign Students," Sociology and Social Research, 43:787-792, l948, p. 790. 43 of all students as well as specific problems of a foreign group are not being overlooked.“I Klinger2 identifies several Specific and unique needs of the foreign students, illustrating the need for professional personal (Foreign Student Advisers) designated to provide special services for foreign students. Unquestionably the need for special services for foreign students is widely recognized on American campuses. However, how these services can be carried out most effectively is an area that is still in the process of being explored and developed. We now turn our atten- tion to studies and articles which related more directly to the person generally designated to administer these services -- the Foreign Student Adviser. The term ”Foreign Student Adviser” iS defined in Chapter I of this study as a person officially designated or appointed to the faculty or staff of a United States institution of higher education with full- time responsibility for advising foreign Students and coordinating special services for them. It is pointed out that there are many persons designated as Foreign Student Adviser who have only a part-time responsibility in this area, depending on the size of the foreign stu- dent body and the commitment of the university to prOVide adequate services for foreign students. This study, however, is concerned with the Foreign Student Adviser as a full-time position, since this enables a higher degree of Specificity. l. Beebe, 93, 213:, p. 15. 2. M. Robert B. Klinger, "Foreign Student Adviser: A Necessary Pro- fession,” International Educational and Cultural Exchange, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Advisory Commission on International Educational and Cultural Affairs, Summer, T967, pp. 2l-27. 44 At a workshop conference of NAFSA a few years ago, a humorous description of the Foreign Student Adviser's job was proposed. Klinger indicates that it still bears the aura of truth. A foreign student counselor at a large university is a person who was appointed from the faculty; carries a doctor's degree in history, English, Spanish, international law, hotel management, Chinese, or divinity; and has had experience in a foreign country anywhere from 30 years in China to one day in Canada. He wears several hats: as counselor, program director, lecturer, chairman of a committee, typist, file clerk, author, pseudo-lawyer, pseudo-doctor, pseudo—psychologist, bondsman, diplomatic negotiator, bookkeeper, notary public, journalist, mimeograph operator, carpenter, janitor, and official greeter for the university of kings, shahs, queens, cabinet ministers, and professors of papyrology and fisheries. He is expected to at least say hello, goodby, and a few curses in not many more than 80 languages. lie has a painful familiarity with immigration law, income tax law, selective service law, criminal law, and civil (codes. He works in the realms of psychology, education, aanthropology, history, political science, sociology, sgeography, and international finance. His students look lJpon him as brother, uncle, father, mother, confessor, 'Friend, taskmaster, policeman, teacher, and detective. He lees whatever methods are at hand, empirically, to get as rnuch information about his students as he can in the short- est time possible. tie serves as adviser, counselor, encyclopedia, and reserv01r C)f American culture from social customs to the use of slang. Iii the university hierarchy he is either directly reporting 'tc> the president who rarely remembers his eXistence, or tn: the dean of students who has adopted him as the orphan (:hde of a distant cousin. He Signs his name dozens of 1rimes a day to reports to the Immigration Service, which, Tricidentally, hopes he doesn't know too much of their Yxegulations; and to myriad other agencies of this and other governments certifying, on the basis mostly of intuition, €13 to all facets of his students' lives. He refers, in Chesperation, in h0pe, and sometimes by deSign, to anyone VVho might be a bit less busy than he. He must remenber Several hundreds of names unfamiliar even in syllabic firvangements and must associate each name to a total per- $onality at a moment's notice. He must be able to enjoy foods of all countries, or at least appear to, to listen Vv‘ith alert appreciation to Japanese Opera, Chinese folk 'TIUSic, Indian zittars and other exotic muSic, and in fact to enter into appreciation of arts from every country. He 45 must meet with student committees, foreign student clubs, American student government, Rotaries, Rey Scouts, Women's clubs, faculty committees, and religious parleys and never appear more than an advisory ennal. Throuoh- out he must be friendly, interested, concerned, and unprejudiced. He feels like a hybrid of Poobah, a whirling dervish, and an organ player. All in all, he must be all in all.(l) This description obviously raises more questions about the Foreign Student Adviser's job than it answers. It illustrates the tremendous diversity of perceptions regarding the position, but leaves one wondering which of the many aspects are most relevant to the objectives which the Foreign Student Adviser attempts to accomplish. Implied in the humor is the description of an extremely versatile and busy individual, totally inmersed in an awesome task which he could not possibly explain to someone who would presume to take his place. As early as 1944, Dennis called attention to three possible attitudes toward the counseling of foreign students.2 He referred to a "well-worked out system, personal relations with no suggestion of a 'system,‘ and complete indifference." It appears that the "well-worked out system” still remains more a goal than an actuality. Shortly after the founding of the National ASSOCiation of Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA) in l948. C. L. Linton, the first preSident, with assistance from other members of the organization, wrote the first 3 Handbook for counselors of foreign students. It was an experimental l. Klinger, £2, ____ , pp. 2l- 22. 2. William H. Dennis, Counseling and GuLdan£e for the Fgreig__ Student, Washington, D. C. Department of State, Gov tPrinting Office, I944. 3. C. L. Linton and others, Handbook for Counselors of Students iron -_ ————_-—-u_-—-‘ I. Abroad, Experiment Edition, New York: National ASSOCiation of Foreign Student Advisers, 1949. 46 edition providing some direction for Foreign Student Advisers in the early stages of professional development. It has since been rewritten and published in a sectional notebook fonnat. The position of Foreign Student Adviser has generally been con- sidered within the scope of Student Personnel Services, as evidenced in the first booklet on counseling foreign students.1 The Committee on Student Personnel Services, chaired by E. G. Williamson of the University of Minnesota, appointed a Subcommittee to "summarize the best thinking of its members on the problems of the foreign student." The seriousness with which they took their task is suggested in the beginning paragraphs:2 During the first half of the academic year 1948-49 a total of 26,759 foreign students from l5l countries, colonies, and dependencies were enrolled in l,l15 colleges, universities, and technical schools in every state and territory of the United States. This group constitutes only 1.1 percent of the students enrolled in univerSities and colleges in the United States, but it may well present more possibilities in terms of world leadership than does the remaining 98.9 percent. These foreign students are key men and women on our campuses, yet relatively few efforts have been made to assure them optimum conditions for seeking their ob- jectives. At a time when even American students are bemoaning the lack of faculty-student relationship, it is doubly important to learn what is happening to the foreign student as he lives his student life in unfamiliar surroundings. Little has been published regarding our students from abroad, but their growing importance can be gauged by the rapid increase in the number of persons at colleges and univerSities servung as advisers to foreign students. l. Theodore C. Blegen and others, Eounseling,§g:eign SEEQEQEE’ Washington, D. C.: American Countil on ducation Studies, Series VI - Student Personnel Work - No. l5, Vol- XIV, September, l950. 2. Ibid., p. i. 47 Blegen and others approached the counseling of foreign students from a practical perspective beginning with the arrival of the student and progressing to problems relating to housing, finances, health, federal regulations, English language profiCiency, vocational coun- seling, and institutional orientation.1 The pamphlet is written pri- marily for persons who are relatively new to the field of educational exchange, and is characterized by a simple explanatory style. It is significant to note that, at the time the pamphlet was being written, there were still less than 20 full-time Foreign Student Advisers in the United States, and the overwhelming majority of persons who carried the title were primarily involved in teaching or administrative reSponSi- bility. Neal, in a report to the National Conference of Foreign Student Advisers in March, 1949, pointed out that foreign student counseling on most campuses is done on a part-time baSis by an individual whose schedule is crowded with other duties, both teaching and administrative.2 Neal's survey also indicated that the primary qualifications of the Foreign Student Adviser were considered to be counseling and personnel backgr0und in about 30 percent of the cases; training and experience with foreign cultures in about 39 percent; and both-qualifications in abOut 29 percent of the cases.3 Blegen perceives of counseling as generic to the Foreign Student Adviser's work: l. Blegen and others, £p_. _c__i_t_., pp. 15-33. 2. Joe W. Neal, "Preliminary Report on ReSults of A Survey on the SStatus of the Foreign Student Adviser," Mimeographed, University ()f Texas, March, T949. 30 Ibid., pp. 2’3. 48 The primary task of the foreign student adviser is pro- fessional counseling. It involves interviewing and counseling foreign students who seek aSSistance in the solution of their personal, family, vocational, and educational problems, as well as problems relating to currency exchange, visas, passports, government regu- lations, and other legal and technical matters. It includes also Specialized services to all students fran other countries in matters of admission, college requirements, housing, finances, orientation to American culture, social regulations, and language problems. It means systematic and periodic interviews to obtain information about the foreign student's background and individual need for guidance in a new and unfamiliar culture. It means analysis and appraisal of the Status, liabilities, and assets of each foreign student. It means giving assistance in planning his educational and recreational program so that he may adjust as effectively as possible to a new environment.(l) As early as 1952, NAFSA had appointed a continuing subcommittee to study the status of the Foreign Student Adviser, and the committee reported what it considered elements of an ideal campus organization should be: The office of the foreign student adviser (or some other similar title) Should be located With or directly under that of the university president or chief administrative official. Within the adviser's office Should be centered and coordinated all international educational actiVities of the campus, including foreign students, Fulbright, Chinese Aid, Smith-Mundt, Point Four, foreign government relations, and all international projects involving the exchange of persons. Budgetarily this office should be financed on a per unit basis of approximately fifty dollars per foreign Student per long session. There should be additional provision for sumner tenns and all other separate actiVities.2 Obviously this committee report was unheeded by universities Since there is Virtually no such organizational pattern in the country today. l. Blegen, £2, £l£,, p. 48. 2. iJoe W. Neal, "The Office of the Foreign Student Adviser,” Institute of International Education News Bulletin, XXVII, No. 5, (February 1, I952), p. 38. 49 Basing his observations on the study of foreign students studying in institutions of higher education in the greater New York City Area, Beebe drew several conclusions regarding the work of the f0r8lgn Student Adviser:1 1) 5) 6) The Foreign Student Adviser should be a mature man, since most foreign students are sensitive about status and a mature man as Foreign Student AdViser would represent the desirable symbol of authority. The Foreign Student Adviser should structure his office to Create an atmosphere of cordiality for foreign students. Because of the foreign student's reluctance to ask questions, the Foreign Student AdViser should say a good deal more than he does in the first interView With the foreign student. The Foreign Student AdViser Should make every attempt to keep his institution informed of the nature of his work and to encourage maXimum support and interest of the administration. The Foreign Student Adviser's Office should prov1de a place for intimate counseling or relaxed conversation. "It appears that many schools have moved rapidly t0ward a concentration of tasks on one man but without any commitment to make the task pOSSible for the man to accomplish." DuBois raises the question of the varying functions which the Foreign Student Adviser can or Should undertake.2 She indicates that the answer will depend to a large extent upon the local campus and the particular individual concerned. In a larger, more complex campus, indIVidual counseling becomes more important as a deVice than compensates for the 1“Personality and elaborate managerial structure of our large institutions. She also Suggests some of the other types of difficulties which may beset l. Beebe, 92. £_i__t-., pp. 8-ll. 2. DuBois, 9p. cit., pp. l7l-l72. ‘ 50 the foreign student counselor or adviser in a large university: On a larger campus or one on which foreign students may number a hundred or more, the need fer a f ll-timn adviser who is responsible for foreign student affairs becames more evident. The complicated minutiae that beset foreign student affairs are often eagerly placed on the Shoulders of such an officer, who is generally a member of the admini- strative staff rather than of the faculty. This, too, has its drawbacks. A foreign student adViser in this context may be able to provide the needed adVice, but he can scarcely be expected to discharge competently the individual academic and personal counseling that may be required. His mere presence on the campus may encourage a buSy faculty to assign tasks to him that properly they cannot or should not dodge. It then becomes the adviser's job to persuade the faculty to assume their appropriate roles.(l) DuBois' point regarding the qualifications and placement of a Foreign Student Adviser is of vital importance, and will be studied in a later section of this study. Should the Foreign Student Adviser be identified primarily as an administrator? a counselor? a member of the faculty? Forrest G. Moore, who carried a major responsibility in the Blegen study,2 has long been a strong advocate of developing a profeSSional approach to the counseling of foreign students. Moore identified three objectives (or aims) of a foreign student program, ”all directed at the major purpose of aiding the student to adjust to his new environment so that his educational devel0pment may proceed at the maximum rate con- sistent with his own increased understanding of himself, his environment, his aims, and his abilities."3 l) Interaction must take place between the c0unselor and the student so that satisfactory adjustments to the student's problems are being made. DuBois, £2, cit., p. 172. 2» Blegen, £3.‘£L£. 3. fforrest G. Moore, "Trends in Counseling the Foreign Student,” ILBDdS 'ln Student Personnel Work, E. G, Williamson (ed.), Minneapolis: niverSity of Minnesota Press, I949, pp. 183-l90. 51 2) Manipulation by the counselor of the environment to assist him in his task. AS a part of the administrative structure of the university, the counselor provides the integrative force to pull together and make maximum use of the various programs for the foreign student. 3) The counselor, through the foreign student group, attempts to make adequate provision for the education of campus and community to t e values of this group in the community.(l) In discussing the scope of a comprehensive program of counseling foreign students, Moore notes: "It is probably somewhat surprising to learn that the foreign student counselor may have been working with a student for two or three years without having had a formal interview."2 The committee on "Counseling the Foreign Student" at the Waldenwoods Seminar3 perceived of the problems brought to the counselor of foreign students as being classified in one of three areas: (1) personal; (2) deveTOpmental; and (3) situational. Under the "personal" classifi- cation, the committee grouped such aSpects as personality structure, motivation, expectations, attitudes, cultural and national influences, and personal adjustment. DeveTOpmental factors included the adjustment phase of the student on the U-Curve, position in his educational career, and status of self and country. Situational factors included such areas as housing, health and safety, language, finances, administrative and academic setting, and social contacts. This kind of classification was helpful in reviewing research and literature relating to counseling foreign students, but it is of questionable value in developing a phiIOSOphy and techniques for counseling foreign students, since there is so much 1. Moore, pp. £13,, pp. l83—l84. 2. Ibid., p. 185. 3- Mestenhauser, pp. £112.. PP- 64‘59- 52 overlapping between the classifications. One important conclusion which can be drawn from reviewing the several studies cited by the committee in the area of counseling foreign students is that there is still very little known about cross-cultural counseling. Major Contributions pp_£pp_Study The major contribution to this study is the l96l publication, IDS. Status of Foreign Student Advising_i nU. S, Universities and Colleges, by Homer D. Higbee.1 It is a report of a year-long study of services rendered to foreign students by institutions of higher education in the United States and a profile of the people primarily responsible for these services. The study consisted of three major parts: I) A written questionnaire was distributed to l,073 persons in United States institutions of higher education who were known to serve in the position '"of Foreign Student Adviser or its equivalent. There were 679 (63 percent) replies which could be used in machine tabulation. 2) A second questionnaire was mailed to a selected sample of 620 foreign students. Names for the sample were selected from the foreign student rosters of the 43 institutions where personal interviews were conducted. There were 3T8 (51 percent) responses. 3) Personal interviews were conducted at 43 selected campuses. The 43 campuses represented four different size ranges of foreign student population which were utilized in the study. A total of 220 interviews were conducted according to a schedule at each university visited. Persons interviewed included: president or equivalent administrative officer, highest academic officer, Foreign Student Adviser, supervisor of the Foreign Student Adviser, Director of Admissions, Dean of Students, and others involved in the foreign student program. I Homer D. Higbee, The Status 9_f Foreign Student AdviSing _i__n United States Universities and Colleges, East Lansing: Institute of Research 0" ijverseas Programs, Michigan State UniverSity, l96l. 53 Higbee designates the intent of the study: .. . to survey the range and scope of services provided for foreign students at institutions (of higher education) in the United States as they exist today; it presents a pro- file of the pe0ple primarily responsible for providing these services; it attempts to discover the personal motivations of those in foreign student work; and it attempts to discover the basic rationale for these services. l Perhaps significantly, Higbee does not attempt to define Foreign Student Adviser. Possibly this-is due to the tremendous diversity of the persons who responded to the survey as a Foreign Student Adviser. Out of the 679 respondents, 84 percent were spending one-fourth time or less as Foreign Student Adviser. Only 3.5 percent of the respondents reported spending full-time on foreign student affairs. These figures are so striking that it seems very doubtful that one could devise a definition which would comprehend the vast majority of respondents whose major identity is obviously something other than Foreign Student Adviser. One of the major reasons that the current study (of the writer) is confined to full-time Foreign Student Advisers, i.e., persons whose major identity is clearly in the area of foreign student affairs, is the exponential number of variables that must be considered in studying a group of individuals who have virtually no other commonali- ties than a mutual interest or responsibility for one or more foreign students. Another major reason for this study is lack of written guidelines, within institutions, regarding the work of the Foreign Student Adviser. Higbee reports: "It is not common for institutions to indicate in writing their concept of the program and responsibilities of the Foreign l. Higbee, pp. 9119., p. XVI. II III ’29. 9'1 i \‘I‘li 54 Student Adviser's office."] He also points out that 32 percent of the respondents had never discussed their program with the president or next highest officer. Higbee's identification of 16 areas of service which Foreign Student Advisers generally offer is helpful in giving an overview of the Foreign Student Adviser's work. Of course, the local situation seems to account for variations in emphasis on different services. The following tables, taken from Higbee's report2 list the 16 services which Foreign Student Advisers may be involved in and also indicate the degree of involvement in Specific areas. TABLE I-4 FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISERS' INVOLVEMENTS IN SERVICES OFFERED FOREIGN STUDENTS 3.? 5’ 3‘ IE IS IS 317. 17. ”27. e (DC C. '0: (1) r—0 0 GJO 3- 0.0. C). S-D. CU . 8'63 08 223 '33: Sen/ice on: 20: mo: 20 Admissions 20% 18% 53% 1% Registration ' 22% 19% 48% 3% Immigration-Visa Assistance 53% 3% 14% 17% Employment 19% 12% 47% 13% Academic Advising 26% 13% 49% 3% Programming Foreign Visitors 19% 11% 32% 26% Housing Foreign Students 17% 22% 40% 11% Arranging Scholarships 21% 16% 40% 14% Arranging Loans 16% 15% 40% 19% Discipline 19% 14% ‘ 46% 10% Assistance to U.S. Students Planning to Study Abroad 25% 16% 20% 29% Community and Family Contacts 45% 6% 26% 14% Counseling on Personal Problems 49% 4% 35% 3% Information Giving and CorreSpondence 54% 4% 22% 10% Fonnal Orientation Program 23% 8% 27% 32% Social Activities 34% 8% 33% 18% lifiHigbee, pp, £i£,, p. 9. 2. Ibid., pp. 11 and 16 respectively. TABLE I-5 PERCENTAGE OF FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISERS IN EACH FOREIGN STUDENT ENROLLMENT CATEGORY HAVING TOTAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR ENUMERATED SERVICE 55 Number pf_Eoreign Students Enrolled "a '7. :3 3 :3 g g. 3 3 s ‘1’... on— ‘S “5 ‘8 00 OO O E C") Oo\° 0&2 o\2 IS lfi TR TR 2% , S; Sé —: PB IS SerVice "7" "'~/ °J~r r-~r ~“~r Admissions 7% 12% 24% 19% 22% Registration 7% 15% 24% 23% 25% Immigration-Visa Assistance 85% 78% 66% 55% 44% Employment 1 7% 7% 20% 21% 24% Academic Advising 4% 7% 25% 29% 14% Programming Foreign Visitors 15% 12% 25% 22% 19% Housing Foreign Students 26% 14% 22% 16% 19% Arranging Scholarships 22% 24% 21% ' 20% 23% Arranging Loans 26% l9% 19% 15% 16% Discipline 11% 21% . 23% 20% 20% Assistance to U.S. Students Planning to Study Abroad 26% 21% 29% 19% 30% Community and Family Contacts 33% 50% 55% 43% 44% Counseling on Personal Problems 60% 57% 56% 58% 46% Infonnation Giving and Correspondence 67% 76% 64% 52% 47% Fonnal Orientation Program 26% 41% 29% 24% 17% Social Activities 44% 45% 42% 32% 29% One of the surprising findings of Higbee's study is the apparent paradox regarding the role of the Foreign Student AdViser: It is paradoxical that there should be both a high level of interest and enthusiasm for seeking a more satisfactory role definition and concurrent general satisfaction with the present Foreign Student Adviser role. The whole area of thought about the role of the Foreign Student Adviser and the program he should provide is transfixed in what might be called suspended animation. Great energy is expended to identify a satisfactory role, but there seems to be a barrier to thinking beyond a certain point. One prominent IIJIIII 56 Dean of Students, the superior of the Foreign Student Adviser at his institution, aptly described the situation saying, "We seem to have come to a certain point in our thinking about the foreign student program, then lost our imaginativeness, our facility for social inventive- ness." (1) Perhaps, as Higbee suggests, one barrier to role reconsideration was the inability of Foreign Student Advisers to think beyond a service- oriented program. This may well be the key to the paradox. Possibly Foreign Student Advisers are so completely immersed in day-to-day untangling of problems presented to them they never have time or energy to perceive of the bigger picture. There may be another clue in the insistence of many part-time Foreign Student Advisers to retain their primary identity as a scholar 1p_their major field. The status of the Foreign Student Adviser is apparently also related to the paradox. As Higbee points out: Further, the confused role of the Foreign Student Adviser at most institutions places him on the fringe of both the academic and administrative communities, thus creating an uncertain status. He is "in" with neither group. It might also be suggested that the traditional image of the Foreign Student Adviser held by his academic colleagues presents a barrier to easy communication on the basis of common interests. That image is one related to the conduct of a service- orientedTprogram with a more- -than- -necessary amount of aggressive humanitarianism. Such an image does not serve to provide a basis of common interest with the academic community_.(2) (Note: Underlining is done—by the writer.) To the extent that this last observation is true, there seems to be a definite stereotype which the Foreign Student Adviser either advertently or inadvertently has manipulated himself into. The implications for the role of the Foreign Student Adviser within the academic community seem clear. F. Higbee, pp. 9113., p. 35. 2. Ibid., p. 38. [ill I: I'll) 57 At least one further observation from Higbee's study is relevant for the present study: In a majority of institutions the Foreign Student Adviser's function, as distinguished from the person who performs the function on a part-time or extra-duty baSis, is not given high-level academic or administrative priority. It is not a policy influencing function, but tends instead to be viewed as a line-type operation.(l) Taken together, these observations serve to bring into clearer focus the significant differences which must exist between a Foreign Student Adviser whose full-time responsibility is in foreign student affairs and the "Foreign Student Adviser" who is in reality something quite different, i.e., a language professor or academic dean. Under a grant from the Dean Langmuir Foundation, the National Association of Foreign Student Advisers appointed a national ad-hoc committee of individual distinguished educators to set forth their recommendations for an immediate strengthening of educational exchange programs at American institutions of higher learning. The committee, under the chainmanship of Dean E. G. Williamson of the University of Minnesota, became known as the "Committee on the Foreign Student in American Colleges and Universities."2 Their report makes specific recommendations in areas of need revealed by Higbee's study. The major thrust of the report is to Specify the obligations and responsibilities of American colleges and universities in the area of educational exchange. The report puts it rather strongly: l. Higbee, pp, £33,, p. 47. 2. The College, the University, and the Foreign Student, Committee on the Foreign Student in American Colleges and UniverSities, New York, 1963. 58 The basic point, however, is that those programs cannot be strengthened in any meaningful or lasting way unless they are seen in the context of the total international activities, at home and abroad, of any given institution. Those international activitips in turn must be placed in the context of the raison d'etre of the university.(l) The report makes it very clear that the Foreign Student Adviser should be a part of the faculty: "The foreign student adviser works with the faculty, and he must be one of them. And his role, no less than that of the faculty, is to educate the foreign students.“2 One of the major sources of guidance, especially for newcomers to the field of educational exchange, is the NAFSA Handbook for Foreign Student Advisers.3 The Handbook consists of 11 individual sections dealing with different aspects of educational exchange, all of which may be kept in a loose-leaf binder. From time to time various sections are up-dated to keep the Handbook timely and useful. The section (Part I) most closely related to this study was revised in December, 1965. Putman presents a history of academic study abroad and the development of the professional organ for Foreign Student Advisers (NAFSA).4 Also included in Part I are the goals of educational exchange from the perspective of the foreign student, his country, the United States, and the educational institutions of the United States. By comparing the four lists, Putman draws several generalizations: l. The College, the University, and the Foreign Student, pp, £33,, p. 1. 2. Ibid., p. 21. 3. Handbook for Foreign Student Advisers, Parts I-XI, New York: National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. 4. Ivan Putman, Jr., "The Foreign Student Adviser and His Institution in International Student Exchange,” 1965, Part I of Handbook for Foreign Student Advisers. pp, £33, 59 l) The education of the foreign Student is very high on all four lists. The educational experience is central to the whole enterprise, and it must be successful if any other purpose is to be realized for any of the interested parties. 2) Each list contains a mixture of altruistic and self- interest motives. 3) There may well be conflict among the paramount interests of the student, his Sponsor, his country, the United States, and the college or university.(1) In Part II, Putman identifies and defines several services which the United States institution of higher education should provide to meet the needs of foreign students: Overseas correspondence by air mail Pre-admission information Selection and Admission Services Reception of new foreign students Housing Orientation Food Service to accommodate foreign student needs Information and guidance regarding government regulations English language instruction Academic advising Definite academic standards Financial Aids and advising on financial matters Health services Personal counseling Campus and community social opportunities Pre-departure orientation Alumni relations extended to include foreign students2 Putman's section of the Handbook also lists a number of helpful suggestions for the Foreign Student Adviser in developing his program, including a lengthy list of suggestive functions which the Foreign Stu- dent Adviser may be engaged in. The nafsa newsletter is a monthly publication of the National Asso- ciation for Foreign Student Affairs, which contains numerous helps for 1. Putman, pp, £33,, p. 10. 2. Ibid., pp. ll-l6. 60 the members of the organization. NAFSA president, Albert Sims, suggests one of the important functions of the newsletter: We are practitioners with a variety of arts and skills exercised on behalf of such students. If the organi- zation is to serve its basic purpose, we must find a place within it both for the improvement of these specific arts and skills and for the union of our common interests in the students for whom they exist.1 Literature Related 39 the Critical Incident Technique Origin and Development 9f_the Technique The idea of the Critical Incident Technique was conceived primarily through the efforts of John C. Flanagan and associates while working with the Aviation Psychology Program of the United States Army Air Force during the second World War. Their assignment was to develop procedures for the selection and classification of aircrews. The antecedent of the Critical Incident Technique grew out of their attempt to set up a systematic approach to analyZing and synthesiZing observations of on- the-Job behavior of pilots and airplane crew members. Flanagan states: The critical incident technique ... can best be regarded as an outgrowth of studies in the Aviation Psychology Program of the U. S. Army Air Forces in World War II.(2) In l944 a series of studies was planned to analyze combat leadership in the U.S.A.A.F. The most important feature of these studies was the systematic effort, on a large scale, to gather specific incidents of effective or ineffective behavior regarding a designated activity. l. nafsa newsletter, Vol. XIX, No. 4, Washington, D. C.: National ‘Assoc1ation for Foreign Student Affairs, January, 1968, p. l. 2. John C. Flanagan, "The Critical InCident Technique,“ Psychologjcal Bulletin, Vol. 5l, No. 4, July, l94l, p. 328. _—' 61 Persons asked to report incidents were given criteria for their obser- vations: The instructions asked the combat veterans to repOit incidents observed by them that involved behavior which was especially helpful or inadequate in accomplishing the assigned mission.(l) In the study of combat leadership, several thousand incidents relating to the designated activity were collected and analyzed, resulting in a set of descriptive categories called ”critical require- ments" of combat leadership. Gradually a theoretical framework for this approach to studying job requirements was developed. The Aviation Psychology Program Research Reports contain a good discussion of this theoretical basis: The principal objective of job analysis procedures should be the detennination of critical requirements. These requirements include those which have been demonstrated p~ to have made the difference between success and failure in carrying out an important part of the job assigned in a significant number of instances. Too often, statements regarding job requirements are merely lists of all the desirable traits of human beings. These are practically no help in selecting, classifying, or training individuals for specific jobs. To obtain valid infonnation regarding the truly critical requirements for success in a specific assignment, procedures were developed in the Aviation Psychology Program for making systematic analyses of cause of good and poor performance. Essentially, the procedure was to obtain first-hand reports or reports from objective records, of satisfactory and v unsatisfactory execution of the task assigned. The cooperating individual described a situation in which success or failure was determined by specific reported V causes. This procedure was found very effective in obtaining information from individuals concerning their own errors or their superiors, from supervisors with respect to their subordinates, and also from partiCipants with respect to co-participants.(2) l. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique? pp, p13. 2. John C. Flanagan, The Aviation Psychology Program 1p the Army Air Forces, Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office TAAF Aviation Psychology Program Research Report No. l), 1947, pp. 273-274. 62 It was not until after World War II that the Critical Incident Technique was formally developed and given its present name. A group of the psy- chologists who had worked in the U.S.A.A.F. Aviation Psychology Program established the American Institute for Research. Flanagan stated the aim of the organization as: . the systematic study of human behavior through a coordinated program of scientific research that follows the same general principles developed in the Aviation Psychology Program(l) In addition to his work with the American Institute for Research, Flanagan had opportunity to direct the theses of several advanced graduate students at the University of Pittsburgh. Since many of these studies attempted to determine the critical requirements for a specific occupational group or activity, the Critical Incident Technique was adapted to a variety of situations, resulting in new contributions to the technique. In l949, Flanagan outlined the methodology of the Critical Inci- dent Technique2 and stated the necessary requirements for its use.3 The first complete explanation of the development, fundamental prinCiples, various applications, and current status of the technique was written by Flanagan almost eight years after he and his colleagues began their systematic formulation of principles and procedures.4 Flanagan describes the technique in the following manner: l. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," pp. £13., p. 329. 2. Flanagan, Critical Requirements for Research Personnel: A Study of Observed Behavibrs of PersonnET_lp_Research Laboratories, Pittsburgh: iAmerican Institute for Research, March, l949. 3. The requirements are described in detail in Chapter III. 4. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique,” pp, p13. 63 The critical incident technique consists of a set of procedures for collecting direct observations of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical problems ard developirg broad psychological principles. The critical incident technique outlines procedures for collecting observed incidents having special significance and meeting systematically defined criteria.(l) There are five basic steps included in the Critical Incident Technique procedure which are most commonly used:2 l) Detennination of the general aim of the activity. 2) Development of plans and Specifications for collecting factual incidents regarding the activity. 3) Collection of the data. 4) Analysis of the data. 5) Interpretation of the data analysis and reporting of the statement of the requirements of the activity. These five steps will be explained and illustrated in Chapter III as applied to this study. Applications pf the Technique Flanagan grouped the various applications of the Critical Incident Technique under nine headings or functional areas:3 l) Measures of typical performance (criteria) 2) Measures of proficiency (standard samples) 3) Training 4) Selection and classification 5) Job design and purification com—a, Flanagan, l'The Critical Incident Technique," pp. ppt., p. 327. Ibid. Ibid., p. 346. 64 6) Operating procedures 7) Equipment design 8) Motivation and leadership (attitudes) 9) Counseling and psychotherapy Flanagan identifies specific studies to illustrate each area of appli- cation.1 It should be noted that these nine headings represent studies that were conducted prior to l953 and that they are not mutually exclusive, i.e., some studies involve several types of applications. Furthennore, these types of application are not intended to be inclusive. Flanagan says, "The variety of situations in which the collection of critical incidents will prove of value has only been partially explored.”2 The Critical Incident Technique has been utilized to study many different occupations including life insurance agency heads? research personnel,4 l. Flanagan, ”The Critical Incident Technique," pp:pit,, pp. 346-354. 2. Ibid., p. 346. 3. R. L. Weislogel, "Critical Requirements for Life Insurance Agency Heads," University pf Pittsburgh_Bulletin, l952, Vol. 48, pp. 300-305, (abstract of unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, l952). 4. Mary H. Weislogel, Procedures for Evaluating Research Personnel with 1 Performance Record pf Critical Incidents, PittsEGrgh: American Institute fOr Researc , 65 dentists,1 retail sales personnel,2 shop foremen,3 bookkeepers,4 and pilot instructors.5 Since Flanagan and associates who helped develop the Critical Inci- dent Technique are psychologists, it is to be expected that the technique would be widely utilized in the field of psychology. Allen6 studied critical requirements of interpersonal behavior. Smit7 studied the critical requirements for instructors of general psychology courses. Goldfarb8 used the Critical Incident Technique to establish areas of change l. R. F. Wagner, "A Study of the Critical Requirements for Dentists," University of Pittsburgh Bulletin, l950, Vol. 47, pp. 33l-339, (abstract of unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1950). 2. J. D. Folley, Jr., "Development of a List of Critical Requirements for Retail Sales Personnel from the Standpoint of Customer Satisfactions," (unpublished master's thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1953). 3. R. B. Finkle, "A Study of the Critical Requirements of Foremanship," University pf_Pittsburgh Bulletin, 1950, Vol. 46, pp. 29l—297, (abstract of unpublished doctoral dissertation). 4. Charlotte I. Nevins, "An Analysis of Reasons for the Success or Failure of Bookkeepers in Sales Companies,” (unpublished master's thesis, University of Pittsburgh, l949). 5. R. L. Krumm, "Critical Requirements of Pilot Instructors," USAF Human Resources Research Center, Tech. Rep., l952, No. 52-l. 6. C. D. Allen, "Critical Requirements in Interpersonal BehaVior,” (unpublished thesis, Princeton University, l950). 7. Jo Anne Smit, "A Study of the Critical Requirements for Instructors of General Psychology Courses," University p: Pittsburgh Bulletin, Vol. 48, 1952, pp. 279-284 (abstract). 8. A. Goldfarb, "Use of the Critical Incident Technique to Establish Areas of Change Accompanying Psychotherapy: II. Relationship to Diagnostic Group," (unpublished master's theSis, University of Pittsburgh, 1952). 66 accompanying psychotherapy. Eilbert1 used the Critical Incident Technique to study emotional immaturity. Use pf_the Critical Incident Technique 1p the Field p: Education Several positions in the field of education have been investigated by utilizing the Critical Incident Technique. Domas,2 Jensen,3 Merritt,4 Goldin,5 Blank,6 and Roth7 studied elements of behaVior of public school teachers which had significant effect on designated aspects of their l. L. R.Eilbert, "A Study of Emotional Immaturity Utilizing the Critical Incident Technique," University pf_Pittsburgh Bulletin, Vol. 49, l953, pp. l99-204 (abstract). 2. S. J. Domas, Re ort pf_an Exploratocy_Study pf Teacher Competence, New England School DevelEpment Council, Cambridge, Massachusetts, l950. 3. A. C. Jensen, "Determining Critical Requirements for Teachers," Journal pj_Experimental Education, Vol. 20, l95l, pp. 79-86. 4. Edith P. Merritt, "Critical Competencies for Elementary Teachers in Selected Curriculum Areas," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1955). 5. M. Goldin, "Behaviors Related to Effective Teaching," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of WisconSin, l957). 6. Lane 8. Blank, ”Critical Incidents in the Behavior of Secondary School Physical Education Instructors," The Research anrterly, Vol. 29, March, l958, pp. l-6. 7. Lois H. Roth, ”Criteria for the Selection of SuperviSing Teachers Using the Critical Incident Technique," qurnal pj_Teacher Edu- cation, Vol. 12, l96l, pp. 476-48l. 67 work. Sternloff,1 Robson,2 Kirk,3 and Dunn4 studied critical require- ments of school superintendents using the Critical Incident Technique. Job requirements for secondary school principals were studied by Phillips,5 Harris,6 and Walters.7 Other areas of education which have been studied by use of the Critical Incident Technique are school board-community relationships,8 1. Robert E. Sternloff, "The Critical Requirements for School Admini- strators Based Upon an Analysis of Critical Incidents," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1953). 2. Howard N. Robson, "Success and Failure of Small School Superintendents," a publication of the Curriculum and Research Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, l956. 3. George V. Kirk, "The Critical Requirements for Public School Superintendents," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1959). 4. Bruce J. Dunn, "An Analysis and Identification of Instructional Leadership Acts as Performed and Perceived by the Superintendent of Schools,” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, l964). 5. H. E. Phillips, "Crucial Behaviors of Elementary Principals in the Improvement of Instruction," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Standford University, l955). 6. X. J. Harris, "Critical Requirements for the Principalship in Georgia as Observed by Superintendents of Schools," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, l955). 7. Thomas W. Walters, "The Job of the High School PrinCipal as Perceived by California City Superintendents," (unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, Stanford University, 1955). 8. John E. Corbally, Jr., "A Study of the Critical Elements of School Board-Community Relations,” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, l955). ; /_ 68 school board membership,1 the school public relations process,2 and in- service training.3 Traux4 studied effective and ineffective performance of secondary school counselors. The critical incidents used in the study were reported by school administrators, teachers, counselor trainers, state directors of guidance, guidance supervisors, and by counselors themselves. Traux grouped effective and ineffective acts of counselors into seven major cate- gories. King5 also used the Critical Incident Technique to identify the aspects of the behavior of secondary school counselors which were regarded as effective or ineffective by teachers. He was able to group these aspects of behavior under four categories. 1. Richard E. Barnhart, "The Critical Requirements for School Board Membership Based Upon an Analysis of Critical Incidents," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, l952). 2. Sylvia Ciernick, "The Development and Use of a Conceptual Scheme for Analyzing the School Public Relations Process," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, l962). 3. Jack W. Fleming, I'The Critical Incident Technique as an Aid to In- Service Training," American Journal pj_Mental Deficiency, Vol. 67, July, l962, pp. 4l-52. 4. William E. Traux, "A Comparison of Behavior Factors which Distinguish Between Effective and Ineffective Performance of Public School Counselors," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, l953). 5. William B. King, "Certain Critical Requirements for the Secondary School Counselor Determined from an Analysis of Critical Incidents Reported by Teachers," (unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, l956). 69 A study by Rodgers,1 in which he investigated the critical aspects of the function of the Student Personnel Dean, has similar structure and methodology to the present study. The Foreign Stuuent AdViser may be compared to the Student Personnel Dean in areas as range and kinds of responsibilities. Little had been done prior to Rodgers' study to identify the aSpects of Student Personnel Deans' BehaVior which bore a significant relationship to his success or failure. Rodgers grouped the critical elements he had extracted from critical incidents into seven critical areas of behavior. These were: Area I Communicated Effectively with all People Contacted. Area II Counseled Students on all Phases of their Conduct and Problems. Area III Developed Cooperative Relationships with all People Contacted. Area IV Diagnosed and Referred to Pr0per Agencies Psychologically or Emotionally Disturbed Students. Area V Investigated Both Individual and Group Actions which Violated Institutional or Civil Rules. Area VI Provided Leadership and Infonnation to Both Individuals and Groups. Area VII Worked with Various Groups to Assist them in Policy Making.(2) Rodgers also found twelve categories of problems which confronted the Student Personnel Dean: l. Afi_- Academic General deals with the development of campus academic assistance programs, student-faculty relations, l. Allan W. Rodgers, "An Investigation of the Critical Aspects of the Function of the Student Personnel Dean as Seen by HlS Professional Peers Using the Critical Incident Technique,” (unpublished doctoral thesis, Michigan State University, l963). 2. Ibid., pp. 6l-65. 70 and individual students in general academic matters. These are matters which affect the relationships between students and faculty, affect relationships between faculty members, but are not directly related to the curriculum or instructional program. Discipline includes all cases relating to students who have in some way violated institutional regu- lations or civil law. The cases are: academic dis- honesty, drinking, use of explosives, physical hazing of students, fighting, morals, theft, traffic, trespassing, and other incidents of discipline which occur only once and, therefore, are classified as miscellaneous. ‘ Ip;Service Training_includes establishing and conducting work shops, information sessions, and retreats for training residence hall peers or student government. The purpose of these in—service training programs is to provide additional information about areas of concern to the Dean and the recipient campus group. Mob Behavior is centered around development and imple- mentation of policy to prevent, to control, and to deal with students who are involved in unauthorized group activities. Personal Problems relates to problems of indiVidual students which are personal in nature, but which do not indicate emotional or psychological upset. These problems are basically academic, financial, social, or vocational. Policy Interpretation involves the interpretation of existing and new college rules and regulations to fra- ternity groups, to student government, to residence hall peers, to individual students, and to faculty peers. Policy Making_refers to cooperative policy making where the Dean works with groups on campus in establishing policy necessary to deal with campus problems. He works with residence hall government, residence hall peers, inter-fraternity council, student government, faculty peers, and the student body. Psychological involves the work of the Dean with indi- vidual students and/or their parents in the area of psychological or emotional upset. He either diagnoses the area of difficulty and refers the student to the proper source for help; or diagnoses and counsels, and confers with faculty peers about the diagnOSis and referral of the student and then refers the student. 10. ll. l2. 71 He also explains student behavior and the impli- cations of such behavior to parents. Public Relations involves Contact with the press, campus police, superiors, parents, townspeople, and students - both individually and in groups. A majority of the contacts infonned people of what was going to happen, what was happening, and what had happened. Communi- cations and working cooperatively with others are the two major aspects of public relations in this study. Residence Halls involves contacts with groups of resi- dent students, residence student government, residence hall peers, and individual students. The Dean works to provide leadership and infonnation and to support those people endeavoring to work in residence halls. Social Education relates to assisting both individuals and groups to be more effective in their social relationships and in their social understandings. Student Government involves work with individual stu- dents, faculty peers, and all-campus student govern- ment groups by providing leadership and information to assist them in making decisions based on the principles of democratic action.(l) Rodgers discovered l6 categories of people with whom the Student Personnel Dean functioned effectively: GDNO‘U‘l-wa—J Campus Police 9. Fraternity National Civil Police l0. Fraternity Pledges Faculty Peers ll. IFC and Panhellenic Faculty-Student Group l2. IFC Rushing Fraternity Adviser l3. Individual Female Students Fraternity-Alumni Adviser l4. Indiv1dual Foreign Student Fraternity Group 15. Individual Male Students Fraternity Individual l6. IFC Judiciary He discovered 23 categories of people with whom the Student Personnel Dean functioned ineffectively: l. 2. 3. Faculty Peers 4. Fraternity Individuals Fraternity Adviser 5. Individual Female Students Fraternity Group 6. Individual Foreign Students l. Rodgers, pp, 313,, pp. 44-47. 2. Ibid., p. 50. 72 7. Individual Male Students 16. Resident Female 8. Interfraternity Council 17. Resident Male 9. Interfraternity Council - 18. Sorority Group Judiciary 19. Student Government 10. Male Group 20. Student Government - Judiciary 11. Parents 21. Student Group 12. Professional Peers 22. Superiors 13. Residence Hall Government 23. TownSpeople 14. Residence Hall Group 15. Residence Hall Peers Discussion pf_Previous Research A review of the literature in international educational exchange shows that much has been written about foreign students and their unique problems of adjusting to American culture and academic procedures of United States colleges and universities. Such areas as orientation, adjustment problems of foreign students, and academic adjustment and achievement have been widely researched. Although much is known about foreign students and their problems, there has been limited integration and application of the research findings. Persons involved in advising foreign students may recognize unique needs and the necessity of special services for foreign students on American campuses. However, much research is still needed to understand how these Special services can most effectively be carried out in accordance with the resources available on Anerican campuses. Research regarding the work of the Foreign Student Adviser on U. S. university campuses is very limited. The brief history of foreign stu- dent advising in the United States and the great differences between responsibilities of Foreign Student Advisers in various colleges and l. Rodgers, pp, pip., p. 51. 73 universities have made studying the profession difficult. There is need for better understanding of relationships between specific behaviors or actions of the Foreign Student Adviser and the problems which are experienced by foreign students. The literature shows a number of techniques and procedures which have been suggested to help Foreign Student Advisers to provide better services for foreign students, but there has been no means to date of adequately evaluating the effectiveness of these procedures. The difficulties in researching the on-the-job behavior of Foreign Student Advisers require a different approach than the survey-type questionnaire which has been commonly used. The CRITICAL INCIDENT TECH- NIQUEiNasreviewed as a promising method of gathering and analyzing pri- mary data regarding the aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the- job behavior which have a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE Introduction This study was designed to identify and describe aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the-job behavior which they consider to have a significant effect on the academic progress1 and/or personal development2 of foreign students. Forty-eight Foreign Student Advisers from 17 uni- versities reported significant (critical) incidents which they perceived to be related to the academic progress and/or personal development of fbreign students. From these "critical incidents" significant aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior, either satisfactory or unsatisfactory, were identified and described. Selection pf Method After the problem had been defined, several methods of researching it were examined. The CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE3 was selected as the most appropriate for obtaining and analyzing primary data regarding on-the-job behavior of Foreign Student Advisers. The CIT focuses 1. Academic progress was defined in Chapter I as: ”progress of the student toward educational goals he has set for himself, or must meet as requirements of the institution and/or the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS).'I (In cases of sponsored students, the student must also meet the requirements of his scholarship.) 2. Personal development is defined in this study as change in the behavior or environment of the foreign student which is to his best interests in the judgment of the observer. 3. The abbreviation CIT will be substituted for Critical Incident Technique in sections where the tenninology is repeated frequently. 75 attention on behavior. It is a technique that involves reporting of incidents by qualified observers (respondents) who describe the behavior of the person being observed as either satisfactory (effective) or unsatisfactory (ineffective) according to a previously defined aim or objective. To list activities, traits, or characteristics with little or no regard for the varying situation in which these come into play would provide an incomplete basis for conclusions, at best. The CIT seemed to eliminate many of the disadvantages of other methods used to study the job of Foreign Student Advisers. It is a technique which is used to gain a description of effectiveness in tenns of behavior rather than traditional list of traits or characteristics. Observations of the behavior of the individual and of the effectiveness of this behavior in accomplishing the desired results in a satisfactory manner constitute not just one source of data, but the only source of primary data regarding the critical requirements of the job in terms of behavior.(l) The Sample The 48 Foreign Student Advisers included in the sample for this study were from l7 colleges and univerSities in a seven-state region of Midwestern United States. This sample included all full-time Foreign Student Advisers from ten of the twelve institutions of higher learning in the seven-state region which enrolled over 500 foreign students during the 1966-67 academic year and from six of the nine institutions in the same region enrolling between 200 and 500 foreign students.2 1. John C. Flanagan, "Critical Requirements: A New Approach to EmplOyee Evaluation," Personnel ngchology, Vol. 2, pp. 419-425, winter, 1949- 2. One institution enrolling over 1,000 foreign students was not in the region. 76 In addition to selecting institutions for the study on the basis of a minimum enrollment of 200 foreign students, several other criteria were established for selecting the Foreign Student Adviser sanple: 1. Recognition pf the Foreign Student Adviser py_the administration of the institution as an officially designated officer for handling foreign student affairs. 2. Primary identification pp_Foreign Student Adviser (or equivalent) working full time in the area of foreign student affairs.1 3. .Ap,1east one year pf_experience ip_foreign student advising, There were two exceptions to this requirement which were waived due to the respondents' experiences in closely related areas. 4. The Foreign Student Adviser's institution must have had p_foreign student program, i.e., an established Foreign Student Adviser's Office, jpr_pt'lpppp_fiyp_ypppp, The only exception to this was an institution which employed its first full-time Foreign Student Adviser only three years ago but had personnel designated to advise foreign students on a part- time basis prior to that time. These criteria were necessary to obtain as homogeneous a sample of Foreign Student Advisers as possible, i.e., professional, experienced persons engaged in an established program from which useful and valid conclusions might be drawn. The Foreign Student Advisers obviously met Flanagan's criteria for observers: 1) observed the activity reported on; 2) knew the aims of the activity; and 3) capable of judging the outcomes. 1. In cases where there were several staff members in the Foreign Student Adviser's Office and their duties were very similar or overlapping, all professional staff members were considered as Foreign Student Advisers. 77 It is difficult to detennine the number of full-time Foreign Student Advisers currently in United States colleges and universities since there is not a universally accepted definition of ”Foreign Student Adviser." It is estimated that the sample included in this study represents about 15 percent of the persons who are employed in similar positions throughout the nation on a full-time basis. This estimate is based upon a survey of The NAFSA Directory 1966-pz, The sample of Foreign Student Advisers selected for this study represents Foreign Student Advisers with considerable professional experience in foreign student advising. Ten of the Foreign Student Advisers in the sam- ple have had over 10 years of experience in the field. All ten are males. Of the 48 Foreign Student Advisers interviewed, 29 are males and 19 are fenales. In general, males hold the top position in a Foreign Student Office which has several staff members. In the two universities where females hold the top Foreign Student Adviser position, there are no full-time males on the staff. Other relevant data regarding the Foreign Student Adviser sample are included in Table III-A. TABLE III-A MIDWESTERN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES REPRESENTED IN THE STUDY SAMPLE BY SIZE OF INSTITUTION No. Foreign No. FSA's Students Enrolled No. Institutions (responding) Over 1,000 6 23 501-1,000 5 15 201-500 _ii .19 17 48 78 Developing_tne Critical Incident Repprt Form In discussing the development of the critical incident report forms, it is helpful to review the five basic steps of the CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE: 1. Detenmination of the general aim of the activity; A clear y statement which-identifies the objective of the activity performed by the Foreign Student Adviser. In this study the statement agreed upon by all respondents, with only minor reservations or suggestions, was: "The primary purpose of the Foreign Student Adviser is to facilitate the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students." Development ojiplans_and specific procedures for gathering significant’incidents regarding Foreign Student Advisers' on-the-job behavior. This involves a plan to communicate explicitly to respondents the general aim of the activity they are asked to report on and the methods they are to use in reporting the incidents. Collection of the data. Whether the data is to be gathered by personal-TnEEFViews or questionnaire is to be decided. A schedule must be established to guide collection of the data. Anal sis of tpp data according to the procedure suggested by t e I . —E posteriori categories usually are developed from the data. Interpretation and reporting of the data includes a descriptive report of the data in which—thE'Thvestigator discusses the results, draws conclusions, and frequently develops hypotheses commensurate with the judged credibility of the study. Establishing the General Aim pj_Foreign_Student AdviSing One of the basic conditions necessary for formulating a functional description of an activity is a fundamental orientation in tenns of the general aim of the activity. Flanagan emphasizes the importance of a precise description of what the activity is intended to accomplish: In its simplest form, the functional description of an activity specifies precisely what it is necessary to do V and not to do if participation in the activity is to be judged successful or effective. It is clearly impossible 79 to report that a person has been either effective or ineffective in a particular activity by performing a Specific act unless we know what he is expected to accomplish.(1) The Critical Incident Technique requires establishment of the general aim as the first step prior to gathering of any incidents. This phase of the study began many months before the development of the CIT report fonms. The researcher interviewed ten authorities in the field of foreign student advising using Flanagan's suggested "Outline for InterView to Establish the General Aim for an Activity.“2 1. Introductory statement: "We are planning on making a study ofithe significant aspects of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the-job behavior or function. We believe you are especially qualified to tell us about what you believe is essential to the Foreign Student Adviser's work." 2. Request for general aim: "What would you say is the primary purpose of the Foreign Student Adviser's function?" Respon- dents generally reported a variety of duties and activities which they felt the Foreign Student Adviser should perfonn on behalf of foreign students. Significantly, all respondents referred to the foreign student and his welfare as being central to the Foreign Student Adviser's job. 3. Request for summary: "In a few words how would you summarize the general aim of the Foreign Student Adviser's work?" Responses were much briefer, as expected, and invariably mentioned something like helping, assisting, providing guidance, counseling ... foreign students, or coordinating, administering, . a foreign student program. The ideas of the ten authorities were pooled and three trial fonns of a statement of general aim were developed and submitted to the authori- ties for their comments. The statement which received strongest support from all of the authorities was: "The purpose of foreign student 1. John C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique," Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 51, No. 4, July, 1954, p. 336. 2. Flanagan, pp, pip., p. 337. 80 advising is to facilitate the academic progress and personal development of foreign students." The one reservation mentioned by two or three authorities was that academic progress and personal development of a foreign student might not necessarily be compatible in Specific instances. They preferred to have the statement read: . academic progress and/or personal development ...” This addition of the word "or" was satisfactory to all of the authorities. Procedures and Criteria for Developing_CIT Report Fonns After the general aim of the activity to be investigated was clearly identified (Step 1) - the aspects pf the Foreign Student Adviser's ppfthe-job behavior which significantly affect the academic progress ppp/pr personal development pj_foreign students - a form for reporting critical incidents was developed (Step 2). Several criteria were considered in developing the report form: Brevity - The report fonn must be kept as short as possible and yet give clear and precise directions. The original report forms which were developed were six pages long (8 1/2” x 11", typewritten). Several persons were asked to critique the forms, and they were eventually shortened to four pages in length. The forms included a cover page with a short description of the study and 17 items of personal information to be filled in, a second page of "Suggestions for completing the attached fonns" with examples of "Significant" incidents, and two pages structured fOr reporting two satisfactory and two unsatisfactory incidents. Accuracy - Respondents were asked to report Significant inCidents 81 which had occurred within the past two years. Flanagan1 pointed out the importance of placing a time limit on the period of recall for incidents since it tended to reduce unusual behavior to prOper perspective and to reduce errors due to memory lapses and exaggeration. Basis for Judgment - The most difficult criterion of the report form is the necessity of clearly expressing what is being measured, i.e., effectiveness of the Foreign Student Adviser's on-the-job behavior in facilitating academic progress and/or personal development of the foreign students. The researcher cannot impose his own standards of effectiveness, but must rely upon the competence of the respondent to do the judging from his own perspective. Flanagan argues that this approach has fewer restrictions than imposing stereotyped standards: It is important that these behaviors be identified by those who describe them as especially effective according to their own standards, not those of any outside person or group; also they should not be derived from stereotyped concepts tradi- tionally listed whenever definitions of successful researchers are requested.(2) Thus, the report forms must clearly state that the respondent is to use his own judgment regarding the significance of an incident in affecting the designated purpose of the activity. The term "critical" was not used in the report forms as it was found fran the critique of the forms by several persons that the word connoted "crisis" and tended to solicit crisis-like events. Therefore, the term "significant" was substituted for "critical" on the report fonms. 1. John C. Flanagan, Critical Requirement§_for Research Personnel, American Institute for Research, Pittsburgh,"T949, p. 5. 2. Flanagan, pp, pit,, p. 6. 82 Although all incidents from Foreign Student Advisers were gathered by personal interview, the discipline of constructing report fonns according to these criteria enabled the researcher to communicate effectively with the reSpondents in the interview situation. The report forms which were later mailed to foreign students as part of another study adhered closely to the criteria. Request for Personal Data pp_ReSpondents The first page of the report fonn solicited seventeen items of personal information from each respondent which were thought to be related to the nature of the responses. They included: official title, major areas of responsibility, sex, age, years of experience as Foreign Student Adviser, degrees held, estimate of career potential in foreign student advising, and information about the student enroll- ment of the university. The information received from this page is analyzed and presented in Chapter IV dealing with analysis of the data. Revision pf_the Original Report Forms The original critical incident report fOrms were personally delivered to Foreign Student Advisers at four universities which represented varying size of foreign student populations. The Foreign Student Advisers were asked to attempt to complete the report fonn and critique the fonn itself. As a result of the comments and type of critical inCidents received, changes were made in the form. The appearance was greatly improved by re-arrangement of the format, using different size type to designate illustrated incidents. The cover page was completely revised, and the illustrations of significant incidents were changed. Three more 83 examples of incidents illustrating satisfactory behavior of Foreign Student Advisers were added since it was extremely difficult to select exemplary incidents. Definitions of Critical Incident Technique tenns and a description of the technique were omitted from the revised form since they tended to confuse the respondents. The revised report forms were re-submitted to the four Foreign Student Advisers who reported that they were much improved, understandable, and satisfactory for what the study was attempting to accomplish. Examples of the revised report forms, as used in the study, are in Appendix B. Collecting_the Data The original plan for collecting the data (Step 3) was to mail critical incident report forms to some Foreign Student Advisers, and to gather approximately 25 percent of the total sample by personal inter- view. However, the four Foreign Student Advisers who had originally reviewed the report fonns expressed some concern about the percentage of mail returns which might be expected from Foreign Student Advisers who are reluctant to take the time necessary to recall and report four significant incidents. A personal interview with the chainnan of the NAFSA Research Committee and with the president of NAFSA confirmed these concerns. It was pointed out, however, that a return of 20 percent from a mail survey of Foreign Student Advisers would be con- sidered good. Another important factor which was considered in deciding upon the method of data collection is the quality of critical incidents which are reported from the different methods, i.e., lower quality from mail surveys than from personal interviews. Most studies which have used the Critical 84 Incident Technique in a mail survey have also included an intensive field study to validate the results of mail returns. FlanaganI enpha- sized that the interview method was by far the most satisfactory means of gathering critical incidents and that all other methods were only substitutes. He recommended that wherever possible, the interview method be used. After considering the prospect of a low return rate and lesser quality of critical incidents from a mail survey, the decision was made to collect all data from Foreign Student Advisers and faculty by personal interview. 'Although this decision involved a commitment of 40 inter- viewing days and 8,000 miles of travel, it was considered to be the only dependable way of obtaining valid critical incidents. During the actual interviewing, another advantage of the personal interview method was discovered. Foreign Student Advisers were willing to Spend muCh more time in a personal interview situation and cited at least twice as many critical incidents as might otherwise have been the case. The inCidents reported in personal interviews tended to cover a wider range of activities and therefore yielded a more comprehensive understanding of the Foreign Student Adviser's perception of the aSpects of his own on-the- job behavior which significantly affected the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. Other obvious advantages of the personal interview method are the opportunity to inquire about unclear incidents and to determine the respondents' criteria for significant incidents as well as their baSis for deciding between satisfactory and unsatisfactory behaVior. l. Flanagan, Critical Requirements for Research Personnel, pp. p1p., p. 6. 85 Procedure for Interviewing Foreign Student Advisers An important prerequisite for full cooperation of Foreign Student Advisers in the study was the sanction of the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs. The writer is currently serving on the Research Committee and the Professional Preparation and DevelOpment Committee of NAFSA. The chairmen of both committees permitted reference to their committee's support of the study, and the president and executive secre— tary of NAFSA wrote a letter sanctioning the study and encouraging participation of Foreign Student Advisers and faculty. (See Appendix A) The initial contact with Foreign Student Advisers was via a letter which included: the supporting letters from NAFSA leaders; an abstract and description of the research proposal; and a personal covering letter asking for permission to visit the campus and to interview the Foreign Student Adviser, several faculty members,1 and a group of foreign students. A two- or three-day visit was suggested. Foreign Student Advisers that had not responded within two weeks were contacted by telephone. All but two of the Foreign Student Advisers who were asked to participate in the study consented to cooperate, and definite dates for the researcher's visit were established. After dates had been established, critical incident report forms were sent to the Foreign Student Adviser one to two weeks prior to the visit. At most universities where there was a staff of Foreign Stu- dent Advisers, a meeting was convened with the staff for the researcher to discuss the study being conducted. This meeting allowed for good 1. It will be remembered that the researcher is collaborating with August G. Benson in gathering data for a second thesis on Foreign Student Adviser's behavior from the perspective of faculty members. 86 exchange of ideas and cooperation of the staff, as well as increased the consistency of respondents in understanding and interpreting the basis of significant Foreign Student Adviser behavior. During the visit each Foreign Student Adviser on the campus was interviewed twice for approximately one and one-half hours each time. In the first interview the statement of the proposed purpose of foreign student advising was given and discussed: "The primary purpose of the Foreign Student Adviser's job is to facilitate the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students." The majority of the Foreign Student Advisers agreed with the statement as it was, although a few suggested minor alterations or reservations. The Foreign Student Adviser was then asked to cite incidents of his own behavior which had a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of one or more foreign students. The Foreign Student Advisers reported an average of 7.7 critical incidents with a ratio of two satisfactory incidents per one unsatisfactory incident. Classification p: Critical Incidents Into Categories ijForeign Student Adviser Resppnsibility The analysis of the 350 critical incidents received from the 48 1 Foreign Student Advisers in 17 Midwestern universities was done first by a priori categories. Eleven major categories of Foreign Student l. Sixteen of the seventeen institutions visited were universities. The seventeenth was a highly respected institute of technology. 87 Adviser Responsibility were defined] and each of the 350 critical elements was classified by the researcher and associate as belonging to one of these a priori categories, as listed in Table 111-1. Descriptions of each of the major categories of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility are given following the table. The reason for using the a priori categories is to provide a basis for comparing the critical areas identified by this study with the most comprehensive published description of essential services (Categpries pf_Responsibility) of Foreign Student Advisers. 1. These Categories pf_Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility are based on the National Association for Foreign Student Affairs ”Guidelines." The National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, Field Service Program, directed by Mrs. Charles N. Bang, has published (during the past 3-4 years) a set of ”Guidelines" which describe the eight areas of special concern that represent essential services in effective programs for foreign students. Foreign Student Advisers' offices commonly have all or partial responsibility for coordinating services in these "areas of Special concern.“ They were renamed Categories pf Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility and have been used in this study as the basis for categorizing the critical inci- dents. However, the judgment of the researcher and associate that these categories were not comprehensive was supported early in the categorization of the critical incidents when it became necessary to add three more categories: 0. Immigration and Legal; 9. Organization and Administration; and 10. Emergencies and Other Complex Situations. Of the 350 Critical Incidents received for the study, 37.7 percent fell into these three additional categories. The researcher consulted with Dr. M. Robert B. Klinger, former president of NAFSA, prior to adding the three areas. 88 TABLE III-1 DISPERSION OF CRITICAL INCIDENTS AMONG THE FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISER'S CATEGORIES OF RESPONSIBILITY ées _L sis-:21 _ lets). _ O. Imnigration and Legal (IL) 34 15.1 13 10.4 47 13.4 1. Admissions and Selection (AS) 2 .9 l .8 3 .9 2. English Language Proficiency 4 1.8 3 2.4 7 2.0 3. Initial Orientation (IO) 3 1.4 3 2.4 6 1.8 4. Academic and Personal Advising (APA) 52 22.7 37 30.4 89 25.4 5. Housing (H0) 17 7.5 2 1.6 19 5-4 6. Finances and Employment (FE) 41 18.2 15 12.0 56 16.0 7. Interpretation of U. S. to Forei n Students (Comnunity Relations) ICR) 16 7.1 5 4.0 21 6.0 8. American-Foreign Student Relationships (Student Activities) (SA) 11 4.9 6 4.8 17 4.9 9. Organization and Administration (OA) 29 12.9 26 20.8 55 15.8 0. Emergencies and Other Complex Situations (E0) 17 7.5 13 10-4 _39' 8 5 TOTAL INCIDENTS 226 100.0 124 100.0 350 100 0 Description p:_Categpries pf Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility O. IMMIGRATION AND LEGAL (IL) Almost without exception the office of the Foreign Student Adviser is charged with the responsibility of providing immigration and legal assistance and advice to students coming to the United States from abroad. The Foreign Student Adviser adVises foreign Students of the requirements they must satisfy in order to remain in good standing With the Immigration and Naturalization Service and assists the student to extend the student's stay permit, visa and passport as required and to obtain work permission and practical training pennit. He also provides advice on eligibility for immigrant or ennanent reSidence status for the student (anifamily if appropriate). The Foreign Student Adviser discharges the obligation accepted by the university in bringing foreign students to the United States, insuring that each stu- dent is in good standing, taking a full academic load, leading toward a degree or other acceptable academic goal (according to INS regulations). The Foreign Student Adviser serves as an intennediate between the foreign student and the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service in these and other matters of a legal nature. He is not, however, an enforcement ann of the INS. Since many legal matters which involve the foreign student in the United States legal System are 89 closely related to the foreign student's INS status, they are included in this category, i.e., incidents which necessitate the foreign student's seeking legal advice. There were 47 critical incidents reported by Foreign Student Advisers in this category: 34 satisfactory and 13 unsatisfactory. 1. ADMISSIONS AND SELECTION (AS) The selection and admission of foreign students should involve a clearly thought out policy that reflects the institution's capa- bilities and resources and ability to serve growing numbers of foreign students. It involves the evaluation of services to foreign students which the institution is prepared to offer and the dissemi- nation abroad of information about the university, including information on the cost of American education (both for indiVidual and family). The final decision to admit or refuse a foreign student should always be the result of a careful review of his academic preparation and the ability of the institution to serve his needs and tentative academic objectives. The participation of the Foreign Student Adviser in the selection and the admissions process may vary from complete responsibility to none at all depending on the size and nature of the institution and the Size and specialization of the Admissions Office or process. He should contribute to materials which are forwarded to prOSpective foreign students, serve as a liaison person or committee member in the selection process where appropriate, and serve as an important resource in the total foreign student admissions process. There were 3 critical incidents reported in this category: 2 satis- factory and l unsatisfactory. 2. ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY (EL) Any college or university admitting foreign students should require that students have demonstrated an adequate language proficiency or be prepared to provide for further English language training opportunities for foreign students who lack this proficiency. The Foreign Student Adviser may often be called on to help evaluate and interpret English language capability or progress of foreign stu- dents or may take the initiative himself in identification of English language criteria for admission of foreign students. If a university finds that an ad-hoc committee is necessary to reView English language requirements, it Should include the Foreign Student Adviser. The Foreign Student Adviser cooperates with the person reSponSible for the English language training program in the university and often supervises community volunteer efforts that support the English language program of the institu- tion. 90 There were 7 critical incidents in this category: 4 satisfactory and 3 unsatisfactory. 3. INITIAL ORIENTATION (IO) It is essential that every college or university enrolling foreign students makes some provision for their initial orientation, and this responsibility generally is assigned to the Foreign Student Adviser. Each Foreign Student Adviser should work out the orientation program based on resources and time available to him. Initial orientation introduces the new foreign student to the academic system of the university and to his campus and community environment. Initial orientation must reflect respect for the student's sensitivity and pride in his own culture and help him to function effectively in his new host culture. Orientation programs must relate to the English language proficiency of new foreign students, realistic assessment of the institution's possibilities and limitations, and the student's needs. The foreign student should emerge with the impression that his studies are primary and of a competitive nature but that a congenial and sympathetic environment directly supports his academic purposes and experiences in an American educational setting. There were 6 critical incidents in this category: 3 satisfactory and 3 unsatisfactory. 4. ACADEMIC AND PERSONAL ADVISING (APA) The terminology "Academic and Personal Advising" is deliberately used to include the many persons who are not Specifically trained in counseling techniques but who still ably and conscientiously fill the role of Foreign Student Adviser. Advising is the major responsibility of the Foreign Student Adviser and reflects recognition by his institution of the need for special advisory services for foreign students. New and old students must be made aware of the services offered by the Foreign Student Office on a voluntary basis. Advising is also best done when it utilizes the total resources of the institution. The Foreign Student Adviser's responsibilities should not be confused or interfere with the academic adviser, who will likely be the most important and influential person for the foreign student during his stay at the university. The academic adviser is not only an academic focal point but may be the student's closest identification point, especially at the graduate level. These factors make open lines of (xmmunication between academic advisers and Foreign Student Advisers absolutely essential. The Foreign Student Adviser may occasionally . . ...; ...: . 3...; Y ... o . r2 .oiasiafii .15... . {mixfifinilllatsé . 91 serve as liaison person between the academic adviser and the foreign student. The Foreign Student Adviser may need to consider whether his role is that of adviser or of counselor, or both, and what the difference is in tenns of his (and his staff's) responsibility at his institution. Most work with foreign students usually involves advising. Some Foreign Student Advisers counsel in the professional sense. Important to advising is the awareness at what point referrals should be made to more specialized colleagues. It is important here to use the full resources of the campus and community. There were 89 critical incidents in this category: 51 satisfactory and 38 unsatisfactory. 5. HOUSING (HO) Since housing is an important supporting service for foreign students and has a significant effect on the foreign student's total educational experience, the Foreign Student Adviser generally attempts to insure that adequate housing is available for foreign students. He works closely with university offices responsible for off-campus, on-canpus, and married housing. He either sends or insures that advance infonmation is sent to foreign students regarding the local housing situation, pro- vides assistance to newly arrived foreign students, and advises them of kinds of housing available and rules and regulations governing their use. The Foreign Student Adviser also insures that housing is available to fbreign students during vacation periods. He consults regularly with representatives or managers of residence halls, fraternities, sororities, cooperatives, international houses, graduate donnitories, and married housing concerning the special needs and problems of foreign students. The Foreign Student Adviser is frequently called on to represent foreign students in cases of dispute, discrimination, isolation, or other problems related to housing situations. There were 19 critical incidents in this category: 17 satisfactory and 2 unsatisfactory. 6. FINANCES AND EMPLOYMENT (FE) The Foreign Student Adviser serves as coordinator or referral agent for the varied financial services offered by the university. These include assistantships, scholarships, grants, loans, part-time jobs during the academic year, full-time work during the summer, and practical training. In coordinating financial and employment services for foreign students, the Foreign Student Adviser may be involved in: 92 1. Consulting with the university admissions office regarding the financial requirements and the policy of the university on financial assistance to foreign students. 2. Sending information on finances and financial aid to foreign persons who inquire about admissions and financial support. 3. Coordinating and encouraging academic departments to award graduate assistantships to qualified foreign students. 4. Advising university administration on need for adequate scholarship program for foreign students. Participating in scholarship committee actively, and informing foreign students of nature of scholarship program and criteria for eligibility for scholarship support. 5. Encouraging development of financial support for foreign students from sources outside the university. 6. Advising administration of need for adequate financial loan program for foreign students which provides for emergency situations as well as tuition and maintenance assistance. He may be required to evaluate financial needs of foreign students and coordinate with Financial Aids Office and university Business Office. 7. Advising new foreign students on budgeting, use of credit, contractual commitments, and handling of personal funds. 8. Coordinating with University Placement Office in assisting foreign students to obtain part-time employ- ment during academic year and/or full—time employment during summer to augment other source(s) of income. 9. Counseling foreign students on practical training opportunities upon completion of their academic work, and processing their applications to INS. There were 56 critical incidents in this category: 41 satisfactory and 15 unsatisfactory. 7. INTERPRETATION OF THE U. 5. TO FOREIGN STUDENTS (Community Relations) (CR) The Foreign Student Adviser is responsible for implementing a program commensurate with the resources of his institution and his community to help interpret the United States to foreign students. "If the foreign student has a basis on which to live fairly comfortably in a new culture, he will have more in common with his peers, his teachers and advisers, 93 and the American public at large."(l) It is assumed that foreign students who have an adequate basis for interpreting the United States will have better preparation for a correspondingly more meaningful and productive educational experience in a United States university. There are a great variety of approaches possible for the Foreign Student Adviser to attempt to interpret the U. S. to foreign students. The resources available for him to use vary widely in accordance with the local situation, including size and location of the campus and community, human resources both on-campus and in the community, and the amount of time and effort he is willing to expend. He must develop cooperative community relations as he takes into consideration the value and effect of community interaction with foreign students as well as the advantage gained by the fereign students from interacting with the community. The Foreign Student Adviser coordinates the available resources and attempts to develop programs which will involve foreign students with Americans fran all walks of life. He works closely with volunteer cnnmunity groups in providing opportunities for foreign students to relate to American families and social institutions. Keeping in mind both the activities within the university and in the greater comnunity, the Foreign Student Adviser attempts to guide or assist foreign stu- dents to select those activities which will be most meaningful to them. Efforts here are more productive and effective when they support or relate to the academic goals or objectives of the foreign students as well as his personal or individual development. There were 21 critical incidents in this category: 16 satisfactory and 5 unsatisfactory. 8. AMERICAN-FOREIGN STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS (Student Activities) (SA) The Foreign Student Adviser primarily plays the role of a catalyst in developing American-foreign student relationships. He may function: 1) as a coordinator of student activities; 2) in support of activities which include foreign students; 3) as a facilitator to bring continuity to the variety of student activities which foreign students may partici- pate in; 4) as an evaluator of the relevance of student activities offered on the campus to encourage foreign student and American student relation- ships; or 5) as an initiator of change. (2) 1. NAFSA GUIDELINES: Field Service Publication G-8, The National ASSociation for Foreign Sthdéht Affaihs: Field Service Program, Cleveland, Ohio, 1965, p. 1. 2. Ibid., p. 9. 94 Nationality Clubs or International Clubs are often useful means of encouraging interaction and understanding between students from different cultures. The Foreign Student Adviser works with estab- lished campus groups in encouraging development of the international dimension, and assists in organizing new groups where needed to facilitate meaningful cross—cultural interaction. In develOping, supporting, and coordinating social and educational activities for American and foreign students, the Foreign Student Adviser must always bear in mind the importance of relating these activities as closely as possible to the educational goals of the foreign students. Since the majority of foreign students are on the graduate level, many of the inter-cultural opportunities should stem spontaneously from their areas of academic specialization. There were 17 critical incidents in this category: 11 satisfactory and 6 unsatisfactory. - 9. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION (OA) The organization and administration of the Foreign Student Adviser's Office is obviously closely related to the quality and quantity of services which the university provides for foreign students. Many administrative functions, when carried out in an effective or ineffective manner can have a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. Included in this area are: l) the Foreign Student Adviser's manage- ment and training of his staff; 2) the kind and extent of cooperative relationships which he develops with virtually all facets of the academic comiiunity; 3) the organization of materials and resources which he makes available in assisting foreign students to make full use of the university's facilities; 4) the development and implementation of ideas and programs to improve educational exchange; 5) the tremendous variety of personal services which he provides for foreign students; 6) participation in developing the university's policies and procedures fbr meeting the needs of foreign students, and enforcement of the university's rules and regulations which relate to foreign students; 7) developing and maintaining cooperative relationships with individuals and agencies outside the university who have continuing interest in foreign students; and 8) arranging for his own professional development through relating to professional peers and co-workers in the promotion of effective foreign student services. In summary, the Foreign Student Adviser performs best when he combines a personal interest in foreign students with a professional approach to his responsibilities. There were 55 critical incidents in this category: 29 satisfactory and 26 unsatisfactory. . .. . ... .i .. ...... ., ...... . ... ...... ... . Ya; 1. 1. a... r ... o)3l¢.£lo§9. Edi ei.i§t¥nulfltu.§flkuwrau... ....s :2313 95 10. EMERGENCY AND OTHER COMPLEX SITUATIONS (E0) Emergency situations involving foreign students are much more complex than similar situations involving American students due to such added factors as distance from home, non-availability of parents or relatives, financial difficulties, cultural differences, and U. S. government regulations concerning the activities of aliens. Consequently, whenever a foreign student is involved in a death, a serious accident, a major crime, or other unusual circumstances, the Foreign Student Adviser is notified and expected to participate in the disposition of the resultant problems. Usually emergencies involving foreign students consume large portions of the Foreign Student Adviser's time, require a great deal of attention to detail, and include working with many different persons outside of the university, i.e., physician, lawyer, police officer, coroner, travel agent, insurance adjustor, psychiatrist, Sponsor, foreign government, representative of U. S. INS authorities, etc., in addition to cooperating with and coordinating resources within the university. It would be impractical to attempt to furthur describe "emergency situations" since they are so varied and each one is virtually unique. K1inger(l) has recently written a section for the Foreign Student Adviser's Handbook which deals more comprehensively with this area. There were 30 critical incidents in this category: 17 satisfactory and 13 unsatisfactory. Following the classification of all 350 critical incidents into a priori categories of Foreign Student Adviser Responsibility, critical elements were extracted from each critical incident and inductively grouped into 3 posteriori categories of specific behaviors of the Foreign Student Adviser, using the Critical Incident Technique. The procedure for this grouping is given in the next section. 1. M. Robert B. Klinger, "Emergency Situations Involving Foreign Students," The Foreign Student Adviser's Handbook: Section XI, National Association for Foreign Student Affairs, New York, 1967. 96 Development pj'Critical Areas Transferring_0ata from Critical Incident Report Forms ip_Work Sheets TWo to sixteen critical incidents resulted from each interview with a Foreign Student Adviser. The incidents contained elements of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior in a particular situation with a istated result. Each incident was typed on a separate 5" x 8" card (Critical Incident Card), for ease in handling the data. A sample critical incident, as typed on a 5" x 8" card is given below. (Sample is slightly reduced in size to fit on page.) S Spring 1966 I F F.S. Scholarship' FSA-M The Foreign Student Adviser received a letter, and materials from the Institute of International Education regarding a Special supple- mentary scholarship plan for non-sponsored students and was asked to nominate several qualified students. The Foreign Student Adviser checked through the files and identified several students who apparently met the qualifications of good scholarship and financial need (being non-sponsored and not having a student assistantship). The Foreign Student Adviser then called the prospective nominees in for personal interviews. On the basis of the interviews and from the file information, the Foreign Student Adviser was able to identify and nominate several candidates for the scholarship. A number of worthy and needy students were helped, and their academic programs apparently expedited through the plan. 97 Additional infonmation which identified the incident from which the elements were extracted were also placed on the Critical Incident Card. From left to right across the top of each card was recorded: First 1. Code number of the p_prippi_category. Row 2. The number of the incident. Second 1. Satisfactory (S) or Unsatisfactory (U) classification. Row 2. Approximate date when the incident occurred. 3. Identification of the Institution reporting the incident. 4. Identification of general description of the incident or identification of foreign student involved. 5. Identification of respondent, including sex (M or F). Developiient pf Work Sheets To work with these data, a system was developed for extracting the elements of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior from each incident and recording them on another 5" x 8" card which was used as a Worksheet. The 5" x 8" cards, which were used as worksheets, were set up as fellows: Each critical incident had been typed on a separate 5" x 8" Critical Incident Card and numbered. The elements were extracted from each inci- dent and recorded on an attached card (Critical Element Card) which was given the same number as the Critical Incident Card. The extraction of elements from incidents involved the isolation of the actual elements of behavior (or procedures) which the Foreign Student Adviser used during the course of the incident. Elements, as defined in Chapter I, are Specific procedures or actions taken by the Foreign Student Adviser. The number of elements included in a specific incident varied from one to fOurteen. The mean number of elements per incident was 4.6. A sample 98 of a Critical Element Card corresponding to the example Critical Incident Card given above is given below: Spring 1966 I F F.S. Scholarships FSA-M 1. Re uested (by IIE) to nominate worthy foreign students for speCia scholarships. 2. Checked through files of foreign students for academic records. 3. Identified several foreign students who apparently met qualifications for scholarship of good scholarship record and financial need. 4. Interviewed prospective foreign student candidates for IIE scholarship. 5. Nominated several worthy foreign students for an IIE scholarship. SAT - Foreign Student Adviser identified and nominated for IIE scholarship several foreign students who met proper qualifications, thus expediting their academic progress (by relieving work load). The reports of critical incidents contained more information than these elements. Some discussion was devoted to the nature of the problem and the results were given. To insure accuracy in the extraction of elements from each Critical Incident, the researcher and associate worked in collaboration isolating and extracting the elements. Each researcher worked with part of the incidents in the initial extraction of elements and the researchers then checked each other's results. A high level of agreement was reached regarding the elements contained in the critical incidents. In cases of particularly complex incidents where there was the possibility of different interpretations of elements to be extracted, the researchers consulted and 99 reached a joint agreement. This type of consultation was necessary in less than 10 percent of the incidents. As mentioned earlier, other coded identifying data were also included on the Critical Element Cards (see example above). To further insure accuracy in the extraction of elements, two other professional associates1 reviewed the Critical Incident Cards and the Critical Element Cards. They checked for accuracy of extracting elements and also judged the a priori categorization of individual incidents and the reason given regarding why an incident was considered Satisfactory or Unsatisfactory. The researcher and associate again reviewed all of the Critical Ele- ment Cards and discussed the comments and changes suggested by the two professional associates. Minor changes were made in categorizing about 3 percent of the Critical Incidents as a result of these suggested changes. However, there was virtually unanimous agreement regarding the elements extracted from the incidents and only two changes (approximately .03 percent) were made in which an element was added or revised. The next step in analysis was a mechanical procedure whereby each of the 1603 elements was typed on a separate 5" x 8" card. Thus,gthere were the same number of single element cards for each critical incident as there were elements recorded on the corresponding Critical Element Card, i.e., for a Critical Element Card with five elements recorded on it there were five singlg_element cards typed -- one for each individual element. There was a separate card for each of the 1603 specific Foreign Student Adviser actions (or procedures) reported in the 350 critical incidents. 1. Dr. M. Robert B. Klinger, Director of the University of Michigan International Center, and Dr. Virgil Lougheed, Foreign Student Counselor at Wayne State University. 100 Each single element card had the same coded identifying data recorded at the top as the Critical Element Card on which it had been originally recorded. An example of a single element card is given below. This single element card corresponds to the example Critical Incident Card and Critical Element Card given earlier in this chapter. S Spring l966 I F F.S. Scholarships FSA-M 4. INTERVIEWED prOSpective foreign student candidates for IIE Scholarship. Grouping gj'Critical Elements Into Critical Areas The single element cards were used for development of a_poSteriori categories of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior in accordance with Flanagan's accepted guidelines for analyzing critical incident data.1 Flanagan called these groups (categories) of like behaviors Critical l. John C. Flanagan, "The Critical Incident Technique,“ Psychological Bulletin, Vol. Sl, No. 4, July, l954, p. 343 ff. lOl Areas, Flanagan points out that this “... is a task requiring insight, experience, and judgment."1 Since there are no simple rules available, the skill and sophistication of the researcher in formulating the cate- gories is the most important determinant of their quality and usability. It soon became evident that working with an associate who had pro- fessional experience in advising foreign students was a definite asset in formulating the categories. Another important consideration in the induction of categories is the question of comprehensiveness of the categories. The question must be raised regarding what assurance there is that the addition of more critical incidents would not necessitate development of new categories. Both the concern for validating the subjective decisions of the researchers (in inducting categories) and the concern for comprehensiveness of the sample were taken into consideration in developing the following procedures (See Table III-2): l. A random sample of 2242 of the total 350 critical incidents was used for the first inductive categorization process of grouping similar behaviors. A total of 966 critical elements had been extracted from these 224 critical incidents. Since many of these elements were repetitive, the 966 critical elements were reduced to 187 distinct critical elements. The 187 distinct critical elements were inductively grouped into 22 categories of similar types of Foreign Student Adviser behavior called critical areas. The rationale for this procedure of using only a l. Flanagan, 92, 213,, p. 344. 2. Ten of the l7 universities particpating in the study were randomly taken as the basis for this first inductive grouping. There were 224 critical incidents from these l0 universities. 102 portion of the total critical elements to establish categories of similar behavior was based on Flanagan's observation that once critical areas had been inducted from a large number of critical elements, the critical 35ga§_should be considered as comprehensive of the behavior being studied if sizable numbers of additional critical elements could be readily assimilated into the established critical areas. Studies using the CIT have generally accepted the assimilation of 200—300 addtional critical elements into the established critical areas as adequate validation of the comprehensiveness of the categories. In this study approximately 60 percent (966) of the total 1603 critical elements were used in the first inductive grouping, and approximately 40 percent (638) of the critical elements were introduced to the critical areas at later stages, for the purpose of checking the comprehensiveness of the critical areas. Twenty-two critical areas resulted from the original inductive grouping of the 187 distinct critical elements (refined from 966 "raw" critical elements). As a result of a consultation with Dr. Robert Klinger,1 the 22 critical areas were again carefully re-examined and refined to 16 critical areas, containing the same 187 distinct critical elements. 2. The critical incidents from three more of the remaining seven universities, taken at random, were then used for the second step of the process. There were 54 critical incidents and 226 raw critical elements in this second sample which were introduced to the 16 critical areas. The raw critical elements were readily assimilated into the 16 1. Director of the International Center at the University of Michigan and special consultant for this study. 103 critical areas, but it was necessary to develop an additional nine distinct critical elements within the 16 critical areas. Thus, the second step resulted in 196 distinct critical elements, but the same 16 critical areas. 3. The 411 raw critical elements extracted from the 72 critical incidents of the remaining four universities were then introduced to the critical areas. It was found that these 411 critical elements could be readily assimilated into the 16 critical areas, but it was necessary to develop an additional seven distinct critical elements within the 16 critical areas. Thus, the third step resulted in 203 distinct critical elements, but the same 16 critical areas. 4. It was assumed from the results of these three steps that the 16 critical areas were comprehensive of the Foreign Student Adviser's behavior which, in the judgment of the 48 Foreign Student Adviser respondents, had a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal develOpment of foreign students, and that no new critical areas would have to be developed when new critical elements were added. However, it is entirely possible that new distinct critical elements would have to be developed, but in diminishing numbers, as new critical elements were added. 5. One final step was taken to check the 16 critical areas and the 203 distinct critical elements for precision of statements and logical organization. Another professional associate from Michigan State Uni- versity International Programs1 was asked to critique the 16 critical 1. Dr. Victor Dahl, visiting professor in International Programs, 1967-68, Assistant Director of International Programs, Portland State College, Portland, Oregon. 104 areas and 203 distinct critical elements. He agreed that the critical elements were described precisely and accurately, and he stated that in his Opinion they were scientifically grouped into critical areas which effectively represented Foreign Student Adviser functions. Table III-2 demonstrates the three phases of inducting Critical Areas. The University Identification code is given in the left column. The next three colunnsidentify the critical incidents which were used in each of the three phases of category induction. The final three columns identify the raw critical elements which were extracted from the critical incidents. These raw critical elements were the actual units which were inductively grouped into critical areas. Summary 9f the Results 9j_Each Phase 33 Development gj_Critical Areas 1. First 224 Critical Incidents from 10 universities (966 raw critical elements) Result: 187 Critical Elements 22 Critical Areas 2. From conference with Dr. Robert Klinger Result: 187 Critical Elements 16 Critical Areas 3. Addition of 54 Critical Incidents from 3 universities (226 raw critical elements) Result: 196 Critical Elements 16 Critical Areas 4. Addition of 72 Critical Incidents from 4 universities (412 raw critical areas) Result: 203 Critical Elements 16 Critical Areas 105 TABLE III-2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL AREAS FROM CRITICAL ELEMENTS No. Critical Critical Critical No. Critical Critical Critical Incidents Incidents Incidents Elements Elements Elements Used in First Added: Added: Used in First Added: Added: Induction of Step 2 Step 3 Induction of Step 2 Step 3 Universityf Critical Areas Critical Areas IA 27 4 88 13 I8 36 1 172 4 IC 11 43 ID 22 168 IE 21 90 IF 28 136 IIA 19 8 98 34 118 42 189 IIC 31 130 110 9 39 IIE 9 40 IIIA 6 4 24 18 1118 10 40 IIIC 24 86 1110] 21 103 1102 10 45 IIIE __ __ ___7_ __ __ _4_3_ TOTALS 224 54 72 966 226 411 RESULTING CRITI- CAL AREAS 22 16 16 22 16 16 Total Critical Incidents: 224 + 54 + 72 = 350 Total Raw Critical Elements: 966 + 226 + 411 = 1603 Total Critical Areas: 22 - 16 - 16 = 16 *All institutions identified by prefix "I" have over 1000 foreign students enrolled; "II" = 501-1000; "III'I = 200-500. 106 'Tabulations The final step in analysis of the critical incident data was a series of tabulations given in Chapter IV showing the significance of the 16 critical areas. This involved presentation of the total findings as well as breakdowns showing the results by type of respondent, size of university, and major areas of the Foreign Student Adviser's responsi- bility. Further meaning was given by the fact that all data was collected by personal interview and comments were recorded which clarified the intent of the respondent. Summary This chapter included a detailed description of the methodology of this study in order that the reader might have a basis for evaluating the findings which are to be given in the next chapter. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the aspects of their own on-the-job behavior which Foreign Student Advisers considered to have a significant effect on the academic progress and/or personal development of foreign students. The Critical Incident Technique was selected as the method for studying the problem because it can be used to obtain a description of effectiveness in terms of behavior rather than a traditional list of traits. The sample population for this study consisted of 48 Foreign Student Advisers from 17 universities in a seven-state region of Midwestern United States. They were all employed on a full-time basis as Foreign Student Adviser in a university which had an enrollment of over 200 foreign stu- dents. 107 The Critical Incident Technique was the primary research instrument used in this study. It is a technique which focuses on behavior and provides: 1) a suggested method for gathering the data, and 2) general procedures for analyzing the data. The procedures for this study were developed to implement the five basic steps of the Critical Incident Technique which were discussed in this chapter: 1) determination of the general aim of the activity; 2) development of plans and Specific procedures for gathering signifi- cant incidents; 3) collection of the data; 4) analysis of the data; and 5) interpretation and reporting of the data. The implementation of each of these steps in this study were also reviewed. The procedures for developing and refining the Critical Incident Technique Report Forms were described in detail. This included the procedures for establishing the general aim of foreign student advising, and the consultations with four Foreign Student Advisers regarding suggested revisions of the report forms. All data from Foreign Student Advisers were gathered by personal interview. The researcher interviewed each Foreign Student Adviser for one and one-half hours on each of two occasions. The advantages of a personal interview over a mail survey are identified. Since the analysis of CIT data is highly subjective in nature, a detailed description of all the procedures involved was given. A system for categorizing similar behavior was developed in accor- dance with Flanagan's accepted procedures. The system was detenmined from the data rather than by use of a predetermined classification arrangement. This procedure resulted in 203 distinct critical elements of Foreign Student Adviser behavior which were grouped into 16 Critical 108 Agggg_of similar types of Foreign Student Adviser behavior. The 203 distinct critical elements represented only a fraction of the total 1603 raw critical elements, as many of them were repeated by different observers. The final step of data analysis of critical incident data is the tabulations which show the significance of the 16 Critical Areas. These tabulations were briefly discussed. CHAPTER 1V QRaAHiZATiON AND ANALiSIS 0% PM: 0%ii Introduction Ln the preceding chapters the need for th.s study and its purpOse have been GISCUSSQG, the literature pertaining to advising foreign students reviewed, and the methodology and procedures used in this study explained, The CRITICAL INCIDENT lEcHNIQUE has been Used in attempting to identify the elements of their own on-zne—job behavior which Foreign Student Advisers believe to have a sign I’cdnt effect on the academic progress and/0r persona! GEVelopment 0i tureign students. in Chapter IV the main findings which are germane Lb the purpose oi (‘1' br 1 F (’ {-4 L (‘9 I this study are introduced and discussed. in the ii:s Character stics of the partitipatinq 48 Fore.gn Student HG.?3€:S and their 1/ universities are described. Section 2 is an ufdiy2I: or the 350 EELLLESL ;nngeflt§_which the 48 Foreign Student Advisers rtpdrIEd Sixteen hufldrEd three (1603) critical elements (or auL'OH: bi the foreign Student Advisers) were inductively extracted iium tne 380 crit ca? incidents. Many of these 1603 critical e‘emefts he» been reported several times by the Foreign Student Adv sers, and 3a Wfib possible to reduce them down to 203.9LEELQEE (d Tierent/ 3;;E;L£f e:afii s The procedure for this operation was g.ven in QBLd i ‘n Chayre. Ii. The 205 dist nct criticai elements were grobped by the researcher and associate into 16 areas of Simiiar behavior called CI‘E :ui artau. These 16 tiit cal areas are defined and presented as the ba.-c i WM‘ryb of th s study and are presented as ”Criticai_£!enents’§:g E; i :ai A 5.2 —-—————-»~. - -.. _.._._.-k_. 110 A definition was written for each of the 16 critical areas which summarizes and comprehends the distinct critical elements grouped in the area. The 350 critical incidents reported by the 48 Foreign Student Advisers meet the requirements which were specified by Flanagan for a representative sample: . the critical incident technique attempts to gain representativeness by providing that data be collected systematically from respondents in every major actiVity of the job until no new t es of behavior are reported in significant numbers.(i; I. Characteristics of the Responding Foreign tudent Advisers and Their UniverSities General Table IV-l presents a summary of data regarding the 48 Foreign Student Advisers and the universities they represent. These 48 Foreign Student Advisers were all of the Foreign Student Advisers employed on a full-time basis at the 17 institutions included in this study- The Table includes the critical incidents reported by the Foreign Student AdVisers at each of the universities and other information illustrating the relationship between the universities, the Foreign Student Advisers, and the critical inCidents reported. The 17 institutions included in the study are: Eastern Michigan University IllinOis Institute of Technology Indiana University 1. John C. Flanagan, Critical Requirements for Research Personnel: .5 Study gj;0bserved BehaViors gf_Personne1 in Research Laboratories, ittsburgh: American Institute for Researc , March, i949, p. 6. 111 Iowa State University Marquette University New York University Northwestern University Ohio State University Purdue University University of Chicago University of Illinois University of Michigan University of Minnesota University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee Wayne State University Western Michigan University For purpose of comparison, the 17 institutions are grouped according to the number of foreign students enrolled. Group I consists of 6 universities with foreign student enrollments of 1000 or over. In this group the total student enrollment per university ranged from 30,000 to 42,000,with an average of 35,900 students. The foreign stu- dent enrollment ranged fron 1000 to 2500, with an average of 1400 foreign students. There are fron 2 to 5 full-time Foreign Student Advisers at each university with an average of 3.8 Foreign Student Advisers per university. The average number of critical incidents reported per Foreign Student Adviser was 6.9. Group II consists of 5 universities with foreign student enrollments between 500 and 999. In this group the total student enrollment per university ranged from 7500 to 40,000 with an average of 22,640 students. The foreign student enrollment ranged from 525 to 900 with an average of 735 foreign students. There are from 1 to 4 full-time Foreign Student Advisers per university. The average number of critical incidents reported per Foreign Student Adviser was 7.7. Group III consists of 6 universities with foreign student enrollments between 200 and 499. In this group the total student enrollment per uni- versity ranged rom 5100 to 14,500 with an average of 11,350 students. 112 The foreign student enrollment ranged from 200 to 460 with an average of 289 foreign students. There are from 1 to 3 full-time Foreign Student Advisers at each university with an average of 1.7 Foreign Student Advisers per university. The average number of critical incidents reported per Foreign Student Adviser was 8.5. The 13,810 foreign students enrolled at the 17 universities included in the study represent approximately 14 percent of the total foreign student population in the United States. The 48 Foreign Student Advisers reporting incidents represent approximately 15 percent of the full-time Foreign Student Advisers currently employed in United States institutions of higher education. The total enrollment of 13,810 foreign students is 3.5 percent of the 17 institutions' total student enrollment of 396,800. In the 58 United States institutions of higher education which enroll over 400 foreign students, the mean percent of foreign students is 4.2 percent.1 Twelve of the 17 institutions included in this study were listed in the Institute of International Education's summary of the 58 United States institutions which enrolled over 400 foreign students during the academic year 1966-67. The six universities in Group I of this study were in the top 15 universities in the United States with the highest enrollment of foreign students. 1. 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~_-:;é7(:;)i 2 7, ichard E. Miller Au st G. Benson Foreign Student C nselor Foreign Student Adviser A STUDY OF THE FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISER'S FUNCTION This represents an attempt by the undersigned to identify and evaluate the duties and responsibilities, as seen through the eyes of the foreign student, that comprise the job of Foreign Student Adviser or the person similarly designated in the various colleges and universities throughout the United States. This study is based on the premise that the duties, responsibilities and perfonnance or behavior of the Foreign Student Adviser and his staff should contribute to the academic progress and personal development of the foreign student. This study is intended to be ananymous, and if you prefer not to complete any of the items below, they may be omitted. We appreciate your cooperation in this effort to more clearly define the role of the Foreign Student Adviser and the functions of his office. M57 W WW ichard E. Mille Aug t G. Benson ***** ***** ***** Country Sex Age Marital Status If married, family present (Yes7na7 Source of Funds (Parsonal, Private, AID, IIE, etci) Major Level ___ (BA, MA, Ph.D.)' Years Spent in U. S. Degrees already received or completed in U. S. TTBA, MA, etc.) Do you think that the Foreign Student Office and/or other officials of the University you are now attending provides all of the services they should provide to facilitate the specific goals and objectives of foreign students? Yes No COMMENTS: A STUDY OF THE FOREIGN STUDENT ADVISER'S FUNCTION Suggestions for Completing the Attached Fonns Please report four significant incidents involving the Foreign Student Adviser. A significant incident is one which, in your judgment, has a decided effect on the academic progress or personal development of one or more foreign students. Report only incidents you have observed, in which you have participated, or with which you are very faniliar. L W 3...: w Some incidents may have helped you as a foreign student in your academic progress or personal development. An example of a SATISFACTORY incident is: Date: January, 1966. I went to see the Foreign Student Adviser for financial assistance for my final term since my source of support had unexpectedly terminated. Although the FSA didn‘t have funds available, he discussed my situation very thoroughly with me, and suggested a private philanthropic foundation which helped students in similar circumstances. He consulted with my academic adviser and myself in completing the application forms and wrote a recommendation for me. I received adequate supplementary funds to complete my degree. Basis for Report: Participation X Observation Knowledge Some incidents may have hindered you as a foreign student in your academic progress or personal development. Example of an UNSATISFACTORY incident is: Date: Septegber,,l966. A student from my home country received a cordial welcoming letter from the Foreign Student Adviser asking him to arrive a week early for orientation. He arrived on the campus with high expectations. However, the FSA only had time for a hurried greeting and gave him a stack of papers to fill out. The orientation program was just one hour in which the FSA talked about social activities. When my friend inquired about academic courses, the FSA referred‘hflm to his academic adviser who was out of town. My friend was greatly disappointed and doubted if he would go to the FSA for help again. Basis for Report: Participation Observation X Knowledge W m Please report TWO SIGNIFICANT SATISFACTORY INCIDENTS AND TWO SIGNIFICANT UNSATISFACTORY INCIDENTS, preferably occurring within the past two aca- demic years. If you cannot recall four incidents, report two or three. Use as much space as you feel you need to give each report. As you will note in the examples above: EACH INCIDENT: I Must involve the Foreign Student Adviser 2 May extend from a few minutes to several weeks or even longer 3 Has a definite effect on academic progress and/or personal adjustment of the foreign student(s). EACH REPORT SHOULD: 1) Include the approximate date of the incident 2) Include what occurred, what the FSA did, and the results 3) Use letters instead of specific names. THANK YOU AGAIN FOR HELPING IN THE STUDY MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY H EAST LA Ill-“JG. M'CH 318824