HYDROLOGIC DECONTAHIHATION Of ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION TITO“: for {In Dogma of M. 5. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Roger. Don $11111] 1963 This is to certify that the 5 thesis entitled ’3 HYDROLOGIC DECONTAMINATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION presented by Roger Don Shull has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master' 3 degree in Sanitagz Engineering 0 ( // jfltétwc 1/ ”(4,-— / Mafirofessor ate , ' ’Z / / ffl/ _ D (7&5/5 2,,/’/ j 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT HYDRDLOGIC DECONTAMINETION OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION by Roger D. Shall This thesis examines the phenomenon of hydrologic decontamination of’environnental radioactive pollution in a slall agricultural water- shed in south-central lichigan. In this case, the radioactive pollution is due to vorld wide fallout from nuclear weapons testing. A conpdete survey of basin characteristics influencing’hydrologic transportation of radionuclides is presented. In.general, in autuan in the basin studied, hydrologic decontani- nation anounts to about 0.1 percent of the radioactivity deposition by precipitation. Three lathe-stical aodels are proposed to predict stream radio- activity at am ties as a function of redioactivityideposition rate, accumulated basin activity, and hydrologic variables. Data free fifteen consecutive 5-day periods show that the best prediction nodal is: (%)a"1""”*‘2*a+xa' where (Q; - rate of decrease of basin activity due to d hydrologio processes, K1, K2, n'- basin constants fbr a certain season, R - rainfall runoff ratio, D - radioactivity deposition rate, AB - accumulated basin activity since beginning of analysis, and K3 - constant to compensate for activity.present in basin befOre beginning the analysis. HYDEOLOGIC DECORIAHIRNTIDH OP BfiVIRONHENTALIRADIOACTIVE POLLUTIDN By M Roger D. Shull A THESIS Subuitted.to Iichigan State university in partial fulfillment of the requirenents fer the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Depart-ant of Civil and Sanitaryifingineering 1963 zoom 5 / rt! 5-.// ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude to his major professor, Dr. Shosei Serata, fer providing able guidance and advice, while permitting complete freedom of expression of the author's views. He is also indebted to the Agricultural Engineering Depart- ment of Michigan State University and the District Office of the Surface Water Branch, Water Resources Division, of the U.S. Geo- logical Survey fOr providing rainfall and streamflow data, without which this thesis would have been impossible. Financial assistance in the farm of a fellowship and re- search grant fron the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control Of the U. S. Public Health Service is greatly appre- ciated. TABLE OF COMENTS MRODUCTION...... I“ PROBE. O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 Definition of Hydrologic Contamination SpecificProbleI.. . . .. . .. .. BAG KGROUID 300” e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e TheHydrologicCycle. . . . . . . . . Environmental Radioactivity . . . . . Hatwavl O O O O O 0 O 0 O O O O O Misti-oil]. O O O O O O O O O O O Radioactive Contamination of the Hydrologic Cc Relation of Radioactive Fallout Basin Thea” O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Relativity of the term "Decontamination' Fates of Radionuclides . . . . . Measurements LITERATURE STUDY. . . . . History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organised lonitoring . . . . . . . . . Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Generalsoilandbiota study . . SetterandRussell . . . . . . . Setter .t ‘1. O O O O O O O O O O Stmub O O O O O I O 0 O O O O C Larson and leatherfond . . . . . Drynanetal........... Morgan and Stanbury . . . . . . . Bani. O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0dm O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Thomas and Spofford . . . . . ., . SIDANCREEKBASINSI‘UDI . . . . . . . . . . Pmmity O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 Si” O O O O O O O 0 O O O O I Current Studies and Available Data . . BASINDESCRIPI‘IOR............. Continental Relationship . . . . . . . 01m“. 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 Land U80 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Topogratily.............. Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geology ............ iii eeeeaeeeeaeeee eeeee‘deeeee. eeeeeHeeeae. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o 5' commendauxunmuuw mm” H HHHHHHHHHHHHHE 00Qmmbb§wwwMH S888 NNNKNNN O‘O‘U! uww TABLE Hydrolog....... Precipitation Stream Description Appearance Statistics Floods Recession Lag time Infiltration Flow duration . 0F CCNTEM‘S (cont..) Sedimentation . . Solution erosion Groundvater Anticipated Effects . . . . RELATED STREAM IIEASUREMEM‘S SAMPLE ANALYSIS Radioactivity Measurement . Sample Processing . . . . . Precipitation Samples Stream Sailples . . . . DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS Nuclear Decay Analog . . Absorbing Medium Analog Reservoir Analog . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . DATAOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Hydrologic Decontamination Activity Doposition . . . . Accumulated Basin Activity TESTING VALIDH! 0F MODELS . . Nuclear Decay Analog . . Absorbing Medium Analog Reservoir Analog . . . . DISCUSSION . . . . . . . COMLUSIOM O O O O O O FUTURE STUDIES . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . iv see. 0 I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Figure l . 3. 1.. 5. 9. 10. LIST OF IIGURES Contamination of the hydrologic cycle and man's environment by radioactive fallout . . . . . . . . . Fate of radionuclides in basin from precipitation to atrom O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 O Reservoiranalog .................. Radioactivity concentration versus discharge for grflblllplel....o............... Deposition and hydrologic decontamination for fifteen Fri-0d, O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0 Activity accumulated in basin during fifteen periods . festofnucleardecayanalog . . . . . . . . . . . . Solution of 02 in reservoir analog: hydrologic decon- tamination versus aocunulated activity for periods of m d'WBition O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Hydrograph of Sloan Creek during fifteen 5-day periods showingbase flovassump‘tions’ . . . . . . . . . . . Activity runoff ratio versus rainfall runoff ratio . . P880 10 1.6 53 55 58 61 64 LIST 0!" TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of Sloan Creek grab samples for radioactivity ”mum O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 42 2. Daily mean and 5-day mean discharges of Sloan Creek OctoberltoDecemberlA, 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 3. ' Calculation of hydrologic decontamination shown with corresponding 5-day deposition . . . . . . . . . . . 48 1.. Calculation of radioactivity deposition by precipitation 1.9 5. Accmulated activity inbasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘52 6. Solution chI inreservoir analog . . . . . . . . . . 59 7. Calculation of rainfall runoff ratio and comparison withactivityrunoffratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 vi IMRODIBT ION This is the third in a series of theses dealing with environmental radioactivity as related to the twdrologic cycle . The previous two dealt with relationships between atmospheric and precipitation radioactivity (1., 23). In particular, this investigation looks at a watershed in the light of a "dynamic radionuclide reservoir.“ In other words, radioac- tivity is being continuously supplied to the basin via fallout, rainout, and snowout processes (cm-rently from nuclear weapons tests), and is simultaneously being removed through hydrologic discharge from the basin. It is attempted herein to consider and list some of the most important factors affecting movement of radionuclides through the basin, to demon- strate the relative rate of movement with combined hydrologic and radio- logical data, and to propose some mathematical model applicable to the misnomena which can be adapted to am watershed. If worldwide fallout from defense applications continues to be a problem, the value of this research is self evident. However, if this source of pollution is eliminated, we are still faced with the ever in- creasing peacetime use of nuclear energ and radioisotopes whid: renders radioactive pollution of the enviromlent inevitable, whether by accidental or disciplined deliberate release. In such case, we must be able to predict its effect on the environment. Continuing sophistication of our knowledge and abilities in this subject will provide adequate protection of the public health while in- suring equitable regulations regarding release of radioactivity to the environment . THE PROBLEM when considering radioactive fallout, there exists wdrologic contamination (in contrast to the title of this dissertation) since the greatest amount of this envirOT-ental radioactive pollution is brought to earth via precipitation. However, as some fraction of this precipitation leaves a certain basin area as streamflow, so does a fraction of radioactivity leave the basin associated with stream water. ' This stream removal of radioactivity is termed 'hydrologic decontami- nation.“ The problem faced is to measure this hydrologic decontamination along with contamination rates, determine the relative magnitude of the decontamination, and to dual» a method for mathematically pre- dicting the phenomenon based upon hydrologic and environental variables. BAG mom m. A stub of this nature, to be all encompassing, necessitates a large anount of interdisciplinary investigation, a matter which has been ignored or overlooked in research heretofore. The scope of this specific analysis has not the breadth necessary to depict the complete phenomenon, but includes an enumeration of all related processes with quantitative examination of the processes m by investigating inflow and outflow of basin radioactivity. :2 gang; Cycle. A knowledge of the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle in addition to nuclear radiation mysics is requisite to a full understand- ing of the problen. The hydrologic cycle is displayed pictorially in Figure 1, including associated enviromental contaninstion by radioac- tive fallout. ' As shown by the seriously silplified sketch, the paths of water in the environ-ant are new and varied. The nova-ant of rediomclides in the environment is intimately related to this hydrologic cycle in addi- tion to the many other natural an! artificial wens-ens which control the ”01. e l. bterology 2. Topography 3. Pedology ‘e @010g 5 e 31010” 6. Ecology 7. Linnology 8. Agronoq 9. Sooio-wonomic develoment of the area 4.53 ammo J«\ .50....2... >mo .ZwB 353% .u:o__mi m>_uomo_omL >3 acmE:oL_>:m m_cmE ucm o_u>u u_mo_oLo>; mo co_umc_Emucou ._ ma3m_d zo_._.m hzwmmmmmm m30mm< H:o_o __0m ., -. maom_:o< mnoi_:o< consignee; lllll noumzocsoLu coco . zo__c:m N x x \ co_uoucoE_oom \ 36:32 \ ..oasumz \ x x s .N nATIIIIIn. . Emanum >n c_mmm EoLw om>0€mm moo__u:co_omm ”aux:m co_umomc. .mE_c< u3030:m unoc_m¢ u>n Uv__aanm mou__u:co_omm HommDmo-u>c\ 53 100 Accumulated activity in 101° uuc 6.1.1:; Figure 6. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9101112131415 Activity accumulated in basin during 15 periods. TESTING VALIDITY OF MODELS Nuclear Decay Anologz. If the proposed relation is true, a plot ofeal versus AB should yield a straight line, the slepe being the decay constant H‘ lloreover, since AB is not the true activity of the basin, but merely that accumu- lated in the basin since the beginning of the analysis, the line should have a positive I-intercept. Such a graph is shown in Figure 7. Considerable scatter is evident, . v?!- hit was expected due to the randomness of both the natural phenomenon itself and of the experimental error. However, it should be noted that there is a general upward trend in the data substantiating the theory to a small degree. Three points are extremely high (5, 8, l4) and are attributed either to experimental error or extreme changes in the basin in short time periods. These points were neglected and a straight line ' of best fit by eye was drawn considering that the T-intercept by defini- tion must be zero or positive depending upon the magnitude of the initial activity. A negative intercept is impossible since neither activity concentration nor discharge of the stream may be negative. The line intercepts the 1 axis at 2.2 x 107 nun/period and has a 81090 of 6.75 x 10’5/period. Since at the true value of AB - 0, (gal must also be zero, the abcissa was shifted to allow the line to inter- sect the origin. This indicated an initial activity in the basin of 32.6 x 1010 uuc or 0.326 curiae. In conclusion, it may be said that this theory is neither proven nor disproven, but the trends resulting from such limited data indicate that further study of this nature might prove fruitful. 54 28 N O H 0‘ Hydrologic decontamination in 107 uuc/period 6 K: Figure 7. 55 a. . J... {>4 Accumulated activity in 101° uuc Test of nuclear decay analogy. / 06 f 09 / 0P2 / 03 0U 015 V 6 A 1.0 so 120 160 200 56 Randomness in the data might be lessened by applying the equation to longer time increments, such as months or years. If such an equation is proven in subsequent studies, the constants would be expected to be at least within the same magnitude as these de- rived with this data. 92 I -5 (“)3 6.75 x 10 /period 13 Hydrologic decay is insignificant compared to natural decay of short to medium half-life fission products in the basin. The hydrologic decay constant (above) can also be expressed as 1.35 x 10'5/day, since a period is 5 days. The nuclear decay constant is 3 x 10‘2/day, or roughly 2 x 103 times the hydrologic constant. bso um o . This proposal in the stated form was immediately rejected upon examination of the data in Figure 5. If the activity in the stream (hydrologic decay) is merely the deposition rate minus a variable ab- sorption rate, stream activity should be zero when deposition is zero. 0n the contrary, significant stream activity was observed during periods of no deposition. The general theory might still be applicable if enhanced with some form of lag time or storage factor. However, such a modification of the equation renders it nearly identical to the reservoir analogy which is discussed subsequently, so further analysis was not attempted. flagemir Analog. If such a relation exists, ’QA; . we; 01D " c2‘8 9 the constants may be readily identified due to the fact that the data 57 includes six periods where D - 0 and one where D is very nearly zero. Plotting ($38 versus A8 for these seven observations allows direct solution of 02. Usim this value, the constant C1 may be found. This procedure was followed with the seven more deposition values plotted in Figure 8. Neglecting point 11 since it followed a period of excessive deposition, a reasonable straight line was evident with a slepe of 2.00 x 10’5/poriod and a I-intercept of 3.2 x 107 inc/period. aiifting the abcissa as explained before (Nuclear Decay Analogy) to bring the line throng: the origin indicated an initial basin activity of 160 x 1010 uuc or 1.6 curies. Using the value 02 - 2 x 10‘5/period and the I-intercept of 3.2 x 107 uuc/period, the value 01 was calculated for the periods in which de- position occurred with the following equation: c1 _ (gflfl-CZAB-LleO7 D . Values of all parameters in the above equation are displayed in Table 6. The values of C:l vary extremely, but this was expected consi- daring both the rainfall runoff ratio andrapid changes in basin characteristics. The rainfall runoff ratio (volume of surface runoff to volume of precipitation) varied randomly from 0.35 to 2.31 during the analysis period. Since surface runoff is the transport medit- for radioactivity, the activity runoff ratio (Cl) can never be greater than the rainfall runoff ratio (R), .142." CI S VQNP I B, where C - activity runoff coefficient or fraction of deposited activity going directly to streamflow activity, A? V ‘ ‘T-i'a r -. 58 ...a O‘ R3 [V4 0 15 Hydrologic decontamination in 107 uuc/period Q I. l 0 0 Figure 8. 1.0 80 120 160 Accumulated activity in 101° 66 Solution of 02 in reservoir analogy: hydrologic decontamination versus aocmlated activity for periods of no deposition. 200 Table 6. Solution of C1 in reservoir analogy. 59 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ('7) 1 3.5 6.5 5.8 3.3 0.2 0.031 2 10.3 69.4 67.6 4.6 5.7 0.085 3 4.3 0.0 58.6 4.2 0.1 *** 4 14.2 33.0 79.6 4.8 9.4 0.284 5 56.1 35.0 100.7 5.2 50.9 1.452 6 10.3 95.4 172.5 6.6 3.7 0.039 7 15.9 27.5 173.5 6.7 9.2 0.332 a 26.6 17.4 165.0 6.5 20.1 1.153 9 6.9 0.0 141.9 6.0 0.9 *** 10 15.9 41.9 159.6 6.4 9.5 0.229 11 12.5 0.0 137.6 6.0 6.5 *** 12 6.0 0.0 118.1 5.6 0.4 see 13 5.0 0.0 101.8 5.2 -0.2 *** 14 21.4 79.4 158.3 6.4 15.0 0.189 15 ‘08 0.0 137m]- 5e9 -101 “* Explanation of Column Designations: (1; Poriod number (2 Hydrologic decontamination in 107uuc/period (3) Deposition rate in 1010 uuc/period (It; Accumulated Basin activity in 1010 uuc (5 Hydrologic deco animation of stored basin activity: 021 . 3.2 x 10 uuc/period (6) BasIn bypass radioactivity: Colt-n (2) - Column (5) (7) Activity runoff coefficient: 01 - Column (6)/Column (3) ;;;’Undefined,=ns Column (3) - 0; Column (6) values indicate deviation of values from straight line in Figure 8. 6O VQ - total volume of precipitation appearing as streamflow, VP - total volume of precipitation in basin, and R = rainfall runoff coefficient. It was further proposed that the activity runoff coefficient might be directly related to the rainfall runoff coefficient. Values of H were calculated for each 5-day period by the following method and com- pared with CI values in Table 7. Vp-totalraindepthxbasinarea .- d (cm) x 9.34 d2 x 2.59 x 1010 Olz/Iiz I 24.2 x 1010 d 3.3 To calculate VQ it was necessary to separate surface flow (0.) from WI‘IS ”it”; inst-7‘s a _. m mac.- ..p .11 ‘- v - 5" total flow (Qt) by subtracting base flow (Qb). This was accomplished by plotting the bydrograph of daily mean total flow in Figure 9 andcutting off stormflow peaks with straight lines. This is an accepted method for determining base flow and can be sophisé ticated with a more detailed hydrograph. Base flow fluctuates as shown due to increased water tables in shallow groundwater aquifers caused by infiltration and percolation of precipitation. Mean values of Qb for each 5-day period in which precipitation oc- curred were determined graphically and entered in Table 7. Q. was deter- mined by Q. - Qt - Qb’ upon which it was changed to volume per 5-day period in units identical to VP. VQ - mean flow rate x 5 days " Q, (ftB/sec) x 5 days x 8.64 x 10‘ sec/day x 2.83 x 10‘ cmB/ft - 1.223 x 1010 Q. cm3 Noting the large change in Cl with small change in H indicated a non-linear relationship which prompted full logarithmic plotting of the 61 {sedan-flees mod seen gone scorned $05M 3 93.56 xeemo 5on no fled—no.8»: «H .3 n3. Hs“ .em‘ ‘1‘.“ hi'!’ n." NH HA OH 0 w b c m 6 n N H J — q — _ _ fi — ..-..- s66 .80 636 III .66 .80 ~38 _ .6 one: 0.0 do 6.0 m.o see/€13 my eBawqosm Table 7. activity runoff ratio. 62 Calculation of rainfall runoff ratio and comparison with (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 1 0.51 12.3 0.19 0.16 0.03 0.037 3.0 0.031 2 1.15 27.8 0.20 0.20 0.09 0.110 4.0 0.085 4 3e31 moo oeAO 0.20 0.20 0.245 3e]- Oe284 ‘1'“ 5 0.61 14.7 0.51 0.23 0.23 0.343 23.3 1.452 L 6 0.66 16.0 0.29 0.26 0.03 0.037 2.3 0.039 7 0.41 9.9 0.31 0.27 0.04 0.049 5.0 0.332 8 0.26 6.3 0.33 0.27 0.06 0.073 11.6 1.158 10 0.66 16.0 0.31 0.27 0.06 0.073 4.6 0.229 ‘7 14 1.28 31.0 0.35 0.22 0.13 0.158 5.1 0.189 &. Explanation of Column Designations i (1) Period number (2) Total rain depth in cm ' (3) Total precipitation volume in 1010 cm3 24; 5-day mean total streamflow in ftB/sec. 5 5&day mean base streamflow in same units (6) 5-day mean surface streamflow in same sé'Solumn (4) - Column (5) (7 5-day volume of surface streamflow in l 28% Rainfall runoff ratio; Column (7)/001umn (3) x 10"3 9 Activity runoff ratio; 01 x 10-3 63 data as shown in Figure 10. A fairly good line was defined substantia- ting a relationship of c1 . 1m“, In logarithmic form, log Cl - log K + n log H. The exponent is determined from the slope of the straight line in Figure 10. n - (log c11 . log 012)/(log 111 . log 32) In this case, the value of n was calculated to be 1.86. If the line is extended to H - l, or log H - 0, the logarithmic equation reduces to log 01 - log K from which X was found to be 4.1. 01 is thus defined as a function of the rainfall runoff ratio. 01 - 4.1 31°86 The reservoir analogy equation is now complete. (gag - 4.1 31°86 11 + 2.00 x 10'5 AB . 3.2 x 107 uuc/period. The constant at the end of the equation accounts for the fact that AB in this analysis is exclusive of the activity in the basin at the beginning of the analysis. If true total basin activitycan be esti- mated fairly closely, this constant becomes nonexistent. N- 0H _m% .368 neon...— fiesnee enter 6.3... tonne 36586 .2 6.8666 a 63 H ~.m .. m4 No .. g .. do 3.36.» uuc-Sn 53.5364 mag .70..“ .60 em ‘3‘ C) ...q A - 8 ”129-! Hm mm dyb OH DISCUSSION The following discussion is accessory to acceptance of the reser- voir analogy as the best mathematical model: 1. The general nature of the equation is logical if one considers the processes depicted in Figures 1, 2 and 3, (hydrologic cycle, fate of nuclides, reservoir sketch). It is analogous to direct surface run- off plus base flow of water alone as shown in the streamflow hydrograph in.Figure 9. The equation.predicts stream activity within a 140% error. This error can be substantially reduced by more precise data collection. The equation is significant since stream activity may vary by three orders of magnitude. 2. The analysis has two unavoidable weaknesses due to the type of available data: A. The relation of activity concentration to streamflow in Figure 4 is not well defined since stream activity is not related to streamflow alone. Thus, the method for determining mean concentrationdhas something to be de- sired: more frequent grab samples or continuous sampling. B. The uniform 5-day periods used herein generally give good results, but occasionally yield significant errors since periods of deposition and no deposition are not properly separated. These errors can be eliminated by separating periods according to specific storms rather than arbitrarily as is done in this analysis. 3. Such an equation, capable of predicting stream activity due to world wide fallout can conceivably become extremely valuable in provid- ing background stream activity data for comparison and checking of 65 66 local discharge of radioactive wastes to streams. 1.. The equation might also be modified so as to predict environ- mental consequences cf local discharge of airborne radioactive wastes. 5. Using the stream routing technique, radioactive stream discharge from extremely large basins might be predicted by synthesizing a large radiograph from several smaller ones similar to the Sloan Creek analysis. 6. Although hydrologic decay is insignificant compared to natural decay of short to medium half-life fission products, it may be equal to or greater than the natural decay of the longest lived, most important fission product, strontium-90. 7. The basin constants will change not with calendar seasons, but with hydrologic seasons which an vary from year to year. Such things as storm types, soil temperatures, and evapotranspiration rates affect these seasons. . 7__-__ a a?! CONCLUSIONS Prom study of the hydrologic cycle, environmental radiology, and the data presented, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The following factors are the most important influences upon basin and stream radioactivity: A. Atmospheric radioactivity concentration B. Meteorology - rain types, wind speed 0. Topography - land slopes, drainage pattern D. Land use - texture of basin surface. 2. The data used in this analysis indicate that the nuclear decay analogy provides at best a rough estimate of hydrologic decontamination. 3. The absorbing medium analogy cannot be applied.unless a storage factor is added, in which case it becomes nearly identical to the reser- voir analogy. A. The data used in this analysis indicate that the reservoir ana- logy is a good method for predicting stream radioactivity resulting from fallout. For any basin, it takes the following form: 95--xlann+xz AB +x3 , lat; Ki, Ki, K;: and n being constants within a basin within a season, B the rainfall runoff ratio, D the radioactive deposition rate, and ‘B the accumulated basin activity. 5. During autumn of 1962 in the Sloan Creek basin, the equation was StAH' 4.1 R1’86 D + 2.00 x 10-5 ‘8 + 3.2 X 107 mic/period. hydrologic decontamination being expressed in micromicrocuries discharged per S-day period. 6. Generally speaking, hydrologic decontamination of environmental radioactive pollution in the Sloan Creek basin during autumnvmonths is about 0.1% of the radioactivity deposition rate. 67 :T-fir —. ' '-‘-‘- -"' “BE 73:. ‘ fl FUTURE STUDIES In the further study of environmental radioactivity as related to the hydrologic cycle, the following suggestions are made for increasing quality of data and providing for a more complete understanding of the phenomenon of radionuclide transportation in a watershed: l. Initiate a continuous automatic proportional sampling program or a more frequent grab sampling schedule to provide better stream radioacti- vity data. WTT'."_-Tr “any 2. Use gamma spectrometry to identify concentration of specific radio- nuclides. This will eliminate the problem of variable average half-life of mixed fission products which is accessory to gross radioactivity mea- surements used in this thesis. 3. Study separate storms in detail to define the relationship of peak radiographs to corresponding hydrographs. 4. Analyze a stream basin mainly urban in character and compare to rural basins such as Sloan Creek basin. 5. Study a basin throughout one year to determine season variation of basin constants. . 6. Study another rural basin of different characteristics and derive basin to basin variation of’hydrologic decontamination as a function of these characteristics. 7. Design a laboratory model and an electronic analog. 68 1. 3. 1+. 5. 9. 10. 11. 12. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akamsin, A.D., et al., "Radioactivity Stored Up by Algae," Priroda, .(Natm), '01. 2, 1%, pp. 95"%e Ash, A.D., A.R. Eichmeier, 3.3. Kidder, DJ. Granger, et al., fiydrologic Studies of Small Marsheds in Agicultural Areas of Southern Michi an, Michigan Water Resources Commission, Lansing, June 1958, 77 pp. Ash, A.D. (director), Surface later Records of Michigan, Surface Water Branch, Water Resources Division, U.S. Geological Survey and the State of Michigan, 1961, p. '76. Colpetzer, T.R., A Correlation St_u_dy gf Environmental Radigactivitz, U.S. Thesis, Dept. of Civil and Sanitary Engineering, Michigan State University Library, 1962, [.1 pp. an” l.‘m.lean xer‘e‘ m-nr' “LS Deutch, Morris, Effects of Dissemination of Radioactive laterials on Water Resource Conservation with Spgcial Reference to llichiggg, later Bulletin No. 2, Dept. of Resource Development, Agricultural Experiment Station, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1956, pp. 9-11. Dobbins, U.S., "Biological Ilethods for the Removal of Radioactivity from Liquids," Nuclea E inee i and Science a eed- mg, preprint 191., 1955 ipublication rights reserved by Am. Water Works Association). Drynan, W.R., E. F. Gloyna, and DJ. 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