POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS RELEVANT TO CITIIENSHIP EDUCATION TIMI: for the Dog". M M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Patricia H. Shumafo 1959 ___- ,- ‘ Ia... aw 1;. LIBRARY " Michigan State University . POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS RELEVANT TO CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION BY Patricia H. Shumate A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Political Science 1959 POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS OF MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS RELEVANT TO CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION An Abstract Patricia H. Shumate This is a pilot study of the political orientations of Michigan public school teachers as they pertain to citizenship education. All too little is known about the attitudes, values, and beliefs of teachers generally; this is certainly true when it comes to their specific political orientations, their concepts of citizenship, and their feelings of responsibility for training students to be good citizens. The citizenship education function of the school and of its teachers is emphasized when professional education groups are formally stating the objectives of the school, but no one knows how teachers themselves regard this. The important role teachers play in determining educational policy makes it particularly desirable that more be known or, at least, interpreted about the persons who enter the teaching profession, or about those who stay. To obtain such information about public school teachers, a fifty—six item questionnaire was distributed to: (1) teachers in Michigan State University extension courses; (2) Michigan social studies teachers listed with the Institute of Local Governments; (3) social studies teachers who are members of the National and Michigan Councils of Social Studies; and, (4) Michigan State University student teachers. A total of 646 elementary and secondary teachers completed the questionnaire. The form contains questions about the teacher's school and its community, his citizenship education policies and practices, his personal characteristics, and the nature and extent of his political and community activities. The study is directed toward two objectives: (1) a description of teachers' concepts of the good citizen and citizenship training; and (2) an investigation of the personal and professional characteristics of teachers which might relate to their citizenship education orientations. The data reveal that teachers consider citizenship education part of their professional role, ranking second only to that of instructing students in basic subjects and skills. They report that schools are emphasizing all the traits of a good citizen which the questionnaire mentioned. Furthermore, teachers would not alter these emphases; if anything, they would stress each trait a little more to students. Whatever type of citizenship training teachers might recommend, that of preparing students to be interested and active in the political life of the country is consistently the least desirable to them. However, teachers have favorable orientations toward political affairs. They are also more involved in political activities than are members of the general population. They are more interested in political campaigns; they are less likely to think it makes no difference to the country which party wins; more of them contribute money to campaigns; they attend a greater number of rallies and meetings; they personally campaign more; and, they engage in more party work than do those of the general population. The general pattern of teachers' political activities does not differ, however, from that of the population as a whole. The tendency of teachers to designate party member- ship but without great identification; their preference to campaign but not to take part in continuing party work; their feelings that it does not make much difference which party is victorious in any election —- are all phenomena other studies have observed in the general population. The size of a teacher's school community, his estimate of the amount of the community’s intolerance, the freedom he feels in the classroom from outside criticism, all influence a teacher's idea of the good citizen. One of the most significant observations of the study is that high school, social studies, and politically active teachers exhibit more concern than their colleagues that a good citizen participate in public affairs, be well-informed on current events, knowledgeable about the operations of government, and possess personal political convictions. 9) fl”? jJ/CLL 2°: me/Cm '1 7 Approved Professor Ralph M. Goldman Major Professor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to numerous persons for their assistance to me and to the research project. First of all, to my major committee, Dr. Ralph M. Goldman, Dr. Frank A. Pinner, and Dr. Robert Horwitz, who unstintingly contributed their time, and advice. Secondly, to the Bureau of Social and Political Re- search and its Director, Dr. Pinner, for financing the research and keeping the IBM machines from mastering me. Thirdly, to the many Michigan public school teachers who supplied the data. There are many others to whom I owe gratitude; those members of the Teacher Education Department of the College of Education who distributed the questionnaires to their extension courses; those persons who contributed their mailing lists of Michigan public school teachers; the members of the Political Science, Education, and Sociology faculties who rendered many biblio- graphical and methodological suggestions; and, finally, to the political science graduate students who scrutinized the several drafts of the questionnaire and offered moral support at all times. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . v Chapter 1. WHO WAS STUDIED, WHY, AND HOW . . . . . l A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . l B. The Questionnaire . . . . . . . . ll 12 C. Selection of the Respondents . . . . D. Respondents’ Socio-Economic Characteristics, Educational and Teaching Backgrounds . . 16 II. TEACHER CONCEPTS AND VIEWS OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 A. Sources of Children's Values. . . . . 23 26 B. Perception of Teacher Role . . . . . C. Concept and Views of Citizenship Education 27 D. Teachers’ Dissatisfaction with School Policies . . . . . . . . . . . 30 E. Topics for Classroom Discussion . . . 32 III. TEACHERS' POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS . . . . 40 A. Attitudes toward Political Organizations and Affairs 0 o o o o o o o o o 42 B. Political Party Preferences and Identification . . . . . . . . . 45 . 48 C. Political Activity . . . . . . . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued Chapter Page D. Political Orientations and Activities of Social Studies Teachers . . . . . . . 54 E. Community Activity. . . . . . . . . 55 IV. INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY, TEACHING BACKGROUND, AND PERSONAL ACTIVITY FACTORS UPON TEACHER CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION CONCEPTS. . . . . . 58 A. Community Factors . . . . . . . . . 59 'Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Communities . 59 Community Size . . . . . . . . . . 6O Perception of Community Intolerance . . . 63 Perception of Community Pressure . . . . 65 B. Educational and Teaching Backgrounds. . . 67 Years of Teaching Experience . . . . . 67 Teacher Training Emphasis . . . . . . 69 Grades. 0 O O O O O I I O O O 0 70 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 C. Personal Activity Factors . . . . . . 73 Political Activity. . . . . . . . . 73 Community Activity. . . . . . . . . 74 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 75 A. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 B. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 8O BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 86 APPENDIX 0 o o o o o o o o 0 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Mailed and Returned Questionnaires . . . . . 15 2 Percentage Distribution of Teachers’ Socio- Economic Characteristics, Teaching, and Educational Backgrounds . . . . . . . . l8 3 Teachers’ Perceptions and Preferences of Inst— itutions Influencing Children’s Values in 25 Per cert-t O I I O O I C C O C O O 4 Teachers’ Perception of Their Role . . . . . 27 5 Teachers’ Perceptions and Preferences of Citizenship Quality Emphases . . . . . . 29 6 Percentage of All Topics Teachers Recommend for Classroom Discussions . . . . . . . 34 7 Teachers’ Perceptions: Community Problems and Hazardous Topics for Classroom Discussion . . 34 8 Teachers’ Reactions to School Communist Front Group 0 O O O O O C O O O O O O O 38 9 Teachers’ Recommendations to School Superin— tendents Regarding Communist Front Group in 39 Per cent . o o o o o o o o o I o o 10 Teachers’ Opinions of Political Parties in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 11 Average Ranks of Organizations Teachers Would Recommend to Students . . . . . . . . 43 12 Teachers’ Interest in Political Campaigns in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 13 Teachers’ Perceptions of Amount of Difference It Makes Which Party is in Power,in Per Cent . 45 14 Teachers’ Political Party Preferences in Per Cent . O O O O O O O O O O I O O 46 LIST OF TABLES--Continued Table Page 15 Teachers’ Voting Decision If They Dislike Their Party’s Candidate,in Per Cent . . . . . 47 16 Teachers’ Opinion of Voting for Same Party’s Candidate,in Per Cent. . . . . . . . 47 17 Teachers’ Choice of Voting Decision Basis,in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 18 Teachers’ Political Activity and Index Scoreg in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . 49 19 Teachers’ Propensities to Vote in Various E1ections,in Per Cent. . . . . . . . 51 20 Political Activities of Teachers and the General Population.in Per Cent. . . . . 52 21 Teachers’ Past or Present Activity in Political Parties,in Per Cent . . . . . . . . 53 22 Political Party Activities of Social Studies and Other Teachers in Per Cent. . . . . 54 23 Teachers’ Activity in Community Organizations, in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . 56 24 Teachers' Perceptions of Community Preferences Concerning Political and Civic Activities of Teachers in Per Cent . . . . . . . . 56 25 Teachers’ Perceptions of Citizenship Qualities Schools in Various Sized Communities Empha— size:in Per Cent . . . . . . . . . 61 26 Citizenship Quality Recommendations of Teachers in Various Size Communities in Per Cent. . 61 27 Percentage Distribution of Teachers’ Community Intolerance Scores . . . . . . . . 64 28 Teachers’ Perceptions: Community Pressure Related to Topics Deemed Objectionable in 66 Per Cent . . . . . . . . . . . . vi LIST OF TABLES-—Continued Table Page 29 Teacher Citizenship Quality Preferences Related to Teaching Experience,in Per Cent 0 O C C I O O I O C O O 68 30 Teachers’ Training Emphasis,in Per Cent . 69 31 Training Emphases of Teachers Reporting Schools Are and Should Be Stressing Community Participation to Students in Per Cent. . . . . . . . . . . 7O 32 Citizenship Quality Recommendations of Social Studies and Other Teachers in Per Cent. 72 33 Citizenship Quality Recommendations of Polit- ically Active and Inactive Teachers in, 73 Per cent. 0 O O I O O C O O 0 vii CHAPTER I WHO WAS STUDIED, WHY, AND HOW A. Introduction Numerous political philosophers have addressed their thoughts and writings to the relationship between the form of government and the character, behavior and attitudes of its citizens. Aristotle, for example, wrote: "The type of character appropriate to the constitution is the power which continues to sustain it, as it is also the force which origi- nally creates it.” In our own time, Professor Harold Lasswell, has outlined the character necessary for the citizen of a democratic society and community. If it is important for a society to foster a citizen type to perpetuate its form of government, then its leaders, at least, and certainly those responsible for the education of the young, should be constantly evaluating the country’s citizen training. In the United States there is not only a lack of adequate evaluation, but also a lack of consensus about the ideal citizen. 1Aristotle, Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett, introd. Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1943), p. 320. 2See "Democratic Character," in The Political Writings of Harold D. Lasswell (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1951), pp. 465-525. Each group concerned with education for citizenship, whether it is a professional education organization, a university re- search project, or a privately supported organization, has developed or adopted its own concept of citizenship. The most extensive research project undertaken to date in the area of citizenship education is the Citizenship Edu- cation Study sponsored by the Detroit Public Schools and Wayne State University. This five year study was intended to be "a combined cooperative attack on the citizenship prob- lems of several pilot schools with an attempt to evaluate the effects of specific citizenship education procedures."3 The good citizen, according to this Study, "is aware of the im- portance of meeting basic human needs and is concerned with the extension of the essentials of life to more individuals; gives allegiance to the ideals of democracy; practices the kind of human relationships that are consistent with a demo— cratic society; recognizes and endeavors to help in the so- lution of the social problems of the times; possesses and uses knowledge, skills, and abilities to facilitate the pro— cess of democratic living."4 The major conclusion of the Study was that the missing ingredient in citizenship education programs is a course of action capable of bringing about the satisfactory emotional adjustment of all children. Educators need to recognize 3 Stanley E. Dimond, Schools and the Development of Good Citizens (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1953), pp. ix, x. 41bid., p. 37. that in developing good citizenship a "hOpeful" approach is to aid children and youth to be emotionally well—adjusted. Although the Citizenship Education Project did not charac- terize the good citizen as merely emotionally well—adjusted, it considered this quality the first and foremost requirement for good citizenship practices. Perhaps the Study assumed emotionally maladjusted children could be taught relatively little about democracy or good citizenship; i.e., students have to be in a certain frame of mind or conform to certain standards of behavior before they are receptive to citizen— ship training. For almost a decade Teachers College at Columbia Uni- versity has sponsored a program entitled the Citizenship Edu— cation Project. Among other things, it has designed a specific teaching procedure that takes advantage of the "ready-made citizenship laboratory provided in schools and communities."5 The Project aims to develop a deep and active interest in public affairs to guarantee our free way of life. Thus, by their basic definition, a good citizen is alert and willing to participate actively in public life in order to maintain human freedom. Another university program is the Civic Education Cen- ter at Tufts University which is operated jointly by the Trus- tees of Tufts University and the Civic Education Foundation ‘- 5Columbia University, Teachers College, Citizenship Education Project, Premises of American Liberty (New York: n°d0)o of Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Center was founded "to assist the schools of America in their never—ending task of helping students to become responsible citizens -- citi- zens who are not only aware of such dangers to our country as political apathy, economic ignorance, and intergroup ill 6 Thus, the good will but who are prepared to combat them." citizen is aware of social, political, and economic problems and seeks to solve them. The Citizenship Clearing House, an affiliate of the New York University Law Center, is another well-known organization concerned with citizenship education. It views citizenship as enlightened participation in the two—party system. The basic assumptions of the Citizenship Clearing House are that: "politics is the inescapable mechanism by which government is accomplished; action through political participation is neces- sary if public policy is to be developed in a democratic and responsible manner and if the majority is to be effective politically; political independence is ineffective because it often exercises only a negative influence on the selection of issues and candidates; the two-party system best fits the American political genius."7 Thus, the Citizenship Clearing House also emphasizes activity on the part of the citizen, 6Civic Education Center, The Civic Education Center (Medford, Massachusetts: n.d.). 7Citizenship Clearing House, The Action Program of the Citizenship Clearing House (New York: n.d.). but confined more narrowly to political parties. Various professional education associations add their understandings of citizenship to the list. The Educational Policies Commission, a deliberative body created jointly by the National Education Association and the American Associ- ation of School Administrators, has described the citizen as one who "seeks to understand social structures and procedures, is sensitive to the disparities of human circumstances, acts to correct unsatisfactory conditions, has ways of analyzing propaganda, respects honest differences of opinion, obeys the law, accepts his civic duties, is a cooperative member of a world community, and acts upon an unswerving loyalty to demo- cratic ideals."8 So, by their definition, a citizen is an informed and reasoning person seeking to reduce disparities and conflict. These organizations and programs are certainly not the only ones in the country involved with citizenship education. However, their concepts are representative of those qualities Which are most often attributed to good citizens today. Consequently, good citizenship tends to be defined both as a condition and as an act; i.e., the good citizen has certain characteristics and traits, and is active in various ways. He is: (l) informed about such things as current events, ¥ 8Roald F. Campbell and John A. Ramseyer, The Dynamics gfigSchool-Community Relationships (New York: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1955), pp. 60-61. social, economic, and political problems and disparities; (2) loyal to democratic ideals or the American way; (3) of good character -- just, obedient to laws, cooperative with others; and (4) emotionally well—adjusted. He ggtg to: (1) maintain human freedom; (2) reduce economic disparities; (3) reduce social conflict; and, (4) support the two—party system. Clearly, no one set of attributes, attitudes, actions, or understandings characterizes the good citizen in our political system. However, various factors may influence the concept an organization, group, or individual holds. If so, it would be more pertinent, if one is studying organi— zations or groups expected to have citizenship training re- sponsibilities, to describe not only their concepts of a good citizen, but also to investigate whether different factors, environmental or personal, have any relationship to their citizenship concepts. It was with this in mind that the researcher turned to an institution which purports to have much to do with edu— cating our citizenry —- the school. Since a study of the impact of the school as an institution of citizenship training would constitute a major research project, the focus of this Study is further limited to those educators who, in the last analysis, interpret the meaning of citizenship to the young —_ namely, teachers, particularly those responsible for social Studies. All too little is known of the attitudes, values, and beliefs of teachers, as Professor Wilbur Brookover points out.9 The important role they play in determining educational policy makes it particularly desirable that more be known or, at least, interpreted about the persons who enter the teaching profession, or about those who stay. Teachers’ attitudes, values, professional backgrounds, personal lives, and the characteristics of their school com- munities relate to their concept of citizenship education and its place in the school. Thus, this survey is directed toward two objectives: (1) a description of teachers’ concepts of the good citizen and citizenship training, and (2) an investi- gation of the personal and professional characteristics of teachers which might relate to their citizenship education orientations. The study seeks information about teachers with respect to the following topics: 1) Perception of role as a teacher. -— Teachers’ feelings about their professional duties undoubtedly influence classroom programs and procedures. If teachers regard citizenship edu- cation a major facet of their professional duties, they are more likely to be conscious of citizenship training than if they feel that this training is unimportant, unnecessary, or at least, that it should be left to another institution. * 9 Wilbur Brookover, A Sociology of Education (New York: American Book Company, 1955), p. 70. The citizenship education function of the school and of its teachers is emphasized when professional education groups are formally stating the objectives of the school,10 but no one knows how teachers themselves regard this. 2) Concept of the good citizen. -— Teachers can em— phasize several of a wide range of citizenship qualities. They can interpret a good citizen to be a generally good person and stress in the classroom such virtues as morality, justice, and cooperation. They may prefer to define a good citizen as one keeping abreast of current events and aware of social problems. Some teachers might consider personal activity more important than other citizenship qualities, and, thus, would define a good citizen as one participating in non— controversial community activities or partisan political af— fairs. 3) School community factors. -- The nature of teachers’ school communities might also influence the type of citizen schools prepare. Size is the most obvious difference and also an important factor in determining the community’s way of life. Teachers from smaller communities, for example, might stress such citizenship qualities as character, goodness, honesty and such traits as are valued in personal relationships 1 0See the Educational Policies Commission Report as cited above, and the article by the Citizenship Committee of the National Education Association entitled, "Teachers Are Citizens," in the National Education Association Journal, Vol. 41, No. 8 (November 1952), pp. 504-505. or face~to~face contact. Larger communities, on the other hand, might desire and need a different type of citizen, a condition teachers might reflect in their concept of citizen— ship. Socially and racially heterogeneous communities might be expected also to differ from homogeneous communities in their concept of good citizenship. Since heterogeneous com- munities with their numerous social and economic groups tend to generate more conflict than do the homogeneous, the former might either consider the good citizen to be dedicated to the maintenance of community peace, or willing to enter into con— flict in order to implement his own personal convictions and policies, or both. The amount of community pressure perceived by a teacher might also influence what he is willing to say, or consider possible. Teachers, feeling that members of the community are constantly criticizing their classroom programs and poli— cies, might be very hesitant to discuss controversial issues in the classroom. Perhaps they also would be unwilling to encourage students to hold and to advocate personal political convictions and policies. 4) Personal activities. -~ The teachers’ activities outside the classroom might have some bearing on their citizenship views. Perhaps those active in widely supported activities consider the good citizen also active in public service organizations. Furthermore, teachers active in po- litical affairs might share the objectives of the Citizenship 10 Clearing House. They may very well encourage students to hold their own political convictions and policies, to participate actively in political parties, and to help make community decisions through compromise and conflict between opposing points of view. The first Reed report, a study of higher education curricula, suggested that college and university courses do not appear to be adequately preparing students for their political responsibilities.11 If this is true, it is even more unlikely public schools are encouraging politically oriented citizens. Perhaps the most politically active teachers are more concerned than the inactive that schools stress this phase of citizenship. 5) Professional preparation, teaching level and field. -— Such factors as teachers’ preparation, teaching level, and field might further relate to their view of citizenship. Whether teachers’ professional training emphasizes methods, subject matter, or the child's social adjustment may also be pertinent. Those whose preparation stressed social adjust— ment might think that a good citizen is mentally healthy and happy. Teachers whose preparation emphasized subject matter competence might approach the topic of citizenship with differ— ent understandings. The grades one is teaching could also influence citizen- ship orientation of teachers. Teachers of grade school 1 Thomas H. and Doris D. Reed, Evaluation of Citizenship Training and Incentive in American Colleges and Universities—— (New York: The Citizenship Clearing House, 1950). 11 students might stress character and patriotism rather than participation and personal convictions because younger children might not be expected to grasp the latter. As for the teaching field, social studies teachers, supposedly more responsible for, and involved in, students’ citizenship training, might have different thoughts about this training than teachers of other subjects. Also teachers who have taught for many years might vary in their citizenship views from those who have only recently begun their teaching careers. Chapters II, III and IV report the findings of the sur— vey which sought answers to the question: Which teachers hold what concept of citizenship and why? B. The Questionnaire Gathering the desired information was secured by means of a questionnaire composed of fifty—six items. The question- naire covers three major areas: the School and Community; Edu- cational Policies and Practices; and Personal Data and Activi— ties. The School and Community section contains questions about the size and location of the school community, its racial and social composition, the teacher’s perception of community pressure and intolerance, classroom topics which are possibly community problems or to which some members of the community might object, and the political climate of the community. 12 Under the Educational Policies and Practices heading are questions relating to the primary responsibilities of teachers; the citizenship qualities teachers feel the schools are, and should be, emphasizing; and, institutions which should be, and are, the most influential sources of children’s values. The Personal Data and Activities section contains questions about the subjects and grades for which a teacher is responsible, the number of years he has taught, his in— volvements in civic and political activities, and various other questions designed to collect descriptive information about a teacher such as his age, marital status, and edu- cational background. A copy of the questionnaire, which was sponsored jointly by the Civic Education Research Program and the Bureau of Social and Political Research at Michigan State University, can be found in the Appendix. The final form of the questionnaire was adopted in April 1958, after having been pre-tested at three different stages on public school teachers in East Lansing and sur— rounding areas. C. Selection of the Respondents This research is a pilot study. Therefore, the demands of respondent selection were less stringent than if the study had been a sample survey. However, the problem of reaching teachers was ever—present during the total planning period, l3 and most difficult to resolve. Access to school systems and teachers is difficult because they are constantly approached by persons and organizations engaged in educational research. As a result, the systems contacted most frequently, as are certainly those in university areas, have set up means to screen and discourage the incoming research requests. Lists of the names and addresses of Michigan teachers unfortunately were not available either from the State Department of Public Instruction or the Michigan Education Association. And, of course, the budget always has to be considered as it limits the range of possible choices and means by which data can be gathered. The problem was finally met more or less successfully by (l) utilizing a mail questionnaire, (2) asking Michigan State University extension instructors to have the public school teachers taking their courses to fill out forms, and (3) having the Teacher Education Department distribute questionnaires to undergraduates doing student teaching in public schools throughout Michigan. The names and addresses for the mailings were obtained from three sources: (1) Mr. D. Hale Brake, Director of the Michigan Institute of Local Government, (2) Mr. Vernon R. Potts, a public school teacher and past membership chairman for Michigan of the National Council of Social Studies, and (3) Professor John Hanson of the Michigan State University staff who is the research director of the Michigan Council of Social Studies. 14 The Michigan Institute of Local Government supplied names of public school social studies teachers. Their listing is brought up to date every fall by correspondence with schools throughout the state about their staffs. The number of names and addresses drawn totaled 556.12 Mr. Potts' and Professor Hanson's lists contained those Michigan teachers who belong to the National Council of Social Studies and the Michigan Council of Social Studies, respectively. These listings accounted for 164 names and addresses. These two lists of 720 names comprised the mailings. Three waves of questionnaires were sent out which netted a total of 361 completed questionnaires or a 50.1 per cent return. The number of questionnaires sent out in each of the mailings and the number and percentage returned are shown in Table 1. Four hundred and forty—five questionnaires were distributed to public school teachers through Michigan State University ex— tension courses. Of these, 211 or 47.4 per cent were completed and returned before the coding deadline. In addition, 75 question— nairees, filled out by Michigan State University student teachers, were received from the Teacher Education Department of the College of Education Department of the College of Education. Thus, approximately one-half of the questionnaires which were sent out both by mail and through extension course instructors were completed. Although a greater return was desired, the 12The Institute’s file contained approximately 2,350 names alphabetized by city and then by name. Every fourth entry or name was drawn to obtain around 575 addresses. Some of these, however, were duplicated by Dr. Hanson’s and Mr. PottS' lists and were discarded. 15 TABLE 1 MAILED AND RETURNED QUESTIONNAIRES Number Returns Wave Completed Incomplete* Total Mailed No. Per cent No. Per cent No. Per cent First 720 209 29.0 10 .01 219 30.4 Second 501 74 14.7 8 .02 82 16.4 Third 419 78 18.6 20 .05 98 23.4 Total 361 50.1 38 5.27 399 55.4 *Incompleted forms are those which were misaddressed or returned with a note from the respondent stating that he had completed the questionnaire as an extension teacher, or that he did not have sufficient time, or other reasons. response is not unreasonable considering the length of the question- naire and the time of year it was sent. The questionnaire re— quired half an hour at the very minimum to fill out; this is unusually long for a mail questionnaire. Furthermore, it was distributed at the end of the school year, the busiest time for teachers. The number of teachers in each group who responded is as follows: 1) Teachers in Michigan State University extension courses . . . . . . . 211 2) Teachers listed with the Institute of Local Government . . . . . . . 275 3) Teachers on the social studies organ- izations' membership lists . . . 85 4) Michigan State University student teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Total 646 Thus, 646 elementary and secondary teachers provided the data on which the following chapters are based. However, 16 the student teacher group will be excluded in the discussions of the data unless it is specifically stated their responses are included. Teaching experience or the holding of a regular teaching position were necessary prerequisites for answering most of the questionnaire items. D. Respondents’ Socio-Economic Characteristics, Educational and Teaching Backgrounds In many instances, the respondents constitute a homogeneous group.13 Most are married, adherents of a Protestant religion, and teaching in communities of 10,000 people or less. Teachers in highly urban or metropolitan areas are under-represented in the sample. However, since teachers from populous areas do not appear to differ in their citizenship education concepts from those teaching in smaller communities, there is no imperative reason why more of them should have been reached by the study. The percentage of men answering the questionnaire is slightly higher than that for'women; 55 and 42 per cent, re- spectively. The ages of the teachers are fairly evenly dis— tributed between 26 and 55. More of the respondents are high school teachers than grade school, and more of them are social studies teachers than teachers of other subjects. This may be due in part, at least, to two factors: (1) the questionnaire was constructed more with the teaching situation of the high school social studies teacher in mind than that of other teachers; (2) the questionnaire was distributed to more teachers in this group than it was to others. 13See Table 2 for the percentage breakdowns of the socio— economic characteristics, educational and teaching backgrounds of the various groups of respondents. 17 The respondents are well-educated, if degrees are any indication. There is almost an even split between those holding only Bachelor’s degrees, and those who have their Master’s (44 and 41 per cent, respectively). Furthermore, over three-fourths of the respondents have continued to take formal course work since obtaining their last degree. Forty-one per cent majored in education and twenty-nine per cent in the social sciences. State colleges and universities in Michigan and other mid-western states are the alma maters of nearly all the teachers. TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS’SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS, TEACHING AND EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUNDS a ‘T“ if u “‘. .3 ”a .5 '3" Age # - a): : +»§ N > 04a +a 0:6 “I o (DU) m Pam 1m 18’25 O O O O O O O O O O O 9 8 2 77 7 26-30 . . . . . . . . . . . 15 20 18 11 I17 31-35 . . . . . . . . . . . 8 18 19 3 l4 36~40 . . . . . . . . . . . 11 ll 11 1 11 41-45 C O O O O O O O O O C 17 10 8 l 12 46-50 . . . . . . . . . . . 17 12 15 3 14 51-55 0 o o o o o o O o o O 10 9 15 '0. 11 56-60 0 O O O O O O O O O O 9 8 6 O. 8 61—65 0 O O O O O O O O O O 1 3 6 I. 3 over 65 C O O O O O O O O O 1 1 O. O. 1 Not ascertained . . . . . . 3 l .. 4 1 Sex Male 0 o o o O o o o o o 35 71 59 42 55 Female . . . . . . . . . . 60 28 40 53 42 Not ascertained . . . . . 5 l 1 5 3 Martial Status Single . . . . . . . . . . ll 25 39 61 23 Divorced . . . . . . . . . 1 2 6 .. 2 Married . . . . . . . . . 78 70 55 35 70 Widowed . g g g o o o o o o 6 2 oo o. 3 Not ascertained . . . . . . 4 1 .. 4 2 Religion Protestant. . . . . . . . . 78 [65 J 73 73 71 Catholic . . . . . . . . . 14- 25 13 17 19 Jewish . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 5 .. 2 Other . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 5 3 3 None . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 5 1 2 Not ascertained . . . . . . 5 l I .. 6 2 18 TABLE 2--antinued 1 _fi&_ 13 0 U 'U C) Size of Community .3 f 0' r; I; :3. N > o :3 :3 'P E m o m w p o a CD to U) E" U) Unincorporated to 10,000. . . 68 48 14 23 50 l0,000-—100,000 . . . . . . . . 22 32 39 77 29 100.000 and over . . . . . . . 10 20 37 .. 21 Amount of Formal Education Some college work . . . . . . . 26 1 .. 53 10 College degree . . . . . . . . 71 98 100 41 88 Not ascertained . . . . . . . 3 1 .. 6 2 Highest Degree Held Certifications less than BA . . 9 l .. .. 4 Bachelor of Arts or Science . . 58 43 20 93 44 Master of Arts or Science . . . 13 52 78 7 41 Doctor of Philosophy . . . . . .. 1 .. .. 1 Doctor of Education . . . . . . .. .. 1 .. 1 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 l .. 1 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . l8 2 .. .. 8 Major Field of Study Education , . , , , , , . . . 35 45 45 62 41 Social Science . . . . . . . 16 36 44 13 29 Fine Arts 0 o o o o o o O O O 7 1 2 9 4 Science . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2 1 8 4 BUSineSS o o o o o I o O 0 ° ' 3 1 1 3 2 Public Service . . . . . . . . 1 1 .. oé i Home Economics 0 o o o o o o o 2 1 1 ° ° 7 Liberal Arts . . . . . . . . . 4. 9 7 3 11 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . 25 4 -- -- 19 TABLE 2 - Continued Type of College or D University Attended m +: U. U. H.3 I . '- .1“ U do. 4” > U :3 :3 4.» E K o cwfl 9 o m m w an m Hen Private . . . . . . . . . . 6 10 4 ... 8 State 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 64 75 89 100 73 Catholic . . . . . . . . . . . Z 8 2 ... 5 Protestant . . . . . . . . . . 8 4 4 ... 6 Other 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 1 1 O. .0. 1 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . 18 2 l ... 7 Grades Taught f f ' Grade school (K-6, K—9, K-12 ) 71 11 39 43 38 High school'(7-12). . . . . . . 22 88 59 52 59 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . 7 1 2 5 4 Subjects Social studies (entirely or partly). . . . 14 85 85 20 59 Academic, vocational, or athletic , , , , , , , , 77 2 12 71 36 Not ascertained , , , , , . 9 13 3 9 5 Years of Teaching Experience 0 (Student teachers). . . . .. . .. 70 10 0-10‘ 0 o o o o o o o O 0 0 ° ' 56 50 41 5 46 11-50 0 o o o o a o o o o 37 49 56 to 40 Not ascertained . . - . - . . 7 1 3 °' 4 Course Work Beyond Degree ‘ 76 75 85 27 77 Yes , . . . . . . . . . . No . . . . . . . . . 6 24 15 48 16 o a o o o o 0 0 18 1 .. 25 7 Not ascertained . . . . . 20 TABLE 2——Continued Region of College or Total University Attendede Sample New England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Maine, Vt., NH, Mass., Conn., RI Middle Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NY, NJ, Pa. South Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Del., Md., W.Va, Va., NC, SC, Ga., Fla. East South Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ky., Tenn., Miss., Ala. East North Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Mich., Ohio, Ind., 111., Wisc. West North Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ND, SD, Neb., Kan., Minn., Iowa, Mo. West South Central . . . . . . . . . . . . . l Okla., Ark., La., Texas Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Mont., Id., Nev., Wyo., Utah, Colo., Ariz., N.M. Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Wash., Oreg., Calif. Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 aTeachers in Michigan State University extension courses. ‘ bGovernment teachers listed with the Institute of Local Government. cTeachers who are members of the Michigan and National Council of Social Studies. dMichigan State University student teachers. eDesignated by U. 8. Census. fThese are one-room schools arbitrarily placed in the grade school category. 21 CHAPTER II TEACHER CONCEPTS AND VIEWS OF CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION One of the major foci of this research project is the public school teacher's concept of citizenship education. The questionnaire was sent to both elementary and secondary teachers since civic and political education is very much a part of the socialization of the young, not just of high school adolescents. That citizenship education can be or is a function of grade schools is substantiated by the re- spondents. When asked at what age they think children begin to become aware of elections, campaigns, political issues, and parties, teachers generally answered between nine and ten years, an observation with which Arnold Gesell and Frances L. Ilg concur.1 However, it is a thesis of this study that teachers do not think of civic and political training as synonomous with the term citizenship education. Furthermore, if citizenship education were strictly defined as being political education and training, teachers probably would not consider it their 1In their book, The Child from Five to Ten (New York: Harper and Bros., 1946), pp. 213-14, they state that the ten Year old is receptive to social information, to broadening ideas, and to prejudices, and is ready to partitipate in ele- mentary discussions of social problems. They further observe that perceptive teachers are aware of the great power which they can wield through suggestion and through social science Studies of the fifth grade. 22 23 concern or the concern of the schools. So little is known about the political and civic attitudes of teachers, that substantiation of these statements is virtually impossible. However, a recent nation-wide study of teachers by the National Education Association tends to give_some support to this statement. The study reported teachers do not think discussions of political and campaign subjects belong in the classroom, nor should teachers participate in such activities.2 If the findings of the National Education Association are reliable, and if the data of this research project sub- stantiates the above thesis, then we may have some evidence that the preparation and training of the young for their place in their communities and the political life of their country is being seriously neglected. A. Sources of Children's Values The pluralistic nature of American society with its multihuheof institutions and groups is such that children's values and ideals can be influenced by many sources -- family, peers, schools, political parties, mass media, et cetera. The questionnaire presented teachers with a list of eight such primary and secondary institutions. They were asked to rank each of the items: (1) in the order in which they are most influential as sources of values and ideals for g 2 See the pamphlet published by the Research Division of the Nath>na1 Education Association entitled, The Status of 13¢ American Public—School Teacher, February 1957. 24 children; and (2) the order in which the teachers' would prefer them to be influential. Three of the choices -- schools, public officials, and political parties —— were more important to the study than were the others. Teachers were expected to regard family, church, and school as the institutions which are, and should be, influencing the values of children, while political groups have little bearing on the young, and rightfully so, in their opinions. If responses of teachers bear out these expectations they will be reflecting the views that are generally held in our society. Family, school, and church are widely regarded and accepted as the institutions which should shape the values of the young. On the other hand, political institutions and affairs in this country do not have the aura of respectability and prestige about them that they might.3 The average rankings which teachers give to the possible sources of children’s values are shown in Table 3. As anticipated, the institutions of family, church, and school are highly regarded by teachers as proper sources of children's values. However, there is a greater discrepancy between perception of the church's present and desired con- tribution than that of the family or school. ¥ 3For a reference to the prevailing attitude toward politics, see Thomas H. and Doris D. Reed, Preparing College Mgn and Women for Politics, A Report to the Citizenship ——* Clearing House, 1952; and, V. 0. Key, Jr.,Politics, Parties and Pressure Groups, 3rd ed. (New York: Thomas Y. Crowe11 Compaflvs 1953),.p. 11. 25 TABLE-3 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS AND PREFERENCES OF INSTITUTIONS INFLUENCING CHILDREN'S VALUES IN PER CENT AND RANKINGS Average Rankings Institution Perceptions Preferences (Are) (Should be) Family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18 1.31 Church. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 2.52 School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43 2.75 Youth organizations. . . . . . . . 4.82 4.83 Peers ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.66 5.21 Mass media. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.55 5.60 Public leaders and officials. . . . 6.68 6.02 Political parties . . . . . . . . . 7.37 7.25 Another response reflects high regard for the church. Teachers ranked Six types of organizations according to the degree of encouragement they would give students for the contribution of time and money. Churches and religious organizations were the most highly recommended. An obvious explanation of these responses is that teachers would like another institution to share their responsibilities, duties, and the expectations placed upon them. Thus, they single out the church as a highly regarded institution with a position and status most comparable to that of the school. As anticipated, teachers do not think political organizations do, or should, play an important part in h 4 See Table 11. 26 shaping children's values. It would also be more to their liking if peer groups and the mass media would have less influence on the values of the young than teachers think they have. B. Perception of Teacher Role Five tasks are generally ascribed to teachers: (1) in- structing students in basic subjects; (2) emphasizing the value of the social heritage; (3) helping students to get along with their peers and others; (4) assisting students to understand the nature and importance of citizenship; and (5) aiding students to be free and creative individuals. Respondents were asked to rank these tasks in the order they should be assumed by teachers. Obviously these are not mutually exclusive. But they provide a means of comparing how teachers feel about responsibility for citizenship education with that of their other duties. School citizenship programs seem to be catch-alls for most any teachings or activities. If it can be assumed that these programs reflect a lack of serious attention to citizen— ship, then teachers certainly would not be expected to indicate they think citizenship training is part of their major role. However, this expectation was not borne out. Table 4 shows the average rankings of the five tasks by teachers. Contrary to expectations, teachers consider their duty to train students for citizenship second only to that of teaching basic subjects and skills. It is possible they ranked the 27 TABLE 4 TEACHERS' PERCEPTION OF THEIR ROLE Role Average Ranking Instructing student in basic subjects, skills. . . 1.95 Helping student understand role of citizen. . . . 2.64 Helping student learn to share with others. . . . 2.69 Helping student free mind of preconceived ideas. . . 3.32 Impressing student with value of social institutions and heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.00 citizenship duty so high because the questionnaire was part of a citizenship education study, and they considered this the desired response. However, it is hoped that these rankings indicate their actual thoughts on the matter. Perhaps teachers are very conscious of their citizenship education duties, and, consequently, they have defined and distinct concepts of what this education is, and should be. C. Concept and Views of Citizenship Education A question designed to elicit teachers' concepts of citizenship and their views of citizenship education programs listed eight characteristics of the good citizen: (1) patri- otism; (2) knowledge of government; (3) awareness of current events; (4) good character; (5) participation in community activities; (6) respect for public decisions; (7) personal political convictions; and (8) maintenance of community peace. Respondents were asked to rate the characteristics according to (l) the emphaSis they think the schools are giving them, and (2) the emphasis teachers recommend. The ratings ranged from 1 to 5, with the numeral one indicating the greatest emphasis, and five the least. Rankings as a means of answering 28 the question were rejected because it was thought to be too difficult. The respondent would have had to keep all the items in mind while deciding on his ranking order. However, perhaps rankings would have been better than ratings; teachers would have been forced to designate preferences among the quali- ties. With ratings, it is possible not to indicate much differ- ence between the items, as the teachers did not. The researcher anticipated teachers would indicate that some of the qualities are being emphasized by schools, while others are not, and that they, personally would emphasize some of the qualities in the classroom in preference to others. On the assumption that teachers are basically apolitical, it was also expected that encouraging students to formulate personal political convictions would not be named as a major component of school citizenship goals nor as a preferred emphasis by teachers. The qualities and the average ratings given them on both counts—~those being emphasized by the schools, and those teachers recommendware presented in Table 5. Teachers report schools are giving a great deal of emphasis to all the citizenship qualities. An average rating of 5 would indicate that a quality is receiving the least emphasis possible. No quality had a rating of 5, or even the next lowest rating of 4. The lowest rating an item received was 3, and this was given to only one quality, personal POlitical convictions. Teachers also recommend schools emphasize all qualities. 29 TABLE 5 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS AND PREFERENCES OF CITIZENSHIP QUALITY EMPHASES AverageLRatings Quality Perceptions [Preferences (Are) (Should be) Tolerance, morality, and generally excellent character . . . . . . . . 2.17 1.28 High level of information on current events and public policy . . . . . . 2.09 1.41 Knowledge of functioning of government . . . . . . . 1.99 1.42 Loyalty, patriotism, willing- ness to defend the American way . . . . . . . . . . .. 1.97 1.46 Respect for decisions of public authorities . . . . . . . . 2.80 1.64 Dedication to maintenance of community peace . . . . . . 2.46 1.66 High participation in widely supported community activities. 2.56 1.93 Active advocacy of personal political convictions . . . 3.26 2.53 They gave no item even a rating of 3 which would indicate an "average" amount of emphasis. Thus, it appears that either teachers do not discriminate between the various definitions of the good citizen, or that the wording and conception of these Choices in the questionnaire could have been improved. Each of the items was intended to describe a different kind of citizen--a well informed person, a patriotic person, a person familiar with the machinery of government, a person with good character, a person valuing community peace over conflict, a person active in community affairs, a lawful person, or a person with political ideas willing to enter into 3O conflict over them. However, teachers endorse all those concepts although it is doubtful even the model citizen would possess all these qualities. Perhaps the teachers who responded to the question- naire have not really given any thought to this matter. If they had, perhaps they would have been more discriminating in rating the question items, unless, of course, the fault lies with the items themselves. Although all citizenship qualities receive relatively high recommendations from teachers, that receiving the lowest rating was the item describing the political person —- one concerned with public policy, has his own ideas about changes to be made, and is willing to enter into conflict situations to effect these changes. Thus, it appears that whatever type of citizen training teachers might recommend, it is least likely to be that of preparing students to be members of a political community. Instead, teachers appear to think of a citizen as a good or patriotic person, knowledgeable about the functioning of government and current events, or active in community affairs, rather than a political person. D. Teachers' Dissatisfaction with School Policies It is very likely that the teachers who answered the questionnaire are also those most interested in citizenship 31 education. Thus, perhaps they might have proposals about new or different goals for this training. For these reasons it was considered likely that the respondents might evince some dissatisfaction or discordance with the citizenship qualities they perceive schools to be emphasizing. However, they did not. Evidence of teachers' accord with school policies is seen in Table 5. Teachers perceive schools to be emphasizing all the citizenship quali- ties. Their only recommendation is that schools emphasize everything a little more. To calculate more exactly teachers' dissatisfaction with the school's objectives in citizenship training, the rating indicating the respondent’s recommendation for school emphasis of each citizenship quality was subtracted from the rating the individual respondent reported the school is currently giving. If the result was negative, it indicated the teacher prefers the quality be emphasized less by the school. If the result of the subtraction was positive, the interpretation was that the teacher thinks the school should be giving more important consideration to the specific citizenship quality. The nega— tive and positive scores were added separately, and then totaled. All three numbers were recorded for each respondent. For purposes of presentation, the negative, positive, and total scores of the respondents were averaged. Overall, the teachers’ average negative score is 1.1; the average Positive score is 6.8; thetotal‘being 7.9. In view of 32 the fact that the highest negative and positive scores could each have been 32, and the total 64, it can hardly be said teachers are dissatisfied with the emphasis they perceive schools to be giving the citizenship traits. On the contrary, teachers seem to approve of their perceptions of the school’s citizenship training. If teachers were to make adjustments, they would have schools slightly increase the emphasis each of the citizenship characteristics are now receiving. Even if teachers could change preSent educational policies in the area of citizenship education, they would not make any major changes in the existing policies. Apparently most teachers either consider the present programs sound or, if not, they do little independent thinking about citizenship training. E. Topics for Classroom Discussion Classroom discussions are important in the citizenship training of students. Students presumably should hear community, national, and international issues of the day aired, and they should be given opportunities to state and discuss their own questions and views. Free discussion of these issues and topics seems to be necessary if schools are to encourage students to be aware of political, social, or economic problem areas, to develop and adopt their own positions concerning controversial questions, and to be, as heretofore described, political personS. 33 To estimate the amount of free discussions teachers might encourage in the classroom, a list of eighteen topics was presented to the respondents. The topics ranged from local problems of zoning, taxes, housing, parking, and annexation; to timely subjects of unemployment and segre— gation; to political issues of qualifications of candidates, revision of the state constitution, and the main issue facing the state legislature; to social questions of juvenile de— linquency, religion, alcoholism, and sex education; and, to broad national or international topics including federal aid to education, organization of the federal government, and communist and socialist principles.5 Teachers were to check: (1) those topics which should be discussed in the classroom because they are pertinent to citizenship training; (2) those which are current problems in the local school community; and (3) those topics which, if discussed, might lead to objections on the part of mem— bers of the school administration or the public. Teachers were not expected to exhibit a great deal of willingness to discuss controversial issues in the classroom for two reasons. First, teachers do not consider the function of citizenship education to be that of developing persons to have awareness ofl and positions on, public policy. Secondly, members of the school and community -- parents, private ¥ These topics are more appropriate for high school than grade school students. The value of the interpretations of the data would be greatly increased if the responses of grade and high school teachers had been separated. 34 citizens, and the school administration -- might bring pressure to bear on teachers who allow or encourage such discussions in the classroom. Such pressure might discourage teachers from going beyond conventional and neutral classroom discussions. Whether or not for the above reasons, teachers do show a propensity toward ng£_discussing topics perceived to be community problems or objectionable to some member of the school or community. See Tables 6 and 7. TABLE 6 PERCENTAGE OF ALL TOPICS TEACHERS RECOMMEND FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION Pctg. of Topics Pctg. of Teachers 0-80 0 o ”o o o o o o o o o o 32 90 . . C O O . . C . . O . 39 100 o o o O o o o o o o o o 29 Note: The percentage of all topics (16) recom- mended for discussion was computed for each respondent. The data was then combined for presentation in this Table. TABLE 7 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS: COMMUNITY PROBLEMS AND HAZARDOUS TOPICS RECOMMENDED FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION (I) (11} Per cent of all Per cent of I Item suggested recommended for topics discussion in classroom (1) Topics perceived to be community problems . . . .35 . . . . . . . 85 (2) Topics someone might find objectionable, if discussed . . . . . . . . . .20 . . . . . . . 49 35 Teachers are more inclined than not to recommend ex- cluding some of the listed topics from Classroom discussions. Twenty-nine per cent of the respondents recommend that all the topics be discussed. Thus, a little more than one—fourth of the teachers took a liberal position on this phase of educational policy. However, when the percentage of topics perceived to be community problems, but also suitable for classroom discussion, is compared, in this regard, with the percentage of possible hazardous topics, a greater difference is seen. Teachers recom— mend discussing 85 per cent of those subjects they identify as community problems, but less than half (or 49 per cent) of those designated as hazardous. Therefore, teachers are much less willing to converse in the classroom about subjects which certain indi- viduals might find objectionable, than about those topics recog- nized as community problems. However, why should they not be cautious about what they do and what they discuss in the classroom? To do anything else would risk, at the very least, unfavorable publicity, a point Professor David Riesman makes in his book, Constraint and Variety ihpAmerican Education.6 Riesman observes that "today, especially in the larger places, the teacher is much freer to lead her own private life, but what we might term her academic freedom is under a great deal of pressure , , . . The teacher has become more closely —# 6David Riesman, Constraint and Variety in American Education (New York: Doubleday and Co., 1958), pp.125—27. 36 intertwined with the subjects taught. The high schools, which could remain fairly remote from immediate community preoccu- pations when attended only by a few, are now under a service- minded pressure to teach the social studies. . . Teaching these topics, which contain more obvious dynamite than the limited traditional curriculum did, however, both draws on what is in the papers and risks getting into them. High school teachers can become labeled by their students as ‘controversial‘ as soon as any discussion in the social area gets at all heated or comes close to home."7 He goes on to say, "I cannot comfortably resign myself to a dilemma in which teachers are forced, in a setting far less protected than that even of relatively unfree colleges, to take positions. . . that may get them into trouble with vigilante groups on the one side or their own consciences on the other. . . . I have nothing but praise for those who willingly take the risks involved in intrepid social studies teaching. But no school system can count on possessing even a minority of such teachers-- for perhaps the majority, in fact, the dilemmas I have been discussing will scarcely exist, so encapsulated are they in the uncriticized values of their local communities."8 This is an observation about teachers which also pertains to respondents of this study. 7Ibid., pp. 125-26. 37 In addition to their choice of suitable classroom topics, respondents demonstrated a further reluctance to take any actions on school matters which might place them in an unfavorable position. When asked what they would do if they discovered a communist front group in their high school they gave the answers shown in Table 8. Sixty-one per cent would notify school or government authorities and some would try to get these authorities "to do something"; 33 per cent would take some action of their own; 1 per cent would do nothing; and, 8 per cent either did not answer or did not know what their reaction would be. It is reasonable to expect they would notify the school principal and others, but most of the teachers would take no further action. Seventy-nine per cent did not mention any— thing else; 1 per cent added they would take no other step; but, 7 per cent, after notifying the authorities, would try to get them "to do something," and 11 per cent further mention taking some unspecified action of their own. Significantly, only 11 per cent of the teachers considered discussing political values or ideologies in the classroom, or with the students involved in the communist activities. Evident- 1y, the thoughts occurring to most teachers as they contemplated their response to the event of finding such a group in the school, was along other lines-~inform someone else, try to get rid of the students or the communist front group, or investigate the situation. Again there is some evidence that teachers do not see themselves as responsible for the political values of 38 TABLE 8 TEACHERS’ REACTIONS TO SCHOOL COMMUNIST FRONT GROUP, IN PER CENT Reaction Teachers Notify school authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Notify government authorities . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Try to get school to punish those involved . . . . 1 Try to get government to punish . . . . . . . . . . 1 Take actions of an ideological naturea '. . . . . . 11 Keep informed, aware, investigate . . . . . . . . . 10 Publicize the situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Try to get school to publicize the matter . . . . . 1 Try to banish from the community . . . . . . . . . 2 Try to get school to banish . . . . . . . . . . . . l Tolerate the situation with qualifications . . . . 1 Notify the parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Do something, unspecified . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Do nothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Do not know what reaction would be . . . . . . . . 1 6 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aContrast and compare political ideologies with the students, as well as discuss the signifi- cance of their activities. students; that they make no direct connection between political education and citizenship training. Teachers were also asked what recommendations they would make to the school superintendent in such a case. Table 9 contains their answers. Thirty—seven per cent of the teachers would recommend to the school superintendent that he notify other school authorities or the government, or that he try to get the government to handle the situation, while 52 per cent suggested he take some action of his own. Thus, more teachers recommend the school superintendent take action than suggest that they personally should-- 52 and 33 per cent, respectively. However, a considerable number of 39 TABLE 9 TEACHERS' RECOMMENDATIONS TO SCHOOL SUPERINTENDHJTS REGARDING COMMUNIST FRONT GROUP,IN PER CENT Recommendation Teachers Notify other school authorities . . . . . . . . . . 7 Notify government authorities . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Get government authorities to do something, unspecified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Get government authorities to ke p informe investigate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Get government authorities to banish from community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Get government authorities to punish those involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Punish those involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Take actions of an ideological naturea . . . . . . 13 Keep informed, aware, investigate . . . . . . . . . 14 Publicize the situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Protect teacher so he will not be called a communist . . . . . 7 1 Try to get rid of, banish from community . 9 Tolerate the Situation with qualifications 1 Do something, unspecified . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Do not have a recommendation . . . . . 1 Not ascertained O O O C O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 1 aSee note a, Table 8. teachers, 37 per cent, still mention that the matter not be acted upon by school personnel but taken to someone else, namely, governmental authorities. Judging by the frequency of the answer "take the problem to someone else", teachers apparently would be be~ Wildered if faced with political "deviancy". Evidently they have given such little thought to political values, that they have never had to contemplate, even as an academic question, the subject of their students evincing "different" political ideas. CHAPTER III TEACHERS’ POLITICAL ORIENTATIONS Since teachers hesitate to characterize a good citizen as a political person, one might well wonder how they evaluate political organizations and activities. If they have little regard for political affairs, then this would explain their low rating of personal political convictions and actions in comparison with other citizenship qualities. However, this is not entirely the case. It was hypothesized that teachers would indicate by their responses to the questionnaire that they do not think highly of political organizations and affairs; that they do not identify strongly with political parties; or that they are not very active in political campaigns and activities. This was expected for the two following reasons. First: If teachers have any personal inclinations toward political activity, they might well be discouraged, particularly if Professor Wilbur Brookover’s comments about community disapproval of such activity are valid. In his book, £_Sociolggy_of Education, he observes: "The curious thing about teachers' expected presence in the community is that their Participation in community activities is very narrowly pre— scribed. The teacher is expected to be in the community, but not a full member of it. The activities in which the teacher 40 41 may openly and approvedly engage are frequently limited to school functions, church affairs, and the work of certain other acceptable organizations. He is not expected to function in political life or to associate freely with other citizens in such social affairs as dancing, visiting, or attending clubs. . . . The manner in which the teacher is excluded from full identification with the community may vary. As a rule, he is barred from many roles in which other members of the community find their most complete participation and sense of belonging to the group. In most localities, a teacher's activity in the local political party or similar organization would certainly be interpreted as a cause for dismissal."1 Perhaps Dr. Brookover over-states the case, but his observations of community views toward political activity on the part of teachers would lead one to expect that most teachers are not politically active. Second: Politics is not generally considered the most honorable vocation or avocation in the country. There is no evidence that teachers' attitudes are exceptions to this widely held view.2 However, the expectations that teachers are apolitical were not entirely borne out as the following data will show. L 1Wilbur Brookover, op. cit., pp. 238-40. 2See pp. 23—25. 42 A. Attitudes toward Political Organizations and Affairs Since political parties are the backbone of the American political system, teachers' regard of parties is an important clue to their political attitudes. The data reveal that teachers’ attitudes toward political parties are decidedly positive. Eighty-six per cent of the respondents consider parties either essential or useful, as the Table below indicates. TABLE 10 TEACHERS' OPINIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES,IN PER CENT Opinion Teachers Essential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Useful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Necessary evils . . . . . . DiSpensable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . O . C O O 7 Teachers' evaluations of parties perhaps reflect their socio-economic characteristics. Recent studies of voting behavior and political participation demonstrate that persons with college educations are more likely to participate in political activities than those with less education.3 Thus, it stands to reason that these persons with bachelors and —_ 3See Julian Woodward and Elmo Roper, "Political Activity Of American Citizens," American Political Science Review, Vol. 44, No. 4 (December 1950), PP. 876-77; Robert A. Agger and Vincent Ostrom, "Political Participation in a Small Community," Eglitical Behavior, ed. Heinz Eulau, Samuel J. Eldersveld, and Morris Janowitz (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1956), p. 138; Angus Campbell, Gerald Gurin, Warren E. Miller, The Voter Decides (Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, and Company, 1954), p. 187. 43 advanced degrees, would also regard political parties in a favorable light. However, if students were to ask to what organizations they should contribute their time and money when they are adults, teachers would not recommend political parties very strongly. See Table 11. TABLE 11 AVERAGE RANKS OF ORGANIZATIONS TEACHERS WOULD RECOMMEND TO STUDENTS Average Organization Rank Churches and religious organizations . . . 2.00 Community and public service organizations. 2.47 Educational organizations . .. . .. . .. . 2.60 Charitable and welfare organizations . .. . 3.31 Political parties ,, ,, , ,, . ,. .. . ,. 4.65 Social, fraternal, nationality groups .. . 4.97 Teachers indicate, then, that political parties are essential and useful, but students should devote their time to other organizations first when they are adults. Perhaps teachers feel political parties serve a purpose in the political system, but that it is the responsibility of "someone else" to give them time and effort; other organizations are more worthy of their service, and the service of their students. Another possible explanation of teachers' recommendations of non- political activities for students is the difference in oppor~ tunity for participation between political and other community affairs, and not a rejection of political activities per se. Teachers evince interest in political campaigns as one Would expect in view of their socio—economic characteristics. (See Table 12). Indeed, it might be psychologically difficult 44 for a person with a college background who is teaching to admit he has no interest in public affairs. TABLE 12 TEACHERS' INTEREST IN POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS,IN PER CENT Amount of Interest Teachers MuCh o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 59 some I O O O O O I O O O O O O O 35 NOt mUCh o o o o o o o o o o o o 4 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . 1 More teachers appear to be interested in political campaigns than are members of the general population. The Survey Research Center, in its study of the 1952 presidential election, reports that 37 per cent of its sample of the general population indicated "very much interest," 34 per cent "some", and 28 per cent "not much."4 Perhaps even more of a difference would be apparent between the two groups—— teachers and the general population--had teachers also been questioned on the eve of an exciting presidential campaign. Even though teachers are interested in political campaigns, over half of them think that it makes little or no difference to the country which party wins. (See Table 13). However, the percentage of teachers who think it makes little or no difference which party is in power is smaller than the percentage the Survey Research Center reports for the general population. Seventy-two per cent of the Center's 4Augus Campbell, Gerald Gurin, Warren E. Miller, 02. cit., p. 34. 45 TABLE 13 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE IT MAKES WHICH PARTY IS IN POWER,IN PER CENT Amount of Difference Teachers GOOd deal 0 O O C O C O O O O O O O 38 NOt much 0 O C O O O O O O O O O O 53 None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . 2 sample indicated these attitudes compared to 59 per cent of the teachers. The more or less general feeling both samples revealed --that political parties are more alike than different, that it really matters little which party is in power-~has been prevalent in this country for same time, and is of such magni— tude that the American Political Science Association has addressed itself to the task of suggesting solutions.5 That a majority of teachers have this attitude toward parties is not out—of—keeping with generally held attitudes. Thus, teachers' responses again reflect prevailing views of the general public. B. Political Party Preferences and Identification Teachers, as reported above, regard political parties favorably, and are interested in political campaigns. The following data show teachers also declare themselves members of political parties, but they do not strongly identify with the party of their choice. 58ee "Toward a More Responsible Two-Party Systemg American Political Science Review, Vol. 44 (1950), Supplement. 46 Almost three-fourths (72 per cent) of the teachers profess a political party preference. The majority are Republicans, as seen by the following Table. TABLE 14 TEACHERS' POLITICAL PARTY PREFERENCES, IN PER CENT Regular Republican . . . . 65 Regular Democrat . . . . . 7 Independent . . . . . . . 21 Independent Republican . . 1 Independent Democrat . . . 0 Other . . . . . . . . . . 5 Whether teachers in general are Republican is difficult to say. Perhaps the respondents lean to the Republican party because the majority are from non~metropolitan areas in Michigan, which have been traditionally Republican. The socio—economic characteristics of teachers also tend to make them Republican. Angus Campbell and Robert L. Kahn, in a study of voting behavior in 1948, observed that pro- fessional and managerial persons tend to be Republican.6 They also found that the chances are three to one that those having some college education will be Republicans. Teachers fall in both categories: their work is considered professional,7 and they are college educated. It is not surprising, then, to find respondents to be more Republican than Democrat. __ 6Angus Campbell and Robert L. Kahn, The People Elect a Egesident (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1952), PD. 24, 28—29,.3l~32. 7The U. S. Census places teachers in the professional, technical, or kindred occupational group. 47 Teachers, however, do not identify very strongly with the party of their choice. If they dislike their party's candidate for some reason, they will vote for the other party’s candidate; if they vote for their party's nominee for president, they do not feel they also need to vote for the same party’s nominees for senator and congressman. See Tables 15 and 16. TABLE 15 TEACHERS' VOTING DECISION IF THEY DISLIKE THEIR PARTY'S CANDIDATE,IN PER CENT Decision Teachers Probably vote for the candidate anyway . . . . 9 Probably vote for the other candidate . . . . 71 Probably not vote for either candidate . . . . 16 Not ascertained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 TABLE 16 TEACHERS’ OPINION OF VOTING FOR SAME PARTY'S NATIONAL NOMINEES,IN PER CENT Opinion ShOUId O O O O O O O O O O O 24 Need not . . . . . . . . . . Not ascertained . . . . . . 2 Further evidence of teachers' lack of partisan feelings is exhibited in their choice of voting decision bases. Only 4 per cent of the respondents would give first consideration to the political party endorsement; 71 per cent would weigh the candidate’s qualifications. See Table 17. 48 TABLE 17 TEACHERS' CHOICE OF VOTING DECISION BASIS,IN PER CENT Basis Teachers giving basis first rank Issues of campaign . . . . . . . 25 Candidates' qualifications . . . 71 Endorsement of political party . 4 Placing an emphasis on the qualifications of individual candidates rather than on their political party affiliations is not an unusual phenomenon on the American scene today. Rather, it is another indication that teachers' attitudes follow and reflect those of the general population. C. Political Activity To assess the extent of teachers’ political activity, the respondents were asked: have they ever campaigned for a candidate or party; contributed financially to political campaigns; attended party meetings, rallies, dinners, and the like; tried to convince others of their political ideas; or been asked their advice on political questions. Their answers formed a Guttman Scale8 with the coefficient of reproducibility being 93.4.9 see Matilda White Riley, John W. ociological Studies in Scale Rutgers U. Press, 1954), pp. 285-289. 8For scaling procedure, Riley, Jr., and Jackson Toby, 5 Analysis (New Brunswick, N.J.: 9Ideally, each respondent with a score of 4 should hzve answered all the questions positively. However, no a E respondents, of course, are wholly consiment. Th: digrge o consistency in responses is measured by a coeffic in i 90 reproducibility, which, by convention, must be at eas . 49 The scores of the Guttman Scale formed a political activity index for teachers ranging from O to 4 and referring to the activities listed in Table 18.10 TABLE 18 TEACHERS” POLITICAL ACTIVITY AND INDEX SCORES, IN PER CENT Activity Score Teachers None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O . . 26 1)Been asked political advice. . . . l . . 21 l and 2)Contributed financially. . . 2 . . l4 1, 2, and 3) Attended party meetings 3 . . 17 l, 2, 3, and 4) Campaigned . . . . . 4 . . 22 Over half (53 per cent) of the respondents have attended party meetings, and contributed both time and money to the campaigns of a party or candidate. When those teachers who have recently been asked their advice on a political question are added to this group, the percentage of those who have engaged in one political activity or another rises to 74 per cent. Only 26 per cent of the respondents gave negative answers to all four questions. When the political activity indices are even roughly compared to those the Survey Research Center developed for the general population, it is apparent that teachers are more politically active than is the general population. The authors of the Survey Research Center study based their index on the act of voting which, except in uncommon circum- the questiOn concerning "convincing 10 i the scoring Dur ng ’ions and had to be dropped from others" did not meet condit computations. 50 stances, they considered the Sine qua non of political participation for the ordinary citizen. Consequently, they defined "high" political activity as voting, plus any other activity such as attending political meetings, campaigning, or making financial contributions to parties or candidates. "Medium" activity was attributed to those persons in their sample who voted, but did not engage in other activities. Those in the "low" political category did not vote, nor engage in any party work. of their sample, 27 per cent were classified as having ”high" participation, 47 per cent as "medium", and 26 per cent as "low".1_1 If the same criteria for "high" political participation were imposed on teachers of this research project, the 53 per cent with scores of 2, 3, and 4 (those who have campaigned, given money, and/or attended political meetings) could, in all probability, be classified as "high" political activists within the definition used by the Center. Since the Center defined ”high" participation as including these party activities plus voting, it need only be demonstrated that these teachers most likely vote, and have voted in pres— idential elections. That they do vote seems to be a safe assumption for two reasons. First: when questioned about their likelihood of voting in elections at the various levels of government, teachers Showed a very high propensity to exercise their right at the polls, particularly in pres— idential elections. See Table 19. 1 Augus Campbell 31. 31., 22- c t., p. 29. 51 TABLE 19 TEACHERS’ PROPENSITIES TO VOTE IN VARIOUS ELECTIONS,IN PER CENT Propensity City State Presidential Almost certain . . . 80 . . . 94 . . . 97 Uncertain . . . . . 11 . . . 4 . . . 1 Won't . . . . . . . 1 . . . l. . . . 1 Can’t . . . . . . . 7 . . . l . . . .. Not ascertained. . . 1 . . . l . . . 1 Second: a study of a nation—wide sample of teachers by the Research Division of the National Education Association made in April and May of 1956, stated that 86 per cent of their respondents reported they had voted in the most recent election.12 In view of the dates of the study this must have been a state or local election. This percentage is much higher than the 1952 country—wide record vote for a national election (62.7 per cent). Since teachers as a group could be expected to have a greater turn—out, because of their socio— economic charaCteristics, it is very possible that as many as 90 per cent of Michigan teachers tend to vote in presi- dential elections. If teachers tend to vote in much greater percentages than do members of the general population; if the respondents to this study exhibit a high propensity to vote; then, it is reasonable to assume that those 53 per cent of the teachers in this project Who have campaigned, given money, and attended meetings, also vote in presidential elections. #— 12See Research Division, National Education Association, The Status of the American Public-School Teacher (Washington, D. C: February 1953). 52 On this aSsumption, 53 per cent of the respondents are "high" in political activity as are 27 per cent of the general population, under the definition of the Survey Research Center. These rough comparisons suggest that twice as many teachers display high political activity than do members of the gameral population. Although the political activity indices of the Center and this research project are based on general political activities —- campaigning, giving money, attending meetings —- a comparison of those teachers with members of the general population who have participated in the specific activities demonstrate dramatically the differences between the two samples.13 TABLE 20 POLITICAL ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS AND THE GENERAL POPULATION9IN PER CENT Activity Teachers Gedl. pop. Financial contributions . . . . 53 . . . . 4 Attendance at meetings . . . . 39 . . . . 7 Campaigning . . . . . . . . . . 22 . . . . 3 It is strikingly apparent from Table 20 that sig— nificantly more teachers than the general population have contributed money to campaigns; attended meetings, rallies, and the like; and campaigned for a party or candidate. The Survey Research Center further observed that 13The general population percentages are reported in Angus Campbell 33. 11,, op. cit., p. 31. s ”- 53 many more persons were involved in general campaign activities than took part in organized party work.14 This appears to be true also of teachers. Only ten per cent indicate they are members of a political party (see Table 21), in contrast to the per cent in Table 20, who have campaigned in one form or another. TABLE 21 TEACHERS' PAST OR PRESENT ACTIVITY IN POLITICAL PARTIES IN PER CENT Presently In Past Active . . . . . 10 . . . 22 Not active . . . . 87 . . . 75 Not ascertained . . 3 . . . 3 One wonders why more teachers have been active in a political party in the past, than are presently active. Perhaps they tend to be more active during presidential years. Thus, they were not so involved at the time the questionnaire was distributed in 1958. Teachers, as a group, are more active in party work than is the general population. The Survey Research Center question, "Do you belong to any political club or organization??, produced too few affirmative responses to support statistical analysis, but was approximately 2 per cent of the total sample.15 However, two per cent of the teachers hold party offices, the same per cent of the general population indicating only party 14Ibid., p. 29. 15Ibid., footnote, p. 29. 54 membership. D. Political Orientations and Activities of Social Studies Teachers Social studies teachers were expected to possess more political interest and engage in more political activity than were teachers of other subjects, since political affairs are more within thesphere of their subject matter. Apparently these teachers,who are supposedly more involved in, and responsible fog the citizenship education of students are more predisposed toward, and active in,political affairs. Seventy—four per cent of the social studies teachers consider political parties essential, compared to 56 per cent of the non—social studies respondents. The former also have more interest in political campaigns. Seventy—one per cent have "much" interest compared to only 45 per cent of the other teachers. Social studies teachers are generally twice as active in party affairs as their colleagues, the following table shows. TABLE 22 POLITICAL PARTY ACTIVITIES OF SOCIAL STUDIES AND OTHER TEACHERS,IN PER CENT Activity Social Studies Others Presently active in party . . . . . 12 . . . . . 6 Active in party in past . . . . . . 27 . . . . .14 Hold a party office . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . 1 Have held an office . . .'. . . . . 8 . . . . . 4 'Political activity indices: 0 . . 15 . . . . .42 4 . . 25 . . . . .13 55 Social studies teachers not only have more positive political orientations than do teachers of other subjects, but they also exhibit a greater tendency to conceive of citizenship training as political education, as Chapter IV will relate. E. Community Activity Teachers were expected to display more interest in community affairs than in political activities, both in terms of their own activity and in their recommendations to students. It was are expected they would perceive their communities as sanctioning this preference. Community affairs are defined, for the purpose of this study, as organizational efforts widely supported and generally aimed at improving the community and the nation. POIitical activities are those dealing with the nomination and election of candidates for public office, and the discussion and formulation of public decisions. Teachers evince a high degree of activity in community type associations. Almost half the respondents are active in six or more community organizations of one type or another. (See Table 23). This appears to be an unusually high degree of activity. Most probably teachers counted those organizations in which they are members, but do not play an active role, even though the questionnaire tried to minimize this happening. 56 TABLE 23 TBACHERS' ACTIVITY IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS, IN PER CENT Number of Organizations Teachers 0-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 6-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 10-24 . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Not ascertained . . . . . . 5 Teachers further believe that people in their community like to see them contribute time to civic affairs rather than to political activities. See Table 24. TABLE 24 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF COMMUNITY PREFERENCES CONCERNING POLITICAL AND CIVIC ACTIVITIES OF TEACHERS,IN PER CENT Perception Political Civic 55 o 00 o o o 0 Highly desirable . . Not objectionable . . 42 Undesirable. . . . . . 17 . . . . 1 Not ascertained. . . . 3 . . . . l o \1 N o o 0 While only 8 per cent of the teachers think their communities view political activities as highly desirable, compared to 55 per cent for civic affairs, 72 per cent do not think their communities object to them participating in political affairs. Teachers may have been projecting upon their communities their own feelings about political activity. Teachers may feel they can engage in the sort of political activity any responsible member of the community should 57 undertake —— contribute money and time to a candidate or a party campaign, attend political rallies, and generally Show interest in political affairs. However, they would not want to align themselves strongly or permanently with one political part or point of view. Taking the chance of being called a "party hack" might well be looked upon with some disfavor by the community or the school administration. CHAPTER IV INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY, TEACHING BACKGROUND, AND PERSONAL ACTIVITY FACTORS UPON TEACHER CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION CONCEPTS Various groups and organizations in the United States hold widely varying ideas of what the good citizen and citizenship education is, and ought to be. Perhaps certain groups within the teaching profession also hold divergent concepts of citizenship. Such factors as the nature of a teacher's community, his professional background, or his personal involvement in public affairs, possibly have a bearing upon a teacher's ideas about the proper training of a citizen. This was the reasoning and purpose which underlay the search for relationships between these several factors and teachers’ citizenship concepts. However, the Search was not generally fruitful; few relationships were found to be significant. Those that were significant are reported in the following pages.1 —* ‘Decisions of whether or not percentage differences in responses are significant were based on Vernon Davies' table in the pamphlet, Table Showing Significance of Differences Between Percentages and Between Means (For Uncorrelated Data), (Pullman: The State College of Washington, Department of Rural Sociology, June, 1951), Stations Circular No. 151. 58 59 Evidently teachers’ concepts of citizenship education are not sufficiently developed or formalized to be influenced by outside factors. A. Community Factors Homogeneous and heterogeneous communities.-—School communities were designated as homogeneous or heterogeneous on the basis of teachers' estimates of the percentage of their students who come from various occupational environ- ments and racial groups. Those communities showing the greatest percentage differences between these several groups were designated socially homogeneous or racially homogeneous, respectively, and those with the smallest differences, heterogeneous.2 There were strong expectations that the social and racial composition of the community would influence the citizenship education concepts of teachers. Teachers in heterogeneous areas were thought more likely than their colleagues in homogeneous communities to characterize a citizen as one trying to maintain community peace among all persons and groups, or possessing tolerance and good character. However, teachers' responses gave no indication —__ For example, a respondent estimates that approximately 10 per cent of his students come from professional occupational environments and 90 per cent from white collar occupational groups. The result of substracting these percentages is greater, than if 20 per cent were from professional groups, 40 per cent from white collar, 30 per cent from skilled labor, and 10 per cent from unskilled labor groups. For purposes of this study, the first example designates a socially homo- geneous school community, and the second a heterogeneous one. (fl 60 that the social or racial nature of a community influences their attitudes and ideas about the proper training of young students for citizenship. Community size.—-The Size of a community, of course, has some bearing upon the number or variety of social and racial groups within it; that is, the larger the community the more likely it is to be heterogeneous. As stated in the above section, the homo—heterogeneous character of a community was not found to relate significantly to teachersf citizen- ship concepts. Yet, the data reveal some correlation between community size and the respondents' views of a good citizen. Teachers in communities of 10,000 population or over reported schools to be emphasizing such citizenship qualities as character, respect for, and obedience to, public decisions, and knowledge of the functioning of government, more than did teachers in communities with populations of 10,000 or under.3 See Table 25.4 Teachers in communities with populations of 10,000 or more, perceive schools to be more concerned about training good, law-abiding citizens, knowledgeable about government organization, than do teachers from smaller communities of -—__; 3These statements are based on the percentage of teachers giving the citizenship quality a rating of 1, which they were instructed to give those qualities they believed to be emphasized most by schools. 4The data for communities with populations from 10,000 to 100,000 are given in the Table. However, they are not discussed in the text because they do not differ significantly from those of the other two groups. I 61 10,000 people or less. A partial explanation for this emphasis might be the greater threat of juvenile delinquency in large, urban areas than is small rural communities. TABLE 25 TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF CITIZENSHIP QUALITIES SCHOOLS IN VARIOUS SIZED COMMUNITIES EMPHASIZE, IN PER CENT Quality Un.-10* 10—100* Over 100* Generally excellent character . . ll 27 29 Respect for public decisions . . . 21 24 30 Knowledge of government operations 28 37 38 * In thousands Furthermore, teachers in larger communities more highly recommend, than do those in smaller communities, that schools emphasize a high level of information on current events and issues of public policy, knowledge of the functioning of government, and a dedication to the maintenance of community peace in citizenship training. See Table 26. TABLE 26 CITIZENSHIP QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS OF TEACHERS IN VARIOUS SIZE COMMUNITIES,IN PER CENT * * * Un.-10 10—100 Over 100 Information on current events and issues . . . . . . . . . 52 61 69 Knowledge of functioning og government . . . . . . . . . 59 60 71 Dedication to maintenance of community peace. . . . . . . 42 45 54 Loyalty to the American Way. . . 63 62 51 In thousands 62 Perhaps teachers in populous areas are more likely to stress these citizenship qualities than are their counter- parts in smallers places because the machinery of government is more overwhelming, and life is generally more organized and circumscribed in larger communities. If a person is to keep abreast of public events, if he is to effect his own desires and policies, he must make a greater effort to learn about the functions and operations of government and govern- ing bodies than would a person in a small community. The greater amount of conflict and tension in larger communities (due, in part at least, to the greater number of racial and social groups) might have been the reason these teachers place such an emphasis on maintaining community peace as an important role of a citizen. However, teachers also could have shown a strong preference to have students prepare themselves for resolving conflict in order to reach community decisions and "peace". Teachers possibly view a Person with political convictions, who is seeking to implement them, as a person contributing to conflict in the community, rather than as one who is helping to meet problems and resolve issues. Loyalty, patriotism, readiness and willingness to defend the American way of life as a citizenship trait is more often Preferred by teachers in smaller than in larger communities. Teachers in smaller towns and villages perhaps are more pro— Vincial and isolationist than are their colleagues in the city. 63 Perception of community intolerance.--An index of teachers' perceptions of community intolerance was calculated on the basis of their responses to seven questions. These questions inquired if members of their school community: would be in favor of allowing someone, known to be against churches and religion, to make a speech in the community; would be inclined to fire a high school teacher whose loyalty had been questioned by a legislative committee, but who swears he has never been a communist; would be in facor of allowing a man, who had admitted he was a communist, to make a speech in the community; and so on. Teachers' responses to these questions resembled a Guttman scale.5 Eight scores, 0 to 7, composed the scale. Teachers with a score of 0 do not think their communities would be intolerant in any of the given situations. Those with a score of 7, however, believe their communities would be intolerant on every count. Table 27 relates the scores and the accompany— ing percentage of teachers. For purposes of comparison, only the responses of teachers perceiving their school communities to be the most and the least intolerant (the 0 and 7 score groups) are discussed. It was anticipated that teachers in communities regarded as highly intolerant would suggest that citizenship programs 5The coefficient of reproducibility of the scale is 85.2. If the coefficient were 90.0 or more, it would be a Guttman scale. 64 TABLE 27 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS’ COMMUNITY INTOLERANCE SCORES Score Pctg. 0 . . . . . . . . 21 1 . . . . . . . . l3 2 . . . . . . . . 29 3 . . . . . . . . 10 4 . . ... . . . . 6 5 . . . . . . . . 5 6 . . . . . . . . 7 7 . . . . . . . . 9 not emphasize tolerance, a high level of information, or or classroom discussions of hazardous topics. These ex— pectations were based on the assumption that teachers reflect, and generally agree with, the values of their communities. The data, however, do not always bear out these expectations. Teachers think that developing informed students is emphasized more in schools in the most intolerant communities than it is in the least intolerant. Twenty—two per cent of the teachers in the least intolerant communities gave this trait a rating of 1, indicating that it is receiving the most stress possible, while 39 per cent of the teachers in the most intolerant communities felt that this was the case. Furthermore, a larger percentage of teachers (88 per cent) who feel their communities to be very intolerant recommended that tolerance, morality, and generally good character be given greater emphasis in school programs than did teachers who see little intolerance around them (67 per cent). As for breadth of classroom discussion: teachers in the 65 least intolerant communities recommend that 42.7 percent of those topics thought to be hazardous should be aired in the classroom; teachers in the most intolerant communities think 58.6 per cent of these hazardous topics should be discussed. It appears from this that teachers in intolerant com— munities are, or would like to be, somewhat of a self-correct— ing force. The more intolerant they think the community is: (l) the more they stress that students should be well-informed and tolerant as adult citizens; and, (2) the more they recommend that hazardous and controversial topics be discussed in the classroom. Another response tending to support this thesis is found in respondents’ views of the teachers' duties: to help students free their minds from any pre—conceived notions, and to be free and creative individuals. Fourteen per cent of the teachers viewing their communities to be very intolerant ranked this task first among all others. This compares to two per cent among those teachers believing their communities to be the least intolerant. Further evidence that teachers do not always reflect the community’s wishes is seen in their reactions to community pressure. Perception of community pressure.——Teachers were asked how free they felt to teach without apprehension that persons or groups in the community might subject them to criticism. Forty-three per cent feel free to teaCh as they wish; 43 per cent reported that occasionally parents or others feel impelled 66 to voice objections; and, 10 per cent of the teachers think certain parents or groups are constantly on the lookout for anything that might not conform to a traditional pattern; 4 per cent did not answer the question. Each group of teachers, as they feel an increased likelie hood of pressure: (1) think more of the topics suggested in the questionnaire for classroom discussions are hazardous; and, (2) recommend that a greater percentage of these hazardous topics should be discussed in the classroom. See Table 28. TABLE 28 TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS: COMMUNITY PRESSURE RELATED TO TOPICS DEEMED OBJECTIONABLE,IN PER CENT Feel Occasional Constant Free pressure pressure Percentage of topics considered objectionable . . . . . . . . 26.2 . . .36.0 . . . 52.6 Percentage of these topics recommended for classroom discussion . . . . . . . . . 43.1 . . .53.9 . . Although teachers may reflect some of the common—sense notions about citizenship education held by the community at large, the data reveal they do not conform to perceived in— tolerance and to community pressure on them concerning class— room affairs. I' 67 B. Educational and Teaching Backgrounds The number of years a respondent has taught, the grades and subjects he teaches, and the nature of his training were thought likely to relate to his concept of citizenship. Of these, the one which relates most Significantly is the subject being taught; i.e., social studies or non—social studies. Years of teaching experience.~-It was anticipated that the era in which a teacher was trained, or the number of years of teaching experience would have a bearing upon his views of citizenship training. It was also thought that perhaps those, whose years of experience were comparable, would hold separate and distinguishable citizenship views from other teacher groups. Respondents were divided into three groups on the basis of their teaching experience. The first group contains 75 student teachers preparing to enter the profession. They comprise 10 per cent of the respondents. The second group consists of 297 persons (or 46 per cent of the sample) who have taught ten years or less. The third group contains 259 teachers (or 40 pef cent) who have taught eleven years or more. Twenty—five teachers (or 4 per cent) did not indicate the ex— tent of their teaching experience. The number of years a person has been teaching has a slight influence on the qualities he would recommend that schools stress for the citizens of tomorrow. The few signifi- cant differences between the three groups’ responses are seen in the following Table. 68 TABLE 29 TEACHER CITIZENSHIP QUALITY PREFERENCES RELATED TO TEACHING EXPERIENCE,IN PER CENT Students 0—10 11+ Generally good character. . . . . 58 69 79 Knowledge of functioning of gov' t . 46 63 63 Patriotism . . . . . . . 58 53 70 Respect for public decisions. . . . 43 44 63 The data show that: (l) the longer one teaches, the more he considers generally good character as an important trait; (2) those just preparing to teach place less emphasis upon knowledge of government organization and operation than do those with teaching expereince; and (3) student teachers and those teaching ten years or less regard patriotism, willingness to defend the American way, and obedience to public decisions as less important than do those teachers who have taught for eleven years or more. The more experience teachers have the less they feel that objectionable and hazardous topics Should be discussed in the classroom. This is revealing. Student teachers recommend 60.6 per cent of such topics for classroom discussion wh1le teachers Who have taught ten years or less only 54.7 per cent, and those with more than ten years' experience only 40.1 per cent. Perhaps the longer one teaches the more he realizes the penalties which the community and the school administration can inflict upon him for airing hazardous, objectionable or contro— versial subjects in the classroom. Furthermore, the longer a Person teaches, the more he may come to internalize, reflect, 69 and agree with the values and positions Of his community; he no longer sees any reason to disagree or resist. Probably both of these explanations contribute to the attitudes of the more experienced teachers. Teacher training_emphaSiS.-—The major emphases in a teacher's training may have been teaching methodology, or competence in a subject matter, or in the social adjustment processes of children. The questionnaire asked teachers about the major thrust of their own training. Table 30 gives their answers. TABLE 30 TEACHERS' TRAINING EMPHASIS,IN PER CENT Emphasis Teachers Teaching methods . . . . . 43 Subject matter . . . . . . 32 Children's social adjustment . 19 Not ascertained . . . . . 6 The nature of a teacher's training was expected to relate to his concept of citizenship. The only significant difference found, however, was in connection with the trait: high participation in widely supported organizations and activities aiming at improving the community and the nation. Teachers whose training emfinsized a child's social adjustment considered, more than did the dhers, that schools are, and Should be, stressing as much as possible high participation as a quality of citizenship. See Table 31. Perhaps those whose training has emphasized Children’s social adjustment, feel that community participation is a means of making a person feel that he belongs; that being a 70 part of a group is showing good social adjustment. TABLE 31 TRAINING EMPHASES OF TEACHERS REPORTING SCHOOLS ARE AND SHOULD BE STRESSING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION TO STUDENTS,IN PER CENT Training Emphases Teachers' Perception of School's Stress $0, # m l of Community Part- 3'3 8: rust?“ icipation or: «4+: H-a :3 s: m+a n~p a ownw on) 3 m a eras 512 no: (Ju>< Should be 28 30 41 Are 11 15 23 Grades.-—For purposes of comparison, the respondents were divided into groups of grade and high school teachers. The grade school group consists of those teaching in schools of K—6, K-9, or K-12. The high school teachers have grades 7 through 12. Thirty-seven per cent of the respondents (or 213 persons) were grade school teachers, and 59 per cent (or 338) high school. Four per cent (20 teachers) did not state the grades they are teaching. A greater percentage of high school than grade school teachers report that their schools are (37 and 27 per cent, respectively), and should be (67 and 23 per cent), giving Students a knowledge of the functioning of government the most emphasis possible. Also, 56 per cent of high school teachers compared to only 11 per cent of those in grade schools, recommend that advocacy of personal political convictions be given much stress. 71 This data reveal the important differences and possibilities of citizenship training in grade and high schools. Grade school teachers can legitimately concern themselves with the political education of their students since children evidently become politically aware between nine and ten years of age (see page 22). However, their age and development dictate the type and limitations of possible citizenship programs appropriate for them. Personal political convictions and awarenesses of community power structures are much more within the grasp of, and in tune with, the level of intellectual development of high school students than that of younger children. Subjects.--Since citizenship education is more closely related to the subject matter of social studies courses, and is generally regarded to be a concern of these teachers themselves, it was anticipated that social studies teachers more than those of other subjects, would be more likely to think of a citizen as a political person. The data substantiates this hypothesis. Of the respondents, 338 (fifty-nine per cent) teach all or some social studies courses, and 213 (thirty—eight per cent) teach other subjects. Four per cent (20 persons) did not designate their teaching fields. Social studies teachers think such qualities as a high information level, knowledge of the functioning of government, and advocacy of personal political convictions are more important for school citizenship programs than do teachers of 72 other subbcts. See Table 32. TABLE 32 CITIZENSHIP QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS OF SOCIAL STUDIES AND OTHER TEACHERS,IN PER CENT Quality Social Studies Others Patriotism.............. 57 67 High level of information ,, , ,, 67 47 Knowledge of government ., ,, ,, 67 55 Personal political convictions , 23 11 Social studies teachers, consequently, prefer to see schools training well-informed citizens, familiar with the processes of government, and with their own ideas about what the government should do or refrain from maing. Other teachers view a citizen as a patriotic person, willing to defend the American way of life. Although advocacy of political convictions receives the least support of all the qualities from both groups of teachers, more social studies than teachers of other subjects want this quality emphasized as much as possible by schools. Obviously, social studies teachers are somewhat more specialized and professional in their concept of citizenship and citizenship training than are teachers of other subjects. However, this still leaves much to be desired. As a group, the percentage of social studies teachers advocating political education for students is still a minority. 73 C. Personal Activity Factors A teacher's activity in political and community affairs was expected to relate to his ideas of citizenship training; i.e., the political activist would be more interested than his politically inactive colleague in training a political person while the civic oriented teacher would be more interested in encouraging students to be community activists Political activity.--Politically inactive teachers differ 6 significantly from active ones in their recommendations for school citizenship trainingprograms. See Table 33. TABLE 33 CITIZENSHIP QUALITY RECOMMENDATIONS OP POLITICALLY ACTIVE AND INACTIVE TEACHERS, IN PER CENT Quality Active Inactive Knowledge of government . . . . . . 75 . O o o o 52 High level of information . . . . . 68 . O O O O 47 Dedication to community peace . . . 56 . . . . . 37 Community participation . . . . . . 44 . . . . . 29 Personal political convictions . . 32 . . . . . 11 A greater percentage of teachers highly active in political affairs than of inactives recommend schools stress information, dedication to community peace, advocacy of personal political convictions, understanding of government functions, and activity in community affairs. Thus as These teachers are those who have the lowest and the highest scores of the political activity index. For an explanation of the index, see p. 52ff. 74 expected, those most active in political affairs are more eager than inactives that students be politically prepared. The active teachers also recommend more than do the inactives that students participate in community and public service affairs when they are adults. Thirty-five per cent of the actives ranked community or public service organizations as the first consideration of students, compared to 19 per cent of the inactive teachers. On the other hand, more inactive teachers prefer that students devote their time and money to religious organizations than did activists. Religious organizations are ranked first by 46 per cent of the inactive, and 35 per cent of the active teachers. In View of the regard of teachers generally for religious organizations, (see page 46), it is interesting to note that active teachers are less . enthusiatic about them than are the politically inactive. Community_activity.--Community activism relates Significantly only to one citizenship education quality—- participation in community affairs. Those teachers most active in the community report more than do the inactives, that schools are emphasizing participation in community organizations and activities, and to approve of this emphasis. Thirty per cent of the actives see schools emphasizing this quality in contrast to 16 per cent of the inactive teachers. Forty~five per cent of the actives and twenty-five per cent of the inactives agree with the school's position. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A. Summary Teachers think family, church, and school are the most important sources of children's values. However, they would like to see the church’s influence increase, and that of peer groups and mass media to diminish. They feel that political parties and officials, of the institutions listed in the questionnaire, have the least influence on children, and rightly so. Of the organizations teachers consider worthy of their students time when they become adults, political parties ranked last, while churches and religious organizations ranked first. Teachers think Citizenship education is part of their professional role, ranking second only to that of instructing students in basic subjects and skills. Furthermore, teachers report that schools are barring nothing in the citizenship training of students; all suggested citizenship qualities are being emphasized in school programs. Nor would teachers alter these emphases. If anything, they would give each quality a little more stress. Thus, teachers registered no dissatisfaction with existing school programs. 75 76 In each instance, training political persons is the least desirable of the citizenship qualities. Whatever type of citizen training teachers recommend, that of politically preparing students is consistently the least preferred. Teachers are willing to discuss a range of subjects and topics in the classroom. There is some hesitancy, however, to air recognized community problems, and even more reluctance to discuss topics considered hazardous; i.e., those which persons in the community or the school administration might find objectionable. When speculating about their responses were they to dis— cover a communist front group in their school, teachers demon- strated a further reluctance to take any steps which might place them in an unfavorable position. Most of them would simply notify school or government authorities. Less than one-fifth of the respondents said they would discuss political values or ideologies with those students involved in the communist activity. Teachers are favorably inclined toward political parties; they are interested and active in campaigns; they consider themselves members of a party although their identifications are not strong. Teachers are also more favorably oriented toward political affairs and are more involved in political activities than is the general population. They are more interested in political campaigns; they are less likely to think it makes no difference which party wins; they contribute more money to campaigns; they 77 attend a greater number of rallies, meetings, and dinners; they personally campaign more; and, they engage in more party work than do those in the general population. The general pattern of teachers' political activities does not differ, however, from that of the population as a whole. The tendency of teachers to designate party membership but without great identification; their preference to campaign but not to take part in continuing party work; their feelings that it does not make much or any difference which party is victorious in an election —- are all phenomena observed also in the general population, as the Survey Research Center studies point out. Social studies teachers, supposedly more involved in, and responsible for, the citizenship training of students display a greater interest and activity in political affairs than do teachers of other subjects. Teachers are active in community affairs. They see no community objections to political activity on the part of teachers. However, they report communities would prefer to see teachers devote their efforts to civic affairs. Personal and environmental factors, such as the nature of a teacher's school community, his professional background, or personal activity, do not relate generally or consistently with teacher concepts of citizenship or citizenship training. Whether a teacher's community is heterogeneous or homogeneous has no bearing at all. But the Size of the community (which, of course, is not unrelated to social and racial composition) 78 correlates somewhat to a teacher's citizenship concept. Teachers in communities with 100,000 populations or more recommend that schools emphasize such qualities as: (1) a high level of information on current events and issues of public policy, (2) knowledge of the functioning of govern- ment, and (3) dedication to the maintenance of community peace. On the other hand, loyalty, patriotism, and a willingness to defend the American way of life are preferred by teachers in smaller communities. Teachers' reactions to perceived community intolerance appear to be somewhat of a self-correcting force. The more intolerant they think their communities are: (1) the more they stress students be well—informed and tolerant; and, (2) the more they recommend hazardous topics be discussed in the Classroom. Further evidence that teachers do not always respond to their communities' wishes is seen in their reactions to perceived community pressure. The more teachers feel persons or groups in the community are ready to criticize their teaching or their activities in the classroom: (1) the more topics they perceive to be hazardous; and, (2) the more they think these topics should be discussed in the classroom. The number of years a respondent has taught, the grades and subjects he teaches, and the nature of his training have varying degrees of influence on teachers' citizenship concepts. It is revealing to note that the more experience teachers have, the less they recommend hazardous topics be discussed in the classroom. High school teachers more than their colleagues in grade schools consider a citizen knowledgeable about the processes of government, and possessing personal political convictions. The nature of existing grade and high school curricula is the most likely explanation for this difference. The emphasis of a teacher's training has almost no relation whatsoever to good citizen concepts. The only correlation involves those teachers whose training emphasized children's social adjustment. They, more than the others, report schools are, and should be, stressing to students the importance of a citizen participating in community affairs. Social studies and other teachers exhibit different concepts of a citizen. Social studies teachers,more than teachers of other subjects, consider such qualities as: (l) a high information level, (2) knowledge of the functioning of government, and (3) advocacy of personal political con— victions to be those of a citizen. Non-social studies teachers view the citizen as a patriotic person, willing to defend the American way of life. Although advocacy of political convictions, as a citizenship trait, receives the least support from both groups of teachers, more social studies than teachers of other subjects strongly recommend this quality for school citizenship programs. A minority of the social studies teachers, as a group, however, advocate political education for students. A teacher's activity in political affairs influences his ideas of citizenship training. A greater percentage 80 of politically active teachers than of the inactive ones recommend that schools stress students be well informed, dedicated to community peace, active in community affairs, possess personal political convictions, and aware of government operations. Political activists are, thus, more eager than inactive teachers that students be politically prepared. Teacher community activism relates significantly to only one citizenship quality, participation in community affairs. The most active teachers in community—type organ- izations report that schools are, and should be,emphasizing the citizen's duty to participate in community activities, more than do the inactives. B. Conclusions Teachers consider citizenship training of students a major component of their professional role. They display wide and varying views of the good citizen, as do the various organizations and research groups throughout the country. Perhaps in a pluralistic and democratic society, it is desirable to have, and to encourage, numerous concepts of citizenship. However, in light of today’s ideological conflict, and the Korean war experience of American soldiers interned 1 by the Chinese Communists, how long can we afford not to 1See Eugene Kinkead, "The Study of Something New in History; The New Yorker, October 26, 1957, pp. ll4ff. Also "Why Did Many GI Captives Cave In?", Interview with Major William E. Mayer, U. S. Army Expert, U. S- News and World Report, February 24, 1956, pp. 56-72. 81 decide upon, or to pinpoint the essential qualities of democratic citizenship? Perhaps the ultimate decision of the citizen—type this country needs is not one for teachers to make. The formulation of such policy —- whether we should be permissive and let come what may, or whether we Should take an extreme view and approach the job as totalitarians, or settle some- where in-between ~~ is in the realm of public policy. Classical philosophers have ardently argued this point. Aristotle wrote in the Politics: "No one will doubt that the legislator Should direct his attention above all to the education of youth; for the neglect of education does harm to the constitution. The citizen Should be molded to suit the form of government under which he lives. For each government has a peculiar character which originally formed and which continues to preserve it. The character of democracy creates democracy, and the character of oligarchy creates oligarchy; and always the better the character, the better the government."2 Assuming that this choice of designating the preferred citizen is left to legislators, the problem still is not solved. Who is going to educate the legislators? The task of educating students -- young people who in time will become adults and legislators —— still falls on 2Aristotle, Politics, trans. Benjamin Jowett, introd. Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1943), p. 320. 82 our teachers at every school level. Fortunately, in view of today's needs, perhaps the opportunity lies most of all in the hands of social studies teachers; this study shows that they are more concerned than other teachers that citizens participate in public affairs, be aware of current events, informed about the Operations of government, and possess personal political Convictions. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Citizenship Education Aristotle. Politics. Trans. Benjamin Jowett, introd. Max Lerner. New York: Random House, 1943. Citizenship Clearing House. The Action Program of the Citizenship Clearing House. New York: n.d. Citizenship Committee, National Education Association. "Teachers Are Citizens," National Education Association lournal, 41, No. 8 (November 1952), 504—505. Civic Education Center. The Civic Education Center. Medford, Massachusetts: n.d. Columbia University, Teachers College, Citizenship Education Project. How Citizenship Education Project Cooperates with Schools and Colleges. New York: n.d. Planning a Laboratory Practice. New York: n.d. . Premises of American Liberjy, New York: n.d. Dimond, Stanley E. Schools and the Development of Good Citizens. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1953. Horwitz, Robert, and Tjerandsen, Carl (comp.). Civic Education in the United States, A Directory of Organizations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954. Paul. Modern Germany: A Study of Conflictipg Kosok, Loyalties. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. "Democratic Character," The Political Lasswell, Harold D. Illinois: Writings of Harold D. Lasswell. Glencoe, The Free Press, 1951, pp. 465-525. Lewenstein, Morris Robert. "An Analysis of Some Concepts of Citizenship Education," Dissertation Abstracts, XIII, No. 3, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1953, p. 339. 83 84 Reed, Thomas H., and Reed, Doris D. Evaluation of Citizenship Training and Incentive in American Colleges and Univer- sities. New York: The Citizenship Clearing House, 1950. . Preparing College Men and Women for Politics. New York: The Citizenship Clearing House, 1952. Smith, Rhoten A. The Citizenship Clearing House Retrospect and Prospect. New York: The Citizenship Clearing House, 1952. Weber, Elizabeth Ann. The Duk—Duks, Primitive and Historic Types of Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. B. Political Attitudes and Activities Agger, Robert A. and Ostrom, Vincent. ”Political Partic- ipation in a Small Community," Political Behavior. Heinz Eulau, Samuel J. Eldersveld, and Morris Janowitz (eds). Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1956, p. 138. Campbell, Augus, and Kahn, Robert L. The People Elect a President. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1952. Campbell, Augus, Gurin, Gerald, and Miller, Warren E. The Voter Decides. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, and Co., 1954. Kornhauser, Arthur, Sheppard, Harold L. and Mayer, Albert J. When Labor Votes. New York: University Books, 1956. Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Berelson, Bernard, and Gaudet, Hazel. The People's Choice. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1948. Research Division, National Education Association. "Status of the American Public-School Teacher, NEA Research Bulletin, February 1957. "Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System, American Political Science Review, Vol. 44 (1950), Supplement. Woodward, Julian, and Roper, Elmo. ”Political Activity of American Citizens," American Political Science Rev1ew, 44, No. 4 (December 1950), 876—77. 85 C. General Brookover, Wilbur. A Sociology of Education. New York; American Book Company, 1955. Campbell, Roald F., and Ramseyer, John A. The Dynamics of School-Community Relationships. New York: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1955. Davies, Vernon. Table Showing Significance of Differences Between Percentages and Between Means. Stations Circular No. 151. Pullman: The State College of Washington, Department of Rural Sociology, 1951. Festinger, Leon, and Katz, Daniel (ed). Research Methods in the Behaviorial Sciences. New York: Dryden Press, 1953. Gesell, Arnold, and Ilg, Frances L. The Child from Five to Ten. New York: Harper and Bros., 1946. Goode, William J. and Hatt, Paul K. Methods in Social Research. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952. Hollingshead, August B. Elmtown's Youth. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1949. Key, V..O., Jr. Politics, Parties, and Pressure Groups. 3rd ed. New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell Co., 1953. Riesman, David. Constraint and Variety in American Education. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1958. Riley, Matilda White, Riley, John W., Jr., and Roby, Jackson. Sociological Studies in Scale Analysis. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1954. Stouffer, Samuel A. Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1955. APPENDIX 86 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EDUCATORS Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan April 1958 I. THE SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY L"- The following questions deal with both the composition of the school and the community. and with some of the feelings mem- bers of the cornmunity have about the schools and civic matters. la.In what city or village or unincorporated area is your school located ? County ? lb.What is the approximate population of the city. village , or unincorporated area? 2. Please give a. rough estimate of the percentage of students of the following origins in your school. '7. Of recent European derivation (either children of im- — migrants. or from largely unassimilated groups) ‘7. 0f non-European derivation (Chinese. etc.) —% American parentage (at least three generations) —% Recent white migrants from other parts of the U.S. — (the South. the border states) _% Negro 3. Please give a rough estimate of the percentage of students in your school who come from the following occupational groups. _7o Independent farmers and tenants 7o Farm laborers 70 Blue collar workers (skilled and unskilled) '70 White collar workers (including sales personnel) “/0 Independent business and business managers 7. Professionals 70 Service occupations (servicemen, mail carriers) llll l LLLLLLLLLLLLLL 4. What sort of relation does your school and its teachers have with members and groups in the community? Check the one which comes closest to describing your situation. ,_ Teachers feel free to teach and advise as they see fit without fear that at any time any persons or groups in the community might criticize them either directly or by contacting the school administration. ‘_ Occasionally parents or other persons or groups feel impelled to take action on some point or school in- cident. g Certain parents or other groups are constantly on the lookout for anything that might not conform to a traditiOnal pattern. \fi 10. Below is a list of topics . s n ' ‘ '. . . . , . r ~ I ' V II. ‘ I... . _ - Juvenile F or Z ction taxc s H ous to sues 111' 8 sue Q - current ‘d lo 5a. 5b. 6a. 6b. 6c. 6d. 7a. 7b. which might be discussed in class. b_e_ discussed because knowledge about it makes for (2) Is this a current mblem in the local E, (3) Do you think the discussion of a tration or of the public? Please check school communigy at this given E to c would lead t_o_ 0 Column _I_II_. Be sure to check ove rnment Civic Education Rssssrch Program in Cooperation With the Governmental Research Bureau Suppose someone was known to be against churches and religion, and this person wanted to make a speech in your school's community. Would the-members of the com- munity be in favor of allowing him to speak, or not? , In favor 2 Not in favor a Don't know If he had written a book against churches and religion that was in the public library, would the members of the com- munity be in favor of removing the book. or not? In favor ‘ Not in favor 3 Don't know '— Suppose a man's loyalty has been questioned before a legis- lative committee. but he swears under oath he has never been a communist. This man happens to be a high school teacher. Would the community be in favor of firing him. or not? In favor ’— ‘ Not in favor a Don't know Suppose he is a defense plant worker. Would the communi- ty want him fired. or not? Yes ‘ No Suppose he is a clerk in a stub. want him fired. or not? , Yes ~__ No I... Don't know Suppose he wrote a book which is in yOur public library. Would the community be in favor of removing the book, or not? I~ l Don't lmow Would the community I Y3. ‘ No Suppose a man admits he is a communist. and he wants to make a speech in your school's community. Would the community feel that he should be allowed to. or not? I... Should be allowedL Should not be allowedL Don't know Suppose he wrote a book which is in the public library. Would the community be in favor of keeping the book in the library. or of removing it? t In favor I Not in favor 1! Don't know 1 Don't know How does your school's community generally view civic activity on the part of teachers ? ‘ Highly desirable a Not objectionable I Undesirable How does your school's communi activity on the part of teachers ? t- Highly desirable; Not objectionable ”I generally View political g Undo sirable (1) Do you believe that ea, ch of th good citizenship? Please check e topics M yes or no in Column I. time ? Please check yes or no in Column em on the Part of 511 three columns 521; each topic. I II III Should be Presently May discussed a community lead to in class oblem 68 I 0 e3 , | l the school adminis- objection NO "Yes , -N If“. 11. Would you sa y that most voters in your school' s community 12. What in your estimate of the amount of controversy be tween ,; there in so over —5 a 1‘8 predogninan tl R divided between the tifumicén' DemOCratic o;- I Republic 0 major Parties ? ' evenly the Poutical Pirtie . in Y — an 2 D . l____ Mug Our Och I ._ emocratic L_ Evenl di - h s__ Sam,3 3 Litt‘lOI s ¢°mmunity7 Y Vided 13' WOuld -—- ° 1 None if.- meatcachera comma?“ say that the voting tur tnjxople men: I Hi hity on election day is hi 21.0““ in van:- .ChOOl's mmdbyteac u. EDUCATIONA — g a Medimn Lg ' medium. Or low.) 3393' and 90 L POLICIES AND ‘— °‘" ‘ L .. - 14° The f n . PRACTICES ___kfir.ctmg1 co .0 owmg are various ual' . such as spe fl 80—329 of th w Wthh 60 1 - Helpmg the Citizens 7 H ____e_s_§_ 311115.133. Var d .P P e think are charact ~ - “his Q11 Please ch 0W mUCh OVer-an H for their 5;:de £9512 adult cit' . . o.w a if for thoseCk the appropriate columitstls 'WOUld YOu Bay the SCheOrzfls t0 POSSess Once they’ll—55%;. EducatOrs today ’fglffnmg' Other colinguahfies reCeiVing the moot mdlCate the degreefis}: 3112332 each of the {01:33:35 full-fledged Helping if: 8 for the Variou ____5. M. the __ P aSis yOu think :1 h . g qualities? -. 5 intermediat (1 column for th C is receivin miportance e egree Of em h - 086 receivin th 3' The I} column '11" P 3.515. g e least m _A¢ymg the "' ’ and the conceived] A high lev di‘dduals. C1 of inform . at . .. TEnerance, moralig anglen on current events and ' I “firmly sem High ParticipatiOn in Widjienerany eXCellent Char;sfues of Public policy 1” 1‘ .. reg-dredtotak me _ e y Su . C er - -. ‘ ‘ Activzogmumtl and the nationpported organizations and activity 2‘ 430‘ many sem VOCacy of 1'35 aiming at ' . -—- Make as am' th ' . personal ' - _ ImprOm ; Kn em ex en in the face of St POlitical convictiOng and 01. , g 31.... 2% . ‘ LOXEltYo Batl‘iOtism Cums—0f the government d p ement g— flcnsms, Wha , re (11 _ an 0t . . . 3m] . Respect for and Obediena ness and “(11111551655 to d {her polltical mStitutiOns reams m Dedication to the mai (2 C8 to the decisions of p lbl' e and the American Way Of 111 L TQM“) the“ n enance of Comm . ' 1c authorities e L— :ollow'mg, 15' If YOu were in a o - . unity peace amOng all Per50ns and 1" 5:33 Ztothe mend that the 30:02:12: to formulate educational l' grOups I... 5.155%” of1 of the qualities do e.developing in the citiz P0 icy. what characteristic c't' . ' a 3 q s' n- _Q.mm’icat thOSe qualities re you think Should receive th en of the {Uture ? Considerin w qualities w0u1d you recom- Candida“ COlumns for the ceivmg the MW e most emphasis and which th g the limitation of school time which __Er«.dorsem Various interme . v the -- Column f e least? Again the f ~ (hate degrees of emph ' 01' those receiving the lea t *" Column is for "5'w33150‘rce5 a515, ____s e___p_m has”: and the other " ‘ A high 1eVe1 . - .. ' t of Infor . recite . T 1 matIOn o . )OUr Hi) :rancej' morality. and Berriecuirent events and issues of ' ’9‘ 1‘ 1‘ ”nomad" ti participatiOn in widely suga l)’ good Character PUbhc POlicy " " "- mhave ran) e C - o . Activeoarirdlx‘fllmliLand the nation p rted Organizations and activities a. ' l! ‘- Magazine Ocacy of lm1ng at im . 1m, di th . personal ' - _ PTOVmg 1L. . l_ ..e a1 em even m the fac POlitical conwctions d , . LH'Jsband KnOwledge of l e Of Strong.°PEOSiti an POhCICS and atte ~ H LoYalt .t m fwacti‘m'mg of th on mpts to Implement ir—‘-—-‘ 3"“ L—“‘°mber: Re Y. patriotism, readings e Boyernment and other 1' - LTt‘levisi: 13738“ f” and Obedience to a: a? “minim” to defend 5: film metituti‘ms "‘ ”' ' “Ram catiOn,to . e ecisio . e merican . ,1 i _ ‘1 the maintenance of commu:8 of Rubllc authorities way Of life ..-——-...——4 L lye-i Were: ____1 16a. Which of the f . ity peace amOng all e —w—-J_..-—‘ a... gamma} ace influential Bani-110mmg do You think 3h0ul P I'SOns and SrOUPs E: is... “Poftam m. 4 92} of the followiis of Values and “fig—2:11;: most 18 'I' . a a u L'— :hc'hw __,_ 1 representin g m the Order of th , ren? Rank - 0 Which of the followin t . . "m"- ' g the Bourc _ eir importanc . Wholehe 8 YPee of organizations would you _ __n _ Churches the eight have been raxfk d rank the {0112;}; Onpe they have become adults ? Please 1“. 1::‘zf'ms Own p - e- . . n8 r0mlto6 givin ltothet “V” “—4; _ YoutI:8e groups _ P2113511: BIChOOh :ZEamzation you “mad most encourgge. 2 to thyfenext and if.— 3mm —— Organizati —— ca Parties °n- "' gEstabli. —fl. Radio One Publi 1 . —- l newsPaPers — .c cadets and f - . Charit mun“. l televisiOn . __ Family 0 flClals -— Commiigagf sill?” organization. 3‘— L-Actm 1 . m , u c servi ‘ ' .__fl 613' WhICh of the followi ._ Somal. fraternal o - ce organizations 1‘— “rpm” influenti 1 ng do You think Ch . r nationality groups LA mana ‘5 3 sources of val aetuany are th -—- urches and religious or ' ' ' 1110f the £0110 - . “es and ideals f0 —- e m°5t _ Political a - . “mum“ “3m ‘4 with 1 1’ mg m the order Ou th- r chlldren? Rank Ed - p rties and “mu“ Emu?" Ludwig E epresenfing the most inny . mk they are importa t — “catmnal organizations "a A __ Churche uentlal sourCe an n ' 19. A I ' twhat a e a —— 0"” aseagroups —— Public schoois d 80 on' billing??? You disco"" 3 “WW" "0!“ 8m“? in ' “Won: . . o ' ‘ . I Youth 01-ng . __ Political Parties (3) Wh m Whmh YOU are teaching. «iwhatw atlong P . at would on d ? Gill! Radio new __ ublic leader L- o “d me; 7 _32 ’ sPapers, F . 3 Mid officia13 ' I. Ra: teleViSiOn — 3‘le 11—- 15311.“ Sti 173 How a - / may: ' ctiv ‘ - - ‘31 ‘ most Stud:nltng insand political affairs would a... “Own a __ 3 Citizens ? ow in school to be once they bezou refer ‘Famfl ome '— Very aCtive M adUIt ( L— -.~:\lb1ic . 0d . b W .~_ hu 2— NOt very active 3'— Ina :rately aCtWe ) , hat wOuld you recommend that the school suP‘" rc 17b Given p c we mtendem d“ _______-_.. . ._ u/ p ' resent ed ' . . .. ‘3’ no“, in 3611001 wflicgetlznal POIICleg’ do You I] . k Stud LII. PcRSOM aflai __ 8 active in ' - _ ents 1‘8, Once they become adults Cir-C and Fob-tied / The Questiczns D . People are nowad3yg ? :qud Amer-'1 4._________ .,__/ 5L dating to YO‘ 3 5, How man r i e // ...; 20. There is no over-all consensus today about what responsi- 26a. What grades are you teaching now? bilities teachers should assume. Here is a list of several 2.1.— thst people mention. Rank the ones you think should be 3 assumed by teachers, give 1 to the most crucial task. 2 to the next, and so on until all have been ranked. __ Instructing the students in basic subjects and skills 26b.What grades have you taught most frequently in the past? 1‘1 such as spelling, reading, geography, history. __ Helping the student learn to share and to get along with g his fellow students and others around him. 27a. What subjects are you teaching now? __ Impressing upon the child the value of such things as 31——— social institutions and social heritage. 11 _ Helping the student to understand the nature and importance of his c i g role as a citizen. 27b.What subjects have you taught most frequently in the past? __ Helping the students to free their minds from any pre- L “ conceived notions and to be free and creative in- dividuals. hala. How many semesters of social studies are students 28. Teachers find themselves involved in more school B required to take in yOur school? activities than just classroom teaching. Rate the following 1.:__ flZIb. How many semesters do mthink they should be required types of activities in which you 33 involved either as a “—— to take as a minimum? member: “Perms”. 01' in some other capacity, by a writing 0 if you are flinvolved at all, 1 if you have a few L— 22a.In digcugging with students the topic of maldng voting responsibilities, 2 if you have several responsibilitiesra—nd a; decisions, what would you tell them are the most essential 3 if you are heavily involved in activities in the area. A130 .5 ingredients in making the se decisions? On what basis do indicate in the second column whether the activity was as- ll“ you think these decisions should be made ? Rank each of signed to you or one for which you volunteered. L... the following, giving 1 to the basis you most highly recom- Assigned or IE _,'_ mend, 2 to the next, and so on. T29 0f ACtiViEx Rating volunteered __ $311131“ the campaign . ’ . School administration (home room, “~— .1 __ cations and backgrounds of the md1v1dua1 assistant to the principal, etc.) "—— candidates School faculty rou s ( ' L— __ Endorsement of a political party committ g 1) project ees, etc.) 11—... 122b, What sources of information abOut the election, the can- Student counseling 1. didates, and the issues would you recommend to students ? SChOOJ‘ student clubs (dramatic Indicate your first four choices by giving 1 to the source clubs, stamp Club" etc.) L— ‘1 you consider most mable, 2 to the next and so on until Student government (Class officer“ 1“ you have ranked four. councils, etc.) a .12 I Magazines News a ers Parent-faculty groups (PTA, “— .___. 1m . . L._ P p _ mother clubs) SU____ ‘— mediate neighbors °___ Some spec1al person Faculty-communi , --——— —-—-—-—____ 3* Husband or wife whose opinion you ty groups (Mayor 5 .L M b _ . Safety Committee, School Board L— em ers of yOur family vvalue Committees etc ) 5* Television 1— People with whom you ' . '——-- -—--—--——— “— Radio work 29. The following is a list of different kinds of organizations 23. If you were to teach students the subject of civic and ?0 WhiCh people can belong. Please 8° over this list and political activities, what would you tell them are the most mdicate the number or organizations in “midi you are , important means by which people influence public decisions ? active, and the number in WhiCh You are a member but in- “ Which three of the following would you emphasize ? Check active. the three. . Number in Number in 1* Active membership in community service organizations Me Of Organizanon Whmh active X‘E‘Ch inactive . ,_ Exercise of a careful and thoughtful vote Professional 81'0“!” W .11 J._ Active membership in church and the religious Parent-teacher assOCiations ‘— —— activities Church-connected groups *" *— ———— 1_ Establishment of friendly relationships with the com~ Community 01' civic service _L *— —— munity's leading citizens Charitable and welfare —— _“— —— ‘_ Active membership in one of the political parties Neighborhood or community E *— ‘__ Possession of personal wealth Club“ ~11 7— A management position with the community‘s large st Fraternal or nationality “— business or industrial concern organizations L. Holding public office Informal social groups L —- 243.. At what age do you think children begin to become aware of 30' What do you think 0f political parties ? 4‘ elections, campaigns, political issues, and parties ? ._§::ent1al vil J____ Usefld ——- essar - 424b.What would you say are the major sources of this aware- L— Y e 8 ‘H Dispensable .41 ness ? Rank the following, giving 1 to the choice you think 31' What do you usually consider yourself in politics toda ? ..a is most stimulating to a child's awareness, and so on until L_. Regular Republican L_ Independent Republyican ..a all are ranked. L— :ngardDemWrat s.— I-ndependent Democrat 4? _ Own age groups __ Youth organizations L— epen ent “—— Other __ Family Political rties 32a.Are ..u _ Public leaders and officials — Public 32:11:01. You active in a political party nw? L'- Y“ L— No ~13 _ Churches _ Radio, newspapers, 32b.Have you been active in past years ? , Yes a,_ No .3 — television —— 33a. Do you hold party offices now ? I Yes a No 33b.I-lave you held party offices in the past? I Yes ' No The Questions in this section deal with your attitudes and feelin 34 H 33 . ave you ever campaigned for a candidate or a toward American political practices and wihi certain subjects 4.___ Y" g___ N0 Pam? relating to your own personal background. III. PERSONAL DATA AND ACTIVITIES 35. Do you buy tickets give £1 , money or make other such - II 25. How many years have you taught? tributione to the campaigns of o.ne of the parties or cafnoT didates ? ,_ Frequently ‘ Occasionally I Never ,“ .9. 1.-.!!— 36. Do you attend party meetings, dinners, or rallies ? -5. ._ Frequently .. Occasionally 5__ Never 373.. Have you tried recently to convince anyone of your _.L. political ideas ? , Yes a No 37b.Has anyone asked your advice recently on a political _‘7_ question? , Yes 1, No 38. Suppose there was an election in which the party of your preference was running a candidate whom you did not like __.8 or with whom you did not agree. Which of the following comes closest to what you think yOu would do? ,____ Probably vote for the candidate anyway ‘__ Probably vote for the other candidate I— Probably not vote for either candidate in that election 39. In your opinion if a voter votes for one party's nominee __7. for president, should he also vote for the same party‘s nominees for senator and congressman, or not? , Should 2 Need not 40. How much interest would you say you usually have in political campaigns ? I Much 2. Some -— J— __1.0 Not much 41. How much difference do you think it makes to the country whether the Democrats 0r Republicans win? , Good deal I Not much 3 None —Jl 42. How likely are you to vote in cifl elections ? , Almost certain I Won't vote __11- '— - . , Uncertain ‘t Can t vote 43. How likely are you to vote in state elections ? , Almost certain I Won't vote a Uncertain 1 Can't vote I] 44. How likely are you to vote in presidential elections ? | Almost certain 3 Won't vote 2 Uncertain . q Can't vote ———L¥ 45a. What do you think of lobbyists and their activities ? u; ,_ EssentialL UsefulL Necessary evilsL Dispensable 45b. How would your attitude change if the law required all lobbyists to register, to publicize their finances, and to state their stands on public issues ? ,_ No change in attitude;_ More favorableL Less favorable _..L‘ 46. If you wanted to change the official public policy for deal- ing with some issue, for instance, the housing problem, which two of the following things would you most likely do? Put 1 by—your fir st choice and Z by your second. __:7 , Discuss your proposal for change with your neighbors 2:: Circulate a petition Join private interest groups dealing with housing L— Look for proposals by the leading spokesman on the topic ,— Write directly to a public official : Take no immediate action because of lack of influence 'l__ Run for office .4! 47. Do you receive suggested curriculum materials from any of the following types of organizations? Mark 1 if receive ___'.2 materials often, 2 if intermittently, and 3 if never. —-&' Research organizations —J Civic organizations Political parties Busine s s corpor ations Pr ofe s sional education associations ___%‘—- ___3!—' 48a. Are you a Michigan resident by birth or did you move to the state ? I Birth 5 Moved in 4‘18be moved in, at what age ? _2.'l —_lb43c.1f moved in, what was your last state of residence ? _17 49. What is your sex? 4 Male ‘ Female 2].. 50. What is your age ? Check the approximate category. , 18 to 25 g 46 to 50 j 26 to 30 1 51 to 55 , 31 to 35 . l 56 to 60 L ,_ 41 to 45 0— Over 65 51. What is yOur marital status ? , Single , Married 3._ 1 Divorced 4 Widowed 52. What is your religious preference ? , Protestant ‘ Other L .. Catholic 1 None 3 Jewish 53a.How much formal education have you had? , High school diploma 3&— ‘ Some college training , College degree 53b.If you have a college degree or degrees, what was the last one you received, in what field, and where 7 Highest degree attained 3|... Maj or field __ School ’1. City State 4. l 53c.What type of school was it? , State college or university Private college or university 8. Denominational college or university 3 Catholic 4 Protestant 5__ Other (1 53d.Have you taken, or are you taking, additional work beyon your last degree ? ' Y6. ‘ No .— 54. What would you say was the major emphas training you have received? Check one. , Teaching methods 1' in the teacher )1... Subject matter :— Children's social adjustment I, 55. What are or were your parent's preferences . Father Mother 31.— an 1 Republican , Repujfiiit Democrat Dram ndent Independent In epe do t Republican 1;... Inde d R blican Indep‘m n t 1 pen ent epu 4 Independent Democra 5 Independent Democrat .. Other ‘ Other (...... O the family 56a. Do other members of the family contribute t 11..— income ? , Yes N0 9.... it - hat are a” 56b.If so, what is their relationship to you and W 13,. occupations ? a" one Relationship 060“ ii.— / w __ / Thank you for your time, cooperatidn and attention. They are very much appreciated. psi” 6’ ‘i 1 :‘e‘d ‘9' viii JV 31293 03174 7722