COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES UPON BODY CONTOUR AND SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS OF COLLEGE WOMEN Thesis Ia? II“ Down—OI M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Myrna Joy Sidwell 1964 LIBRARY Michigan State 1 University COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES UPON BODY CONTOUR AND SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS OF COLLEGE WOMEN By Myrna Joy Sidwell AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 1964 Approved ABSTRACT COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES UPON BODY CONTOUR AND SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS OF COLLEGE WOMEN by Myrna Joy Sidwell The purpose of this study was to: 1. Investigate the effects of weight training, calisthenics and fencing classes in a physical education program upon body contour and skin- fold measurements of college women. 2. To determine whether a weight training class was more effective for inducing changes in body contour and skinfold measurements than classes in calisthenics and fencing. The procedure was as follows: Forty—two freshmen and sophomore women enrolled in the instructional physical education program at Mount Holyoke College participated in the study. Subjects were enrolled in three different physical education classes, Although the groups were not matched initially, the initial body weights (means) were not appreciably different from each othero The activity programs participated in were a weight training class, an- other group in a conventional exercise class and a fencing class. Initial and Final measurements were taken of body Myrna Joy Sidwell weight, body contour (girth) and skinfold measurements of each subject. A caloric intake and expenditure record was kept by the subjects. Conclusions from this study show no significant differences were found in body contour, skinfold or body weight between the three groups, Therefore, under class conditions and methods employed in this study no signifi— cant changes were found after a six week training program, The results of the weight training class showed a slight tendency to induce greater changes (decreases) in body contour and skinfold in this study, COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES UPON BODY CONTOUR AND SKINFOLD MEASUREMENTS OF COLLEGE WOMEN By Myrna Joy Sidwell A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 1964 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express her appreciation to Dr. Janet Wessel for her guidance and assistance during this study and in its preparation. The author also wishes to express appreciation to the subjects who participated in the study, Mount Holyoke College and especially the Department of Physical Education. Also to Dr. Tipton of Springfield College and Dr. Oakland of the University of Massachusetts. The author wishes to express Special appreciation to her parents for their understanding and COOperation during the completion of this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem. 3 Need for the Study. 3 Definition of Terms A Limitations of the Study. 5 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 9 Changes in Body Contour Associated with Physical Activity . . . . . . . . 9 Changes in Skinfold Thickness Associated with Physical Activity. . . . . . . 13 III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY. . . . l9 Selection of Subjects and Groups . . . . 19 Weight Training Program . . . . . . . 21 Conventional Exercise Program . . . . . 22 Fencing Program. . . . . . . . . . 2A Measurement and Testing Procedure. . . . EA Statistical Methods Employed . . . . . 25 IV. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA . . . . 27 Changes within the Groups . . . . . . 29 Changes in Body Weight . . . . . . . 38 iv CHAPTER PAGE Changes in Body Contour Measurements . . 38 Changes in Skinfold Measurements. . . . AA V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY 55 APPENDICES 59 TABLE II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES Caloric Intake and Expenditure Values Weight Training Exercise Record and Per Cent of Improvement Conventional Exercise Record Program Mean Repetitions Performed by Class Period. Mean Changes in Body Weight. Means and Mean Changes of Body Contour Measure— ments Total Mean Changes in Body Contour Measurements Means and Mean Changes of Skinfold Measurements Total Mean Changes in Skinfold Measurements Analysis of Variance of Body Contours Analysis of Variance of Skinfolds. Analysis of Variance of Body Weight Raw Scores of Caloric Intake and Expenditure Means Raw Scores of Body Weight Raw Scores of Body Contour Measurements. Raw Scores of Skinfold Measurements PAGE 28 31 36 39 LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGE A. Description of Procedure . . . . . . . 60 B. Raw Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Weight training has been employed in various forms for many years. For the most part persons interested in this form of systematic exercise have been utilizing it as a means of strength increment, muscular endurance, muscular hypertrophy and for the rehabilitation of the physically handicapped. The history of weight training has been colorful, with such mythological names associated with it as Hercules, Ajax, Milo and Siegfreed.l Much more recent history has provided us with backgrounds of the activity and names of champion weight lifters and body builders such as, Eugene Sandow and Charles Atlas.2 Exhibitions by professional strong women became popular in the 1890's, however, their feats of strength failed to win the support of the women 3 of their time. 1American Association of Health Physical Education and Recreation, Weight Training in Sports and Physical Education (Washington D. C.: American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1962). 2Ibid. 3Ibid. The so called renaissance of weight training emerged from its use in hospitals for the rehabilitation of sol- diers. At this time Thomas De Lorme introduced into these rehabilitation programs a system of progressive resistance exercise for the restoration of muscle power. Since this time many studies have been completed relating the effects of weight training on strength, muscle hypertrophy, range of motion, muscular endurance, and various methods and modifications of methods to accomplish these ends. Interest in and employment of weight training has amplified in the past few years by many persons interested in the improvement of their physical selves, but only very recently has this method been employed by women.5 Much of ’this increased interest on the part of women has been due to the increased number of health studios and clubs, munici— pal recreation facilities, and educational institution pro— grams and also the availability of equipment through Sporting goods stores and mail order houses. Research has pointed to the various effects of physi— cal activity, and of weight training Specifically, on body uIbid. 5Jack R. Leighton, "Weight Lifing for Girls,” Journal of the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 31:19—20, May, 1960. contour and Skinfold measurements.6 However, only a very limited amount of evidence is available and very little of this information concerns itself with women. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was twofold: 1. To investigate the effects of weight training, calisthenics,and fencing classes in a physical education program upon body contour and skin— fold measurements of college women. 2. Two determine whether a weight training class was more effective for inducing changes in body contour and Skinfold measurements than classes in calisthenics and fencing. Need for the Study In recent years some interesting references have been made concerning the possible benefits to be derived from a weight training program on body contour and skin— fold measurements of women. However, relatively little information is available with regard to the effectiveness of weight training program in physical education classes as related to change of body contour and skinfold measure- ments. 6Ivan Kusinitz and Charles E. Keeney, ”On Health and Physical Fitness of Adolescent Boys,” Research Quarterly, 29:294. October, 1958; Jana Parizkova,—vapact of Age, Diet and Exercise on Mans Body Composition," Body Composition, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Part II, 110: 661-67A, September, 1963. Students have recently become interested in the employment of weight training techniques as a means of improving their physical appearance. Definition of Terms Skinfold measurement. Skinfold measurement is that amount of skin and subcutaneous fat tissue easily pulled up between the thumb and index finger. A Skinfold caliper was used to measure the thickness of Skinfold if the biceps, triceps, axillary fold, tip of scapula and abdominal regions. Body contour measurement. This measurement refers to the circumference of certain selected areas of the body. The specific body contour measurements taken for this study were the upper arm, bust, waist, abdomen, hips, thigh, calf and ankle. Conventional exercise program. Calisthenic type exercises designed for specific purposes and performed under supervision. Weight training program. A regular series of move- ments designed for specific purpose and employing a gradual increase in resistance to a muscle group as strength is increased and correct movement patterns are established. A11 exercises performed under supervision. U'I Repetitions maximum (3 RM). This term refers to the greatest weight that can be correctly moved through the available range of motion for three repetitions. Repetitions maximum (6 RM). The greatest weight that can be correctly moved through the available range of motion for 6 repetition. Limitations of the Study 1. Limitations due to subjects and the control measures that could be imposed upon them. This study was limited by the relatively small number of subjects that could be handled during this experiment in a school setting. Very little control could be exerted over subjects as to total days of participation in the activity programs, amount and type of activity engaged in outside of class periods. Subjects in all three classes were enrolled in the required physical education program and were unaware they were to be a part of an experiment. All subjects were given the option of remaining in experimental classes or of joining a non—experimental class. All subjects remained in the original experimental class. Scheduling problems and academic commitments were felt to be among the most common reasons for remaining. It is felt motivation of the subjects affected this study in two respects: (a) Lack of motivation and time is seen as the major factor in the poor reporting of caloric intake and expenditure records of all three groups. (b) Lack of motivation and enthusiasm may have been the major reason for the rather poor atten— dance records of the three groups coupled with the somewhat liberal attendance policy of the college at the time of this study. (0) Lack of motivation may have adversely affected the activity scores available for both the conventional exercise group and to a much lesser extent the weight training group. Limitations due to selection of exercises. A definite limitation in the results of this study may result in the selection of exercises; although exercises for both the weight training group and conventional exer— cise group were selected for certain Specific purposes, better selection might have been made, and a greater number of exercise might have been required. Limitations due to caloric intake and expenditure records. Due to institutional policy caloric intake and expenditure records were kept for only a short period of time and students could only be requested to keep them. Energy intake and expenditure recall records were kept by the subjects and based only upon brief U'I approximate tables of intake and expenditure. All things considered this control phase of the study is felt to be highly inaccurate. Limitations due to length of experimental period. The limitations of this study due to time are felt to be three—fold. (a) The actual six week period available for activity is felt to have been much too short, how- ever, it was impossible to conduct study over a longer period of time due to apportioning of the school year. (b) Length of time available for the individual activity program period was only a maximum of 30 minutes. (c) The total class period of activity numbered only three per week. It is felt that if the above limitation of time could have been lengthened the study might have yielded some significant results. Limitations of measurement procedures. It was neces— sary to measure half the subjects one day and half the following day for both the initial and final measure- ments. Also, the final measurements were secured following the weekend after the end of the activity program. The Skinfold caliper* was not of the type the author would have desired to use but they only are available for such use. * Skinfold caliper used: Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy, 20 gm. constant pressure per square mm. of jaw surface. Limitations due to lack of weight training equipment. The lack of equipment for this program is felt to have been a definite limitation Since students often had to wait until equipment was available; and therefore, during some class periods subjects were unable to complete all exercises. Also, the time required to assemble and disassemble weights was felt to hinder the results. Possibly, if more equipment had been available more exercises could have been performed. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The literature yields very little information con— cerning the changes in body contour measurements and Skinfold following participation in a weight training pro- gram, especially with direct reference to women. Much of the information concerning such changes have been based on seemingly empirical evidence. The majority of the studies concerning weight training deal with changes evi- denced in muscular strength and/or endurance and with the development of muscular hypertrophy in men. This review shall present some of the more signifi- cant studies and observations available concerning the effect of physical activity and more specifically weight training, on body contour and Skinfold measurements. Changes in Body Contour Associated With Physical Activity It has long been recognized that physical activity can effect certain changes in muscle tissue. Steinhaus has stated, ”The increase in muscle size and endurance are probably among the best recognized chronic effects of 7 muscle exertion.” I 7Arthur Steinhaus, "The Chronic Effects of Exercise,’ Physiology Review, l3:103-1A7, January, 1933. 10 The increase in muscle girths as a result of their use is not always proportional to the amount of work done; hypertrophy is the function of the amount of work done per unit of time.8 Further evidence has been put forward stating the lean body mass has been found to increase under the influence of increased muscular activity and to '—ac‘. ”.1 decrease when this increased level of activity is suddenly curtailed.9 Still other investigators report, muscle fibers made to contract repetitively at levels of perform— ance which strains the limits of capacity of that muscle responded by hypertrophy.lO However, this tendency of a muscle to respond by hypertrophy to exercise is inherited in various degrees.11 Programs of weight training carried on over the past few years have put forward various accounts of the effects of this type of exercise on girth circumferenced. The interest in weight training effects on body contours has not been limited to persons engaged in physical education and physical rehabilitation; but more recently has become of interest to physical anthropologist interested in the somatic aSpects of weight training as a form of exercise. 8Ibid. 9Parizkova, op. cit. lOFrancis A. Hellebrandt, "Application of the Overload Ihcinciple to Muscle Training in Man,” American Journal of ZPhysical Medicine, 37:278—283, October, 1958. llSteinhaus, op. cit. 11 Improvement of ones physical self through the utilization of weight training essentially occurs in the areas of increased muscle girths, reduced fatty tissue, enuiassumingenergy intake and expenditure remain relatively constant, posture is also shown to improve.12 Various health clubs and studios across the country are now em— ploying the use of weight training with women as the basis for their body contouring programs. Over the past few years the number of these health clubs and salons have increased in number, as have the number of women utilizing their services for the improvement of their physical selves. Several recent studies have shown weight training programs to exert changes on body contour measurements. In a study performed on adolescent boys utilizing weight training with one group, with a second group serving as a control; showed the weight training group to have averaged slight gains in all measurements of girth, with exception of the waist, and a gain in weight. The group serving as a control showed gains in height and weight only.13 Another study also performed on men reported an lZBenjamin Massey, et al., The Kinesology of Weight Lifting (Debuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown and Company, 1959). l3Kusinitz and Keeney, op. cit. 12 increase in girth measurements in a group utilizing an isotonic weight training program three times per week and three sets of executions.14 A study concerning itself with the production and evaluation of muscular hypertrophy by means of weight training indicated that significant gains were produced and also Showing a 3.1 cm. gain in overall circumference. This study further stated, ”The increased area of the extremity at best is a rough estimate of hypertrophy of the muscle contained therein.”15 Another report of an eight week experimental was conducted on children between the ages of six and nine years to determine the effects of brief maximal exercise on the strength of the quadriceps. One group participating used a weighted boot for exercising, the other group served as a control. Results of the study indicated no signifi— cant changes in girth changes for either group. The Eastern Washington College of Education reports in an outline for a course employing weight training for 1”Phillip J. Rasch and Lawrence Morehouse, ”Effect of Static and Dynamic Exercise on Muscular Strength and Hypertrophy," Journal of Applied Physiology, 11:29—3A, July. 1957. 15Rex O. McMorris and Earl C. Elkins, ”A Study of Production and Evaluation of Muscular Hypertrophy,” Archives of Physical Medicine, 352A2O-A26, July, 195A. l6Daniel Schiverl, "Effects of Brief Maximal Exercise on Quadriceps Strength in Children,” American Journal of Physical Medicine, A12189-197, 1962. 13 women the following. "The women lose weight, and on the average reduce by one inch in circumference the abdomen, hips and thighs. Some add to their vital statistics in other desired areas.”17 This course consisted of twelve weeks or one college quarter. ”The aim of the course generally is the improvement of physical appearance and condition."18 The literature contains reports of many types of weight training programs as well as many different methods of application that are effective in particular situations. Coaches have long been convinced that even small amounts of weight training can produce measurable results in physical development and fitness.19 Changes in Skinfold Thickness Associated with Physical Activity Skinfold thickness in relation to total body compo— sition was born in the study of human biology almost forty years ago.20 In general the literature reveals that 17Jack R. Leighton and Virginia L. Hoffman, ”H.P.E.R. 120 Body Fitness for Women” (Cheney, Washington: Eastern Washington College of Education, Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1959—1960), p. 2. (Mimeographed.) 18Leighton, op. cit. 19John E. Nulton, "Weight Training in the Physical Education Program," Athletic Journal, pp. 25 and 107-110, September, 1963. 20Stanley M. Garn, ”Human Biology and Research in Body Composition, Body Composition, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Part II, llOzA29-A66, September, 1963. 1A Skinfold measurements are influenced by both physical activity and fluctions in body weight. The Skinfold thickness is generally noted to decrease following an exercise program and also to decrease when total body weight is decreased. Skerlj and Brozek state, "It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the contour of the body depends much upon ”21 the amount of subcutaneous fat With reference to total body weight of women it is stated that subcutane— ous fat accounts for twenty—four per cent of this weight.22 The relative patterning of subcutaneous fat is also found to vary with individuals and Show even further variation 23 when the person is fat rather than Slim. "The amount of body fat exhibits larger differences between normal indi- viduals than any other body constituents.”24 21B. Skerlj and Joseph Brozek, "Subcutaneous Fat and Age Changes in Body Build and Body Form in Women," American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 11:577-600, 1953. 22Ancel Keys and Joseph Brozek, ”Body Fat in Adult Man,” Physiology Review, 33:245-325, July, 1953. 23Stanley M. Garn, "Fat Patterning; and Individual Characteristic,” Human Biology, 27 75-9 , 1955. 2“Joseph Brozek and Ancel Keys, "The Evaluation of Leaness and Fatness in Man: Norms and Interrelationships,” British Journal of Nutrition, 5:19A-206, September, 1951. "In man, variation in physical activity may alter markedly the composition of the body and disturb the relationship between the relative body weight and fat- ness. ."25 Exercise is known to demand increased energy supply called forth from fat deposits throughout the body. There is no valid reasoning put forth to cause one to believe that the body during exercise confines its demands to the specific body area being exercised.26 However, as early as 1895 Checkly wrote that the fat disappears in those areas of the body where muscles are active and in direct proportion to their activity.27 Still another author states that body fat, in particular subcutaneous fat, may be altered by a program of strenuous exercise. One of the most important factors influencing body composition is the intensity of physical activity, and this is true in youth, adulthood and old age.29 25lbid. 26Massey, op. cit. 27Fred B. Roby, citing E. A. Checkly, A Material Method of Physical Exercise, Making and Reducing Flesh Without Diet or Apparatus (New York: William C. Bryant Company, 1895). 28Frank D. Sill, HAnthropometry in Relation to Physical Performance," Science and Medicine of Exercise and Sports (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1960), p. 5 29 . Parizkova, op. Clt. 16 The maintenance of a greater proportion of lean body mass at the expense of fat is not an entirely constant characteristic in physically active persons. A study con— cerning itself with male and female members of a national gymnastics team prior to the intensive training for the Olympic Games and 16 weeks after the initiation of training and following 15 weeks of relative relaxation from physical training. During the training period body weights remained constant, the amount of subcutaneous fat and total body fat Pi showed a striking decrease. Skinfold was noted to increase when training was interrupted and decrease again with the onset of physical training.29 Other studies have recorded information concerning the higher utilization of fat when intensity of exercise is increased. Three relatively fat boys were run on a treadmill strenuously for a period of 6 weeks. The results of the experiment indicated a definite trend for loss of BO external fat as more miles were run each week. A study carried out on 27 Sargent College students points to the 29Ibid. 30Ramon Kirciles and Thomas K. Cureton, "The Rela— tionship of External Fat to Physical Education Activities and Fitness Test," Research Quarterly, 18:123-134, May, 19 7o 17 decrease in Skinfold as a result of weight loss with significant losses in the areas of the abdomen and scapula.31 Furthermore, Jokl in summarizing a study carried out on adolescent children participation in an exercise program consisting of calisthenics, weight lifting, apparatus and gymnastics, track and field, swimming, games, and dance elicited a Significant decrease of ex- cess fat and an increase in active tissue at the conclusion of the training program. Losses in body fat was reported to be greater than gains in active tissue.32 Certain studies point to the lack of Significant changes in Skinfold as a result of physical activity and in one instance a weight training program. As reported by Roby; an analysis of Skinfold changes in the area of the triceps as a result of exercising of the dominant arm by weight training, Showed no significant differences in 33 measurements. Tanner also found no significant differences 31Patricia A. Stefanik, et al., ”Physical Performance Skinfold Measurements, Activity Expenditures and Food Con- sumption of College Women," Research Quarterly, 32:229-237, May, 1961. 32Ernst Jokl, "Physical Activity and Body Composition: Fitness and Fatness," Body Composition, Annals of the New Yogk Academy of Science, Part II, 110:778—792, September, 19 3. 33Roby, op. cit. 18 in Skinfold following a weight training program. Measure- ments reported upon consisted of left scapula and left illiac crest.3u Also there was no significant differences noted following a spot reduction and general exercise pro- gram on 22 overweight college women for the purpose of effecting fat distribution.35 3b’James M. Tanner, ”The Effects of Weight Training on Physique," American Journal of Physical Anthropology, lO:A27—A62, December, 1952. 35Maja Schade and Francis Hellebrandt, ”Spot Re— ducing in Overweight College Women: Its Influence on Fat Distribution as Determined by Photography,“ Research Quarterly, 33:A6l—A66, October, 1962. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Forty—two freshmen and sophomore college women participated in this study. These subjects were all en- rolled in three separate sections of the required physi— cal education program, later designated as a weight training class, conventional exercise class and a beginning fencing class. Initial and terminate measurements were taken on selected body contours, Skinfold and body weight for each of the A2 subjects. The three classes met for six weeks, three periods per week and 30 minutes per class period. Selection of Subjects and Groups The subjects who participated in this study were A2 freshmen and sophomore college women from Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts. All subjects were enrolled in the required instructional physical education program. All subjects used were checked against the current medical list kept by the physical education department based upon current information made available by the college physicians. Based upon this check all students 20 were considered to be in good health and physically able to participate in the three activity program. The subjects were not matched in any way for this study. The subjects were enrolled during the second winter term in two classes of an exercise course and one class of a beginning fencing course. Subjects were unaware at the time of registration that they would be requested to participate in this study. Following registration the 2 exercise classes were designated as, Group I to participate in a weight training program and Group II as the conventional exercise program and Group III beginning fencing. The classes in the physical education program selected for experimentation were designated by the department chairman. Subjects were informed at the first class meeting of the study and their cooperation requested for the duration of the experimental period. All students were given the option of changing to a non-experimental class section or to a different activity. All subjects remained in their original sections. Each subject enrolled in the experimental classes was requested to complete and return a two week energy intake and expenditure recall record. This was used to determine a very crude mean intake and expenditure estimate. The subjects were requested not to consciously change their 21 intake and activity patterns for the 6 week period of the study. Subjects calculated their own intake and expendi- ture based upon brief approximate intake and expenditure charts. Weight Training Program The subjects participating in this phase of the study were enrolled in a class utilizing weight training (progressive resistance exercise). All exercises performed were under the direct supervision of the author. Record sheets were kept on the bulletin board in the exercise room throughout the study (see Appendix). An exercise record was kept by class period by each student in the following manner: each subject had her own record sheet listing all exercises by name and giving spaces for amount of weight moved for 3 repetitions and six repetitions and space provided to record date of completion. Subjects made recordings of amount of weight moved for 3 repetitions initial and date of establishment and when 6 repetitions at that weight were completed and date of completion. This procedure was continued for each exercise throughout the experimental period. No record was kept of interim period before 6 repetitions were com- pleted. A description of the weight training program follows. All subjects witnessed a demonstration and verbal explanation m IO of each exercise to be performed and method or recording prior to first exercise period. A chart diagramming each exercise accompanied by written explanation of its exe- cution was located on the bulletin board next to the class record sheets. The weight training exercise program consisted of the following exercises: Situps (bent knee), alternate triceps extension, leg extensions with boot (bench), alter— nate arm adduction (supine), back leg extension with boot, leg abduction (standing) and alternate arm curl. A detailed description for all exercises performed by this group are found in Appendix A. All subjects in this group were requested to exert maximum effort in exercise program and to keep accurate records of their progress. The author was available at all times to make sure exercises were being executed correctly and weights assembled correctly. A11 weights used were standard type and used revolving gripes and interlocking disc plates. The subjects were allowed to begin with their choice of exercise and proceed in any order they desired. Conventional Exercise Program Subjects participating in this phase of the program were enrolled in a class utilizing conventional exercises. All exercises were performed under the supervision of the 23 author. Record Sheets were kept for each subject on a bulletin board separate from the weight training group records and within the exercise room (see Appendix). This group's exercise record was also kept by each subject in the following manner: each subject had her own record Sheet attached to the bulletin board listing the exercise by name and allowing Space by class period to record the number of repetitions performed. This pro— cedure was continued throughout the exercise period. A description of the conventional exercise program follows. All subjects witnessed, prior to the first exer- cise period, a verbal. explanation. and demonstration of each exercise and the method of recording their scores. A chart diagramming each of the exercises and giving a verbal explanation of each was attached to the bulletin board next to the record sheets. The conventional exercise program consisted of the following exercises: Sit—up (bent—knee and twist), lift- push—point, Side lying leg lift, toe raise, lateral trunk lift, double leg lift (prone), wing lifts, scissors kick, deep—knee bends and hip rolls. A detailed descrip- tion of each exercise may be found in Appendix A. All subjects in this group were requested to exert maximum effort in performing each of the exercises and to keep accurate records of their progress. Subjects were asked to perform as many repetitions as possible each period with exception of Situps, lift—push—point, and leg lift where maximum of 50 repetition imposed and a 60 repetition maximum for toe raises, scissor kick, knee bends and hip roll. This was done in order to secure enough time for all exercises. Subjects reaching the maximum performance level in these exercises tried to remain at that level. The author was also available each class period to assist students in performance and recording, again students were allowed to perform the exercises in any order they wished all subjects performed all exercises each class period unless illness prevented them from doing so. Fencing Program The subjects in this group participated in a beginning fencing program parallel to the program of the other depart— mental fencing classes. This class was also under the super- vision of the author. Again not all subjects attended each class period. Measurement and Testing Procedure Body weight. Subjects in all three groups were weighed at the beginning and end of the exercise period. Weight was taken on a standard type platform scale and was recorded to the closest one quarter pound. All sub— Jects were weighed in bras and pants only. Weights were tEiken by the author. __..- T I. 25 Body contour measurements. All body contour measure- ments were taken prior to the first activity period and at the termination of the six week exercise period. All measurements were taken by the author with a standard cloth, plastic covered, tape measure marked in inches. All measurements were taken three consecutive times and the average measurements obtained. All procedures for measure- ment of body contours are found in Appendix A. Skinfold measurements. Skinfold measurements were taken on all subjects before and after the experimental period. Skinfold caliper used for all measurements was a constant pressure 20 gm./sq. mm. of jaw surface. The Skin- fold caliper was cleaned and calibrated by the Mount Holyoke College Physics Department prior to the first and final measurements taken. All measurements were taken three times in succession. Statistical Methods Employed The initial and final means, mean differences, and per cent of change were calculated to determine changes within groups in body weight, body contour, Skinfold and exercise after a six week training program. One way analysis of variance, unequal subclasses, was used to determine whether the groups differed significantly at the Completion of training. Although the groups were not 26 matched initially their initial body weight (means) were not appreciably different from each other. A null hypothesis was accepted that there is no difference in the effectiveness of the three physical education classes in inducing changes in body contour, Skinfold and body weights. Variance (F ratios) at the .05 level was accepted as being significant in this study. .‘Vi ‘ffififil n _ 1- CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA Of the A2 subjects who began this program complete data is available for body contour and Skinfold measures for all A2 subjects. Caloric intake and expenditure rec— ords were available for only 39 subjects; 3 subjects returned no records. Table I presents the mean and range for the caloric intake and expenditure values obtained for each group participating in the study. The means for the three groups are as follows: Group I, intake 1,66A cal. and expenditure 2,350 cal.; Group II 1,332 cal. intake and expenditure 2,163 cal.; and Group III showing intake of 1662 cal. and expenditure of 2,198 cal. Caloric intake and expenditure means were derived from diet and activity recall based on a 1A consecutive day period beginning two weeks after the first activity period. The weight training group had the best return of records with 11 subjects completing records of expenditure for the required 1A days, 2 subjects returning records for less than the required number of days and 1 subject returning no record. Caloric intake records for this group complete TABLE I 28 CALORIC INTAKE AND EXPENDITURE VALUES Group I Group II Group III Weight Conventional Training Exercise Fencing Intake Number 13 l3 13 Mean 1,66A cal. 1,332 cal. 1,662 cal. Range 510-3,357 220—3,7AO 610—3,976 Expenditure Number 1A 13 12 Mean 2,350 2,163 2,198 Range 1,200—5,73l 693-5,8A9 69o-5,588 29 for 1A days numbered 13, with only one record returned for less than required number of days. No subject failed to return an intake recall record. Group II participants in the conventional exercise program returned 10 completed expenditure records, 3 sub- jects returned incomplete records and 2 subjects failed to return any record. Intake records were completed by 11 subjects of the conventional exercise groups, 2 subjects returned incomplete records and 2 subjects returned no records. The fencing group returned 6 completed expenditure records, 5 incomplete for the required period of time and 1 subject returned no record. Intake records were completed for 1A days by 10 subjects and incomplete records received from 3 subjects. Class absence records indicate the following total absences for the three groups: weight training 27 days, conventional exercise 35 days and the fencing group 37 days. Attendance by departmental policy required the students to be present only two-thirds of the total class meetings to meet the minimum attendance requirement for a term. Stu- dents did not make up activity classes not attended. Qbanges Within the Groups The mean performance by class period is presented in Table II for the group utilizing weight training. The mean 30 per cent improvement for each exercise is also given in Table II. The means in this table represent weight in pounds moved for 3 repetitions and 6 repetitions. Mean weight moved for each individual and for each exercise during the final class meeting was in all cases greater than the amount of weight moved during the initial class period. The figures indicating percentage of increase are based upon differences between the first class period and the final (16th) class period for 3 repetitions and third class period and final class period for 6 repetitions. The latter was necessary since no subject completed 6 repetitions prior to the third class period. Several students experienced some difficulty in establishing the weight for the initial 3 repetitions as indicated in Table II by the small number of students represented by the means for the first class period, with the exception of the sit-ups. The greatest improvement in strength for three repe— titions was found in; leg extension, Situps, leg extension (back), alternate triceps extension and leg abduction, 50% or more; arm adduction and single arm curl, 20% or more and arm adduction showing less than 20% improvement. Improvement in strength for six repetitions was found to have been greatest in, leg extension, leg abduction, leg extension (back), alternate triceps extension and sit-ups, 31 TABLE II WEIGHT TRAINING PROGRAM-—MEAN AMOUNT OF WEIGHT LIFTED BY CLASS PERIOD Class Meetings Exercises 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 8 3RM 23.75 21.02 17.55 25.10 28.63 21.50 29.08 25.00 Sit— N 11 11 5 12 9 5 9 7 ups 6RM 23.07 24.50 17.41 29.15 17.00 32.00 N 7 2 3 8 1 3RM 24.75 21.22 19.06 26.25 27.96 31.03 30.92 31.71 Leg N 3 10 7 7 8 7 7 8 Abduc— tion 6RM 21.70 18.30 33.00 27.50 28.33 28.81 N 5 5 3 5 3 A 3RM 19.41 19.40 18.57 25.92 27.05 27.93 32.82 31.32 Leg N 3 11 7 7 9 8 7 10 Exten- sion 6RM 19.31 18.32 21.50 28.00 21.68 31.50 N 4 7 1 5 4 2 Arm 3RM 10.33 9.84 9.50 10.86 10.67 11.00 11.17 11.43 Abduc— N 6 11 9 12 10 12 7 11 tion (Right)6RM 10.30 9.50 9.50 12 50 10.43 12.50 N 3 3 2 1 4 1 Arm 3RM 10.75 10.06 9.77 10.83 10.72 10.72 10.87 10.89 Abduc— N 6 11 9 12 11 12 8 12 tion (Left) 6RM 10.30 10.33 9.50 15.00 10.75 12.50 N 3 3 2 1 2 2 TABLE II (Continued) 32 Class Meetings 7 Per Cent 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Change 30.75 30.18 33.33 37 33 38.95 37.43 38 87 46.89 12 4 9 6 5 11 4 7 + 90% 20.00 37.00 28.75 32.57 17.62 40 75 31.82 34.70 2 3 5 7 4 2 7 5 + 50% 34.05 34.37 35.36 41.96 38.00 42 26 41.55 39.61 9 4 9 8 6 12 9 7 + 60% 31.81 31.66 37.12 31.80 40.66 34.25 44.00 42.20 4 3 4 5 3 2 2 5 + 94% 34.44 34.00 36.07 39.37 36.33 41.36 41.16 39.25 9 6 10 10 6 9 9 5 +100% 29.45 29.50 35.25 32.00 39.00 35.00 40.25 40.35 5 1 2 5 3 3 2 7 +100% 10.90 12.53 12.17 11.79 12.78 12.18 12.18 13.28 10 7 8 11 7 8 8 7 + 28% 11.37 15.75 7.00 10.41 12 50 A 1 l 6 3 + 22% 10.63 12.07 11.62 12.09 11.70 10.95 11.46 12 62 11 7 8 11 6 6 7 6 + 17% 13.75 10.87 15.75 7.00 12.33 12.08 2 4 1 1 6 3 + 17% 33 TABLE II. (Continued) Class Meetings Exercises 1 2 3 A 5 6 7 8 Leg 3RM 23.08 20.90 20.56 26.39 28 53 31.59 30 92 32.03 Exten— N 3 11 8 7 9 8 7 8 sion Back 6RM 21.45 20 45 22.33 24.87 28 37 28 81 N 5 6 3 4 4 4 Tri- 3RM 17.00 18.70 18.93 20.75 24 40 23 17 26 37 23.50 ceps N 4 11 8 10 8 8 8 9 Exten- sion 6RM 17.31 20.12 27.00 22.10 14 50 27 83 (Right) N 4 4 2 5 2 3 Tri— 3RM 17.00 16.12 18.38 20.75 20.53 22.93 26 13 23.50 ceps N A A ll 10 8 8 8 9 Exten- sion 6RM 17.31 19.25 27.00 22.10 14.50 23.50 (Left) N A A 2 5 2 9 Arm 3RM 15.75 15.11 14.65 15.34 15.61 16.17 16.37 16.86 Curl N 4 11 11 11 9 10 8 9 (Right) 6RM 19.50 14.50 12.00 15.58 14 50 15.75 N l 3 2 3 2 4 Arm 3RM 15.75 14.94 14.50 15.18 15.32 16.00 16.37 19.88 Curl N 4 11 11 11 10 10 8 9 (Left) 6RM 14.30 12 00 15.58 14 50 15 75 N 3 2 3 2 4 11>— 3A TABLE II (Continued) Class Meetings 7 . Per Cent 9 10 11 I 12 13 ’ 14 15 16 Change .f ( 35.14 35.30 35.36 37.12 38.60 43.62 41.94 39.95 7 5 9 4 6 10 9 6 + 73% 31.29 31.75 37 12 41.08 40.66 34.16 44.00 41.41 6 2 AI 9 3 3 2 6 + 93/6 26.87 26.80 28.92 28.12 32.21 32.35 31.97 30.64 8 5 10 8 7 7 10 7 + 80% 23.14 29.50 25.75 24.37 12.00 26.10 27.00 33.45 7 1 2 6 1 5 1 5 + 90% 26.86 26.30 28.67 24.37 31.92 32.00 31.72 30.28 8 5 10 6 7 7 10 7 + 77w 23.14 29.50 25.75 23.54 12.00 26.10 27.00 33 45 7 l 2 6 1 5 1 5 + 93% 17.41 18.33 18.08 18.02 20.50 19.15 19 50 19 67 6 6 12 11 7 11 10 7 + 25% 17.12 19 50 22.25 14.50 17.00 19 50 19.60 6 2 2 2 1 1 7 + 005 17.35 18.33 17.84 17.68 20.14 18.81 19.25 19.22 7 6 11 11 7 11 10 9 + 22% 16.80 19.50 22.50 14 50 17 00 18 25 19.62 p 5 2 . 1 2 1 1 6 + 37% Recorded in Pounds 50% or more improvement, arm adduction and single arm curl (left arm), 20% or more and arm adduction (left arm) and single arm curl (right arm) showing less than 20% improvement. Mean repetitions performed for each exercise is represented relative to each class period in Table III for the conventional exercise group. Also represented is mean per cent improvement for each exercise based on difference between initial and final (16th) class period. The greatest strength improvement was noted in; lateral trunk life, double leg lift (prone) and hip rolls, 50% improvement or more; lift-push-point, Sit-ups and leg lift (right), 20% or more leg lift (left), knee bends and scissors kick less than 20%. Toe raises showed a tendency to remain the same or decline slightly. Although the figures in Table III Show a mean in- crease for 11 of the 12 exercises not all subjects experi- enced an increase. A decrease was noted between the initial and final number of repetitions in the following manner: decrease in 1 exercise, 6 subjects; decrease in 2 exer- cises, 1 subject; decrease in 3 exercises, 3 subjects; decrease in five exercises, 1 subject; and, decrease in '7 exercises, 1 subject. 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Group I——Weight Training 1 128.0 129.5 2 137.5 128.0 3 100.5 97.5 4 116.0 116.5 5 119.0 119.0 6 145.0 146.0 7 139.0 137.5 8 136.0 128.0 9 136.0 136.5 10 138.0 139.0 11 116.5 119.5 12 110.0 111.0 13 141.0 142.5 14 98.5 96.0 Group II--Conventiona1 Exercise 1 122.0 118.0 2 110.0 111.5 3 144.5 142.5 4 109.5 111.5 5 104.5 95.0 6 126.0 128.0 7 129.5 129.0 8 128.5 130.5 9 139.5 143.5 10 119.5 120.5 11 138 0 138.5 12 135.0 133.0 13 133.0 134.0 14 117.0 118.0 15 130.0 133.0 Group III—-Fencing 1 105.0 105.5 2 126.0 128.5 3 106.5 105.5 TABLE XIII (Continued) Subject Initial Final lbs. lbs. 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