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L15 RA i7: " Mic}:- F5111} S La :0 Y “T... -“ 'p Lin v‘fifSIL'f =‘rm'fizfi-‘I'Eua- ‘..._. .— 1’; 3: K. { ’ in ‘ av q HDAG & sour ; 300K BINUERY INC. ‘ LIBRARY amoans SPRIHGPOIT. llCIlflI , " "‘ _, 3’ Twé'} are in War “ilized 1 QSELSS f0 Organize. String rm ABSTRACT MODERN INNOVATIONS IN MUSICAL NOTATION FOR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS BY John LeRoy Snyder This thesis is concerned with the problems of notating modern string music. Many new effects are now in use which are in want of adequate symbols, and many symbols have been utilized for such diverse purposes that they are now nearly uselss for any purpose. This treatise is an effort to organize, clarify, and consolidate the written language of string music into a precise and logical system, free of duplication and ambiguity. In searching for this ideal, standard notational guides and orchestration books were consulted, along with treatises and articles on the subject by noted contemporary theorists and composers. A survey of twentieth-century music was undertaken in an effort to determine general trends in notational innovation, and to observe contemporary applications of notational theory. Using conventional notation as a starting-point and as a framework for expansion, this thesis presents a comprehensive notation for stringed instruments, including all modern devices known to the author, and providing guidelines for further exploration. E: of the symbols . are fully conga and direction a John LeRoy Snyder exploration. Every effort has been made to insure that all of the symbols and directions contained in this notation are fully compatible with each other, so that each symbol and direction will be unequivocal and truly meaningful. MODERN INNOVATIONS IN MUSICAL NOTATION FOR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS BY John LeRoy Snyder A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF MUSIC Department of Music 1974 Copyright by JOHN LEROY SN‘r’I 1974 Copyright by JOHN LE ROY SNYDER 1974 The auth aggreciation 31:11 this prc To Dr. E patience, anc ticns, and te for their as To Mssr EXPEIt and 9 To Kath ”fl effort, The aut of the folk fins treatig Mr- Hue MI- Be: Dr. H, Lansin Associ York, Be lWin York, BOOSeY YQIk ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude and appreciation to the following persons for their assistance with this project: To Dr. Russell Friedewald, advisor, for much time and patience, and many invaluable suggestions and recommenda- tions, and to Dr. Theodore Johnson and Dr. Walter Verdehr for their assistance with many important particulars. To Mssrs. Leonard Falcone and Franco Gulli for their expert and gracious assistance with the Italian language. To Katherine Hurd and Virginia Cobb for their time and effort, and encouragement. The author also wishes to acknowledge the generosity of the following composers and publishers, without which this treatise would not have been possible: Mr. Hugo Cole, 15 Hammersmith Terrace, London. Mr. Ben-Zion Orgad, l4 Bloch St., Tel Aviv. Dr. H. Owen Reed, Michigan State University, East Lansing. Associated Music Publishers, 866 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10022. Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp., 16 W. Glst St., New York, NY 10023. Boosey and Hawkes, Inc., 30 West 57th Street, New York, NY 10019. ii J. E W. C Editions Paris. Edwin F. Edition I Editions Magnams St. Loni. Joseph H. NY 10024 Oxford U NY 10016 Przedstr Senators. PEISpect PA 1906 C. F. Pe York. NY RObbins w00d. CA SChOtt 5 W1. 3- SChot SeESaw 1 NY 1002: J. & W. Chester Ltd., Eagle Court, London, EC1M SQD. Editions Durand & Cie, 4, Place de la Madeleine: 75003 Paris. Edwin F. Kalmus, P. O. Box 1007, Opa-Locka, FLA 33054. Edition Wilhelm Hansen, Eagle Court, London, EC1M SQD. Editions Max Eschig, 48, Rue de Rome, Paris (83). Magnamusic-Baton, Inc., 10370 Page Industrial Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63132. Joseph Marx, 201 W. 86th St., Apt. 706, New York, NY 10024. Oxford University Press, 200 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016. Przedstrawicielstwa Wydawniciw Polskick, 13-15 Senatorska, Warszawa. Perspectives of New Music, P. O. Box 271, Yardley, PA 19067. C. F. Peters Corporation, 373 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016. Robbins Music Corporation, 6430 Sunset Blvd., Holly- wood, CA 90028. Schott and Co., Ltd., 48 Gt. Marlborough St., London, W1. B. Schott's Sohnne, Musik Verlag, Mainz. Seesaw Music Corp., 177 East 87th Street, New York, NY 10028. Universal Edition A. G., Postfach 3, A-1015, Vienna. iii Introduction Chapter One Chapter Two ChaPter Thre Chapter FOur Chapter FiVe Sounds Chapter Six Chapter SQVE Introduction . Chapter One Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Five Sounds . Chapter Six Noise and Percussive Effects Chapter Seven Orchestral Writing Bibliography . TABLE OF CONTENTS Two Harmonics Four Pizzicato iv The Notation of Pitch Three Articulation with the Bow Special Effects with Pitched Page 38 63 87 107 142 160 172 INTRODUCTION "There are as many inventors of new signs as there are scribes." Walter of Odington Summa d3 Speculatione Musica, C. 1300 aural phen . . p 338 utiliz “CCEpromi 535621 On 1' 5125. Chang; lR‘JentiOn interfiepe with "new chided th did aliEr "Music notation is the symbolic language of musical thought.” So Gardner Read sums up the nature of notation.1 He likens the symbols of this language to the letters of the alphabet, each set of symbols being visual means of defining aural phenomena.2 Presently ". . . musical notation is . . . pursuing two diametrically Opposite paths - the one utilizing traditional means and leading to ever more uncompromising exactitude and predictability; the other based on new visual methods and directed towards ambiguity and chance. . . "3 Certainly, new concepts require the invention of new symbols, for thought and language are interdependent.4 In spite of all of the experimentation with "new visual means," however, ". . . it must be con- cluded that conventional notation, no matter how cumbersome and alien it is as a graphic vehicle for today's music, is still the only method which ensures that the performer will lGardner Read, "Self—indulgent Notational Aberrations“, The World of Music, Nr. 1, 1973, pg. 36. Used by permission of B. Schott's Sohnne. 21bid. 31bid., pp. 38-9. 4Hugo Cole, "Some Modern Tendencies in Notation”, Music and Letters, July, 1952, pg. 243. Used by permission of’Mr. Cole. 'TTET’TI'F’IL . ' .- be able to r :otation, tl’l filly, addi: :eeied. The add written musi phenomena tc here is se] represent a which is alr behave other ccntradictic that to achi zest be uneq 599d 00t be 10gical modj be made to i It is t eliminate eq meEMS the 930903.315 re Sent new eff \ S P KUrt S I'erssectiVes vsed by Perm: 6 G- Reac be able to reproduce exactly what he sees."5 Conventional notation, then, should not be abandoned, but expanded care- fully, adding new directions and symbols as they are needed. The addition of new symbols to the vocabulary of written music must be weighed against the addition of new phenomena to the aural aspects of the language. In short, there is seldom any cause to introduce a new symbol to represent a phenomenon (sound, technique, expression, etc.) which is already represented in the written language. To behave otherwise would lead to many duplications and contradictions. As Read states, "It ought to be obvious that to achieve maximum effectiveness any notational symbol must be unequivocal."6 Conversely, new aural phenomena need not be accompanied by new symbols when clear and logical modification of existing symbols or directions can be made to represent the desired end. It is the intent of the present work, therefore, to eliminate equivocation and ambiguity in notation which concerns the modern string family. The merits of various prOposals regarding the introduction of symbols to repre- sent new effects will be discussed, and those notations and ____. 5Kurt Stone, "Problems and Methods of Notation", Perspectives of New Music, V.l #2 (Spring 1963), pg. 37. Used by permission. 6G. Read, op.cit., pg. 36. terms found to be most compatible with conventional notation and with each other will be recommended. New symbols will be proposed only when all existing attempts at the notation of a particular effect have proven inadequate. When existing directions occur in several languages, the most prominent languages will be represented, so that equivalent terminologies may be established. If music is to become an international language, or if international exchanges of ideas are considered worthwhile,7 then a common terminology must be found. Rather than invent a language, musicians have conventionally used Italian phrases and terms; although nationalistic movements of the last century encouraged the use of other languages, there is 8 It is only logical evidence that this trend has reversed. that musicians can more easily learn one language (perhaps foreign) than two (at least one foreign), and much more easily than several (more than one foreign). Since the violin is of Italian origin, and since so many of the terms relating to violin techniques are of Italian origin, it is 7The fact that Krzysztof Penderecki has been commissioned to compose an opera (for the Chicago Lyric Opera) for the American Bicentennial Celebration indicates that such sentiment exists and is a viable force in the musical world. 8Penderecki and Lutoslawski use Italian (and some German) pharaseology rather than their native Polish. This is certainly a recognition of the need to reduce the language barriers in the interests of widening the circle of understanding. 5 “col 1‘ voiot -U.‘ J 332327: bot} Pita 2133-8 1 ZCte 0n . insicatef capital letters, are dSSm It this tre language tPas: be \ 9Al tratto" . 10 G 19300, g 11 only logical to settle upon Italian as the proposed common language. Exclusive use of that language would promote common understanding and eliminate such polyglot directions 9 10 as "col legno gestrichen" and "col legno fast ohne Haare." Polyglot phraseology is annoying to players for whom one of the languages is native, and a serious burden for those to whom both of the languages are foreign. Pitch designation will be based upon "cl — bl" for "middle c" and to seventh above it, "c5" being the highest note on the modern piano. The octave below "middle c" is indicated by small letters, the octave below that by capital letters, and the octave below that by double capital letters. In all discussions and examples, the instruments are assumed to be tuned as usual unless otherwise specified. It is sincerely hoped that the agreements sought in this treatise will help to provide an updated musical language and thus restore the lines of communication and trust between composers and performers, which have decayed somewhat in recent years.11 9Alban Berg., Lyric Suite. The Italian is "col legno tratto". 10Gyiirgy Ligeti, Apparitions. The Italian is "col legno, senza crini." 11H. Cole, op.cit., pg. 245. gui exi and CHAPTER ONE THE NOTATION OF PITCH "The fingers are like blind people who guide themselves through a sightless existence . . . continually helped, guided, and controlled by the ear." Ivan Galamian Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 1962 The lowe the pitch of iceever, cant: grsiuced each :rber of ti: theoretically highest stri: with an extra aiz'anced perf respectively. are as follov The not C . .ihlly inVOl s. lgn. The v 5‘1 ‘roughOut i The lowest tone possible on a stringed instrument is the pitch of the lowest open string. The upper limit, however, cannot be so definitely fixed. An octave is produced each time the string is divided in half, and the number 0f times the string length can be so divided is theoretically boundless. In general, two octaves above the highest string approximates the limits of practicability, with an extra fifth and an extra octave possible for advanced performers on the violin and Violoncello respectively. The normal tunings for the string family are as follows: Example l-l in: A D [I :9 .313; .. g-f .‘ fl 8": _______ ‘ ... t '- buss ’EGuo ‘vhda. vhdht The notation of the rather long ranges of the string family involves the careful use of clefs and the ottava sign. The violin is written in the treble clef [ i ] throughout its range; the "French violin clef" l§§§§ ] is .mes are also occa: reaches t1 the change metricallj as 1:0 avo archaic and should not be used.1 The ottava sign [ 8"-*--o] must be used carefully. Stringed instruments differ from keyboard instruments in that each octave is different from the others both in size and in "feel", due to the fact that the intervals become physically smaller as the hand moves up the string. Consequently, inconsistency in its use may lead to confusion in the mind of the performer. Ledger 3 and b3. Higher notes are lines are used commonly up to a also occasionally written with ledger lines, if the music reaches that part of the range only briefly. In all cases, the change of octave should be made at a logical place metrically and rhythmically--if possible, during a rest--so as to avoid obscuring the direction of the line. Example l-22 The remaining members of the string family present special notational problems in that several clefs are lG. Read, Music Notation, pg. 48. 2Camille Saint-Saens, Concerto No. Three for violin and orchestra in b minor, op. 6, first movement. ...-u lved. '1‘ for in the a Staff a seve denotes f ra :uned a fit: required abo Consequently Part of the With 19dger the treble c r3339 Sim-pl}- ClEf is nea: the theme C the 1159 Of t PcsitiOn is be taken to Siry changes 5 %I 0] Pet involved. The viola is the only instrument still written for in the alto clef [ E ]. As this clef places the staff a seventh below the treble clef (e.g., the first line denotes f rather than e1), and the instrument is normally tuned a fifth below the violin, more ledger lines are required above the staff to accommodate the same compass. Consequently, the treble clef is employed for the upper part of the range of the instrument. The alto clef is used with ledger lines up to a2, and occasionally higher; however, the treble clef may be used for much of this part of the range simply to avoid excessive ledger lines. The treble clef is nearly always used in higher passages. The use of the treble clef in viola music is not to be equated with the use of the ottava sign in violin music, as no trans- position is involved in clef changes. However, care must be taken to change clefs logically, and to avoid unneces- sary changes. This example from the finale of Tschaikowsky's Sextette, op. 70, shows unnecessary clef changes:3 3Peter Tschaikowsky, Sextette, op. 70, "Souvenir de Florence", fourth movement. Viola The f-shal C195; the] a1lernate high Pass. ‘ith the the Same extreme u Igor adhere tWC re \\1 10 Example 1-3 Viola II The f-sharp2 has been written several times in the alto clef; there is no need to begin using treble clef on alternate quarter-notes in the last bars. For extremely high passages, the ottava sign may be used in conjunction with the treble clef, although this is seldom necessary; the same general principles apply as in writing for the extreme upper register of the violin. Igor Stravinsky is responsible for a unique instance where two clefs are employed, on separate staves, to be read simultaneously:4 41. Stravinsky, Chant d3 rosingol, mm. 4—5. Copyright 1919 by Boosey and Hawkes. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 242-5 15 Un This fOrm stave mete The ( known to ‘ from will: ' 5wii: flg . PreSs‘ 11 Example l-4a This is unnecessary, as these chords would have occupied less space if written on one staff in either clef, e.g.: Example 1-4b as; (5‘? W This form is more intelligible to string players, as two- stave notation implies divisi (cf. Chapter 7). The only use of the ottava sign with the alto clef known to this writer from printed music is an 9§§i§_passage from William Walton's Concerto for Viola:5 5William Walton, Concerto for viola and orchestra, fig. 28. Reprinted with permission of Oxford University Press. (mu) 3“ E H The octave written in clef. The to any tra The v I E]. \ clef is us LL . ...at remai Single Phr 1|\JD'IJVe thi S 12 Example l-5 (0331:.) 3“ The octave is optional; otherwise, the part should be written in the intended octave, possibly with the treble clef. The change of clef should be considered preferable to any transposition, even transposition of an octave. The Violoncello ('cello) uses three clefs: the bass I E l: the tenor [ fig], and the treble. The bass clef is used commonly with ledger lines up to al. Passages that remain above d1 or e1 (approximately) for more than a single phrase, or which exceed al, are usually written in the tenor clef, which is used up to approximately c2. Above this, the treble clef is used. One may use the treble clef without having first used the tenor clef; in fact, there is a growing tendency to replace c-clefs entirely with the bass and treble clefs.6 As with the viola, the ottava sign is used only with the treble clef, and only under the circumstances discussed in connection with the violin. 6Thurston Dart, "Notation", Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, pg. 122. Some nineteenth-century composers usedithe treble clef in 'cello parts as an octave- transposing clef. This practice is archaic and should be avoided. The 5‘ the same {:2 for the ba 3 t that t octave bel i'ze tenor 35 this pr E] 7 I g 1. 3° 1’Eplace i-‘aStrunent would almc T"afieliies tenor Clef caIEful C" Skill in ‘ Two hi" V h, a1 Hans Otte the treb l \ 7 n Lb: 8a initNO IE: 1.2:] 13 The string bass uses the same clefs as the 'cello, and the same principles apply, except that all notated pitches for the bass sound one octave lower. Thurston Dart points out that the transposed treble clef [ ], sounding an octave below the regular treble clef, has already replaced the tenor clef to a large extent. He suggests an extension of this principle to include a transposing bass clef [ % ].‘7 One can also imagine a transposing tenor clef: [ gig ]. The transposing treble clef should not be used to replace the tenor clef in 'cello music, since that instrument also uses the regular treble clef. Confusion would almost certainly result from mingling the two varieties of treble clef. It may be unfortunate that the tenor clef is losing favor, as it can save ledger lines and clef changes for all concerned (cf. examples l-9a and b); careful choice of clef is therefore recommended as a basic skill in writing for the lower strings. Two avant-garde composers have invented new clef signs which, although convenient, have serious disadvantages. Hans Otte, in Alpha—Omega, uses the following symbols for the treble and bass clefs, respectively:8 71bid. 8Hans Otte, Alpha-Omega, quoted by Erhard Karkoschka in Notation in New Music, pg. 24. Used by permission of Universal EdIEion A. G., Vienna. 31:518.»: 5 using iden These depe 14 Example 1-6 Boguslaw Schaffer, in Imago musicae, goes even further, 9 using identical symbols: Example 1-7a These depend entirely upon the most common placement of the traditional G and F clefs for meaning. There is a special Symbolization for changing clefs:10 Example l-7b P—l 9Boguslaw Schaffer, Imago musicae, quoted by E. Karkoschka, Notation in new music, pg. 24. Used by per- mission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 101bid. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. S-clefs are pro identification; iistinguish one 'e.g., the teno Schaffer's syst to circumvent t tional system C 15 the clearest Another as Eodern trends 1 irrelevant, but Complex) than 6 “Struments arr 0f Pitches thr: have no frets into Scales, t m t©0311 music music the Sim; QEnerally the and "heard" 1. dlminished in an aUgmented scale system 15 C-clefs are problematic in either system for lack of ready identification; it would be difficult or impossible to distinguish one from the other, or from the other clefs (e.g., the tenor and bass clefs would be identical in Schaffer's system). No provision is made in either system to circumvent this difficulty. Consequently, the conven- tional system of clefs remains the preferred notation, as it is the clearest and most comprehensive. Another aspect of pitch notation is voice leading. Modern trends in composition tend to make that concept seem irrelevant, but in fact make it more important (and more complex) than ever before. Like the human voice, stringed instruments are capable of producing an unbroken continuum of pitches throughout their ranges. Since the instruments have no frets or other devices for dividing the strings into scales, the performer must rely on his ear. Therefore, in tonal music, tonal spellings should be used; in non-tonal music the simplest possible spellings of intervals are generally the best, in that they are more readily recognized and "heard” in the mind of the performer than augmented or ‘diminished intervals. (The tritone can only be spelled as an augmented or diminished interval, and the harmonic minor scale system uses, for instance, the augmented second and the diminished fourth. Outside the framework of tonality, however, augmented and diminished intervals should generally be avoided when another spelling is available. Furthermore, much of the technique of stringed instruments is associated 'iiL‘l generic int head's Music 59: but the simples1 These four note w, “ESQ notes in shown in the a 16 with generic interval size. This example, adapted from Read's Music Notation, shows that spelling intervals in any but the simplest fashion may lead to technical difficulty.ll These four notes are in the first position: Example l-8a Violin 0 i 3 .4 ‘3' W*#'_ These four notes lie in the second position:12 Example l-8b 3 4 9 e a snow-— These notes involve two mental shifts, even if fingered as shown in the above examples: 11G. Read, op.cit., pg. 383. 12They are, of course, the same pitches; position is reckoned by generic interval size without considering enharmonic equivalents, i.e., by letter name, rather than by actual pitch. It is r ppear diatc were diatoni a whole-tone dminished t Place of the be COnsisten intervals . Glad \L leading Pecui 13L v . €03 ‘ pennlsSion oiI 17 Example l-8c A I x .3 A 32%; . bjrlfii'ii" ?083‘13M1 If I I fl It is not possible to write all music so that it could appear diatonic on the page, unless, of course, all music were diatonic in sound. For instance, one cannot complete a whole-tone scale to the octave without writing a diminished third, unless one uses an augmented seventh in place of the octave. However, composers should endeavor to be consistent and clear in their spellings of chords and intervals. The following example, from Leos Janacek's Méa Glagolskaja contains three clef changes, three doubly- diminished fifths in the 'cello part, and other voice- leading peculiarities in the other parts:13 l3Leos Janacek, Msa Glagolskaja, mm. 70-73. Used by pemmission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 18 Example l-9a If written entirely in E major, the parts will look as diatonic as they sound; writing the 'cello part in the tenor clef also eliminates clef changes: Example l-9b Modern to uses of accide works of the e ispreceded by car. be found a of Arrigo Benv has conditione to observe acc unnecessary us clutter the pa zesic. So lor ‘0! some comps that notes are 0r accidentals the conventior In music Similar units, 1313 becomes c “3‘3 incorpora‘ heads;15 19 Modern tendencies in pitch notation include "novel" uses of accidentals, as well as novel accidentals. In many works of the early atonal and serial composers, each note is preceded by a sharp, flat, or natural sign; this practice can be found at least as recently as the Canoni Enigmatici l4 of Arrigo Benvenuti, composed in 1959. Earlier music has conditioned performers to remember key signatures and to observe accidentals for the duration of a measure; the unnecessary use or repetition of accidentals only serves to clutter the page and add to the difficulty of realizing the music. So long as the music is organized into measures (or some comparable unit), it seems most expedient to assume that notes are to be "natural" unless altered by signatures or accidentals, which should be applied and cancelled in the conventional manner.15 In music that is not organized into measures or similar units, the application and cancellation of acciden- tals becomes a more complex problem. Chaillez suggests the incorporation of chromatic alteration into the note- heads:16 14 7-2a. Arrigo Benvenuti, Canoni Enigmatici. See Example 15A complete guide to conventional use of signatures and accidentals is found in Read's Music Notation, pp. 122- 44. 16T. Dart, op.cit., pg. 123. r‘ (in: " This seem 's‘narp" h 'approxim now make Wild be Rola natural t 20 Example 1-10 This seems at first to be a good idea, but his symbol for "sharp" has acquired another meaning, "indefinite" or "approximate" pitch, so that using it to mean "sharp" would now make it ambiguous. Furthermore, use of these shapes would be a hindrance in the notation of harmonics.l7 Roland Kayn, in Galaxis, uses black note-heads for natural tones and white note-heads for sharps:18 Example l-lla natural fl; :3 Sk‘qp Henry Pousseur, in Madrigal I and Bernd Zimmerman, in Presence, use black note-heads to signify natural tones and white note-heads to signify flats:19 l7See chapter two. Harmonics themselves involve altered note-heads. 18Roland Kayn, Galaxis, quoted by E. Karkoschka, loc. cit., used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. , 19Henri Pousseur, Madrigal I, and Bernd A. Zimmermann, Bresence, quoted by E. Karkoschka, Ibid. Seither SEVEIE inabili COII‘ECt note a: aivanta thus re ShOrtcc adv an t a BC the not 21 Example l-llb natural ant it? Neither system contains both sharps and flats, leading to severe difficulties in regard to voice leading; the inability to spell any interval in simplest terms makes the correct notation of many harmonics impossible.20 Further- more, Zimmermann finds difficulty in distinguishing half- 21 note and quarter-note values. These systems have the advantage of eliminating the need to cancel accidentals and thus reducing the number of symbols to be read; the shortcomings mentioned above, however, greatly outweigh this advantage, and these procedures are not to be recommended. Boguslaw Schaffer, in Azione a due, uses dots preceding the note-heads to indicate sharps and flats:22 20See the discussion preceding examples 2-25a & b. 21Zimmermann reclarifies the relationship between half- notes and quarter-notes by replacing the half-note with the whole-note, i.e., two now equal ¢> . Karkoschka (loc. cit.) admits that this in turn confuses rhythmic notation. 223. Schaffer, Azione a due, quoted by E. Karkoschka, loc. cit. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. With a narkin tradit leaSur that 1 One no of tie permiSs 22 Example l-12 sfiaqps -—fi,——~a—s "}"" iflats This is rather like Renaissance notation, in which acciden— tals are applied to one note only, sometimes including immediate repetitions of that note. Since the accidentals have not been incorporated into the note-heads, the dots are really substitutions for the traditional sharp and flat symbols; not only are they less easily distinguished than the conventional signs, but they might also be confused with augmentation dots, or possibly, with articulation markings. It seems preferable, therefore, to use the traditional symbols for all music which is organized into measures or comparable units. Witold Lutoslawski, in his Second Symphony, directs that in "ad libitum" sections, accidentals are to apply to one note only. This is carried out even to the elimination of ties: the following example shows that what appears to be a tie is in Lutoslawski's notation a slur:23 23Witold Lutoslawski, Second Symphony, preface. The illustrations are the composefTs own. Reprinted with kind permission of Edition Wilhelm Hansen, London, Limited. The inconv an altered headless s “Titte KrzYSZto Thi ConfUSeg the net. voicQ‘l mOre Si 23 Example 1-l3a 4 I“ I L T I L I I I fl 1 I I written (Lutoslawski) played (conventional) The inconvenience of having to repeat the accidental when an altered tone is repeated is circumvented with the use of headless stems:24 Example 1-13b WY} —55:.o-rp l I *v 1 written (Lutoslawski) played (conventional) Krzysztof Penderecki also uses this procedure in his works. This notation has three disadvantages. First, it confuses the distinction between tie and slur, handicapping the notation of rhythm. Secondly, it may discourage careful voice-leading--the tones in example l-l3a would have been more simply written: Example l-l3c 24£219. In both cases there are three d-flats and one d-natural. Lastly, headle composers (amo stringed instr stems could be sections of p: repetition of {Rolled to a To advance th clarity, the recommended 3 0f the Renal: Micro-t DiViSiOn of WhiCh Pende: Witold Lutc following c 25 26 “remak- N, 2 7W 24 Lastly, headless stems have been used by these same composers (among others) for certain percussive effects on stringed instruments.25 Ambiguity in the use of headless stems could be alleviated if, in non-metered pieces or sections of pieces, accidentals were rewritten for each repetition of an altered tone, or if accidentals were applied to a note and immediate repetitions of that note. CR) advance the dual aims of reducing ambiguity and promoting clarity, the latter suggestion is recommended. The recommended solution has been proven in the un—barred music Of 'the Renaissance. Micro-tones are a long-standing notational problem. EfiJrision of the semitone in half produces quarter-tones, which Penderecki notates as follows:26 Example 1-14 + l/4 tone sharp b 1/4 tone flat #’ 3/4 tone sharp d 3/4 tone flat WitOld Lutoslawski, in his Second Symphony, uses the fol lowing system: 27 \ 255ee examples 5-30a & b; chapter six. h. 26K. Penderecki, Qg_Natura Sonoris, preface, and T renod , preface. 27W. Lutoslawski, loc. cit. f 1 z : 1: his own St: sgrbol : 2 8 Notice that th bl Penderecki l'14). Lutosl quarter-tone a 1.1%, I Inst- ITE£££EEEI Ianni 0041' “.1! {\t- . .sz 'I Vlen 25 Example l—lSa + 1/4 tone sharp J 1/4 tone flat $ 3/4 tone sharp ‘b 3/4 tone flat In his own String Quartet, however, he uses the following 28 Symbol: Example 1-15b *1 1/4 tone sharp Notice that this symbol is exactly the same as that used bY Penderecki to mean three-quarter-tone sharp (cf. example 1514). Lutoslawski then uses another symbol for the three- quarter-tone alteration: 29 Example 1-15c ‘8 3/4 tone sharp In 15’01 t0pe, Iannis Xenakis uses two symbols:3o Example 1-16 'r 1/4 tone sharp “ 3/4 tone sharp In Siciliano, Sylvano Bussotti uses a slightly different pair of symbols:31 -\ 28W. Lutoslawski, String Quartet. 29rbid. 30 . . Iannis Xenakis, Polytope. 31 . Sylvano Bussoti, Siciliano, quoted by E. Karkoschka, QELSEEE., pg. 25. Used by permission of Universal Edition ' G- , Vienna. a 1/ Farek Kopelent , . . 32 earrings: ‘hi 33 ha'iricio Kozel. SYStem, Wthh l 'illustrative. 26 Example 1- l7 ‘1’ 1/4 tone sharp ‘m' 3/4 tone sharp Marek Kopelent, in his Third String Quartet, uses three markings:32 Example l-18 11' 1/4 tone sharp b 1/4 tone flat 1 3/4 tone sharp Mauricio Kozel, in his Sexteto d3 cuerdas, uses a six-symbol System, which Karkoschka finds both "convenient" and "11 lustrative. " 33 Example l-l9 E a % sharpen 1/4 tone (1 fi r flatten 1/4 tone One has only to look at these systems once to recognize the I many duplications and contradictions. Some composers have attempted to integrate quarter- tone alterations into note-heads. David Reck, in Blues and W, uses triangular note-heads:34 \ 32Marek Kopelent, Third String Quartet, quoted by E- Karkoschka, Ibid., pg. 27. ev 33Mauricio Kozel, W gig cuerdas, quoted and aluated by E. Karkoschka, op.cit., pg. 25. 34David Reck, Blues and Screamer. "I 1A ’Lmemann, 1n Esth of these harmonics best of the alterel The reco that used by comprehensive clear, but he comPlexity. Interva by Alois nab bUt also Six notation is 27 Example 1-20 1 A 1/4 tone sharp $ é 1/4 tone flat Zimmermann, in Présence, uses diamond-shaped note-heads:35 Example 1-21 0' 1/4 tone sharp <>l 1/4 tone flat Both of these suffer from the fact that the notation of harmonics becomes very difficult, if not impossible, because 0f the altered note-heads involved in harmonic notation. The recommended notation for the quarter-tone system is that used by Penderecki (example 1-14) , because it is comprehensive, clear, and simple. The Kozel system is also Clear, but has more symbols, which creates duplications and Complexity . Intervals smaller than the quarter-tone were exploited by Alois Haba. His work includes not only quarter-tones, hilt also sixth-tones and twelfth-tones. His quarter-tone notation is quoted by Karkoschka from the Neue Harmonielehre Of 1927:36 \ o 353' Zimmermann, 22;E£E-: quoted by E. Karkoschka, 39%., pg. 27. Used by permission of Universal Edition ' G- , Vienna. h 36Alois Haba, Neue Harmonielehre das diatonischen, matischen, Viertel-, Drittel-, Sechstel-, und 2wolfte1- Ons stems, quoted by E. KarR'oschka, op.cit., pg. 2. Used Y Permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. JO-vv .‘bzice that t1 20395 are not HWE‘Jer' in t EEPIOYS a dif 28 Example 1-22 ; ‘ 1/4 tone sharp a E; 1/4 * 3/4 tone sharp ‘b 3/4 tone flat tone flat Notice that two of the symbols have duplications. Sixth- tones are notated thusly:37 Example 1-23a ‘1' 1/6 tone sharp “HT 2/3 it 1/3 tone sharp # 5/6 Q 1/2 tone sharp Iknvever, in the Suite for Violoncello Solo employs a different scheme:38 Example l-23b 3 1/6 tone sharp J 1/6 3* 1/3 tone sharp g 1/3 :1; 1/2 tone sharp b 1/2 # 2/3 tone sharp '5 2/3 tone sharp tone sharp of 1955, he tone flat tone flat tone flat tone flat —\ 37Ibid. 38 Ibid. The brackets enclose enharmonic equivalents. 29 In Neue Harmonielehre, a complete system of sharping by twelfth-tones is given, but only six symbols for flatting by that interval are mentioned:39 Example 1-24 sharps flats 4 1/12 tone 11 7/12 tone 1Tb 1/12 tone ‘f l/ 6 tone 1‘“ 2/ 3 tone ”b 1/ 6 tone A l/ 4 tone fl 3 / 4 tone Th 1/ 4 tone * l/ 3 tone # 5/ 6 tone \b 1/3 tone 2“ 5/12 tone # 11/12 tone W 5/12 tone # l/2 tone 5 1/2 tone Furthermore, the symbols for flatting by twelfth-tones are net used, as enharmonic equivalents have become, in so 40 Complex a scale, a useless "reductio ad absurdam." These SYl'nbols are arranged logically, but conflict in many cases With previously-discussed micro-tonal notation systems, including some of Héba's own. However, this system may be a useful reference for those composing in such a tempera- ment. The Committee for Notation of the International Musicological Society has proposed a scale and companion notation based on the diesis; the octave is divided into _\ 39 . Ibid. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vlenna . 4OIbid. 30 thirty-one equal parts, and the resulting micro-intervals notated and named in the following manner:41 Example 1-25 $ semisharp L semiflat # sharp b flat 1* sesquisharp Lu sesquiflat a: double sharp 55 double flat It is important to observe that this system does not coin- cide with twelve-tone equal temperament: e-sharp is not equivalent with f, nor is g-double—sharp equivalent to a. This does not hinder the application of this system to stringed instruments, since stringed instruments are not necessarily based on any particular temperament.42 Iannis Xenakis, in Nomos, has used "beat" speeds to indicate the sizes of very small intervals. He writes a 41"Report of the Committee for Notation", Report of the Tenth Congress of the International Musicological Society. 42The semiflat and sesquiflat were taken, with the symbols used for them, from G. Tartini's Trattato g; musica of 1754. Further discussions on this topic may be found in L. Mozart's Treatise on Violin Playing and J. M. Barbour's Tuning and Temperment. 31 double-stopped unison, and then indicates a slight inflec- tion up or down in one voice by means of this symbol [ 0’ *\ ]; the degree of inflection is to be such that the resulting micro-interval will "beat" at the given rate (cycles per second).43 Example 1-26 5010 ,Ceuo The size of any interval can be adjusted by this method. For intervals other than the octave and unison, beats will occur at more than one pitch, and at different speeds, so that instructions would have to be included regarding the pitch at which "beats" would be counted. Furthermore, this procedure is impossible when more than one instrument is being played, if not because of the greatly increased difficulty in hearing the "beats," then because physical interference will upset the regularity of the "beats." Voice-leading in micro-tonal music is very difficult, and many compromises must be made. This example from Lutoslawski's String Quartet involves three different 431. Xenakis, Nomos. C0pyright c 1967 by Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 32 alterations of P which, while making the lower line difficult to read, is far preferable to untangling different alterations of G simultaneously.44 Example 1-27 Vc. I In the following example, from Penderecki's Sonata for Violoncello and Orchestra, a "half—diminished" ninth is diminished by an additional three-quarters of a tone to a doubly-diminished ninth, which is the same as a major seventh in sound (Penderecki's quarter-tones are based on twelve-tone equal temperament, cf. example 1-14).45 Example 1-28a V: Sdo w—«V 1k ‘-" 44W. Lutoslawski, o .cit., rehearsal number nine. Reprinted with kind permiSSion of Edition Wilhelm Hansen London Limited. 45K. Penderecki, Sonata for Violoncello and Orchestra, pg. 23. Copyright 1966 by PWP, Waraw, used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 33 In this case, it may be more desirable to respell the lower tone enharmonically, so that the performer may more easily recognize the harmony he is to produce: Example 1-28b fl-‘W Scordatura, or altered tunings, have always been 1r1<2>1:ational dilemmas. J. S. Bach, in the fifth Suitg_for S3‘:>IlLo 'cello, directs the performer to tune the a—string to $3 3 he then writes all notes intended for that string a tone 11ij—ther than they are to sound. Notice that he writes as if ‘allixather key signature (d minor) were present for these 1'Io‘tes; he does not cancel the written signature of c minor. ']?l:£3 a-flat in this example (marked with an asterisk) is 1Tearlas "the 'a-string' re-tuned to sound 9".46 Example 1-29a .4mzqrdL E 1’1” i; 46J. S. Bach, Suite V for solo Violoncello, Gesammte Ausgabe, v. 27, pg. 23. Erelude, mm. 5-7. 34 The same is true of the e-flat in the next example. Notice also that Bach writes flats duplicating the signature to clifferentiate between those a-flats which are to sound as ar-flats and those which are to be read as "the re-tuned ' a—string' " .47 Example 1-29b lflfifi, . !_ .__- -—‘;:tj[:;i - .Yt-mmxxn-‘m' * redundant a-flat + sounds d-naturall Ix (Zilearer notation is to cancel the written signature with E1<==tes will sound as written and which will be transposed in S3Ound. Specific strings are designated in two ways: with I{Oman numerals, assigned to the strings from the top down, or'with the letter names of the strings' pitches, frequently With the Italian preposition "sul," e.g. "sul G." Taking note that this accordatura has two "g-strings," the former method of designation is to be preferred in this case. 47 Ibid., pg. 91. Allemande, m. 12. 35 Example 1-29c 1’11 “““““““““ 'r In Contrasts for violin, clarinet, and piano, Béla ———_‘-__——I-— Bartok writes for a re-tuned violin using sounding pitch. He ten uses footnotes to explain the required fingerings:48 Example 1-30 '* ifi buk§hfn4 “mu +uu& t b This has the advantage of eliminating transpositions, but the footnoting of all fingerings could become rather cumbersome if the writing were more complex (these are the only two harmonies involved in the violin-part in this movement). It is asking too much to expect string players 48Béla Bartok, Contrasts, mvt. III. c 1942 by Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 36 to realize complex music in any given tuning; consequently this procedure must be discarded. For the third movement of Ingolf Dahl's Divertimento for viola and piano, the violist is directed to tune his c—string down to B. All notes intended for that string are written a semitone higher than they are to sound and are designated to be played on the altered string by Roman numerals. The score is entirely in concert pitch, but contains notice that the viola part is transposed where necessary.49 Example 1-31 viola part: nun: n I score (sound): This practice is to be emulated. When a stringed instrument is to be tuned in the usual intervals, but at a different pitch than usual, it is treated as a transposing instrument. This is fairly common for the string bass, where "orchestra tuning" (example 1-1) contrasts with "solo tuning" (one tone higher). The violino piccolo, which was often used in the Baroque era, 49Ingolf Dahl, Divertimento, mvt. III. c 1951 by G. Schirmer. Used by permission of G. Schirmer, Inc. 37 was tuned as much as a fourth higher than the normal violin and transposed accordingly; one example is Bach's Eirst Brandenburg Concerto of 1718. Mahler's Fourth Symphony (1900) calls for a full-sized violin tuned a whole-tone higher than usual; the part is written in D. Modern, heavy strings and higher concert pitch have caused the tension on stringed instruments to reach a level close to the tolerances of the strings and the instruments themselves. While many colorful effects are possible through scordatura, one should thoroughly consider the alternatives before directing that a stringed instrument be tuned higher than usual. -1. - ..., CHAPTER TWO HARMONICS "Cold and transparent in soft passages, cold and brilliant in loud ones, harmonics form no fundamental part of orchestral writing . . ." Nicholai Rimsky—Korsakoff Principles 9f Orchestration, 1908 38 -.fl, Stringed instruments have the dual capability of pro- ducing different pitches both by stopping the string and by "breaking" it--touching it lightly at a node. This difference has led to a unique notational system, which clearly indicates the nodal point to be touched, but not always the resultant pitch. Natural harmonics are the partials of the open (unstopped) strings. They are notated as note-heads with a small circle (zero) above or below the head, if, and only if, the pitch indicated by the note head is also the location of the node. The following example gives the natural harmonics of the violin or viola G-string, with indications of the positions in which these harmonics lie: Example 2-1 :;.m ‘I-II :I- I4 Its-1‘ “16' 3-‘7 SIC: ° A 1 “¢ 4,11 fl :g u a +1 : l L I ‘ I l f1 ° * (0) The second and fifth harmonics must be specified as "sul G", as they would occur as lower partials of the D string, and would otherwise be played on that string. 39 I 5’ ‘uqz‘i - 40 The partials above the second partial may be sounded if the string is broken at nodes which lie on the string in locations different from the locations of the sounding pitches. These locations should be indicated by white, diamond-shaped note-heads, written to specify the finger- positions of these alternate nodes, rather than the sounding pitches. Example 2-2 gives the alternate nodes and notation for the partials given above. Example 2-2 Notice that the pitch b2 has a total of four nodes. The locations of the three nodes, not at the same location as the pitch itself, may be easily determined by con- sidering that b2 may be the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth partial of harmonic series beginning on b2, bl. e1, b, and g respectively. When any of these harmonic series are considered simultaneously, the first common partial is the pitch that will sound: Example 2-3 L1. 1. 1 ‘Tktfl ‘9———1tfir-—— v 1’ This exemplifies the basic principles behind the notation of harmonics. First, there are always two pitches involved in the production of a harmonic (which may be a third pitch): the fundamental and a node of that funda- mental. Secondly, diamond-shaped note—heads indicate a node, and must be used anytime that the location of the note differs from the location of the sounding pitch, if the latter were produced as a stopped note on the same string. In the case of natural harmonics, the fundamental is assumed to be the next open string lower than the written diamond-shaped note-head, except for intervals which will not produce a harmonic (within six partials), or when a still lower string is indicated. Hence, the necessity for writing "sul G" below the written b1 in the last example, but not below the written e1. It frequently happens that a harmonic-quality sound is desired on a pitch which does not fall into the harmonic series of any open string. In this case, a string may be stopped, creating a new fundamental, and a node of this fundamental is broken, sounding a third pitch, which is not necessarily written. The stopped note, the fundamental, IF..— “MEL! 42 is written as a regular note-head, and the node to be touched is written with a diamond-shaped head: Example 2-4 As before, the first common partials sound. These are referred to as artificial harmonics, or, occasionally, as ”false“ harmonics. The distance between the fundamental and the node touched is limited by the physical capacity of performers; a fifth is the widest possible reach for the violin and viola (and may be too wide for many violists); for the 'cello, a fifth would require the use of the thumb and a fourth would be an extension; for the bass, a major third is a wide reach in the low positions, and a fourth always requires the use of the thumb. Major thirds are the closest interval in common use; some players can produce harmonics using minor thirds and even smaller intervals, but these are less common, and less reliable.1 1G. Read, Music Notation, pp. 376-78. 43 Gardner Read demonstrates a type of notation in which the sounding pitch is given, in small notation and/or in parentheses, above the notation for the harmonic: Example 2—5 1 Huh 1 est—a:- He terms this type of notation "unnecessary."2 He calls the following notation, which he credits to Arnold Schoenberg, "redundant":3 Example 2-6 7k9° These realizations are usually best avoided, as they can be cumbersome when writing becomes complex. Read credits Béla Bartok with occasional use of the dotted tie to con- nect diamond-shaped note-heads:4 2G. Read, op.cit., pg. 379. 31bid. 41bid., pp. 119, 391. 44 Example 2-7 111 The lower notes (regular heads) are connected by regular ties; regular ties may also be used for diamond-shaped note-heads. String bass harmonics, like the other notes for that instrument, are written an octave higher than they sound. Gyorgy Ligeti, in a preface to Apparitions, says "the harmonics of the Contrabass are not notated in 'suoni reali' but sound an octave lower, as do the other Contrabass tones."5 The same composer, however, states in his Requiem that the bass harmonics are notated at sounding pitch (”suoni reali").6 Penderecki, in Strophen, writes a har- monic for the bass which includes a realization which is an octave too low compared to the written harmonic.7 5Gyorgy Ligeti, Apparitions, preface. COpyright 1964; 'used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna, publishers. 6G. Ligeti, Reguiem, preface, C 1965; used by permission of C. F. Peters, publishers. 7K. Penderecki, Strophen, pg. 20. Copyright 1960 by PWP, Warsaw, used by arrangement with Belwin—Mills Publishing Corp. 45 Example 2-8 0rd» 0.ch 5*.) ‘ 3.3.4V Burtram Turetzky, a string bass virtuoso, recommends writing harmonics an octave higher than actual pitch, "retaining the traditional double bass notation."8 Maurice Ravel, in Tzigane, used a number of interesting harmonics, all correctly notated. This passage is entirely O C 9 in natural harmonics: Example 2-9a / The result is the following melody: Example 2-9b 8Bertram Turetzky, "Notes on the Double Bass", Source £1, Jan. 1967, pp. 64-66. Used by permission. 9Maurice Ravel, Tziganeiep. 6. Copyright 1924; used by permission of Durand et C——, publishers. 46 This passage uses two kinds of artificial harmonics: Example 2-10 <=;,// This measure includes a chord containing a natural harmonic and an artificial harmonic: Example 2-11 Mario Davidowsky, in Synchronism Number Two, writes the open string as a regular note-head for natural harmonics: Example 2-12a 1°1bid.. pg. 1. llIbid.. pg. 2. 12Mario Davidowsky, Synchronisms Number Two, m. 65. C 1964; used by permission of Joseph Marx, publisher. .g.- V - ‘w. 47 This is unnecessary; diamond heads would have sufficed, and would have allowed clearer alignment of the double stOps, e.g., Example 2—12b Stravinsky uses the same notation in his Suite Number Two:13 A diamond-head "a2" is all that is needed. Lutoslawski, in his String Quartet, writes the fundamentals of certain natural harmonics in parentheses:14 13Igor Stravinsky, Suite Number Two, pg. 9. Copyright 1925; used by permission of J. & W. Chester, publishers. The fundamental, e , would be written only if the harmonic were to be played as an artificial harmonic on a lower string (e.g., in fourth position on the A string). 14W. Lutoslawski, String Quartet, pg. 43. C 1968; used by permission of Wilhelm Hansen, publisher. 48 Example 2-13 This section is not metered, however, and this device helps to clarify the difference between half and quarter note values, which could not be gleaned from the context. Penderecki, in Emanations, writes the following 15 harmonics: Example 2-14 The direction "sul A" is necessary, as the diamond-shaped head would otherwise be understood as a nodal point on the E string, sounding the pitch e4. Since this sounds where the diamond-shaped head is written (a2), the correct notation would be: 15K. Penderecki, Emanations, pg. 6. C 1960 by Moeck Verlag, used by arrangement with Belwin—Mills Corp. 49 Example 2-15 Stravinsky, in the Firebird Suite (re-scored version of 1919), writes a series of natural harmonics which involve impossible leaps; then, below the staff, directs the players to sound the pitch using a different string and a more convenient nodal point:l6 Example 2-16a C I Vt. This could have been more simply written: Example 2-l6b 161. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, p. 27. Used by permission of Edwin F. Kalmus. 50 In Sacre g2 Printemps, Stravinsky uses a natural 17 harmonic of a re-tuned string: Example 2-l7a "morhg lured-‘11. h‘f en :6 ' Following the recommendations for scordatura discussed in the previous chapter, and the principles of harmonic notation outlined above, a better notation would be: Example 2-l7b luda60VB In the same work, Stravinsky writes a double-stop . . . 1 involv1ng a harmonic: 17I. Stravinsky, £3 Sacre d3 Printemps, pg. 80. C 1921, assigned 1947 to Boosey and Kawkes; used by permis- sion of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 18 Ibid., Pg. 73. 51 Example 2-18a m\ hm The harmonic, a3, is understood to lie on the a-string; since two-octave reaches are not possible, as the a-string is being played for the harmonic, this double-stop appears to be unplayable. In fact, however, if the harmonic a Were understood as a partial of the d-string, the double stop could be played using the open a-string. The correct r1C>1zation is: Example 2-18b SKID 11‘ Which case the harmonic would lie at the end of the E - I I ingerboard; a likely alternative is: 52 Example 2-l8c Example 2-18d ‘iv. An interesting notation for harmonics occurs in P eliderecki ' s Threnody: 19 Example 2—19a \ I? 19K. Penderecki, Threnody, pg. 10. Copyright 1961 by IS‘VI" Warsaw, used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills InZ>lishing Corp . 53 These tones can be realized as harmonics on the 'cello in any of these ways: Example 2-19b "'11! .1. . Hal-Ir Example 2-l9c " r LI": Example 2-l9d Tunese will sound quite different, and will present differ— ent technical problems. The first solution is fairly Ireliable, but the players at the lower end of the cluster ‘Will reach the lowest note possible after a glissando of only a major third; this problem will be even more acute if the second solution is employed. Probably, the best technical solution is the third, as it allows the most : space for the glissando, but is also rather difficult, as a fifth is a wide reach on the 'cello. 54 Another interpretation of this notation is also possible. Since the diamond lies above the cluster, one might take the notes of the cluster to be fundamentals of artificial harmonics, and touch a nodal point above these notes. There is no indication as to which nodal point should be touched, and any of these solutions is possible: Example 2-19e 55 The interval of a fourth is the most common artificial harmonic, as it lies well under the hand for the upper strings, and sounds two octaves above the fundamental, making realization easy. Evidence that this is the correct solution may be found in another of Penderecki's composi- tions, Polymorphia, where this notation is used, and a r solution is given (cf. Examples 7-4a and b). The solution Should be given in each instance. This uncertainty would be spared if Penderecki had £3£>ecified the meaning of his notation in the same way he flats specified the elements of the cluster; e.g. Example 2-19i One pitfall in notating string harmonics is the temptation to write all harmonics as if they were natural harmonics which sounded at the same pitch as the location of the node. Stravinsky wrote such harmonics in the 20 Firebird Suite: (Violins) 201. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, pg. 15. Used by permission of Edwin F. Kalmas. 56 Example 2-20a 0—31 M11 i1 quaither of these harmonics is a natural harmonic of any <>Lmen.string (the instruments are assumed to be tuned rlcxrmally). The most likely solution is given below: Example 2-20b 11/“ (1ther solutions would be notated according to the same 'Principles. Ligeti, in Apparitions, makes the same error, and includes the redundant instruction "F1ag":21 216. Ligeti, Apparitions, pg. 9. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 57 Example 2-21a 9-..-.--- 41*": 6,1 Time solution for this would require separate staves for each player: Example 2-21b A Alban Berg, in his Eyric Suite, uses the direction “l?lageolet", and omits the circles over most of the harmonics : 22 22A. Berg, Lyric Suite, pg. 8. Copyright 1927 Universal Edition, A. G., Vienna, used by permission. 58 Example 2-22a A H A Stu“. 11., ------------ " 10113 would be more correctly written as: Example 2-22b Heitor Villa-Lobos, in Amazonas, uses a version of 1"Aarlmonic notation which is deceptive:23 Example 2-23a 1E 11—1 1 o HOV-s. ‘ o w. 1".“ ¥-—-—. 9 : .1 l I 5 5- K t The circles are unnecessary, and are even misleading, as these are not the sounding pitches (as the circles would 23H. Villa-Lobos, Amazonas, pg. 21. Copyright 1917 Max Eshig, Paris; used by permission. 59 indicate). The white notes are apparently a variant of diamond-shaped heads: Example 2-23b Mime —+—a—f¢3», >75) Cole asks how a player can do justice to this passage at 12 Actually, this would only require a détaché this speed. lancé with an added "bite"; this is not easy, nor will there be complete agreement among string players regarding the execution of this passage. However, the marking indi- cates a more practiced bowing than Cole seems to believe. Cole states that the pointed dot [ F ] implies accent,13 which is consistent with Galamian's use of this mark to indicate martelé.l4 However, its use if often mixed with the applications of the round dot, dependent in part upon copyists and engravers.15 In The Three—cornered Hat of de Falla, for instance, the horns are marked with the dot- and-accent (see above example), while the strings simul- taneously alternate between this and the simple accent, 113. Cole, loc. cit. lzlbid. l3Ibid. 141. Galamian, op.cit., pg. 70. 15H. Cole, loc. cit. ‘. ...:z‘n ‘flgwr 68 16 "apparently at random." And in the final chord of Elgar's 'Cello Concerto, Trombones I and II and the strings l7 have pointed dots, while everyone else has round ones. Cole observes that careful marking has its value, but that increased specificity has increased the possibility of inconsistency, as the previous examples illustrate.18 He further states that many notes are now marked which previously would have been left unmarked;19 he declares that "Stravinsky is the composer who has gone furthest along the road towards eliminating the element of uncertainty in music . . . string passages are not only bowed, but also fingered . . ."20 Stravinsky's bowing indications include the terms 21 22 I "staccatissimo sempre," "staccato, accompagnando," and this passage:23 16Ibid. 171bid. 18Ibid. 19Ibid. 2°Ibid., pg. 244. 211. Stravinsky, Divertimento, pg. 21. Copyright 1950 by Boosey & Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 221bid., pg. 13. 231bid., pg. 33. 69 Example 3-3 Suki“, Vk wurudkfim. from the Divertimento of 1934 (re-orchestrated in 1949). A reversed bowing occurs, with other markings, in the Firebird Suite:24 Example 3-4 Repeated down-bows occur in this famous section of Sacre g3 Printemps:25 241. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, pg. 9. Used by per- mission of E. F. Kalmus, Inc. 251. Stravinsky, Sacre g3 Printemps, pg. 11. Copy- right 1947 by Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 70 Example 3-5 VIM! f ° ' . setup-{stand Two articulations are mixed in this passage from Suite Number One:26 Example 3-6 WT"1 '-g‘-‘~ g I EiE§£Z_ {A $1? i i_gn f .,«.£; 1; 1~;:?6af ck.shfik Stravinsky has also made interesting use of the ricochet bowing, which he indicates, in the following examples, with the term "jeté." The Italian term "saltando" is also widely used, along with the French term "ricochet"; 27 the three terms are equivalent. This example is from Histoire d2 Soldat:28 261. Stravinsky, Suite Number One, pg. 21. Copyright 1926. Used by kind permiESion of J. & W. Chester, London, Limited. 27Hugo Norden, "Bowing," The Harvard Dictionary of Music, pg. 103. "Ricochet" is the most precise term. 28 I. Stravinsky, Histoire d2 Soldat, pg. 3. Used by kind permission of J. & W. Chester, London, Limited. 71 Example 3-7 we: 1. (v) (n) . _._. . In Galamian's terms, it probably would be notated (and performed) thus: Example 3-8 The dots are missing from the top part of this passage from the Firebird Suite:29 291. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, pg. 8. Used by permission of E. F. Kalmus, Inc. 72 Example 3-9 Also, the upper part involves a great deal of down-bow, especially difficult as the jeté is performed near the tip. This marking, [ Jjjr: ], which occurs both in Sacre g3 Printemps and in Chant d3 Rossignol, may be interpreted as a ricochet bowing. However, this is rather beyond the usual practice, where all but the last note of the figure lie in one direction; it is sometimes performed in separate bows as a sautillé.30 The tremolo is a characteristic string articulation, which may be either measured or unmeasured. If measured, note-values are written, although shorthand notations are 30This is indicated by markings in parts borrowed from the library of the Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra. 73 often used: [m = i 1.31 For unmeasured tremolo, three slashes in the stems of quarter-notes and half-notes and over or under whole-notes are usually sufficient. Fewer slashes are used for shorter values (e.g., two for eighth notes, one for sixteenth notes):32 [:3 :3 1 5 is ]. In slow tempi, however, where measured thirty-second notes would be possible, a fourth slash is used to specify unmeasured tremolo.33 The word "tremolo" or the abbrevia- tion ”trem." is also sometimes used. Gardner Read attributes to Béla Bartok the origin of the dotted tie in use with the tremolo: [i-L; ]; he calls this "a psychological effect rather than an actual one."34 Regular ties are also used with the tremolo. Penderecki has introduced a modification of the tremolo: the "irregular" or "non-rhythmical" tremolo. For this effect he uses the modified slashes:36 [ i 1. This 316. Read, Music Notation, pg. 39. 32Ibid. 33C. Franck, Symphony, Lento. 34G. Read, loc. cit. 351bid. 36K. Penderecki, Emanations, general instructions; also many other works of Penderecki. 74 is a clear marking, the use of which has spread along with the effect.37 Another type of bowing indication is one which refers to the part of the bow to be used. Passages to be played at the point of the bow are marked "al' punta," "punta dell'arco," or the equivalent, although Italian phraseology is most frequently encountered.38 For passages to be played at the frog, the directions "al tallone" (Italian), 39 and "am Frosch" (German)4o "(arco)du talon" (French), are used. Penderecki has a special notation for one effect obtainable from this bowing: Example 3-10 Sal Kenya"? I ))z)z))})) nnzzz 37It also occurs in Lutaslowski and Gerard Victory (Scathain). 386. Read, A Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices, pg. 307. 391. Stravinsky, op.cit., pg. 9. Used by permission of E. F. Kalmus, Inc. 40G. Ligeti, Apparitions. Used by permission of of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 75 The explanatory footnote reads: "At the heel [frog] with many [sic] pressure so that's to hear a violent creaking."41 Bowing normally takes place between the bridge and fingerboard,at the sounding point which produces the optimum balance of harmonics--that is, the "richest" tone. The tone can be altered by playing closer to or further from the bridge. Closer to the bridge is indicated by the terms "sul ponticello" (Italian), "am Steg" (German), "pres du chevalet" (French), and the abbreviations "pont." or "sul pont." or "Steg."42 Further from the bridge than normal (towards or over the fingerboard) is indicated thus: "(sul) tasto" (Italian), "sur la touche" (French), or “am Griffbrett" (German). Penderecki has abbreviated the Italian forms of these directions further: "s.t." for "sul tasto" and "s.p." for "sul ponticello."43 These abbreviations are always explained in the general instructions to his scores, which is necessary, as the extremity of the abbreviation would leave the uninformed guessing at the language as well as the meaning. Ligeti has used "Grffbr" for "Griffbrett" 41K. Penderecki, Flouresences, pg. 31. C 1962, Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Corp. 426. Read, Music Notation, pg. 382-3. 43K. Penderecki, De Natura Sonoris, preface. C 1967 ‘by Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin—Mills Corp. 76 4 (sul tasto);4 although it is a less extreme abbreviation, players unfamiliar with German will have difficulty under- standing it. Ligeti uses this abbreviation only after having used the entire word, with translations available in the score. These instructions must be cancelled when the performer is to return to the ordinary bowing position. The Italian term "position naturale" is often used, 45 abbreviated by Ligeti to "pos. nat." Penderecki has used both “normale,” abbreviated "N"46 47 and "ordinario," abbreviated "ord." The German equivalent is "gewohnlich," abbreviated "gewohn."48 All of these are clear in meaning, but, again, extreme abbreviations should be explained. These abbrevia- tions are necessitated by space considerations in scores where frequent and rapid changes in timbre would crowd these directions, one on top of another. "Sul pont." and "sul tasto" are used in conjunction with dotted horizontal lines,49 e.g.: 44G. Ligeti, op.cit. 451bid. 46K. Penderecki, Quartetto, preface. 47K. Penderecki, 23 Natura Sonores, preface. 48A. Berg, Lyric Suite. 49G. Read, op.cit., pg. 383. 77 Example 3-ll suZ pont ---------- q naturale The termination of the line implies a return to normal pro- cedure, but as Gardner Read advises, "the verbal direction must also be written."50 Stravinsky has combined these procedures, eliminating the horizontal line, with the instruction "col legno sino al segno B ," "col legno until the signl ."51 This saves the trouble of writing the horizontal line to show duration of the effect, and the sign probably occupies less space even than the abbreviation of the verbal instructions for normal bowing. The line, however, is not completely necessary, and the sign is an additional symbol to be recognized, making it somewhat superfluous. The hair of the how will automatically be used in the absence of any indication to the contrary. The wooden part of the bow can also be used, either similarly to normal bowing or struck, rather as a percussive technique. Often, the context will determine the appropriate technique. 5°Ibid. 511. Stravinsky, Lg Sacre g3 Printemps, pg. 17. Copyright 1921, 1947 by Boosey & Hawkes. Used by per- mission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 78 This passage,from the Finale of Rachmaninoff's Third Piano Concerto, is performed with a struck style of bowing, 52 rather like a ricochet: Example 3-12 00105-9 Stings. I} U {Q .... D \J The most common term for this bowing style is the Italian "col legno”; the German "mit (dem) H012" and the French . . 53 "avec b01s" are occa31onally encountered. Two differing uses of wood may be distinguished by the directions "col legno tratto", meaning "bowed with the wood," or "(col) legno battuto," meaning "struck with the 54 Penderecki has abbreviated these terms in various ways: for "col legno", "c.1.”55; for legno ”battuto", wood." 5ZS. Rachmaninoff, Third Piano Concerto, Finale. 53Mahler uses the Italian and German terms apparently at random, although he seems to differentiate between "col legno” or "mit Holz (geschlagen)", meaning to use the wood, and "mit dem Bogen geschlagen", meaning to strike with the bow, possibly with the hair between the stick and the string. S4K. Penderecki, Quartetto and De Natura Sonoris. 551bid. 79 56 57 "1. batt." , and "x". This passage from his Quartetto 58 illustrates the two techniques: Example 3—13 Vki '0 Z Berg and Ligeti use polyglot phraseology: "col legno, 59 abbreviations 60 gestrichen" and "col legno, geschlagen": are "gestr." and "gestrich.", "geschlag." and "geschl." The following example, from Berg's Lyric Suite, further illustrates the difference in character between the two bowings:61 56K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm; Lg Natura Sonoris. 57K. Penderecki, Quartetto. 581bid., sec. 23-24. Copyright 1963 by PWP, Warsaw, used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. The slide is not possible as it is written, because at least one string crossing is necessary to accommodate both end- points. Cf. chapter five. 59A. Berg, Lyric Suite, and G. Ligeti, Apparitions. 6°Ibid. 61A. Berg, Lyric Suite, pg. 39. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 80 Example 3-14 («dud») (josckh’q h ' 1 I .‘1 if t\ 9 rfijO m- 11'3" David Reck has used the symbol [H ] for "col legno, [bounced]";62 he has not provided a symbol for col legno tratto [bowed], and this symbol resembles the down-bow symbol used in French editions too closely for clarity. Col legno bowing is cancelled in the manner discussed in connection with ponticello and tasto: "modo ord.", "ord.", "naturale", etc. The use of the wood with ricochet technique has been exploited by Davidowsky:63 Example 3-15 Clio!» bolts-u - “VO'IJcpm shin, v. flffl 71-6 62D. Reck, Blues and Screamer, Source fl, Jan. 1967. Used by permission. 63M. Davidowsky, Synchronisms N9, g, m. 42. C 1964 by Josef Marx, used by permission. 81 The same technique occurs in this display in Penderecki's Capriccio per Siegfried Palm:64 Example 3-16 When chords comprising more than two tones are written for a single stringed instrument, a bowing problem is involved. Three tones can be struck simultaneously, but not four (normally), and only two can be sustained. Chords are, therefore, normally "broken." Galamian gives several possibilities for a chord written simply § :65 Example 3-17 64K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm, C 1969 by L. Schott's Sohnne, used by permission. 651. Galamian, op.cit., pp. 88-89. 82 From these examples it is clear that chords are normally arpeggiated from the lowest tone up. (Actually, the direction is from the lowest string upwards by string-- this chord illustrates the difference: Example 3-18 31* 3 9 is: If the direction of arpeggiation is to be altered, special instructions must be given. The following modifications of the "roll" symbol are found in Berg's Lyric Suite:66 Example 3-19 ,- H For chords which are not to be arpeggiated, the instruction "non-arpeggiato" or "non arp." must be given; or a bracket may be used, as in harp notation:67 66A. Berg, Lyric Suite, pg. 10. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 67Ibid., pg. 75. 83 Example 3-20 Square brackets, however, are more standard: [ (cf. Example 4-7). It is not necessary to fill out a measure with rests in the lower parts when part of a chord is released; that is, a chord is not usually treated as a polyphonic piece would be treated. This chord is from Beethoven's Fifth Symphonyz68 Example 3-21a M J? Rests would be redundant and would even imply divisi:69 68L. v.Beethoven, Fifth Symphony, Mvt. I, mm. 19-22. 69The notation of chords may be studied in detail in Galamian's edition of the Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin by J. S. Bach. 84 Example 3-21b I“ In polyphonic music for individual stringed instruments, voices may cross. This is usually shown, as in choral music, by stem direction. In this example, paraphrased from Luciano Berio's Folksongs, the voices are not crossed: Example 3-22a : g : S‘m'ulg written probable execution As Berio has written this passage, however, the parts are crossed as follows:70 7oLuciano Berio, Folksongs, pg. 3. Used with per- mission of Universal Edition A. G., London. 85 Example 3-22b p— _— L... V V Vvv I— written (Berio) probable execution Stravinsky also has used alternating stem directions to indicate multiple voices. This example is from Histoire d3 Soldat.7l Example 3-23 In many instances, the crossing of lines will have no audible effect. For example, the following two figures would have to be played in the same way, and consequently would sound the same. 711. Stravinsky, Histoire d3 Soldat, pg. 47. Reprinted with kind permission of J & W Chester, Ltd., London. 86 Example 3_ 24 It 111: . I! If Vh. , L:: Written both executed CHAPTER FOUR PIZZICATO "Rather in the manner of a guitar." Nicholai Rimski-Korsakoff Capriccio Espafiol, 1888 87 Notes written for stringed instruments are assumed to be bowed unless otherwise indicated. Pizzicato, or plucking, is the second major means of playing stringed instruments. The term "pizzicato" and the abbreviation "pizz." have long been the recognized means of indicating this technique. 1 which is Penderecki has shortened the abbreviation to "P2," clear and recognizable. Reck has used a symbol,2 [ ‘VZ/ ] which does require explanation. Since nothing is gained in terms of space, either the standard abbreviation or Penderecki's abbreviation would be preferable, as they are self-explanatory. The direction "pizz." cancels the direction, given or assumed, for bowing. The standard direction for cancelling pizzicato is the Italian term for "bow," "arco." Penderecki has also shortened this term, to "A";3 Reck has used the same idea:4 "/C:\ ." Although arco and pizzicato normally cancel each other, Reck uses his symbols to ask for free mixtures of the two: "f:jL:\\\£U U)" means "use both arco and pizz. ad. lib. "; " L4H K. Penderecki, Quartetto. D. Reck, Blues and Screamer. K. Penderecki, op.cit. D. Reck, op.cit. 88 89 indicates "predominantly col legno [battuto] with some pizz.”; and '/:fi ty’ " calls for "simultaneous arco and 5 The standard terminology is recommended, because pizz." it is self-explanatory. When the string is to be plucked with the fingers of the lEEE hand, special directions are necessary. Stravinsky uses the standard abbreviation of the French "main gauche," 6 The and mixes it with Italian: "pizz. de la m. 9." Italian equivalent is "m. s." for "mano sinistra.” These designations for the left hand are common in piano music; violin music, however, has a very compact symbol for left- hand pizzicato: a plus-sign [+] placed over the note to be plucked with the left hand. This example, from Ravel's Tzigane, illustrates the usefulness of so small a symbol.7 Example 4-1 5Ibid. It is impossible for the solo bass player to take the last direction literally. 61. Stravinsky, Histoire g2 Soldat, pg. 44. 7M. Ravel, Tzigane, pg. 2. Reprinted with permission of Durand et Cie. 90 Notice that the plus-sign applies to one note only; it must be repeated for each note so played, and, unlike regular pizzicato, needs no cancellation. This passage demonstrates the possibility of using left-hand pizzicato simultaneously with arco playing:8 Example 4—2 V“. In the following case, the "pizz" means "left-hand pizz.", as the right hand is employed with the bow; the c is played simultaneously with the bow.9 Example 4-3a {11. Ml. .UT' WT P17... Ten. 8Jere Hutcheson, Wonder Music, pg. 7. Copyright 1973 by Seesaw Music Corp. - All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission. 9Ben-Zion Orgad, Monologue for solo viola. Used by permission of Mr. Orgad. The method of execution deter- mined by listening to a recorded performance with the composer. 91 In order to indicate clearly that the c is to be both bowed and plucked, the following notation might be used: Example 4-3b This bar contains left-hand pizzicato alternating with ordinary pizzicato. Notice also the slurred pizzicato. This is performed by dragging the finger across the strings rather than giving each note a distinct, separate pull.10 Example 4-4 [ + ii F Xenakis has asked for left-hand pizzicato between the stopping finger and the saddle. He encloses the pitch to be stopped in brackets, and encloses the pitch resulting from plucking the string on the “wrong" side of the stopping 10M. Ravel, op.cit., pg. 5. Used by permission of Durand et Cie. 92 finger in parentheses. The fingering is given above the staff; the brackets and parentheses correspond with those on the staff (this symbol [ 3 ] is a common pedagogical device indicating the use of the left thumb in 'cello and bass playing).11 Example 4-5a H) 'cello m 2'2: .2:;_LJP___. 5.3.. L‘Ef— wrifl‘en '" 5"‘10' +k‘m‘b 1". n. In context, this effect appears thusly:12 Example 4-5b Va 5010 1 (+31) Ir 1’1) (4r 1) This device produces a weak sonority because the vibrating length of string does not contact the bridge, and 111. Xenakis, Nomos for solo Violoncello, preface. The example is the composer's own. C Copyright 1967 by Boosey and Hawkes. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 121bid., pg. 93 consequently the sound does not receive benefit of the resonating body of the instrument. Furthermore, the string length between the stopping finger and the saddle tends to lie very close to the fingerboard, and contacts the finger- board at a very shallow angle; because this results in much greater friction than in the normal procedure, the sound decays very quickly. The following passages asks that the bowed notes be slurred into the following pizzicati:l3 Example 4-6 ka 'Pi‘lzz. “'19 Pat-1 ”Co 0111.. V . 1p Chords played pizzicato are bound to be arpeggiated somewhat as the finger moves across the strings. Stravinsky has sought to minimize this effect through the directions 14 15 "non-arpegg.”, "avec deux doigts", and through the use of brackets:16 13A. Berg, Lyric Suite, pg. 2. 141. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, pg. 36. l51. Stravinsky, Divertimento, pg. 30. 161. Stravinsky, Histoire g3 Soldat, pg. 14. Reprinted with kind permission of J & W Chester, London, Limited. 94 Example 4-7 s: f, hon Vk friuf Gardner Read lists this and one other type of bracket as means of indicating "non-arpeggiato."l7 When pizzicato chords are to be pronouncedly arpeggiated, the wavy line is often used, as in this chord from Berg's Lyric Suite:18 Example 4-8 This chord carries the additional instruction "langsam", or "slowly". 176. Read, Music Notation, pg. 399. 18A. Berg, op.cit., pg. 56. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 95 Read lists a total of three notations for the arpeggiated pizzicato chord:19 Example 4-9 When the direction of the arpeggiation is to alternate between up and down, i.e., when the chords are to be strummed, special directions are necessary. Rimski- Korsakoff used the down-bow and up-bow signs:20 Example 4-10 1““; gutters. Vk- bf! H undidhmb [1 Va 196. Read, loc.cit. 20N. Rimski-Korsakoff, Capriccio Espafiol, "Fandango austuriano". 96 Stravinsky also used this notation in Le Sacre g2 Printemp: Example 4-11 761;. lbw VkJL f In this case, the alternation of the direction of plucking will not produce alternation in the direction of arpeggia- tion (the chord is divided, and therefore not arpeggiated at all); strumming serves to facilitate performance at the required tempo. However, the use of bowing symbols for pizzicato creates ambiguity in the meanings of the symbols; furthermore, the direction of the down-bow for the upper strings is across the strings from lowest to uppermost, while for the 'celli and bassi it is the reverse. Conse- quently, the usage quoted from Rimski-Korsakoff (Example 4- 10) is rather ambiguous for the 'celli. Villa-Lobos uses grace—notes to indicate direction, but it is not clear whether he intends the pattern to . 22 continue: 211. Stravinsky, Le Sacre g2 Printemps, pg. 22. Copyright 1921, assigned 1947 to Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 22H. Villa-Lobos, Choros No. L9, pg. 61. Reprinted by permission of Edition Max Eschig, Paris. 21 97 Example 4-12 Vbt 1) r!)- . o o ‘r{>. - . Another symbol is the arrow pointed in the direction of the arpeggiation. This application is from the Dance Suite of 23 Bartok: Example 4-13 fin. «I Gardner Read catalogues several notations for this device under the heading "a la guitarra":24 23B. Barték, Dance Suite, mm. 65-66. C 1939 by Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 24G. Read, loc.cit. 98 Example 4-14 (In the lower pair, the down- and up—bow indications do not coincide with the directions indicated by the arrows; this is certainly an error.) Lutoslawski has combined the arrowhead with the wavy line; the arrow is used only for reverse arpeggiation (downward), as the unaltered wavy line has long denoted upward arpeggiation:25 Example 4—15 upward downward (assumed) 25W. Lutoslawski, String Quartet. 99 A similar technique is involved in this pizzicato 26 tremolo figure from Ferde Grofé's Grand Canyon Suite: Example 4-l6a (A: {tsf as ‘poss'cuc. and irresuhw) Double. 9311.. o 6 O o \NhI a; The tremolo might be better notated: Example 4-l6b Or, to show irregularity, the following method might be used: Example 4-l6c 26Ferde Grofé, Grand Can on Suite, pg. 122. Copyright C3 1931, 1932, renewed I959, 960 Robbins Music Corporation, DJ.Y., N.Y. Used by permission. 100 A related technique is the mandolin-like strumming asked by George Crumb in "Eleven Echoes of Autumn, 1965." He notates this effect as single notes with tremolo slashes in the stems, and gives directions indicating that the string is to be strummed in alternate directions with the fingernail or with the thumbnail and a fingernail together.27 Example 4-17 Vh. The direction "alla mandolino" in conjunction with this notation would be sufficient, although the direction "pizz." should also be in force during such passages. The use of plectra may be indicated by stating "with plectrum"; this could be modified to specify metal or plastic composition of the plectrum. The Italian equivalents are "col plettro" (with plectrum), ”(col) plettro metallico" (with metal plectrum), and "(col plettro plastico" (with plastic plectrum). The direction "pizzicato" should be given with these instructions, if it is not already in force. 27George Crumb, Eleven Echoes 9E Autumn, 1965; Eco. 3. Copyright C 1972 by C. F. Peters Corp. Used by permission of the publisher. 101 When pizzicati are to be allowed to vibrate after being plucked, aided by a pronounced vibrato, the tie symbol is used following the note:28 Example 4-18a This practice is "contradictory":29 Example 4-l8b The accepted notation is found in Lutoslawski's Concerto for Orchestra:30 28 . G. Read, op.c1t., pg. 391. 29Ibid. 30 W. Lutoslawski, Concerto for Orchestra, pg. 44. Copyright 1956 by PWP, Warsaw. Used by arrangement with Magnamusic-Baton, Inc. 102 Example 4-19 and in this interesting bar in Davidowsky's Synchronisms N9. 2:31 Example 4-20 Va. 5/6 'P111- “‘2 L 2! Writs Stravinsky uses this notation with the added (and rather redundant) instruction "allow to vibrate":32 Example 4-21 V‘t- “55:2 V3501: 31M. Davidowsky, Synchronisms N9. 2, m. 21. Used by permission of Josef Marx, publisher. 321. Stravinsky, Histoire d3 Soldat, pg. 21. Reprinted by kind permission of J & W Chester Limited, London. 103 Gardner Read suggests the following notation when a pronounced vibrato is to be started before the note is plucked, and continued afterwards:33 Example 4-22 All of these applications of the pizzicato technique (excluding left-hand pizzicato) can be modified through the use of "sul tasto" and "sul ponticello" as discussed in Chapter Three. The direction "arco", however, cancels only "pizzicato"; if either of the modifying directions is in force, it must be cancelled separately, otherwise it would continue to apply in the ensuing arco passage. Bartok is generally credited with the invention of the "snap" pizzicato: the string is plucked in such a way that it rebounds against the fingerboard, adding a percussive edge to the attack. The symbols he has used for this effect are:34 33G. Read, loc.cit. It is doubtful that this has any real audible effect. 34Ibid.. pg. 400. 104 Example 4-23 9 3 These are placed over or under the note-heads, and apply only to the notes marked, much as in the left-hand pizzicato designation. Ligeti, among others, has also used this device and notation.35 Barték also asked for pizzicato plucked with the fingernail, notated with these symbols:36 Example 4-24 0 6 These are applied in the same manner as the above. Ligeti has invented a symbol which he uses to direct the players to stop the string with the nail of the left-hand finger involved.37 Example 4-25 356. Ligeti, Apparitions, pg. 9. 366. Read, loc.cit. 37G. Ligeti, loc.cit., vln II, vla., and vc. 105 Read lists four symbols for the effect obtained by allowing a plucked string to rebound against a fingernail of the left hand placed sideways next to the plucked string:38 Example 4-26 Ligeti has used the second of these, describing the effect as a "rattling sound."39 As the sound and technique are related to the "snap" pizzicato, it seems appropriate that the notation should also be related (although distinct). The first three symbols given reflect this; since the second sign is clear and simple, and because Ligeti has made use of it in a major work, it is to be recommended. The use of the fourth symbol is not recommended here because of the rather widespread use of the letter "N" to mean "normale" or "naturale." Read lists three symbols designating pizzicato with the left-hand finger only lightly touching the string:40 386. Read, loc.cit. 39G. Ligeti, op.cit., pg. 14. 40G. Read, loc.cit. 106 Example 4-27 a 4: O Ligeti has used this effect in Apparitions, notated with the first symbol mentioned above: [ i: ]; he described the effect as a "wooden sound."41 This symbol is the simplest of the proposed markings, and is therefore recommended. Pizzicato may be applied to harmonics, although the effect is unreliable, especially in the upper strings. No special notation is required, the direction "pizz." being simply added to the correct notation of the harmonic (cf. Chapter Two). Pizzicato may also be used with such devices as portamento and behind-the-bridge playing (cf. Chapter Five). CHAPTER FIVE SPECIAL EFFECTS WITH PITCHED SOUNDS "And the late invention they call a wrist- shake [vibrato] is inteded to that end, viz: that the sound may waive, but not stop or vary its tone. . . ." Roger North The Musical Grammarian, 1728 107 Modern string playing includes the fairly constant use of vibrato; this technique is so basic today that its use need not be directed. Control of vibrato is one way of adding to the colors or timbres available to the composer. Vibrato may be removed from the sound of the strings by the directions "senza vibrato" or "non vibrato";l the duration of this effect is sometimes indicated with the horizontal line.2 A return to normal vibrato may be indicated by ”naturale", "ordinario", or their abbreviations (which should be written even if a horizontal line is terminated).3 Since these directions would also cancel other devices, such as "sul tasto" or "sul ponticello", that might be used along with "senza vibrato", care must be taken to insure that the directions are specific enough. For example, if a passage marked "sul tasto e senza vibrato" is followed by a passage to be bowed normally but still without vibrato, the cancellation "naturale" would be too broad; a clearer direction would be “arco naturale", or, to be very safe, "arco naturale, ma (nondimeno) senza vibrato". 1The latter from Concerto for Orchestra by Witold Lutoslawski. 2G. Read, Music Notation, pg. 383. 31bid. 108 109 Penderecki has invented notations which indicate specialized applications of vibrato. This symbol indicates "slow, quarter-tone vibrato": Example 5-1 AW This sign denotes "molto vibrato", i.e., a very fast (and consequently narrower) vibrato.4 Example 5-2 A Penderecki has carried this principle further and used a 5 straight line to signify "senza vibrato". Example 5-3 4K. Penderecki, Anaklasis. 5Ibid. 110 In many of his other scores, however, this line indicates only duration, and carries no implications regarding vibrato;6 Penderecki uses the abbreviation "s.v." in some of these scores for "senza vibrato".7 This is preferable to the preceding notation because it avoids ambiguity in the use of the straight duration line. In Remembrances, Arthur Woodbury uses a symbol identical with Penderecki's sign for quarter-tone vibrato for ”a note wavering aperiodically as to pitch".8 Example 5-4 This is not the same as vibrato, which is regular in oscillation; Woodbury indicates with the following notation, directing that this technique be used only when marked.9 6K. Penderecki, Quartetto, Threnody, et. al. 7K. Penderecki, Quartetto. 8A. Woodbury, Remembrances. 9Ibid. 111 Example 5-5 OW. Since vibrato is considered a normal element of string tone, it seems superfluous to have a symbol for its use, especially a symbol which lends itself to individual notes rather than entire passages. It is simpler to assume that vibrato will be used when the performer can use it, and to label passages (or movements) where it is to be altered or avoided. Directions affecting the decay of a sound have been employed by Penderecki. When the tone is to be allowed to "fade away", the symbol [1’ ‘\.] is used,10 much as in pizzicato-vibrato notation (cf. examples 4-18, 4-21). Both notations are derived from the tie. When the sound is to be ”damped immediately", the symbols [I 1,11 or [ j 112 are used. Since only one symbol is needed, and 13 as the latter one greatly resembles the breath-mark, the 10K. Penderecki, Dimensionen. llIbid. 12K. Penderecki, Anaklasis. l3The breath-mark is used editorially in string music to indicate a slight lifting of the bow, especially as this affects phrasing. 112 former sign is the logical choice. The example below shows an application:14 Example 5-6 Kn._sk>z2<>€rarrcyscxrsr51._ David Reck has created notations which distinguish tonal qualities at very low dynamic levels. He uses the symbol [ J, ] for "finger only", the sign [ ‘1 ] for ”pitch barely intelligible", and the similar marking [ J, ] for ”almost inaudible, pitch slightly clearer thanwul ".15 Considering the number of alterations to noteheads which have already been discussed, it is clearer to use verbal instructions such as "sotto voce" or "mezza voce" for the last two of Reck's directions; instructions for "left hand only" will be discussed on pages 138-139. Regarding glissando, Willi Apel writes: The rapid execution of scales by a sliding movement . . . On the violin the glissando is a virtuoso effect produced by a rapid succession of minute distinct movements of the hand. This l4K. Penderecki, Dimensionen, m. 18. C 1961 by Hermann Moeck Verlag, used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 15D. Reck, Blues and Screamer. 113 effect should not be confused with the portamento, which is easily produced by a continuous movement of the hand. Unfortunately, the distinction Apel draws between glissando and portamento is widely unobserved; furthermore, it is often not possible to make such a distinction. The cadenza in the first movement of Tschaikowsky's Violin Concerto contains chromatic scales in sixths, which 17 are played as true glissandi: Example 5-7 3?; \ ‘ C , I . " an—ktl- -.J‘fi‘fl-l-fl—fl‘.a'.&°l --I I "T- .- -. .‘I"‘ -'I —'---n-I- Ill."— "“ | I ,__ '1 .v. r'liflm‘n— " h, '1 -‘I ~—_“ Stravinsky uses this notation in Petrouchka: 16Willi Apel, "Glissando", Harvard Dictionary of Music, pg. 348. 17?. Tschaikowsky, Violin Concerto, first movement, cadenza. This figure is repeated, using minor sixths. 114 19 Example 5-8 ‘WLJI We In many of his other scores, however, Stravinsky uses different notations, such as these two notations from L2_ Sacre ggPrintemps:20 Example 5-9 V'n. Although both are marked "g1iss.", the second figure has a straight line rather than the wavy one used before. Both 191. Stravinsky, Petrouchka, "Russian Danse" m. 48. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 20I. Stravinsky, Lg Sacre d2 Printemps, pp. 62, 65. C 1921, assigned 1947 to Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 115 of these cover extremely wide ranges very quickly, so that a true scalic realization is impossible; they are performed as portamenti. Actually, Stravinsky has used the two notations indiscriminately, obscuring the distinction between portamento and glissando. For purposes of clarity, this discussion will maintain the distinction between portamento and glissando, even when the composers in question do nOt. The following example is marked with a wavy line and the direction "slow glissando".21 Example 5-10 TVHP Taken literally, this would be performed with a series of distinct movements, which, due to the slow rate of the 22 figure, would probably be micro-tonal in size. The next example uses a straight line and gives no other directions; literally, it is a portamento.23 21Ferde Grofé, Grand Canyon Suite, pp. 117-18. Copy- right 1931, 1932, renewed 1959, 1960 Robbins Music Corporation, N.Y., N.Y. Used by permission. 22Recordings made by the composer and with Leonard Bernstein are inconclusive regarding the execution of this passage due to the large number of strings involved. 23W. Lutoslawski, Second Symphony, pg. 26. Reprinted with kind permission of Edition Wilhelm Hansen, London, Limited. 116 Example 5-11 VMJZ 1"=::::::‘fg::>— This interesting (and difficult) double-portamento in contrary motion is for solo string bass:2 Example 5-12 L3 17 #— .u_. 1? Normally, glissandi and portamenti must be performed entirely on one string (in the case of double-stops, entirely on the same pair of strings), as changing strings during either of these figures without disturbing the effect is prohibitively difficult.25 When the lowest note of the figure (which determines which string must be used) is not close to the beginning of the glissando or portamentq,as when a long slide or page turn is involved, 24P. Phillips, Sonata for String Bass, quoted by B. Turetzky, "Notes on Double Bass", Source 1L, pg. 65. Used by permission. 25It can be done under some circumstances; it can be compared in difficulty to sliding over the break on the clarinet. 117 the string should be indicated as a courtesy. It is not required, being rather an editorial marking which could, along with fingerings and the like, be supplied by the performer. If the glissando or portamento is to be performed in the higher positions on a lower string when the passage could be played in lower positions on a higher string, this designation becomes necessary. In the following example, designation of the D-string is a courtesy:26 Example 5-13 ff The reason for the marking is that the b-flat2 lies, on the D-string, in the ninth position at best, and is there- fore not readily located; the marking serves as a warning for the performers.27 One problem encountered in writing portamenti and glissandi is that of rhythm, which frequently amounts to 26G. Ligeti, Apparitions, pg. 8. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 27It may also remind the composer to allow time for locating the pitch, or to write in such a way that the players will arrive in the correct location before the beginning of the slide. 118 "pacing" the slide. In this case, Lutoslawski indicates that the portamenti are to arrive on the harmonics just prior to the beginning of the third bar:28 Example 5-14 «4.1) Xenakis marks the passing of time with stems drawn to the portamento line; this example is from ST/48-l,240162:29 Example 5-15 ff For long glissandi and portamenti, this is much more precise than the notation used by Grofé (Example 5-10) and 28W. Lutoslawski, op.cit., pg. 78. Reprinted with kind permission of Edition Wilhelm Hansen, London, Limited. 291. Xenakis, ST/48-l,240162, mm. 1-3. c 1967 by Boosey and Hawkes. Used by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 119 Lutoslawski (Example 5-14). The notation used by Xenakis could easily accommodate changes in the speed of the slide.30 Lutoslawki uses a parenthetical note to pace a portamento, but gives no endpoint:31 Example 5-16a When the endpoint is not precisely defined, the "approxi- mate pitch" (of. pages 128-9) notation might be used to limit the pitch variable somewhat and to define rhythm more clearly, e.g.: 30Use of pitch-notated "checkpoints" is valuable for the performer, especially in slides of this length. The logarithmic scheme of pitch locations on a string (see page 8) means that a steady slide with regard to pitch will require an accelerating or decelerating motion with regard to distance. E.g., in a two-octave descending slide, the hand must move twice as fast for the second octave if the two octaves are to occupy equal amounts of time. 31W. Lutoslawski, op.cit., fig. 144 ff. Reprinted with kind permission of Edition Wilhelm Hansen, London, Limited. 120 Example 5-16b Examples of portamento notation involving parenthetical notes and stems drawn to the portamento line may also be seen in Examples 1-26 and 4-5b. This system of notation is to be preferred, as it is the most accurate. The left hand can slide through any articulation of the bow; portamento is the more likely technique when any but legato bowing is used, as distinct left-hand movements would be nearly impossible to coordinate with bowed articulations.32 The effect, however, is that of a glissando. In the following example, a slide is articulated by a tremolo:33 Example 5-17 A t F VhL 32It is not completely impossible, but has severe speed limitations. 33W. Lutoslawski, o .cit., pg. 41. Used by kind permission of Edition Wilhelm Hansen, London, Limited. 121 In the next case, the articulation is in sixteenth-notes:34 Example 5-18 . L f I Penderecki here writes a slide articulated with irregular tremolo col legno:35 Example 5-19 .. 2: Lutoslawski writes the rhythm of the bowing above the staff for this slide from Concerto for Orchestra:36 34W. Lutoslawski, Strin Quartet, pg. 22. Used by permission of Edition W1lhelm Hansen, London, Limited. 35K. Penderecki, Quartetto, sec. 23-25. Copyright 1963 by PWP, Warsaw, used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 36W. Lutoslawski, Concerto for Orchestra, pg. 23. Copyright 1956 by PWP, warsaw, used by arrangement with Magnamusic-Baton, Inc. 122 Example 5—20 \hoI fl '7 - igbvuigg(’ II! I" E ’r 5» b' ’97-:1‘1’44". The following slide from the same work adds a minor third trill to the slide:37 Example 5-21 We. Amyczbmn;¢, ’POP. ”yi/:i fl *;*f In the following passage, Penderecki has used quarter- tone vibrato with the first and third portamenti; the second is to approximate the shape of the line:38 37Ibid.. pg. 53. 38K. Penderecki, Lg Natura Sonoris, pg. 31. C 1967 by Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin- Mills Publishing Corp. 123 Example 5-22 swam: Endpoints for the portamenti would be helpful; after all the beginning pitches are specified to a quarter of a tone. This particular effect from Emanations is obtained, as directed in the composer's footnote, ". . . by turning the tuning peg; speed and interval of glissando ad lib."39 Example 5-23 Glissandi and portamenti may be used with pizzicato, but the range is limited by the rapid decay of the tone. Gardner Read suggests the following notations:40 39K. Penderecki, Emanations, pg. 32. C 1960 Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 406. Read, op.cit., pg. 400. 124 Example 5-24 All of these obscure the distinction between portamento and glissando by using the direction "gliss." with the straight (portamento) line. The direction "gliss." should be used only when the pitches are written out, or with the wavy line (cf. Examples 5-8, 5-10). The direction "port.“ should be used with the straight line (cf. Example 4-17). If a limit-tone is desired, it is most clearly expressed by notating the pitch as in one of the ways discussed previously; the last of Read's notations, therefore, should be used only when there is no limit on the slide. This example from Apparitions is actually a portamento:41 Example 5-25 416. Ligeti, Op.cit., pg. 6-7. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 125 The composer's instructions read: "Pizzicato glissando. Press the finger firmly to the end. Quick glissando without upper limit-tone: do not stop until the sound has completely died away."42 The following is also a type of portamento:43 Example 5-26 Ga I Tia-I. am31NMnmun V) 913‘: W The instructions read: "this pizz. gliss. is to be performed by turning the peg. (The string is first to be turned a little lower, then raised till approximately till the note in waches.) [sic] Lubricate the peg before performance."44 Stravinsky is apparently the inventor of the "harmonic glissando". The following passage occurs in the Fire-bird Suite, with a footnote reading, "en l'effleurant du doigt, 42Ibid. 43Ibid., pg. 27. 44Ibid. 126 1es sons harmoniques ques notes se prodiurant alois automatiquement."45 Example 5-27 The motion involved is that of a portamento, but the term ”glissando“ is more apt because the result is a series of distinct (although often not adjacent) tones. In the above case, Stravinsky has written to the twelfth partial; the seventh partial (c3) will be somewhat flat, and the eleventh partial (written here as 93) will sound as a very flat g-sharp3.46 For the Violas, he has written to the ninth partial:47 4SI. Stravinsky, Firebird Suite, pg. 3. Used by permission. The footnote translates "in skimming with the finger, the harmonics notated will be produced almost automatically." 46W.Apel, "Harmonic Series", Harvard Dictionary of Music, pg. 64. 471. Stravinsky, Lg Sacre du_Printemps, pg. 9. C 1921, assigned 1947 to Boosey and Hawkes. Reprinted by per- mission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc. 127 Example 5-28 -b \He Stravinsky's notation includes slurs and an indication of string, as well as the direction "glissando". An interesting accoustical phenomenon is that, while the notes written are the tones of the harmonic series, they are not all the pitches which actually sound. The extra tone results from the sounding of a usable node while sliding between the second and third partials: Example 5-29a (th Sud 5| or. ii: This results in the following sound: Example 5-29b 128 Other nodes are, of course, crossed during the slide, but they involve harmonics so high in the series that they very seldom sound. Stravinsky's notation, which ignores the extra node of the fifth partial and uses only the tones of the harmonic series in order, has become fairly standard and is adequate. Thurston Dart has noted the use of the symbol [ J ] for "indeterminate or semi-determinate pitch.'48 Lukas Foss suggests the use of "moments of incomplete notation" in composition, giving this example:49 Example 5—30a Headless stems, however, have also been used for repetition of previous pitch (cf. pages 23-4) and for percussive effects (of. Chapter 6). The use of x-note-heads is therefore less ambiguous:so 48T. Dart, "Notation", Grove's Dictionary, VI, pg. 122. 49Lukas Foss, "The Changing Composer-Performer Relationship", Perspectives of New Music, Spring 1963, pg. 51. Used by permission. 50The use of headless stems for repetition of previous pitch has been discouraged (Chapter 1) to make the symbol unambiguous in denoting percussive effects (Chapter 6). 129 Example 5-30b Gardner Read lists these current notations for "highest note" (in reality, "a very high note"):51 Example 5-31 J?“ r Of these, the first resembles Bartok's symbol for arpeggio direction too closely for clarity (cf. Example 4-13), and the third (x-note-head) is also used for "semi-determinate pitch”, which is a slightly different concept. Penderecki has used the triangular symbol, 52 usually placed well above the staff. He specifies the string when it is other than the highest, and has included a means of notating very high (indeterminate) double stops:53 516. Read, op.cit., pg. 405. 52K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm. 53Ibid. Copyright 1969 by B. Schott's Sbhnne, Mainz; used by permission. ' 130 Example 5-32 X") '1 nvnv Vt SCI: Ligeti has chosen to use the x-note-heads, qualifying them by adding the connotation of "highness" to their meaning:54 Example 5-33 \k.L1. The addition of this connotation to the meaning of the symbol negates its usefulness in the semi-determinate notation of pitches in other ranges; therefore, the separate symbol for extreme but indefinite height is a necessary one. The triangular note-head should be used exclusively for indefinitely very high tones, and the symbol [i‘ ] should be reserved for notating approximate pitch in all registers. 54G. Ligeti, op.cit., pg. 10. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 131 Penderecki has asked, in his Capriccio per Siegfried £219" for this unusual technique:55 Example 5-34 is“ 303!” My 430. Saihfl V" Jim 5123 The verbal direction translates "Bow under the strings in front of the bridge." The last part of this direction is unnecessary, because the pitches other than open strings that are given indicate unquestionably that the double- stop is to be played in front of the bridge; furthermore, playing in front of the bridge is normal, and playing behind the bridge would require special instructions (cf. Examples 5-35 and 5-44). The Italian equivalent is "arco sotto della corde". Because of the time required for placing the bow under the strings and for removing it, there is no need to condense these directions by abbreviation, nor is there reason to invent a special notation for this effect. The directions mentioned above 55K. Penderecki, op.cit., pg. 3. C 1969 B. Schott's Sdhnne. Used by permiss1on. 132 are adequate; they would be cancelled by "naturale", “modo ordinario", "arco naturale“, etc. Villa-Lobos has asked performers to play between the bridge and the tailpiece (behind the bridge - See Figure 6-1), which he notates in two ways in Amazonas (1917):56 Example 5-35 Jav- a: 4 Vlni. {If These occur simultaneously in some places. The headless stems are not drawn in such a way that any one of them would suggest a particular string. Gardner Read includes these additional, similar notations:57 Example 5-36 56H. Villa-Lobos, Amazonas, pg. 27. Reprinted with permission of Editions Max Eschig, Paris. 57G. Read, op.cit., pg. 406. 133 In the following solo violin cadenza, Grofé places the x-note-heads in such a way that it is impossible to deter- mine which strings are to be played "back of bridge":58 Example 5-37 'Back of 1314433“ \ at -\_/ As observed before, the symbol [ J ] is associated with semi-determinate pitch notations, and is inappropriate for this purpose; headless stems, being associated with percussive effects (cf. Chapter Six) are also ambiguous. Penderecki has invented a symbol for behind-the- bridge playing which is applicable to graphic as well as to conventional systems of notation:59 Example 5-38a 44—H— 58F. Grofé, Grand Canyon Suite, pg. 53. Copyright C 1931, 1932, renewed 1959, 1960 Robbins Music Corporation, N.Y., N.Y. Used by permission. 59K. Penderecki, op.cit., and in many other compositions. 134 The number of vertical lines corresponds to the number of strings to be played; the strings are often specified by letter names.60 Example 5-38b ’r 11 1‘ A 16 E The following symbols refer to "rapid arpeggios between bridge and tailpiece (Direction is indicated)."61 Example 5-38c (m m An example from Penderecki's Capriccio per Siegfried Palm 62 demonstrates these symbols in context: 603239. The strings are not always specified in Threnody, however, and never in the Capriccio per violino §_orchestra. 61Ibid. 62K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm, pg. 2. C 1969 B. Schott's Sbhnne. Used by permission. 135 Example 5-39 F] F] Vt. Sch; 06 This symbology has, however, two major shortcomings. First of all, the placement of two vertical lines (stems) £192.22.§192 to notate separate pitches which are to sound simultaneously confuses the normal axes of notation, in which the horizontal axis is time, and the vertical axis is pitch. Secondly, the fact that the symbols themselves carry no indication of pitch (string) necessitates the use of letter names, which is a cumbersome practice. Mario Davidowsky has used variants of the "Arco" and "Pizzicato” directions to indicate execution behind the bridge: m and m mean "play behind the 'ponticello' on the written string." The string is indicated with the normally-written pitch of the desired 63 This is a more workable solution than the Open string. foregoing; it does not involve symbols which have other meanings, it is concise, and it is easily cancelled by ”naturale" or with ordinary "pizz." and "arco" markings. 63M. Davidowsky, Synchronisms No. 2. 136 An even briefer device has been used by H. Owen Reed in his chamber dance-opera Living Solid Face; the symbol used by Penderecki ['fi'] has been applied in the manner of the "snap" pizzicato symbol (cf. page 104).64 Example 5-40 “It". qr Vns. g If {tr-"1 We. Vs. CB. if The advantages of this procedure are its brevity, and the fact that it applies to one note only (unless extended with the broken horizontal line),eliminating the need for cancellation. Using this device, the passages quoted from Penderecki and Grofé (Examples 5-39 and 5-37) would read as follows: 64H. Owen Reed, Living Solid Face. Used by permission of the composer. 137 Example 5-41 Example 5-42 v (The strings for the Grofé cadenza have been chosen arbitrarily, as they are unspecified in the original.) Because of its clarity and simplicity, this notation is recommended for general use. Gardner Read lists the following notations for "pizzicato behind the bridge":65 Example 5-43 9D lei-tastes; 65G. Read, loc. cit. 138 In view of the conclusions reached in the foregoing dis- cussion, these symbols may be dismissed as duplications of effort or as unnecessary inventions. Tapping (not plucking) the strings behind the bridge has been used by Penderecki; he uses the instruction "con dita" in conjunction with his own behind-the-bridge notation:66 Example 5-44 “HALE > Mu 45+; Vb 4......“ studio 4? The figure is given an explanation in a footnote. The verbal direction is clear and brief, and could be applied equally well with the recommended "behind-the-bridge" notation (of. Example 5-40 to 5-42). A similar device involves the sound of the left hand fingers stopping the strings as in normal passage work, but with no other bowed or plucked articulation. Penderecki uses this sound in his Capriccio per Siegfried 221$! writing the notes as pitch-approximations with the 67 direction "senza arco". This direction is clear enough 66K. Penderecki, Polymorphia, pg. 12; also in Flourescences. 67K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm. He uses headless stems; x-note-heads are preferable (cf. pp. 128-9). 139 that it should need no further explanation. Ligeti also has used this device, which he marks with a special symbol:68 [9 ]. This notation is used in the manner of the "snap” pizzicato sign. This notation, however, is inadequate for the extended passages which can be played in this way. Penderecki has used this technique in his Quartetto, combining an unarticulated trill with a portamento:69 Example 5-45 686. Ligeti, op.cit., pg. 5. 69K. Penderecki, Quartetto, sec. 1-10. Copyright 1963 by PWP, Warsaw; used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. (I- I. 1].] I1 140 The only mechanical means of altering string tone now in common use is the mute.70 Passages to be muted are marked at their beginning with the direction "con sordino", which is sometimes abbreviated "con sord.“ or "sord." The cancellation, which appears at the beginning of the next passage to be played without mute, is "senza sordino". The plural of sordino is sordini. Time must be allowed for the placement and removal of mutes; when long rests are available, advance warning is often given by the directions "meta sordino" (put on mute) and "via sordino" (remove mute). While German and French terminology are commonly encountered, the Italian phrases are preferred. An editorial marking has evolved among string players as a shorthand means of indicating placement and removal of mutesz7l Example 5-46 [F] con sordino; ll Isenza sordino meta sordino via sordino 70 Electronic means have been invented, but are still somewhat experimental, and are not nearly so common as the mute. Electrification will not be discussed here because the problems of notating electrified effects exceed the application of electronics to the string family. For compositions using electrified stringed instru- ments, see George Crumb's Black Angels and Yoshi Ichiyanagi's Appearance. 71The symbol seems to have become universal; the parts for Josef Gre§ak's Améby arrived in East Lansing for the work's U.S. premiere bearing these markings - penciled in by European performers. 141 Because of its clarity and simplicity, this sign is worthy of general use. CHAPTER SIX NOISE AND PERCUSSIVE EFFECTS "The [second] violinists are to tap their stand-lamp-shades with their bows" Giaccomo Rossini Overture to Signor Bruchino (1813) 142 Before any discussion of noise and percussive effects can be meaningful, a common terminology must be agreed upon regarding the various parts of stringed instruments and the bow. The set of terms accompanying the following diagrams represents the most precise terminology in English and Italian:1 English Italian a table il piano armonica b ribs le fasce c back i1 fondo above, body or sound body la casa armonica or 11 corpo collectively: risonanza d fingerboard il tasto e neck 11 manico f tailpiece la cordiera bridge il ponticello edge 7 il orlo lG. Hayes, "Violin Family", Grove's Dictionary, VIII, pp. 806-811. There are many variant terms for many of the parts. Many of the Italian terms have been supplied by Mr. Franco Gulli of Indiana University. Only parts which have been utilized (to the authors knowledge) in modern composition have been included in this list. 143 144 O ..... '1'137 Figure 6-1 fingerboard neck scroll peg, P893 saddle (nut) bow stick tip frog hair screw music stand (not shown) 145 i1 tasto i1 manico il riccio or la chiocciola il pirolo, i piroli il capotasto 1'arco 1'arco or la bacchetta punta (d'arco) la tallone dei crine la vite il leggio - A.___- gLfl . w A _l 146 Figure 6-1 (Cont'd) 147 Stringed instruments can produce sounds of indefinite pitch (or sounds which have uncontrollable pitches), which may be classified as ”noise”. These instruments are also capable of non-pitched, or "percussive'I sounds. The wide variety of pitches, timbres, and articulations used by the string family even in traditional music has given rise to a highly complex written language, and the addition of these new categories of sound to the corpus of technique has taxed notation considerably. In Flourescences, Penderecki calls for "Bowing the edge of the soundboard [i.e. the table of the instrument, on the edge)”, notated:2 Example 6-1 flu» II 2: No distinct symbol is employed; the technique is explained in a footnote.3 This symbol [ f ] has been invented by Penderecki for ”play on bridge"4 or ". . . to be played on the bridge rectangular to its right-hand edge."5 This last 2K. Penderecki, Flourescences, pg. 21. C 1962 Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Pub- lishing Corp. 3Ibid. 4K. Penderecki, Threnody. 5K. Penderecki, Flourescences. 148 direction is possible only on the 'celli and bassi; in the Threnody it is understood to mean this, although the directions are not as specific.6 For playing on the tail- piece (not striking it), Penderecki has used the symbol I? 1.7 Both the bridge and tailpiece symbols are written above the staff when a staff is present; they are also commonly used with a single-line style of notation. All three of these produce sounds containing a number of frequencies not in the same harmonic series, and the pitch is not subject to control by the player. Noise effects produced without the bow include this . 8 dev1ce from Flourescences: Example 6-2 The explanatory footnote reads, "rub soundboard with open hand". ('Soundboard" might mean either the table or the back; the term denotes no part of a stringed instrument in English terminology - of. Figure 6-1). The result could 6K. Penderecki, Threnody. Ascertained from perform- ance by the warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra. 7K. Penderecki, Threnody, and other works. 8K. Penderecki, Flourescences, pg. 21. C 1962 Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 149 be agently "whooshing" sound, or, if enough friction is developed (an easy matter), a sqeaking noise. Penderecki's directions need to be more clear about the result desired, so that the proper technique can be applied. The following effect is akin to the percussive sounds: Penderecki's directions are "strike string with Open hand or fingers"; the symbol is the headless stem:9 Example 6-3 I [T] Percussive effects produced with the bow include the tapping of the stand (desk) with the bow, striking the table or back with the frog or screw, striking the saddle, and striking "wood" (unspecified location). Penderecki notates striking the stand with the symbol [ 1“F% ].10 He uses a similar symbol for striking "the upper sounding board [table] with the nut [screw] or heel [frog]":11 [ lfi']. Gardner Read lists an additional symbol:12 9Ibid. loIbid. 11Ibid. 12 G. Read, Music Notation, pg. 407. 150 gr——+ [ w ]. Penderecki's symbol is inadequate because the slashes through the stems have long carried the meaning "sixteenth-notes"; the performer will automatically think that, whatever the stems mean. For striking the saddle with the bow, Reck uses the symbol13 l; (H) ]. This symbol resembles his own quarter-tone notation (cf. Example 1-20) too closely for clarity in Blues and Screamer, and resembles Penderecki's notation for "lowest tone“ too greatly for use elsewhere. For striking unspecified "wood”, Reck uses the symbol:14 [ )3 (H) ]. The x-note- head has already been discussed and has been recommended only for use in the semi-determinate notation for pitch (of. pages 128-129). Read lists five symbols for tapping the "frame (side, back, etc.)" i.e., the body of the instrument with the fingers:15 Example 6-4 J ,5: m a. 13D. Reck, Blues and Screamer. 14Ibid. 15 G. Read, loc. cit. 151 The following example, from Ligeti's Apparitions, is explained in a footnote: "strike the case [sic] of the instrument with the finger":16 Example 6-5 GfI! This is the same symbol that the composer has used in the same work to signify "indefinite pitch" (cf. Example 5-33); only the explanatory footnotes allow the players to differentiate between the uses of this sign. The third and fifth of the symbols in Example 6-5 resemble cluster notations too greatly for clarity. The fourth symbol has been used by Penderecki for tapping the table with parts of the bow (of. page 149); this creates ambiguity beyond that mentioned in regard to the slashes in the stems. Penderecki uses the symbol [ ‘Y ] for "knock on the 17 bridge with the finger”. Harold Budd, in III for double 18 ensemble, uses x-note-heads for "knock on body of bass”. The objections to overuse of this notation have already 16G. Ligeti, op.cit., pg. 7. Used by permission of Universal Edition A. G., Vienna. 17K. Penderecki, Capriccio per Siegfried Palm. 18Harold Budd, III, for double ensemble. 152 been discussed. Jere Hutcheson, in Transitions, uses headless stems for knocking with the knuckles on the table of the instrument.19 It is clear from the foregoing survey that many confusions and duplications exist in the notation of the noise and percussive sounds. A complete notation for these sounds, avoiding duplication and ambiguity, must be the result of careful balance between verbal instructions and abstract symbols. The percussive sounds have little or no sustaining power; only the noise effects require a notation capable of indicating variable durations. Therefore, it is recommended that the following symbols be retained with their original meanings:20 Example 6-6 + .1; A bowing the side of the bridge * I? D bowing the tailpiece Other noise effects are to be notated with square note- heads placed on the center line of the staff (when a staff is present); in cases of divisi, two parts may be written 19J. Hutcheson, Transitions. 20The symbols are the inventions of Krzysztof Penderecki. 153 on a single staff with the note-heads placed on the second and fourth lines.21 Example 6-7a These notations must be accompanied by verbal instructions specifying the technique involved or the result desired. These directions would be placed above the staff, except in divided passages, when directions would be required above and below the staff. Divisi into more than two parts would require additional staves. As in conventional string-playing, it will be assumed that the bow will be used unless some other indication is given. The following verbal instructions are recommended for accompanying the square-note notation:22 21These symbols resemble the lunga and maxima note- values used during the Renaissance and in earlier music. These note-values are used only extremely rarely today. Context and the presence or absence of verbal noise-effect instructions will readily determine whether the shapes are being used in the Renaissance sense or in the manner suggested here for the notation of noise effects. 22Italian equivalents are included and strongly recommended in the interest of promoting common under- standing on the subject (cf. pp. 4-5). Mr. Franco Gulli of Indiana University and Mr. Leonard Falcone of Michigan State University have been of invaluable assistance in formulating Italian equivalents for these directions. 154 Example 6-7b Bowing the edge edge sul orlo (of table, back) (of table) (della piano armonica) Bowing the scroll: scroll sul riccio Bowing the peg(s): peg(s) sul pirolo, sui piroli Following are illustrations of the recommended notations for the bowed noise effects: Example 6-8 sulnflado , , m1n' For the non-bowed noise effects, the square-note notation is recommended to show rhythm or duration. Penderecki's symbol for rubbing the table or back may be substituted for verbal directions. The whistling sound produced by lightly rubbing the strings lengthwise is indicated by the direction 'fréga 1e corde (leggiero)"; an individual string may be specified: 'fréga leggermente la 155 IIa corda". Recommended notations for the non-bowed noise effects follow:23 Example 6-9 fuse. '1‘ 50“. a (preferred) Percussive effects, having no appreciable or controllable duration, can best be notated with headless stems, accompanied by a verbal direction specifying what is to be struck and, in most cases, what implement is to be used. For slapping the strings against the fingerboard, the direction "schiaffo 1e corde (contr' i1 tasto)" is sufficient, as the direction ”slap" (schiaffo) indicates the open hand as the implement. For tapping various parts of the instrument with the fingers, the direction "con 23The use of the hand rather than the bow is implicit in the verb ”to rub” (fregére). When, because of circum- stance, this might not be clear to the performer, the use of the hand might be specified (the Italian is "11 mano"); use of any other implement must be specified. Caution must be exercised, however, in choosing an implement other than the hand, as damage can result from some of these techni- ques (cf. pp. 157-158). 156 dita" (with the fingers) will, with the headless stems, clearly indicate a tapping technique. The Italian verb for tapping, 'battere leggermente" may be used with the previous direction. For knocking on various parts of the instrument with the knuckles, the Italian verb "picchiare" (knock) is sufficient. Use of the fingernails is indicated with the word "unghia" (fingernail - plural is "unghie"). Parts of the bow are indicated in like manner (of. Figure 6-1). The stick may be indicated by ”1'arco" or, more specifically, by 'la bacchetta". The frog is "1a tallone”, and the screw is "1a vite". Following is a list of recommended notations for the percussive effects:24 Example 6-10 N Comm 3. o H Found. 00“ hr“ b. 191» 3 7ndfiémudflt. C o 24 Many of the Italian phrases used here have been suggested by Mr. Leonard Falcone. 157 Example 6-10 (Cont'd) finch": 31 Piano armada; ((ihd-«ucdfiu Although this list is by no means exhaustive, it does illustrate formulae which can help to clarify the notation of the percussive effects. Certainly, composers will want to explore this area further, and will indubitably experiment with target-implement combinations which have not been mentioned here. There are, however, certain limitations which must be considered. Knocking or tapping the body of a stringed instrument, if not violent, will cause no damage; it is, in fact, one means of checking the seams for openings. Tapping the bridge, on the other hand, is a very delicate matter. Such tapping with anything other than the fingers is to be considered risky, and treated accordingly. Bowing the edges will cause no structural damage, but will implant rosin in the varnish, which will mar the appearance of the instrument; further- more, the condition of the varnish may affect the tone of the instrument. Tapping the body of the instrument with hard objects such as the how, the screw (of. page 149) or the fingernails can also mar the appearance; heavy beatings 158 can cause cracks, or such internal damage as loosened linings or displaced soundposts. Ligeti's advice that string players equip themselves with old or inexpensive bows for certain particularly violent col legno passages in his Reggiem25 is a recognition of the punishment that certain modern playing techniques can deal to stringed instruments. Miscellaneous effects, such as rattling a pencil between the strings,26 which have not become widespread, will not be discussed at length or given a suggested notation. Composers using such devices should provide clear verbal instructions limited to the Italian, French, German, or English languages; a translation into at least one more of these (preferably Italian) is strongly advised. Any new symbol which may be invented should con- form to the system of notating noises and percussive sounds presented in this chapter, so as to avoid duplica- tions of and conflicts with other areas of notation. A careful balance between verbiage and abstract symbology must be maintained; the current trend is to invent a new symbol for each new effect, only to find that several new 25G. Ligeti, Requiem, introductory remarks. The passage referred to is in the third movement. 26Barney Childs, Jack's New Bag. The score is nearly entirely verbal. The directions call for the violist to rattle a pencil between the strings behind the bridge. 159 symbols will be invented for the same effect. The system proposed here, which symbolizes categories of sound (noisy and percussive effects) and specifies techniques verbally, is designed to avoid duplication and confusion while leaving room for growth. CHAPTER SEVEN ORCHESTRAL WRITING ”Four violins alone . . . the remainder of the violins divided into four equal groups." Richard Wagner Prelude to Lohengrin (1849) 160 In orchestral writing, a composer can use the body of strings as a whole, or in any division or subdivision he chooses. The division of the violins into two sections has long been an established convention, and Wagner, among others, exploited the possibilities of subdividing all of the conventional string sections into yet smaller groups. The strings are grouped by genre: the violins (usually in two sections), the violas, the 'cellos, and the basses. Subdivision of a section is accomplished by writing two or more lines for that section, along with the direction "divisi" (Italian for "divided”). The number of subdivisions may be indicated in the direction, e.g., "divisi a 3", "divisi a 6". This is especially useful when the number of subdivisions is not readily apparent in the parts, as, for example, when one or more of the subdivisions is to play double-stops. In general, not more than two divisions can be clearly written on one staff, divisi into more than two groups mOSt often requiring additional staves. In homorhythmic passages, however, it is sometimes possible to write more than two parts on a staff, using chord notation much like that found in piano music (of. Example 5-14). It is, neverthe- less, clearer to use additional staves. When artificial harmonics or chords are involved, or if the parts cross, 161 162 separate staves should be employed for each subdivision (of. Example 2-21b). (Parts can be separated by stem direction, but this is more confusing than the use of multiple staves, and should be avoided except for very brief intervals.) Divisi passages are terminated by the direction "tutti“ or 'Tutte", or by directions indicating a different number of divisions.1 A solo player is indicated by the direction "solo". If the other members of the section are also to be playing at the time, their part (or parts) should be written on a separate staff (or separate staves), and marked 'gli altri” (the others). ”More than one soloist" is designated with the number of players desired, e.g., "due soli" (two soloists).2 When a solo passage has ended and the soloist is to rejoin the section, the directions “Tutte' or "cogli altri' are used.3 Use of two modes of articulation with reapect to one line is notated as a kind of divisi, using double-stemmed note-heads. An example, combining legato bowing with tremolo, follows:4 1K. Kennan, The Technique 9f Orchestration, pp. 34-35. G. Read, A Thesaurus g__Orchestral Devices, pp. 455-531. G. Read, Music Notation, pp. 373-374. 2Ibid.; of. G. Verdi, L3 Traviata (last scene) and R. wagner, Lohengrin. 31bid. 4G. Read, op.cit., pp. 385, 391-392. 163 Example 7-1 A section may be reduced by half with the direction "meta" (half); this is cancelled by the direction "tutti". Pointillistic orchestration has led to two interesting notational devices. In Berg's Lyric Suite and Violinkon- zert, slurs and phrasing marks frequently pass from one part to another in the scores. In Benvenuti's Canoni Enigmatici, notes from the first and second violin parts are beamed together in the score:5 Example 7-2a 5A. Benvenuti, Canoni Enigmatici, mm. 1-2. Copyright 1959 by Aldo Bruzzichelli. Used by arrangement with Associated Music Publishers. 164 The question raised by such practices is one concerning the writing of individual parts. It is not practical to have each player read a full orchestral score, if for no other reason than the too-frequent page turns involved. (There is a tendency in that direction, however; of. pg. 168.) Written cues in the parts are possible only when the number of parts to be cued is small; if the number of parts slurred or beamed together were to be greater than two, written cues would so clutter the staff that the purpose would be defeated. Therefore, it is recommended that parts be written independently of each other, since each player in fact plays only his own part. Earlier composers have succeeded in dividing lines among several instruments without finding it necessary to draw visual connections in their scores.6 Thus, Benvenuti's idea should have been written (and c0pied for individual parts) in this manner: Example 7-2b If! 6Cf. Mahler, Berlioz, Rimski-Korsakoff, and webern's orchestration of J. S. Bach's six-voiced Ricercar. 165 A problem related to multiple divise is that of tone- cluster notation. Lutoslawski writes tone clusters as multiple divise, even up to thirty individual violin parts.7 Penderecki uses black blocks covering the area of the staff involved; a "solution" is given on a short section of staff below the main staff, and the players find their pitches by matching their assigned numbers to the numbered pitches in the solution. This example is from Threnody:8 Example 7-3 .A V‘ "'°§:_—_ This type of notation is clumsy when the cluster extends far above or below the staff. Furthermore, the players must look in two places to find what ordinary notation would tell them in one location, namely, pitch (from the solution) and duration (from the black block). 7W. Lutoslawski, Second Symphony, PP. 17-18. BR. Penderecki, Threnody, pg. 10. Copyright 1961 by PWP, warsaw. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 166 This problem is even more acute in places where any motion occurs. The following example, which contains parallel and contrary motion by portamento, is from Penderecki's Polymorphia:9 Example 7-4a The solution, in this case, gives only the outer voices:10 9K. Penderecki, Polymorphia, pg. 21. C 1963 Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin—Mills Publishing Corp. logpgg. Note that accidentals are missing from some of the diamond-shaped heads. Cf. also pp. 38-40. 167 Example 7-4b The remaining six 'cellists, then, are left to determine their own parts by trial and error, by guesswork, or by working out a logical solution and writing it down for themselves. This last suggestion is an infringement upon the composer's special prerogatives; performers should not be obliged to finish a composer's work without instruction or leave to do 80.11 Trial-and-error and guesswork are hardly favored methods of score-reading--they are the result of inadequate notation. A similar problem occurs with this notational shorthand in Flourescences:12 11In former years, cadenzas were often left to per- formers, and many performers still write their own cadenzas where style permits; Baroque composers frequently left the details of harmony to the performers in the form of a figures bass. This instance, however, does not fall into either category, having neither instructions (as a figured bass) nor traditional practices to guide the performers. 12K. Penderecki, Flourescences, pg. 29. C 1962 Hermann Moeck Verlag. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Pub- lishing Corp. 168 Example 7-5 V" Hwé 1:8 Certainly, each player must be able to distinguish his own part from the others if he is to be able to maintain the correct relationship with the others. The solution to these problems lies in the general rule, stated previously, that not more than two parts can be written on a single staff with assurance of clarity. This means that, for multiple divise, one staff should be used for every two parts. In works where fine divisions of the ususal sections occur often, parts should be copied for each pair (desk) of players. This will save considerable space, reduce the number of page turns, and facilitate reading by eliminating the problem of following one's own line in the midst of many.13 This can be done, of course, only if the exact number of players is known. Penderecki specifies the precise composition of the orchestra in many cases, as do Lutoslawski (Second Symphony) and Ligeti (apparitions and Rgggiem). In fact, all of the orchestral works which 13All the players in Penderecki's Threnod (and, presumably, in many other works of his) read rom the full score. This fact was determined by examining the parts of the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra following a performance of the Threnody. 169 have been discussed in this treatise are amenable to this scoring and copying procedure. With regard to tone clusters in particular, one further refinement is to be recommended. When the notes of the cluster are assigned player by player, the two notes assigned to a desk of players should be chosen from separated points in the cluster rather than adjacent ones. For example, consider this cluster from Threnody:14 Example 7-6a A‘ZOQO 1° Penderecki has assigned the pitches to the 'cellists in order of ascending quarter-tones; copied in desks, each pair of performers would be reading altered unisons. Instead, let us assign these pitches in pairs of the largest possible interval, a tone and one quarter: Example 7-6b A M: $4.44 15le IL 9:8 4! Lu i- o . A..—_U.‘ ‘ - nv-r-I- _u‘v‘a 1._‘Av- l -_‘J'-n|._ v-‘A ) 14K. Penderecki, Threnody, pg. 10. Copyright 1961 by PWP, Warsaw. Used by arrangement with Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp. 170 Copied by desk as five separate parts, this procedure would both clarify the parts (seconds and thirds being more easily read than altered unisons) and make them as compact as possible. This method of cluster-realization and part preparation has been used successfully by William Penn in Spectrums, Confusions, and Sometime-Moments Beyond the 15 QEQEE gthestiny. Another recent innovation is "box notation". This frequently results in a kind of ostinato; it always pro- duces great freedom in the relationships among parts. Lutoslawski has made much use of it, notably in Jggx_ Venitiens and in his Stringguartet. The difficulty of this type of notation specific to strings is that, when a box is given to a section of the orchestra, there is often doubt as to whether the players of the section should play together as a section (independently of the other sections of the orchestra) or should play independently of each other, as well as independently of the rest of the orchestra. To circumvent confusion, it is recommended that each box be labeled with one of these directions: ”name of section insieme' when the section is to stay together , or "each instrumentalist indipendamente" when the players are not to stay together. 15Determined by examining score and parts in composer's 171 E.g.: "violini primi insieme" (first violins together); "ogni violista indipendamente" (each violist independently). These directions could be applied to combinations of sections or to subdivisions of sections. When all of the boxes in a movement are to be played in the same way, the appropriate direction need not be placed in every box, but simply at the beginning of the movement, with the additional direction "sempre" (always). Consistent application of these procedures will eliminate much of the confusion surrounding box notation. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Barbour, J. Murray, Tuning and Temperament, a Historical Survey, Michigan State College Press, E. Lansing, 1951. Cage, John, Notations, Something Else Press, Inc., New York, 1969. Cole, Hugo, Sounds and Signs, Oxford University Press, London, 1974. Eisenberg, Maurice, Cello Playing g£_Today, The Strad, London, 1957. Flesch, Carl, Violin Fingering (English translation and adaptation), Barrie and Rackliff, London, 1966. Fokker, Adriaan D., Neue Musik mit 3L'T6nen, Verlag der Gesellschaft zur FUrderung der Systematischen Musikwissenschaft, Dfisseldorf, 1971. Galamian, Ivan, Principles gf_Violin Pla ing and Teaching, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cllf s, 1962. Héba, Alois, Mein Weg zur giertel- und Sechsteltonmusik, Verlag der Gesellschaft zur FBrderung der Systematischen Musikwissenschaft, Dfisseldorf, 1971. Hautstont, Jean, Notation -- Musicale Autonome, Paris, 1907. Hines, Robert Stephan (editor), The Orchestral Composers' Point 9; View, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1970. Jarnok, Poul, The Violin, reprinted from the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. 225, No. 3, March 1938. Johannis, Carl, Notenschriftreform, Schuler Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1961. 172 173 Karkoschka, Erhard, Notation in New Music, A Critical Guide E9 Interpretation and RealiZation, translated by Ruth Koenig, Universal Edition, London, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1972. Kennan, Kent, The Technique of Orchestration, second edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood _Cliffs, 1970. Mozart, Leopold, A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing, translated by Editha Knocker, second edition, Oxford University Press, London, 1951. Read, Gardner, Music Notation, A_Manual 9f Modern Practice, second edition, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, Crescendo Publishers, Boston, 1969. , Thesaurus of Orchestral Devices, Pitman Publishing Corporation, New York, 1953. Rimski-Korsakoff, Nicholai, Principles 9f Orchestration, Edition Russe de Musique, Paris, 1922, English translation by Edward Gate, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1964. von der Straeten, E., The Techniques of Violoncello Pla in , second edition, The Strad, London, Charles Scr1bner' 8 Sons, New York, 1905. Tartini, Giusseppe, Trattato gi_musica, 1754, Padua, Broude Bros., New York, 1966. Yampolsky, Izrail Markovitch, The Principles of Violin Fingering, translated by Alan Lumsden, Oxford Univer- sity Press, London, 1967. Articles Apel, Willi, "Glissando" , Harvard Dictionary of Music, second edition, edited by Willi Apel, The —Belkap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1969. Cazden, Norman, ”Staff Notation as a Non-Musical Communi— cations Code" Journal of Music Theory, April, 1961, Yale School of Music, New Haven. Cole, Hugo, "Some Modern Tendencies in Notation" , Music and Letters, XXXIII no. 3, July, 1952, pp. 243-249, London. 174 Dart, Thurston, "Notation", Grove's Dictionaryg£_Music and Musicians, fifth edition, edited by Eric Blom, Vol. VI, pp. 108-123, St. Martin's Press, Inc., New York, 1955. Erickson, Robert, "Time-Relations", Journal 9: Music Theory, VII, no. 2, Winter, 1963, Yale School of Music, New Haven. Fokker, Adriaan D., et. a1., ”Report” (of the Committee for Notation), Report 9: the Tenth Congress 9: the International Musicological Society (Ljubljana, 1967), figienreiter-Verlag, Kassel -- University of Ljubljana, 1970. 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Penderecki, Krzysztof, Anaklasis for strings and percussion groups, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, 1960. , Capriccio per Siegfried Palm (Violoncello solo), B. Schottis Sohnne, Mainz, 1969. , Capriccio for violin and orchestra, Przedstawicielstwa Wydawniciw Polskick, Warszawa, 1968. , 23 Natura Sonoris, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, j 19 7. , Dimensionen der Zeit und der Stille, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, 1961. , Emanations for two string-orchestras, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, 1960. , Flourescences, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, 1962. , Polymorphia for 48 stringed instruments, Hermann Moeck Verlag, Celle, 1963. , Sonata per Violoncello g orchestra, Przedstawicielstwa wydawniciw Polskick, Warszawa, 1966. , Strofy, Przedstawicielstwa wydawniciw Polskick, Warszawa, 1960. 181 , Threnody"To the Victims of Hiroshima" for 52 stringed instrument, Przedstawicielstwa wydawniciw Polskick, Warszawa, 1961. 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Stravinsky, Igor F., Chant QB rossignol,(19l9) Boosey and Hawkes, London. , Divertimento (Suite Symphonique) (1934, revised 1949), Boosey and Hawkes, London, 1950. , Elégie (viola or violin unaccompanied), Associated Music Publishers, New York, 1945. , Firebird Suite (1919 orchestration), E. F. Kalmus, New York, Opa-Locka, 1932. , Histoire d2 Soldat, J. & W. Chester, London, 1924. 182 , 23 Sacre du Pringemps (1947 version), Boosey and Hawkes, London, 1947. , Suite No. 2 for small orchestra, J. & W. Chester, London, 1926. , Suite No. 2 for small orchestra, J. & W. Chester, London, 1925. Tschaikowsky, Peter I., Concerto for violin and orchestra, edited by Hans Sitt, Breitkopf & Hartel, Wiesbaden. , Sextette op. 70 "Souvenir de Florence", International, New York. 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Watton, Sir William, Concerto for viola and orchestra, Oxford University Press, London, 1929. 183 Wbodbury, Arthur, Remembrances, Source #5, Davis, 1969. Xenakis, Iannis, Nomos for solo Violoncello, Boosey and Hawkes, London, 1967. , Polytope, Boosey and Hawkes, London, 1969. , ST/48 - 1,240162 (1961) Boosey and Hawkes, London, 1967. Ysaye, Eugene, Six Sonatas for solo violin, Schott, Paris, 1924. Zimmermann, Bernd Alois, Sonata, violin and piano, B. Schott's SBhnne, Mainz, 1953. ”'CIITI'ITIHIHILEMJILITHflfifllflfyfflfllflifllflffiflfilfl'“