MANIFEN ANXEEW', $EVERETY OF GUELT, AND S‘CHGLASHC ACHIEVEMENT EN ,EEéNEOR HEGH GIRLS Thesis for Hm Dogma of M. A. MECHIGAN STATE UNWERSiTY Harold S. Sommerschield i965 THESlS ,LIBRAR Y Michigan State University ‘1‘ 5:” H'n‘l .Iflfllws . mu . ¢ »Vtr\1 v-mm’i MANIFEST ANXIETY, SEVERITY OF GUILT, AND SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENT IN JUNIOR HIGH GIRLS By Harold S. Sommerschield AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of PsycholOgy 1965 ABSTRACT MANIFEST ANXIETY, SEVERITY OF GUILT, AND SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEHENT IN JUNIOR HIGH GIRLS by Harold S. Sommerschield The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between manifest anxiety, severity of guilt, confession, and ache?» lastic achievement in junior high girls. In addition, sex differ- ences in anxiety, guilt and confession were studied. The subjects of this study consisted of fifty-four girls and sixty-eight boys from the seventh and eighth grade in Bath, Michigan. The instruments administered were the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale; three story completions measuring guilt and confession; a questionnaire pertaining to familial, occupational, religious, and educational status of the home; and the California Total Reading and Arithmetic Fundamentals subtests on the California Achievement Test. The following hypotheses were investigated: Hypothesis 1. There is a significant positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and severity of guilt. Hypothesis 1;. There is a higher positive correlation between manifest anxiety and severity of guilt about death wishes than between anxiety and guilt about violation of maternal commands or theft. Hypothesis III. There is a curvilinear relationship between anxiety and scholastic achievement. Harold S. Sommerschield Hypothesis IE. There is a curvilinear relationship between guilt and scholastic achievement. Hypothesis 1. There is a positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and amount of confession. Hypothesis 2;. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of manifest anxiety. Hypothesis VII. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of guilt. Hypothesis VIII. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of confession. Results of the statistical analyses indicated that anxiety and guilt were positively and significantly related. The associa- tion between anxiety and guilt appeared strongest in the seventh grade sample of girls and on the story completion stem measuring guilt over theft. Thus hypothesis two was not confirmed. The hypoth- esized association between anxiety and confession was also rejected. Although neither anxiety or guilt was curvilinearly related to either arithmetic or reading achievement, significant negative relationships were obtained between the variables in the seventh grade group of girls. Thus both guilt and anxiety appear to be detrimental to scholastic achievement. ‘ The only sex differences in anxiety were obtained in the sev- enth grade as the girls scored higher on the CMAS. Although the eighth grade boys scored significantly lower than the girls on all indices of guilt and confession, significant sex differences in guilt and confession were not found for the seventh graders. Additional Harold S. Sommerschield analyses indicated that the seventh grade girls scored significantly higher than the eighth grade girls on the anxiety scale. It is con- jectured that anxiety associated with puberty resulted in elevated anxiety scores on the CHAS by the seventh grade girls and in inhibi- tion of guilt and confession eXpression by the eighth grade boys. MANIFEST ANXIETY, SEVERITY OF GUILT, AND SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENT IN JUNIOR HIGH GIRLS By Harold S. Sommerschield A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1965 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer is grateful for the Opportunity to formally thank Dr. Rabin, Chairman of the thesis committee. His super- vision, theoretical insights, careful editing, and encouragement were deeply appreciated. Also I am indebted to Drs. Rau and Karon for their stimulating and anxiety-arousing questions as well as for their suggestions, revisions, and interpretations. Without the c00peration of the school administration and the junior high school students in Bath, Michigan, this research study would never have materialized. Their contribution to this study can not be over-estimated. To Charlene Adams goes my appreciation for her intellectual acumen in the develOpment of this project and for her persistency and enthusiasm in completing the work. Last, but not least, I want to express my gratitude to my wife, Shirley, and to my son, Stephen. To Shirley for her under- standing and acceptance of her husband who was plagued with thoughts of guilt and anxiety. To Stephen for finally learning how to control his impulses to rip, tear, scribble, and mutilate the data and thesis. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 1 Anxiety 1 Guilt 1 Relationship between Anxiety and Guilt 3 Summary A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 5 Anxiety 5 Guilt 7 Clarification of terms 7 Instruments and results 8 Sex differences in guilt lO Confession 11 Evaluation 12 THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES . . . o . . o . o . . . . . . . . 14 Statement of Hypotheses 14 METHOD 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 16 Subjects 16 Instruments 16 Procedure 18 RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O C O 20 General statements 20 Anxiety versus Total Guilt, Guilt by Story and Confession 2O Achievement versus Anxiety and Total Guilt 22 Sex Differences in Anxiety, Guilt and Confession 23 ,Additional Data 23 DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 O O O O 25 General Considerations 25 Results Relative to Predictions 28 iii Anxiety versus Total Guilt, Guilt by Story and Confession Achievement versus Anxiety and Guilt Sex Differences in Anxiety, Guilt and Confession SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 iv Page 28 29 30 Table 2. 3. 7. LIST OF TABLES Interrater reliability of guilt by story . . . . . Pearson coefficients of correlation: guilt vs. anxiety, Built by story vs. anxiety, confession vs. anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson coefficients of correlation: arithmetic achievement vs. anxiety, reading achievement vs. anxiety, arithmetic achievement vs. guilt, and reading achievement vs. guilt . . . . . . . T test of differences between sexes on measures of anxiety, guilt, and confession . . Story intercorrelations . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson correlation coefficients: anxiety vs. guilt for small sample of girls with only one parent residing at home . . . . . . . . . Correlation ratios (Eta) and Lewis's test of linearity: anxiety vs. arithmetic achievement, anxiety vs. reading achievement, guilt vs. arithmetic achievement, and guilt vs. reading achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson correlation coefficients: lie scale vs. anxiety, total guilt, guilt by story, achieve- ment, and confession . . . . . . . . . . . . . T test of differences between means of seventh and eighth grade boys and between means of seventh and eighth grade girls on the anxiety measure Page Appendix LIST OF APPENDICES Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale Instructions and Guilt Stories . Story Completion Scoring System Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations . . Additional Statistics . . . . . . vi Page 42 1+6 51 55 57 59 INTRODUCTION Anxiety Almost all psychological definitions of anxiety state that "anxiety is tied up with the inner danger of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, wishes or drives which elicit the expectation of loss of love and approval or of punishment (Fromm-Reichmann, p. 131). The function of anxiety is, therefore, to alert the individual to poten- tially threatening situations and to instigate behavior which main- tains the individual's security. According to Freud, anxiety is subjectively experienced as "(1) a specific unpleasant quality, (2) efferent or discharge phenomena, and (3) Perception of these" (Sarason et al., 1960). The subjective basis of anxiety differ- entiates anxiety from fear, which has an objective basis. Guilt In the following passage Freud traced the development of the superego and stated the relationship between objective and moral anxiety: The role which the superego undertakes later in life is at first played by an external power, by a parental authority. The influence of the parents dominates the child by grant- ing proofs of affection and by threats of punishments, which, to the child, mean loss of love, and which must also be feared on their own account. The objective anxiety is the forerunner of the later moral anxiety; so long as the fore- runner is dominant, one need not speak of superego or con- science. It is only later that the secondary situation arises which we are ready to regard as the normal state of affairs; the external restrictions are introjected, so that l the superego takes the place of the parental function and thenceforth observes, guides, and threatens the ego in just the same way as the parent acted toward the child (1933. p. 89)- The Operation of conscience involves both resistance to temptation and feelings of guilt when the individual's moral standards have been violated. Kohlberg (1963) conceptualizes guilt or superego anxiety as a form of self-punishment and internalized aggression. Although most theoretical writers equivocate concerning possi- ble sex differences in experiencing of guilt feelings, there are some who theorize that women have more severe guilt feelings than men. Fenichel has written, "analysis shows that other and older fears, above all the fear over loss of love, are stronger in women and in many ways take over the role that castration anxiety plays in men (1945. Do 99). Blum has deduced from Fenichel's observations that women "who have had more conflicts over intense deprivation and loss of love, theoretically should show greater evidence of guilt feelings than males do" (l9h9, p. #8). Blum has also written: The subsequent identification process is less clear and it appears that largely through the mechanism of identifica- tion with the "aggressor" the girl is able to pattern her- self after the mother towards whom she still harbors strong undercurrents of hostility. Once the mother has been intro- jected as the superego, the aggressions formerly directed toward her are turned inward and result in strong guilt feelings (1949, p. 73). From a different framework, Sears, Maccoby, and Levin hypoth— esized that "girls more easily deve10p a strong conscience because of the continuity afforded by the mother who serves as both a social- izing agent and adult model" (1957, p. 384). 3 Relationship between Anxiety and Guilt As indicated previously anxiety and guilt are develOpmentally related in the child's fear of loss of love. In addition, they are also both related to the individual's expression of hostility and his feelings of self-esteem. Since the child is dependent upon his parents for the satis- faction of his needs, he perceives his expressed aggression as threat- ening his security. Following his aggressive behavior, his parents may respond negatively, thus arousing his fears of losing their love. This results in anxiety within the child. Sarason et al. (1960) maintain that anxiety in children is primarily the result of guilt concerning hostile feelings toward the parents. Ruebush (1963) found a negative relationship between anxiety and overt aggression, while the relationship between anxiety and covert aggression was positive. Anxiety and guilt are also related to a person's self-esteem. Lipsitt summarized his experiment with these words: "Significant correlations were obtained for all grades and sex combinations be- tween Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale and self-concept score, with high anxiety subjects producing low self-concept or high self- disparagement ratings" (1958, p. #71). Lipsitt's self-disparagement ratings measure what other researchers Operationally label guilt. Bruce (1958) found that subjects low in anxiety had high self-accept- ance scores. A significant positive relationship was obtained between anxiety and self-blame tendencies by Doris (1959). Finally, Kohlberg has written, "the neo-Freudians have seen moral emotions of guilt, shame, and anxiety as types of reactions of the social self concerned about maintaining self-esteem in the eyes of others . . ." (1963, p. 296). Summary In the preceding pages the theoretical concepts and guilt have been discussed. Since both anxiety and involved in fear of losing love, in the expressions of and hostility, and in one's self-esteem, a theoretical significant of anxiety guilt are aggression basis for the relationship between anxiety and guilt has been established. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Only one study was found that pertained to the relationship between anxiety and guilt. Unfortunately, Lowe's (1961) anxiety and guilt scales were not independent measures. Thus the close positive relationship between anxiety and guilt is of questionable validity. Since there are no other published experimental studies which pertain directly to the relationship between anxiety and guilt, the relevant literature in both domains will be reviewed. Anxiety The relationship between anxiety and performance is particu- larly relevant to this thesis. Due to the impetus of Hullian theory, many experiments have helped clarify the relationship between anxiety and performance. Hullian theory predicts: in simple, uncomplicated learning situations, where only one response is elicited, anxiety should facilitate performance. In complex, even two-choice situations, the effect of in- creased drive depends upon two further considerations: (a) the nature of the dominant habit evoked in the learning situ— ation, and (b) whether the response which corresponds to this habit is right or wrong . . . . In complex learning situa- tions, thus, the effects of anxiety upon behavior may be facilitating, interfering, or first interfering and then facilitating . . . (Hilgard and Marquis, 1961, pp. #47-48). Palermo (1956), Montague (1953), and Ramond (1953) have reported that highly anxious subjects do poorly when there are a number of competing responses. Highly anxious subjects have performed better than less anxious subjects in simple situations and have 5 performed worse than less anxious subjects in complex situations in experiments published by Pickrel (1958), Castaneda, Palermo, and McCandless (1956), Farber (1953), and Taylor (1952). All of these studies support the theoretical position of Hull and Spence. Numerous studies have also been published concerning the association between anxiety and performance on scholastic achieve- ment tests. A recent study by Lunneborg (1964) using upper element- ary students showed that anxiety as measured by the Children's Mani- fest Anxiety Scale was significantly and negatively related to both reading and arithmetical achievement. McCandless (1956) also ob- tained a significant negative relationship between anxiety and achievement. In both studies the negative correlations between anxi- ety and achievement increased with age and were greater for the girls. Kerrick (1955), Broen (1959). and Reese (1961) also report signifi- cant negative associations. Not all the researchers have reported consistent negative cor- relations between anxiety and achievement. Keller and Rowley (1961) administered the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS) and the MetrOpolitan Achievement Test to upper elementary children. Only "eight of the twenty-eight correlations between anxiety and achieve- ment were negative and significant, those for the sixth grade girls accounting for five of the eight" (p. 20). They concluded that anxiety is only a useful predictor of achievement in highly anxious subjects. Feldhausen and Klausmeier (1962) obtained a positive correlation be- tween anxiety and achievement in "intelligent" children and a negative correlation between the same two variables in low and medium "intelligent" children. Morgan, Sutton-Smith, and Rosenberg (1960) administered the CHAS and two achievement tests to 366 fifth and sixth graders. They were confronted with a positive correlation between anxiety and achievement in the fifth grade sample of girls and a negative association for the sixth graders. Anxiety surround- ing preadolescent growth spurt two years before puberty was used to explain the results. Patterson, Helper, and Wilcott (1960) reported a curvilinear relationship between anxiety and conditioning on a complex verbal task. Matarazzo and Phillips (1955) also obtained a curvilinear relationship between anxiety as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxi- ety Scale and performance in timed learning situations. The experi- menters concluded that "high anxiety may impede performance on com- plex tasks because there is too much drive, while low anxiety may impede performance because there is too little drive" (1959, p. 256). The relationship between anxiety and achievement is indeed complex as indicated by the numerous experimental results. Predomin- antly, however, there seems to be a negative relationship between the two variables. Some of the studies suggest that the relationship may be curvilinear, which would help integrate the conflicting results. Because of the hypothesized relationship between anxiety and guilt, the relationship between guilt and achievement is expected to parallel the association between anxiety and achievement. Guilt Clarification 2: terms. Transgression and resistance to tempt- ation designs have been used experimentally to measure conscience develOpment. Grinder defines the temptation situation as "a pre- decision-type conflict situation where an individual, free from coercion or danger of detection, must choose between a positive incentive and conformity to learned role behavior" (1961, p. 680). The transgression paradigm involves yielding to the temptation and thus also involves violation of the moral standard. Interpretation of the research on guilt is confusing because the experimental studies have not shown a consistent relationship between resistance to temptation and guilt responses after trans- gression. Grinder (1960) and Sears et al. (1957) have reported low positive correlations between the two measures of conscience deve10p- ment. Allinsmith (1960) and Sears et al. (1965) found the relation- ship to be insignificant, while Allinsmith and Burton (1961) reported a negative association. Not being surprised by the contradictory findings pertaining to these two indices of conscience develOpment, Bandura and Walters write: In fact, the learning principles involved in the development of these two modes of response seem to differ radically; whereas resistance to temptation involves the classical con- ditioning of emotional responses, the habit of responding self-punitively appears to result from instrumental condi- tioning. It is therefore not surprising that no consistent relationships between resistance to temptation and guilt have emerged from a number of studies in which both variables have been measured (196%, p. 203). In the following discussion both the methods of measuring guilt and findings of previous studies relevant to this study will be dis- cussed. Instruments and results. In a multi-culture study Whiting and Child (1958) related child-rearing patterns to a cultural index of guilt. Self-blame for being sick was the index of guilt. A positive relationship between guilt and the use of love oriented techniques of discipline was reported. In the theoretical discussion the relationship of anxiety and guilt to loss of love was introduced. In the following studies guilt was positively related with discipline techniques which threaten loss of love: Allinsmith and Greening (1955), Heinicke in Hoffman (1963), Unger (1962), and Sears et al. (1957). Story completions, interviews, projective tests, questionnaires, and mother's ratings of six year old children's guilt responses were the techniques utilized to mea- sure guilt in these eXperiments. Rabin (l959) utilized a sentence completion measure of guilt in detecting attitudinal differences between fifty-two American and forty-five Israeli fourth and fifth graders. The Israeli children responded more frequently with guilt responses and the American child- ren with anxiety responses on this instrument. A modified Allinsmith story technique was administered by Rabin and Goldman (1963) to study the association between guilt and the in- tensity and diffuseness of parental identificatibn. The subjects were 110 Kibbutz and 100 non-Kibbutz children. Since the parental identi- fication of the Kibbutz children is less focused, it was predicted and confirmed that the Kibbutz children show a lower level of trans- gression guilt. In a very extensive study, Allinsmith administered a story com- pletion technique to 112 urban, seventh and eighth grade boys (Miller and Swanson, 1960). Three stories pertaining to death wishes, theft, 10 and disobedience were utilized to measure guilt in both a temptation and transgression situation. These stories were constructed to elim- inate fear of detection. Guilt was defined as "any kind of pain, anxiety, disadvantage, punishment or threat of punishment experienced by the hero in the subject's story" (p. 148). The conclusions of this study are: (l) severity of guilt is related to the timing of weaning and the severity of toilet trining, (2) there is a negative relationship between the intensity of guilt and early weaning and toilet training, (3) discipline procedures are related to guilt in middle class children, and (4) obedience requests and social class are not antecedents to severity of guilt. Allinsmith found that the death wish story aroused the most anxiety in his subjects, who thus responded with extremely punitive story endings. It is felt that the death wish story is more anxiety arousing because it pertains to a child's ambivalence toward his parent and is in stronger opposition to our societal mores than the other two transgressions. Sex differences i3 ggilt. There have been very few studies pertaining to sex differences in the severity of guilt. Kohlberg referred to data of Rau's, reported in Sears et al., 1965, in which there were fifty child-rearing practices which were significantly cor- related with two measures of conséience. The amazing finding was that the significant correlations between the child-rearing practices and measures of guilt were in Opposite directions for both sexes. Rau also reported that the pre-school girls showed greater emotional upset and used confession more than boys in deviation situations. In Blum's study the Blacky Test was administered to college 11 students. Blum interpreted his results as indicating "that females probably possess stronger guilt, whereas males are more concerned with fear of external harm" (l9#5, pp. 48 and #9). Aronfreed (1961) was interested in determining if transgression behavior in sixth graders is internally or externally motivated. Aronfreed's results indicated that twenty-five percent of the subjects showed no evidence of self-criticism. In eighty percent of the story endings, however, confession, apology or reparation were present. So Aronfreed concluded that "self-criticism is not a prerequisite of in- ternalized responses to transgressions and that such responses fre- quently take a form of being externally oriented" (p. 23l). Girls in particular had a tendency to display their moral reactions and seemed more dependent on external initiation of moral responses. In Terman's study (which was reported in Kohlberg, 1963), girls were more influenced by the external situation than boys in expressing guilt. In this study of gifted children girls scored higher than the boys on five of seven character tests based on verbalized knowledge of moral standards. On performance tests of honesty, where the subject's actions were unknown to others, girls scored significantly lower on actual performance than the boys. Confession. Traditionally confession has been considered a manifestation of guilt and thus an index of conscience development. Horowitz (1956) maintains that confession is motivated by feelings of guilt. In an unpublished article Rebelsky suggested that confession may be motivated by additional motives such as tension relief, affili- ation, absolution, expediency and manipulation of others. Kohlberg 12 summarized the position of Aronfreed in these words: "self-blaming responses, confession, restitution, and other reactions to trans- gressions are anxiety-reducing instrumental responses, rather than pain-inducing 'expressions of guilt'" (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 286). Rebelsky, Allinsmith, and Grinder (1961) utilized projective story completions and a behavioral test of temptation to study con- fessional behavior in 138 sixth graders. Confession was defined as "the revelation in words by the hero that he had committed the trans- gression. The Operational definition thus excluded situations in which the hero never confessed but behaved so oddly that others were able to infer that he had transgressed. It included what others have termed 'admission' i.e., acknowledgment after being suspected, interrogated, or accused" (p. 4). Confession was frequently used by by sixth graders in this study. The results showed that: (1) girls use confession more than boys and (2) confession is used more by non- cheaters than by cheaters on the temptation test. The authors sug- gested that girls may have used confession more than boys because (1) confession may be more congruent with the affiliative, dependent role of women in our society, (2) girls may be able to use language for social persuasion better than boys, and (3) girls may not have been equally interested in the story completions and the temptation task and thus were able to choose an "easy" response without becoming in- volved emotionally. Evaluation Since the theoretical associations between anxiety, guilt, and 13 confession have not been experimentally tested, it is of utmost importance to subject our inferences and theory to scientific verification. THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between anxiety and guilt in junior high school girls. Particular attention is also given to studying guilt and anxiety in relation- ship to confession and achievement. Also sex differences in anxiety, guilt, and confession are analyzed.‘ Statement of Hypotheses Hypothesis I. There is a significant positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and severity of guilt.“ Hypothesis 1;. There is a higher positive correlation be- tween manifest anxiety and severity of guilt about death wishes than anxiety and guilt about either violation of maternal commands or theft. Hypothesis III. There is a curvilinear relationship between achievement and anxiety. Hypothesis 11. There is a curvilinear relationship between guilt and achievement. Hypothesis 1. There is a positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and amount of confession. * Sex differences on these variables are possible by utilizing the data on junior high school boys from the same school as reported in Charlene Adams's thesis, Manifest Anxiety, Severity g; Guilt, and Scholastic Achievement in Children, 1964. “ Hypotheses I through V are identical with the hypotheses of Adams, 1964. 14 METHOD Subjects The subjects for this study were sixty-six girls and eighty- one boys from the seventh and eighth grades in Bath, Michigan. Twelve girls and thirteen boys were excluded from the study because one of their parents was missing from the home due to death, separa- tion, or divorce. Originally it was planned to eliminate subjects if their age varied more than one year from the median for their grade or if their lie scores on the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale were higher than nine. None of the subjects were excluded because of the age restriction as our assumption that the quality of verbal expression would vary with age proved untenable. None of the subjects had a lie score above nine. Therefore, none of the subjects were excluded because of the lie score restriction. Instruments A. Anxiety was measured by the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (CMAS), which is the children's adaptation of the Taylor Mani- fest Anxiety Scale (1953). As the TMAS, the CMAS is intended to measure the child's general and chronic state of anxiety rather than anxiety in transitory and specific situations. The CMAS consists of a forty-two item, true-false anxiety scale and an eleven item lie scale. 16 15 Hypothesis 2;. Girls will score significantly higher than the boys on a measure of manifest anxiety. Hypothesis VII. Girls will sbore significantly higher than the boys on a measure of guilt. Hypothesis VIII. Girls will score significantly higher than the boys on a measure of confession. 17 In 1956 Castaneda, McCandless, and Palermo presented the original normative data based on the performances of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade children. After one week, the test—retest reliabil- ities for the anxiety and lie scales were .90 and .70, respectively. Levitt (1957) published reliabilities of .85 to .95 for the anxiety scale and .60 to .70 for the lie scale. Ruebush (1963, p. 475) de- clared that "the CMAS has been found to be internally consistent and reliable." Normative data pertaining to junior high children has been presented by Keller (1962). Lunneborg (1963) reported correlations of .76 between the CHAS and the Test Anxiety Scale for Children and .73 between the CMAS and the General Anxiety Scale for Children. Emotionally dis- turbed children also score significantly higher than normal child- ren (Rosenblum and Callahan, 1961 and Lipman, 1960). B. Severity of guilt was measured by the story completion technique develOped by Allinsmith (1954) and adapted to measure guilt in girls by Rabin and Recht’ (1963). Only the stories dealing with guilt following transgression were used in this study. Allinsmith included in each story stem "(a) a secret violation of a common moral teaching (b) by a given act (c) expressing a stated or evident motive (d) directed at a specified category or person, and (e) in a defined situation" (Miller and Swanson, 1960, pp. 144 and 145). The six stories administered (three for the boys and three for the girls) and * Unpublished study 18 the scoring system are reproduced in Appendices B and C, respectively. C. In Appendix D is the questionnaire which was administered after the anxiety and guilt measures. The questionnaire was designed to obtain information pertaining to the subject's age, race, religion, father's education and occupation, and the presence or absence of either parent in the home. Because Specific hypotheses were not Of- fered concerning these variables and because the questionnaire re- Sponses were inadequate for meaningful analysis, the data from the questionnaire has not been formally utilized. Procedure The group administration of the anxiety scale, guilt stories, and questionnaire required approximately one hour. The seventh and eighth grade students were tested on different days. On both occasions the tests were administered to the boys and girls in separate rooms by an administrator Of the Opposite sex. Every subject was given a test booklet containing the three guilt stories and anxiety scale in random order followed by the questionnaire. The anxiety scale and three randomized guilt stories were alternatively placed in the first position to randomize the effects of fatigue and order of presentation. The subjects were asked not to write their names on the anxiety scale and guilt stories. However, anonymity was not maintained for all the subjects as some prematurely discovered that their names were required on the questionnaire. Since we were unable to utilize previously ad- ministered achievement tests, the California Achievement Test's Arith- metic Fundamentals and Total Reading batteries were given to all the 19 subjects (Tiegs and Clark, 1957). Every subject received the following scores: (a) CHAS anxiety and lie scores, (b) guilt scores on the death wish, theft, and dis- obedience story completions, (0) total guilt score which is the sum of the three guilt scores, (d) confession score which is the total confessional endings on all three guilt stories, and (e) an arithme- tic and reading achievement score. Following Allinsmith's criterion for recognizing guilt, a guilt scoring system was devised (Appendix C). Severity of guilt was rated as being high, medium or low. Interrater reliability‘ (Pearson r) was satisfactorily established on a representative sample of each guilt story for both sexes.“ In the review of the litera- ture discussion Rebelsky, Allinsmith, and Grinder's (1961) operational definition was presented. From this operational definition a three point scale of confession was devised. Absence of confession, forced confession and voluntary were scored zero, one, and two, respectively. Correlation coefficients were used to test the first, second, and fifth hypotheses (Walker and Lev, 1953). The third and fourth hypotheses were tested by computing correlation ratios (Guilford, 1956). Hypotheses six, seven, and eight were evaluated by using a t-test of the differences between the two means assuming heterOgen- eity of variance. A linear transformation was also performed on the raw lie and confession scores (Guilford, 1956). ‘ Mrs. Charlene Adams and the writer rated the guilt endings which were used to compute the interrater reliability. ’* See Table l. RESULTS Prior to discussing the results pertaining to the eight hypotheses, it is necessary to present additional data concern- ing the subjects and also the interrater reliability of the guilt judgments. General Statements Originally the seventh and eighth grade girls were to be combined into a total sample of girls. In analyzing the data, however, it was found that the seventh grade girls scored signif- icantly higher than the eighth grade girls on the anxiety scale. Therefore, all the hypotheses were evaluated as pertaining to the seventh, eighth, and total grade samples of girls. In Appendix E the means and standard deviations by grades are presented for anxiety, guilt severity, achievement , and confession. As indicated previously, interrater reliability was estab- lished for each guilt story for both sexes. In Table 1 the relia- bilities are presented. The reliabilities range from .74 for dis- obedience, .84 for theft, and .93 for death wishes. Anxiety versus Total Guilt, Guilt by Story, Confession Although Hypothesis I was confirmed, analysis of Table 2 indicates that Hypotheses II and III were not confirmed. Within the seventh grade samples of girls strong relationships exist between 20 21 Table 1. Interrater reliability of guilt stories Story r n (male and female) Disobedience .74 32 Theft .84 31 Death Wishes .93 30 Table 2. Pearson coefficients Of correlation: guilt vs. anxiety, guilt by story vs. anxiety, confession vs. anxiety in sample of girls Hypothesis Class 7th 8th Total N 23 31 54 I. Guilt vs. Anxiety .26 .33‘ .24’ II. Disobedience vs. Anxiety .72" .11 .24‘ Theft vs. Anxiety .70“ .42“ .50“ Death Wishes vs. Anxiety -.28 .27 -.05 V. Confession vs. Anxiety .07 .19 .12 * Significant at .05 Confidence Level *’ Significant at .01 Confidence Level anxiety and guilt over disobedience and theft. For both grades the relationship between anxiety and guilt over theft is the which strongly negates Hypothesis II. In Appendix F the between anxiety and the indices of guilt for the smaller strongest, associations sample of girls with only one parent residing at home are presented. 22 Achievement vs. Anxiety and Guilt Reference to Table 3 indicates that significant negative relationships were found between both anxiety and guilt and the measure of achievement. Only the correlation between achievement and anxiety, however, was significant for the eighth grade. Both Eta and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were anal- yzed. The product-moment correlations were computed (Table 3) be- cause Lewis's F test for linearity of regression indicated that the relationships were linear. In Appendix F Eta correlations and Lewis's F tests are tabulated. Neither hypothesis three or four has been confirmed even though significant negative relationships were Obtained. Table 3. Pearson coefficients of correlation: arithmetic achieve- ment vs. anxiety, reading achievement vs. anxiety, arith- metic achievement vs. guilt, and reading achievement vs. guilt in sample of girls. Hypotheses III and IV Class 7th 8th Total Arithmetic Achievement VS. AnXiety -023. -012 “023. Reading Achievement vs. Anxiety -.30'* -.33‘ -.38“ Arithmetic Achievement VS. GUilt -025. -022 -025. Reading Achievement VS. GUilt -030. "oZB -031. ‘ Significant at .05 Confidence Level “ Significant at .01 Confidence Level 23 Sex Differences in Anxiety, Guilt, and Confession As indicated in Table 4 the seventh grade girls scored sig- nificantly higher on the CHAS than the seventh grade boys, but not on the guilt or confession indices except on the theft story. On the other hand the eighth grade girls scored significantly higher on the guilt and confession indices but not on the anxiety scale in comparison with the eighth grade boys. The data thus confirm hypoth- eses six, seven, and eight. Table 4. T test of differences between sexes on measures Of anxiety, guilt, and confession. On all the indices girls obtained higher mean scores than the boys. 7th Grade 8th Grade Combined t p t p t p Hypothesis Vi. Anxiety 3.04 p<(.005 .28 ns 2.35 p<_.025 Hypothesis VII. Total Guilt 1.41 ns 1+.97 p 4 .0005 4.57 p < .0005 Disobedience .88 ns 2.61 p.fi.01 2.67 p‘(.Ol Theft 2.71 p <.01 3.23 p 4 .005 l.~.6o p 4.0005 Death Wish .31 ns 3.14 p (.005 2.27 p <.025 Hypothesis VIII. Confession 1.07 ns 3. 86 p < .0005 2.27 p < .005 Additional Data Lunneborg (1964) has recently published her findings which indicate that the CHAS lie scale measures social desirability. Al- though formal hypotheses were not made pertaining to the lie scale 24 and social desirability in relation to the other variables in this study, the lie scale was inter-correlated with the other variables. In Appendix F the matrix of correlations is presented. As indicated in this table, associations between the lie scale and anxiety, guilt, confession, and achievement in arithmetic were not significant. Two negative correlations between reading achievement and the lie scale are significant and thus replicate the findings of Lunneborg (1964). Since both the anxiety and lie scale are predominantly weighted for the affirmative responses, the lack of correlation between anxiety and lie scales indicates that a response bias was not operating. Table 5. Story intercorrelations X I 7th Grade 8th Grade Combined Disobedience vs. Death Wish -.14 .14 .05 Theft vs. Death Wish -.27 .08 .08 Disobedience vs. Theft .79‘ .17 .32‘ ’ Significant at .01 Confidence Level Although hypotheses were not stated pertaining to the guilt story intercorrelations, the association between the three guilt stories was explored. The data in Table 5 indicates that only the correlation between guilt over disobeying and stealing is significant. DISCUSSION Before discussing the results pertaining to the hypotheses of this study, the variables of anxiety, social desirability, and guilt are compared with previous research findings. In addition, possible explanations for the grade differences in anxiety are presented. General Considerations Validity for the present study is indicated by the compara~ bility of findings on anxiety, social desirability, and guilt with the reported norms of the standardization studies. Agxgggy. In this study the mean of the anxiety scores on the CMAS was 15.15 for the boys and 17.85 for the girls. In Castaneda, McCandless, and Palermo's normative study, the means were 15.87 and 18.44 for (fourth, fifth, and sixth grade) boys and girls, respectively (1956). Keller (1962) reported means of 15.5 for boys and 17.4 for girls in junior high school. L13. The mean lie score for the girls in this study was 2.85. This also compares favorably with the mean lie scale score of 2.50 reported by Keller. The insignificant relationship between anxiety as measured by the CMAS and social desirability as measured by the lie scale is in agreement with studies of Castaneda, McCandless, and Palermo (1956) and Keller and Rowley (1961). 25 26 EEElE‘ As indicated previously the interrater reliabilities were .74 for the disobedience story, .84 for the theft story, and .93 for the death wish story. These reliabilities were established on a random sample of stories for both boys and girls. These high reliabilities lend some support for the validity of the scoring system. Except for the correlation between guilt over disobedience and theft in the seventh grade girls, none of the guilt intercorre- lations reached a level of significance. The presence of consider- able intrasindividual variability in guilt expression has also been reported by Hartshorne and May (reported in Ruebush, 1963), Waller- stein and Wyle (1947), and Allinsmith (1954). Both Miller and Swanson (1960) and Bandura and Walters (1964) speak of a series of guilts learned in different learning situations rather than of a unitary, internalized, moral agent such as conscience. The high pos- itive correlation between the theft and disobedience guilt stories in the seventh grade sample of girls indicates that for this more anxious group of girls, guilt in these two areas is highly related. Grade Differences i3 Anxiety. Two possible explanations for the elevated anxiety scores in the seventh grade girls are (1) that the transition for elementary school to junior high school is an anxiety-arousing situation and/or (2) that associated with puberty is an increase in anxiety. Without further experimentation it is im- possible to determine if anxieties resulting from promotion to junior high school or puberty were Operative. At the present time the pubescent anxiety hypothesis also appears to be relevant to the 27 discussion of the hypothesized sex differences in guilt and confession. Morgan, Sutton-Smith, and Rosenberg (1960) also reported marked variability between two grades of girls on the CMAS. Fifth and sixth grade girls obtained means of 20.8 and 16.9, respectively. In this study the seventh grade girls have a mean of 19.74 and the eighth grade girls have a mean of 16.45. In interpreting their uneXpected findings, they stated: It is well known that a marked preadolescent growth spurt occurs in the two years preceding puberty in girls. It is possible that girls, when first experiencing these changes, react with greater than normal sensitivity on the CHAS . . . Since boys do not reach their peak growth Spurt until approximately 13 or 14 years, they would not be affected by this develOpmental phenomenon during grades four, five, and six, and their scores could be expected to remain more stable (1960, p. 517). It may be that the elevation of CMAS scores is reflecting an increase in anxiety related to puberty in the seventh grade sample of girls. By the time girls reach the eighth grade they may be better adjusted to the physical and psychological changes associated with puberty and thus their anxiety level is lower on the CMAS. Support for the puberty- anxiety hypothesis is provided by the facts that the girls in the pres- ent study were approximately two years older and two years advanced in school than the girls in Morgan's et a1. study. Although significant grade differences were not found for the boys in this study, the eighth grade boys did score considerably higher than the seventh grade boys. Such a trend appears consistent with later pubescent develOpment in boys. 28 Results Relative to Predictions Anxiety versus Total Guilt, Guilt p1 Stories, and Confession. In general, the hypothesized positive relationship between anxiety and guilt has been confirmed in the sample of girls. In the seventh grade anxiety and guilt over disobedience and theft are highly corre- lated. Within the eighth grade group there also is a high correla- tion between anxiety and the theft story. The higher correlation between anxiety and guilt over theft rather than between anxiety and guilt over a death wish may be due to the fact that the transgression is against a non-family member and thus may arouse greater fear of external detection and punish- ment. Aronfreed (1961) and Terman (1936) both have emphasized the external sensitivity and orientation of girls' moral responses. It thus appears that there is a stronger relationship between anxiety and statements reflecting guilt in situations susceptible to external detection and disapproval. Obviously the higher positive correlation between anxiety and guilt over theft indicates that hypothesis two was not confirmed. Of particular interest is the negative relationship between anxiety and guilt over a de th wish in the seventh grade girls. Similar results occurred in the study of Allinsmith (1954). Commenting on Allinsmith's results, Miller and Swanson (1960) stated: Among boys who have experienced the greatest number of condi— tions likely to lead to high guilt, fewer subjects eXpress high guilt than among subjects who have been subjected to an intermediate amount of pressure. This finding seems consist- ent with the formulation that the most guilt-ridden boys were more inclined to inhibit their feelings than were boys with an intermediate amount of guilt (pp. 156 and 157). 29 Adams (1964) also theorized that the significant negative association between anxiety and guilt obtained among boys from the same school classrooms as the girls in this study indicates that the most anxious boys were inhibiting (repression or suppression) expression of their guilt feelings. The findings of Adams and of this writer suggest that in junior high school boys anxiety and ex- pression of guilt are negatively related while in the sample of girls anxiety and the expression of guilt are positively related, although under high anxiety-arousing conditions, even the girls tend to inhibit their expressions of guilt. The fifth hypothesis of a positive correlation between anxiety and confession was not confirmed. In analyzing the data it was obvi- ous that confession was rarely utilized in the death wish and disobed- ience stories. Thus the infrequent use of confession in two of the stOries and the predominance of confessional endings to the theft story suggests that frequency of confession depends more on the situation variables than the anxiety level of the subject. The unconfirmed re- lationship between anxiety and confession in contrast to the confirmed association between anxiety and guilt may be due to the fact that con- fession is only one of many possible expressions of guilt or instrum— ental responses available to reduce anxiety. Achievement versus Anxiety and Guilt. The predicted curvilinear relationships between both anxiety and guilt with two measures of scholastic achievement was not confirmed as the associations between the stated variables were linear and negatively related. This unpre- dicted finding of negative relationships between anxiety and both 30 arithmetic and reading achievement parallels similar results pub- lished by Lunneborg (1964), Reese (1961), Keller and Rowley (1961), Broen (1959), McCandless and Castaneda (1956), and Kerrick (1955). It is also significant that guilt and both measures of achievement are negatively related in the seventh grade sample of girls. Thus both high anxiety and high guilt seem to impede aca— demic achievement and probably also reflect levels of self-esteem. Sex Differences i3 Anxiety, Guilt, and Confession On the CHAS the seventh grade girls scored significantly higher than the seventh grade boys. As indicated previously the eighth grade girls scored significantly lower than the seventh grade girls on the anxiety measure, while the eighth grade boys scored.slight1yhigher than the seventh grade boys on the same anxi- ety scale. As discussed previously, these sex and grade differences on the CMAS may be influenced by puberty and its associated anxieties. Significant sex differences on all the measures of guilt and confession are primarily attributable to the sex differences present in the eighth graders. The only significant sex difference in the seventh grade occurred in response to the theft story, on which the girls scored higher than the boys. Although the eighth grade girls consistently used more expressions of guilt and confession than the eighth grade boys, the differences in expression of guilt and con— fession are attributable to the infrequent use of these responses to transgressions by the boys. In comparison with both classes of girls and the seventh grade boys, the eighth grade boys were very reluctant to use confession, reparation, and other traditional indications of 31 guilt following transgression of moral codes. A possible explanation of the inhibition of moral responses in the eighth grade boys is that increased anxiety concerning puberty and masculine role identification is associated with the inhibition of behavior which is perceived as being incongruent with masculinity. Being anxious about their mas- culine identification, it may be that these boys strive to act in masculine ways and avoid all behavior associated with femininity and pre-puberty. In accordance with this viewpoint, Rebelsky et a1. (1961) have written, "It may be that confession, reparation, and emotional upset following transgression of moral standards are more apprOpriate to the women's feminine role" (p. 5). In this study, therefore, one might expect that theseboys would avoid the type of behavior which would result in high guilt and confession scores. In several recent articles behavior such as confession, repar- ation, and emotional upset following transgression have been concept- ualized as being instigated to obtain gratification of needs rather than as behavior motivated by a punitive superego. Bandura and Walters have written: "A child may learn to make self-critical state- ments as an effective way Of forestalling or reducing aversive stim- ulation in the form of parental punishments and thus acquire a habit Of employing self-critical statements as a means of controlling the behavior of others" (1963, p. 186). Bandura and Walters have also written: "It may be more profitable to consider such kinds of re- sponses as self-punishment, apology, restitution, and confession... in terms of their functional utility to the individual, rather than 32 in terms of classes or stages of morality" (p. 187). Aronfreed (1961) concluded on the basis of his research findings, "self- evaluation is not a prerequisite of internalized responses to trans- gressions and that such responses frequently take a form of being externally oriented" (p. 231). In conclusion, the sex differences in guilt and confession in this study reflect the inhibition of responses of a moral nature within the eighth grade sample of boys. It has been suggested that moral responses may be inhibited because they are anxiety-arousing and non-instrumental for pubescent boys concerned about their masculine adequacy and image. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between manifest anxiety, severity of guilt, confession, and scholastic achievement in junior high school girls. In addition, (utilizing the findings of Adams's thesis (1964) pertaining to the boys from the same school) sex differences on the same variables were studied. The subjects of this study consisted of fifty-four girls and sixty-eight boys from the seventh and eighth grade in Bath, Michigan. The instruments administered were the Children's Mani- fest Anxiety Scale; three story completions measuring guilt and confession; a questionnaire pertaining to familial, occupational, religious, and educational status of the home; and the California Total Reading and Arithmetic Fundamentals subtests on the Cali- fornia Achievement Test. The following hypotheses were investigated: Hypothesis I. There is a significant positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and severity of guilt. Hypothesis 1;. There is a higher positive correlation be- tween manifest anxiety and severity of guilt about death wishes than between anxiety and guilt about violation of maternal commands or theft. Hypothesis III. There is a curvilinear relationship between 33 3h anxiety and scholastic achievement. Hypothesis 1!. There is a curvilinear relationship between guilt and scholastic achievement. Hypothesis 1. There is a positive correlation between degree of manifest anxiety and amount of confession. Hypothesis 2;. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of guilt. Hypothesis VII. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of guilt. Hypothesis VIII. Girls will score significantly higher than boys on a measure of confession. Results of the statistical analyses indicated that anxiety and guilt were positively and significantly related. The associa- tion between anxiety and guilt appeared strongest in the seventh grade sample of girls and on the story completion stem measuring guilt over theft. Thus hypothesis two was not confirmed. The hypothesized association between anxiety and confession was also re- jected. Although neither anxiety or guilt was curvilinearly related to either arithmetic or reading achievement, significant negative re- lationships were obtained between the variables in the seventh grade group of girls. Thus both guilt and anxiety appear to be detrimental to scholastic achievement. The only sex differences in anxiety were obtained in the seventh grade as the girls scored higher on the CHAS. Although the eighth grade boys scored significantly lower than the girls on all indices of guilt and confession, significant sex differences in guilt and 35 confession were not found for the seventh analyses indicated that the seventh grade cantly higher than the eighth grade girls It is conjectured that anxiety associated in elevated anxiety scores on the CMAS by and in inhibition of guilt and confession eighth grade boys. graders. Additional girls scored signifi- on the anxiety scale. with puberty resulted the seventh grade girls expression by the BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Charlene. "Manifest anxiety, severity of guilt, and schol- astic achievement in children." Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1964. Allinsmith, W. "The learning of moral standards." Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Michigan, 1954. Allinsmith, W. and Greening, L. C. Guilt over anger as predicted from parental discipline: A study of superego develOpment. Amer. 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The performance of high-grade retarded, emotionally disturbed children on the CMAS and the Children's Anxiety Pictures. J. clin. Psychol., 1958, 14, 272-275. ' Ruebush, B. K. Anxiety, in Child Psychology--the sixty-second year- book gi the National Society for Education. Part I.. Steven- son, H. (ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1963. 4o Sarason S. Davidson K. and Li htfall F. Anxiet in Element- arySchool Children. New ork: John 41 ey and-Sons, I963. Sears, R. R., Maccoby, E. and Levin, H. Patterns Bi Child Rearing. New York: Row, Peterson and Co., 1957. Sears, R. R., Rau, L. and Alpert, R. Identification and Child- Rearing. Stanford University Press, 1965. Taylor, J. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1953, 48, 285-290. Taylor, J. and Spence, K. W. The relationship of anxiety level to performance in serial learning. J. expt. Psychol., 1952, 44, 61-64. Terman, L. M. and Miles, C. C. Sex and Personality. New York: McGraw Hill Company, 1936. Tiegs, E. and Clark, W. California Achievement Test, wxyz series. California Test Bureau, 1957. Unger, S. M. Antecedants of personality differences in guilt reaponsivity. Psychol. Rgp., 1962, 10 (2), 357-368. Wallerstein, J. A. and Wyle, C. I. Our law-abiding law-breakers. Probation, 1947, 25, 107-112, 118. Whiting, J. and Child, I. Child Training and Personality: A Cross- Cultural Study. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale Read each question carefully. Put a circle around the word Yes if you think it is true about you. Put a circle around the word No if you think it is not true about you. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No It is hard for me to keep my mind on anything. I I I I I get nervous when someone watches me work. feel I have to be my best in everything. blush easily. like everyone I know. notice my heart beats very fast sometimes. At times I feel like shouting. I wish I could be very far from here. Others seem to do things easier than I can. I I I would rather win than lose in a game. am secretly afraid of a lot of things. feel that others do not like the way I do things. feel alone even when there are people around me. have trouble making up my mind. get nervous when things do not go the right way for me. worry most of the time. am always kind. worry about what my parents will say to me. often have trouble getting my breath. get angry easily. always have good manners. My hands feel sweaty. 43 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No No 44 I have to go to the toilet more than most people. Other children are happier than I. I worry about what other peOple think about me. I have trouble swallowing. I have worried about things that did not really make any difference later. My feelings get easily hurt. I worry about doing the right thing. It is hard for me to go to sleep at night. I worry about how well I am doing in schools. I am always nice to everyone. My feelings are hurt easily when I am scolded. I tell the truth every single time. I often get lonesome when I am with peOple. I feel someone will tell me I do things the wrong way. I am afraid of the dark. It is hard for me to keep my mind on my school work. I never get angry. I often feel sick in my stomach. I worry when I go to bed at night. I often do things I wish I had never done. I get headaches. I often worry about what could happen to my parents. I never say things I shouldn't. I get tired easily. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No 45 It is good to get high grades in school. I have bad dreams. I am nervous. I never lie. I often worry about something bad happening to me. APPENDIX B InstruCtions and Guilt Stories 47 1. Instructions: We're interested in finding out what girls (boys) your age are like. In each of the booklets that you have are some questions to answer yes or no, three stories, and a form to fill out at the end. Do not turn any page and go on until you are through with it. The three stories you are to finish where they leave off. This is not an English class. Don't worry about spelling. There are no right or wrong answers: you can say any- thing you want in the stories and use any language you want. Just finish the stories, telling what happens and how it comes out, and what the people in your story are thinking and feeling. No one here at school will see your stories--I'll take them back with me to the University. It is very important that you answer every question completely. Do not leave any out. Raise your hand if you have a question. 2. Stories for the girls a. Disobedience One day Sally's mother goes visiting a friend of hers in another town. At noon just after her lunch Sally phones her mother and talks with her. She tells her to be a good girl and says she will be home at suppertime. Now Sally is all alone with nothing to do. She thinks of the boxes in the tOp of her mother's closet. She has told her never to take down the boxes. She knows that her mother won't be home till suppertime. Sally climbs up and takes down the boxes. 48 b. Theft Marcia's friends have formed a social club. They promised Marcia she could be a member if she could get the special pin. Marcia saved all the money she could. At last she had 810.00 saved up to get a really nice pin. When she arrives at the jewelry store, she sees the sales-clerk going down the stairs to the cellar of the store. The clerk does not see Marcia. Marcia decides to look at the pins herself before calling the clerk. She finds just the one she wants. Then she reaches for her money. It is gone. She real- izes that she has lost it on the way down town. Marcia feels awful. She looks around. There is nobody in the store or near it outside. The clerk is still in the cellar. It occurs to Marcia that she can take the pin unnoticed and she hides the pin in her coat pocket. She walks out of the store. No one sees her leave. c. Death Wish Helen likes her music teacher. The other day the music teacher promised her privately that Helen could sing a solo number in the special music program at school on Friday. When the chorus meets for final practice, the music teacher doesn't say anything to Helen about singing the song. Helen is afraid that she has forgotten or changed her mind. She keeps thinking to herself over and over again: "The teacher isn't going to keep her promise. I hOpe she doesn't even make the music program. I wish she'd drOp dead!" When Helen arrives at school on Friday, she hears that the music teacher has just been in an accident and has been taken to the hospital. Every- one is worried. The music program is about to begin. Helen sees from 49 the program that she is scheduled to sing. 3. Stories for Boys a. Disobedience One day Ted's mother goes visiting a friend of hers in another town. At noon just after his lunch Ted phones his mother and talks to htr. She tells him to be a good boy and says that she will be home at suppertime. Now Ted is all alone with nothing to do. He thinks of the boxes in the top of his motherls closet. She has told him never to take down the boxes. He knows that his mother won't be home till suppertime. Ted clumbs up and takes down the boxes. b. Theft Bill's friends have formed a baseball team. They promised Bill he could be their catcher if he could get a catcher's mitt. Bill saved all the money he could. At last he had 310.00 saved up to get a really good glove. When he arrives at the sports store, he sees the clerk going down to the cellar of the store. The clerk does not see Bill. Bill decides to look at the catcher's gloves him- self before calling the clerk. He finds just the one he wants. Then he reaches for his money. It is gone. He realizes that he has lost it on the way down town. Bill feels awful. He looks around. There is nobody in the store or near it outside. The clerk is still in the cellar. It occurs to Bill that the mitt would just fit under the bulge in his jacket. He hides the mitt under his jacket and walks out of the store. No one sees him leave. 50 c. Death Wish Dave likes his baseball coach. The other day the coach, promised him privately that Dave could pitch in the big game on Saturday. When the team meets for final practice, the coach doesn't say anything to Dave about pitching. Dave is afraid that he has forgotten or changed his mind. He keeps thinking to himself over and over again: "The coach isn't going to keep his promise. I hope he doesn't even make it to the game. I wish he'd drOp dead!" When Dave arrives at the game on Saturday afternoon, he hears that the coach has just been in an accident and has been taken to the hospital. Everyone is worried. The game is about to begin. Dave sees from the scoreboard that he is scheduled to pitch. APPENDIX C Story Completion Scoring Story Story Story Level Level II 52 Disobedience Theft Death Wish No doubt and/or unimpaired performance Story 3 - no mention of worrying about the coach and no difficulty in pitching Blatant missing of the point Story 3 - statements as "don't judge a guy by the way he acts" Verbalizations of discomfort (sorry, worried, or feeling bad) Story 1 - sorry Opened boxes and saw presents Story 2 - afraid of being seen Story 3 - worried about the coach and accident Distortion - moderate l. Situational (as doubts and/or performance decrement) Story 3 - pitching poorly 2. Behavioral (as going to hospital after game) Involuntary confession Story 2 - parents ask child how she bought the pin when she left her money at home Externalization - mild 1. moderate punishment Story 1 - spanked and sent to bed Story 2 - having to work after school to pay for pin Level A. 53 Getting caught Story 1 - mother returns early Special cases 1. III Story 1 Good deed - as child catches robbers after Opening boxes Gift for someone other than hero in the boxes Forgetting to replace boxes Story 2 Finding money and returning glove without either type of confession Story 3 Intent to do well for coach's sake Verbalizations of discomfort involving cause and effect (feelings of blame) Distortion - severe l. Situational (as doubts and/or performance decrement) Story 3 - inability to sing or pitch Behavioral Story 1 - does not take boxes down Story 2 - does not steal pin or glove Story 3 - goes to hospital before game Voluntary confession (special cases in story 2 below) 1. 2. Returns glove or pin and confesses Finds money, returns glove, and confesses Externalization - severe 1. Severe punishment by others - sent to jail 54 a, Injury to hero or others Story 1 - falling down well or TNT in boxes 3. Courting punishment Story 2 - returning to continue to steal until caught D. Moralizing - statements about what hero should or should not do, what is right and wrong E. Special case in story 3 - upset and intends to do well for coach's sake If there is a question: 1. A series of Level II responses with one questionable Level III response, score level III. 2. When responses of two levels are present, score higher. APPENDIX D Questionnaire Fill out the following list of questions completely. Check one answer where there are blanks. question. 1. Name 3. Age 5. Race: White ( ) Negro ( ) 6. Are both your parents living? 7. Your parents are: ( ) Married and together ( ) Separated 8. Religion ( ) Protestant ( ) Catholic 9. How often do you attend church? ( ) Every week ( ) Twice a month 10. Where does your father work? 11. What does he do there? 12. 2. L}. Yes ( ) ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) ) Raise your hand if you have a Male ( ) Female ( ) Birthdate Month Day Year No ( ) Divorced Other Jewish No preference Once a month or less Never What was the highest grade in school that your father reached or degree he received? 56 APPENDIX E Means and Standard Deviations: Anxiety, Guilt, Achievement 58 Female Subjects Variable 1. Anxiety Combined grades 7th 8th 2. Lie Scale Combined grades 7th 8th 3. Guilt Combined grades 7th 8th 4. Stories a. Disobedience Combined grades 7th 8th b. Theft Combined grades 7th 8th c. Death Wish Combined grades 7th 8th 5. Achievement a. Reading Combined grades 7th 8th b. Arithmetic Combined grades 7th 8th 6. Confession Combined grades 7th 8th Mean 17.85 19.74 16.45 7.52 7.30 Standard Deviation .71 .35 .80 .8? .71 25.81 26.00 25.31 28.57 26.47 30.05 54 23 31 54 23 31 54 23 31 54 23 31 54 23 31 54 31 54 23 31 54 23 31 54 23 31 59 Male Subjects Variable iean Standard n Deviation 1. Anxiety Combined grades 15.15 6.41 68 7th 14.12 7.06 32 8th 16.06 5.61 36 2. Guilt Combined grades 6.34 2.50 68 7th 6.78 1.49 32 8th 5.94 1.74 36 3. Stories a. Disobedience Combined grades 2.10 .07 68 7th 2.25 .08 32 8th 1.97 .07 36 b. Theft Combined grades 2.24 .08 68 7th 2.34 .07 32 8th 2.14 .09 36 c. Death Wish Combined grades 2.00 .09 68 7th 2.21 .09 32 8th 1.83 .08 36 4. Achievement' (percentile ranks) 7th 42.38 23.45 32 8th 41.06 29.15 36 5. Confession Combined grades 4.22 1.35 68 7th 4.72 1.32 32 8th 3.78 1.24 36 ’Achievement percentile is the average of the Arithmetic Fundamentals and Total Reading percentile ranks. APPENDIX F 61 Table 6. Pearson correlation coefficients: Anxiety versus guilt for small sample of girls with only one parent residing at home (n = 12) Variables r p Anxiety vs. Total Guilt .20 ns Anxiety vs. Death Wish -.11 ns Anxiety vs. Disobedience .49 p .05 Anxiety vs. Theft .03 ns Table 7. Correlation ratios (Eta) and Lewis's test of linearity: Anxiety vs. arithmetic achievement, anxiety vs. reading achievement, guilt vs. arithmetic achievement, and guilt vs. reading achievement Hypothesis N=54 girls Eta r F test of p Linearity III. Anxiety vs. Arithmetic Achievement rxy=.60 2.61 ns ryx=ol+5 2.99 ns Anxiety vs. Reading Achievement rxy=.47 .57 ns r =.44 1.00 ns yx IV. Guilt vs. Arithmetic Achievement rxy=.48 ‘1.24 ns ryx=031 .59 n8 Guilt vs. Reading Achievement rxy=.46 .86 ns r =.54 4.71 ns Table 8. Pearson correlation coefficients: 62 Lie scale versus anxiety, total guilt, guilt by story, achievement, and confession for the total sample of girls. Lie Scale vs. 7th 8th Combined r p r P r P Anxiety .055 us .009 ns .073 ns Total Guilt .165 ns .050 ns .074 ns Theft -.218 us .229 ns -.002 ns Death Wish .257 ns -.l37 ns .042 ns Disobedience .215 ns .094 ns .110 ns Arithmetic Achievement -.263 ns -.152 ns -.186 ns Reading Achievement --l78 ns -.320 p (A05 --232 p.(,05 Confession .078 us .105 ms .099 ns Table 9. T test of differences between means of seventh and eighth grade boys and between means of seventh and eighth grade girls on the CMAS. Anxiety Differences between grades t 7th grade girls higher than 8th grade girls 1.95 p‘L.05 8th grade boys higher than 7th grade boys 1.24 p( .10 >.05