— —_———_——— _—*_,_—_—___.____ _ . -- SYNO-PSIS OF TYPES OF LOW-COST ROADS Thai: for the Degree of M. 5. MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE Guy Jean-Pierre Plumail 1950 THESIS ' This is to certilt; that the thesis entitled SYNOPSIS 3:: TYPES OE" LOU—COST ILOAZ‘S presented In; GUY JELI‘I-PIFTCZT TENT-{LIL has been accepted tuwurtls fullillnu-nt ml the requiremmnts for H ”lViL YNClxhfitffiC Q . ____1_ degree 1n 'r ’ 1)?)0 I ‘ _> Date “" “‘3 _.—— —- ——— _-* .5- SYNOPSIS OF TYPES OF LOW-COST ROADS By GUY JEAN-PIERRE EEEEAIL A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Civil Engineering 1950 THESIS ACKNCWLEDGMENT The author wishes to thank Mr. Gail C. Blomquist for his helpful counsel and guidance in the preparation of this thesis. I‘ J a “I ‘ 'N .J rob TABLE CF CONTENTS Introduction .................................... Chapter I. The Soils ............................ Chapter II. The Road ........................... Chapter III. Mechanical Stabilization .......... Chapter IV. Chemical Stabilization ............. Chapter V. Soil—Bitumen Stabilization .......... Chapter VI. Soil-Cement Stabilization .......... Chapter VII. Thermic Stabilization ............. Conclusion ...................................... Appendix ........................................ Bibliograpkly .OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOO0000......0.0... 59 59 67 7O 75 78 INTRODUCTION Out of approximately 3,000,000 miles of roads in the United States about 50 per cent are not surfaced, 1,000,000 miles have low.type surfacings, 305,000 miles have intermediate type surfacings and l9h,000 miles have high type surfacing. The selection of the type used depends on the volume of traffic unevenly distributed throughout the country and is generally of the low type for traffic of less than hOO vehicles per day, of the intermediate type for traffic of too to 1,000 vehicles per day, and of the high type for traffic over 1,000 vehicles per day. Hard surfaced pavements are eXpensive to build and to maintain. On the other hand, unsurfaced roads are muddy and impassable during wet periods, and although passable are dusty during dry weather and are a nuisance to both users and residents living beside the road. Various methods have been devised to process Earth Roads and render them capable of supporting light traffic under normal weather conditions with reasonable maintenance. They all take the natural soil as basic mater- ial, stabilized with or without admixtures. We shall first see what has to be known about soil as a material, what are the general features of the road, and then, what are the main types of soil stabilization to which these can be related. These main types of stabilization are: Mechanical, Chemical, Soil-Bitumen, Soil-Cement and Thermic. Mechanical, Chemical and Thermic Stabilization are low type sur- facings. Soil-Bitumen and Soil-Cement Stabilization are classified as in- termediate type. These processes utilize the soil in place to the maximum and do not 2 require highly skilled labor or Specialized equipment (except Thermic Sta- bilization), but they are well established and standardized techniques which do not emanate from the trial and error method. CHAPTER I THE SOILS Soils are composed of particles of varied size and origin. Their distribution gives to soils their properties. By their origin they can be classed as organic or inorganic. By their size they are classed: Gravel over 2.00 mm. inorganic Sand from 2.00 to 0.05 mm. inorganic Silt from 0.05 to 0.005 mm. inorganic or organic Clay below 0.005 mm. inorganic or organic Colloids below 0.001 mm. inorganic or organic They contribute differently to the behavior of soils. Gravel and sand when confined contribute mainly to the bearing power. They are cohesionless, but can develop high internal friction (eSpecially 'when of the angular type). They are pervious but show practically no capillary action. Clay and colloids contribute to cohesion and are only little pervious, but they have slight bearing power, when wet are elastic and have low capil- larity. Silt is of an intermediate type and has no cohesiveness with high campillarity. The percentages of sand, silt and clay give to the soil its particular texture. In Chart I a textural classification of soils is shown. The texture of soil can be determined by the physical characteristics of the textural groups when a small amount of moist soil is rubbed between the fingers. Chart I. Public Road Administration Textural Classification Sand: Sand is single grained. The individual grains can readily be seen or felt. Squeezed in the hand when moist, sand will form a cast which Idll crumble when gently pressed or dried. Sandy.Loam: Soil containing mainly sand but containing sufficient silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can readily be seen and felt. If molded when moist, it'will form a cast which ‘will bear careful handling without breaking. Sands and sandy loans can be coarse, medium or fine, depending upon the proportion of the different sizes of particles that are present. ‘Eggmi Loam.is a soil having a more or less balanced mixture of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay. It is mellow with a somewhat gritty feel; yet fairly smooth and slightly plastic when moist. Silt Loam: A silt loam is a soil having a moderate amount of the fine grades of sand and a small amount of clay, with a large quantity of silt par- ticles. When in dry pulverized condition, it feels soft and floury. If the moist soil is pressed between the thumb and finger, it will not "ribbon" but will have a broken appearance. Clay Loam: Clay loam is a fine-textured soil which breaks into clods or lumps that harden upon drying. ‘When the moist soil is pressed between flue thumb and fingen it will form a thin "ribbon". The moist soil is plastic. Clay: Clay is a very fine-textured soil that forms hard lumps or clods upon drying. When the moist soil is pressed out between the thumb and finger, it will form a flexible "ribbon". The moist soil is very sticky. Texture is very important; however, the behavior of a soil cannot be predicted "a priori" by merely knowing the distribution of its particles. Presence of humus, difference in origin and formation, presence of chemical compounds which tend to floculate the fine particles (like lime and.magnesium) or defloculate them (like sodium or potassium) are factors of great importance. Identifying the soil to a definitely known type, classified in a logical system, is the first step to accomplish in any attempt toward stabilization of soils. Several systems of soil classification have been preposed and are in use throughout this Country by the various agencies dealing with soils. The Public Road Administration Classification is the most widely used in the highway field but is likely to be replaced by the Highway Research Board Classification which is a revision of the original. Since data used in this thesis is not completely covered under the Highway Research Board Classifica- tion system, it was necessary to use the Public Road Administration Classifica- tion system as well. Reference will be made to these two systems as H.R.B.C. and P.R.A.C. respectively. Chart I. Public Road Administration Textural Classification Sand: Sand is single grained. The individual grains can readily be _ seen or felt. Squeezed in the hand when moist, sand will form a cast which ‘will crumble when gently pressed or dried. Sandy Loam: Soil containing mainly sand but containing sufficient silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can readily be seen and felt. If molded when moist, it will form a cast which ‘will bear careful handling without breaking. Sands and sandy loans can be coarse, medium or fine, depending upon the proportion of the different sizes of particles that are present. ‘Eggm; Loam is a soil having a more or less balanced mixture of the different grades of sand, silt, and clay. It is mellow with a somewhat gritty feel; yet fairly smooth and slightly plastic when moist. Silt Loam: A silt loam is a soil having a moderate amount of the fine grades of sand and a small amount of clay, with a large quantity of silt par- ticles. When in dry pulverized condition, it feels soft and floury. If the U.S. Public Road Administration Classification Soils are classified in eight groups designated as A-l to A-8 inclusive. Group A-I. The typical material of this group is a well—graded material (sand, silt and clay) having excellent binder. A-I soils have high internal friction, high cohesion, no detrimental shrinkage, no expansion, capillarity or elasticity. They are generally found in small deposits. Group A-2. This group includes coarse and fine materials with improper gnad- ing or inferior binder. They have high internal friction and high cohesion only under certain conditions, may have detrimental shrinkage, eXpansion, capillarity, or elasticity. Group A-B. The typical material of this group is a sand without binder, with high internal friction, and without detrimental capillarity or elasticity. roup A-h. This group includes cohesionless silts and friable clays having no appreciable amount of sticky colloidal clay. They have variable internal friction, no appreciable cohesion, no elasticity and important capillarity. Group A-5. This group includes micaceous and diatomaceous silts and sands. They are similar to A-h group but in addition possess elasticity in an appre- ciable amount. Group A-6. The typical material of this group is cohesive clay in a diapersed state with low internal friction, high cohesion under low moisture content, without elasticity, but likely to eXpand and shrink in detrimental amount. Group A-7. This group includes micaceous, diatomaceous and flocculated clays. May contain lime or associated chemicals productive of flocculation in the soils. They are similar to A-6 group but in addition possess elasticity. Group A-8. Typical materials of this group are peats and mucks with low internal friction, low cohesion, apt to possess capillarity and elasticity 00 't‘ ( PUBLIC ROADS ADHIKISTRATION TABLE 1. ~ SOIL CLASSIFICATIOR A~2 ““”“‘”‘“"“'””' ‘ Group . A~l Friable . Plastic A-3 A-h _, A-iww A_6 A-7 A-8 General Stability Highly Stable Stable When Dry; Good Stable Satisfactory when Difficult to Good Stability Good Stability Incapable PrOperties at all Times May Ravel Material Ideal Support dry; LOSS Of Stabll— Compact; Stabil- When Preperly When Properly of Support When Confined ity when Wet or by ity Doubtful Compacted Compacted _-__ _ _ W Front Action Physical Constants: — o e I e e . T7 1. T : Internal Friction ........... High High High High vallable JarLable Low Low Law Cohesion High Low High None Variable LOW High High Low Shrinkage ................... Not detrimental Not significant De+rimental when poorly NOt significant Variable Variable Detrimental Detrimental Detrimental raded pransion ..................... None None Some 51}Sflt Varlaole ngh High Detrimental Detrimental Capillarity ................... None None Some Slight Detrlmental ngh High High Detrimental Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . None i‘lone :3 None Variable Detrimental None ' h Detrimental J L l. 1s Textural Classification: Uniformly Poor Poor coarse fine sand Micacecus and Deflocculated Drainable Peat and F1 I. .‘ w a "‘ “o e a a -1 ‘. . . 1 7'. ‘ . ' l ‘ . General Grading ............. graced; coarse“ grading; poor grading; lrferlor binder material only, coneSlonless Silt dlatomaceous COhSSlVe Clays flocculated muck o — o ‘ ‘ D, . ’1 fine, excellent binder no binder and lrlable clay clays biluiex' Approximate Limits: 4 700 5“ 5, ‘ Sandéfercent ................ 70~SS 55~80 55~80 752i) H? (max.) deSTax') 55 (max.) 55 (max.) 55 (max.) Silt-Percent ................ lfiwfiC 0~45 Ow45 lg“ “8 *dm Medium Medium Not signi— (1) L L ficant l ow or . . . . Clay~Percent ................ 5ml0 0.45 0-45 ' 30 (mln.) 30 (m1n.) Net Signi- ficant Physical Characteristics: . , , . q ' r; ' ‘. ,1, MP \2) 20-40 3 mln . _ LiO‘LLlCi. Itilllit e o a e e e e e e o a e e e e e 14:”th 55 (Hide w) 05 (“fl 1‘ 0) NT) {2) O 1 5 S ( .) 35 (10111.) 35 (mln.) 35-h00 T , . . , - _ O T. ,2 n m g: \ "*- 0-60 18 (min ) 12 ( ' ) 0-60 Big-Smmy Index 4“" MW“) .31-”: and; Not Essential 30 (max-) 30-190 ‘ ' mln‘ Field moisture Ecuivalcnt Not Essential Not 'SSenflel “CL £536“*lce *‘ 50 (max.) 30-100 30-h00 Centrifuge i‘v'ioifi'tU-I‘e n m: m; (,-,- ) 12 (max.) Not Essential Not Fssential fl . . . lemdu ev “d*~ ‘ J - Not essential Not Essential Not Essential Equivalent .................. PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION TABLE 1. u SOIL CLASSIFICATION (Cont'd.) '-~-‘ A-B Group _ _ Awl ~ ~ Friable ,ng-“Ml_".lfl:1, lQZQ __,,wgggA-5 A-6 A'7 A'8 General Stability Highly Stable Stable When Dry; Good Stable - Satisfactory when Difficult to Good Stability Good Stability Properties at all Times May Ravel Ideal Support dry; Loss of Stabil- Compact; Stabil- When Properly When PrOperly Incapable of When Confined ity when Wet or by ity Doubtful Compacted Compacted Support s-l-_ll__E{9§t Action -__l_ , Centrifuge Moisture (Cont'd.) "‘ “I“ “'“'"‘"” Shrinkage Limit ............ 14~20 ISHQU 25 (max.) Not Essential 20-30 30-120 6-1h 10—30 30-120 Shrinkage Ratio ............ 1.7ml.9 1.7wl.9 Not Essential 1.5—1.7 0.7-1.5 1.7-2.0 1.7-2.0 0o3-1oh Volume Change O»lO one None O~16 0.16 17 (mun) 17 (min.) 14-200 Lineal Shrinkage 0~5 owe None 0—1; 0-34 5 (min.) 5 (min.) 1-30 Compaction Characteristics: Maximum Dry Weight, 150 (m1n.) l20~lSO 120~13O llO~l20 80-100 80-110 80-110 90 (max.) pounds per cubic foot .... Optimum Moisture, percentage 9 9~12 ? 9“12 12-17 22-30 17-28 17-28 of dry weight (approximate) Max. field compaction required, so so 90 95 100 100 100 Waste % of max. dry weight, pounds per c.f. .................... , Rating for Kills 50 ft. or Excellent Good SOOd G003 t0 Poor to Fair to Fair to Unsatis- less in height .............. p00? very poor poor poor factory Rating for Fills more than A 50 ft. in height ............ Good Good to Fair Good to Fair J29? to Good to Very poor Very poor Very poor Unsatis- Required Total Thicfiness for Ialr fair factory Sub~base, bese and surfacing, , , inches 0—6 0—6 *0 9-3.8 9—21; 12-2!i 12-214 (1) Percentage passing No. 200 Sieve, O to 10. (2) NF — NonmPlastic. 10 GROUP A-l A-2 A-S A—4 A—5 A-6 A-7 A—B Coarse material, % (Plus No. 10 sieve) 0.65 0 O 0 O 0 .§ :a Total sandl % 70-85 55 min. 0 55 maximum 4; g Coarse sandJ 2% 45-60 0 O O O 0 '8 g Silt, % 10-20 0 o o o 0 (:5 : Clal‘Lfr’: 5-1.0 O O O O 0 «a Passing No. 200 m Sievglj'o O 0 0-10 0 O 0 Liquid limit, % 14-55 55 max. NP 20-40 55 minimum m Plasticity index 55 4—9 NP-15 NP 0—15 See chart :3 Shrinkage limit, % 14-20 0 0 20—50 See chart a 3 Field moisture c8 2 equivalent 76 O 0 O 50 max. See chart 8 Centrifuge moist— 15 25 12 0 0 ure equivalent. 16 gait. max. max. 0 Not essential NP - Non plastic Plasticity Shrinkage limit ' Field e Chart 2. U.S. Public Roads Administration soil grouping 11 in detrimental amounts. Table 1 gives a summary of the U.S.P.R.A. Classification. Highway Research Board Classification Soils are classified in seven groups designated as A-l to A-7 inclusive. When the main groups are not enough detailed to differentiate between soils belonging to the same group, use is made of subgroups and group index. Granular Materials (containing 35 per cent or less passing No. 200 sieve) Group A-l. The typical material of this group is a well-graded mixture of stone fragments or gravel, coarse sand, fine sand and a non-plastic or feebly plastic soil binder. However, this group includes also stone fragments, gravel, coarse sand, volcanic Cinders, etc., without soil binder. Subgroup A-l-a includes those materials consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel, either with or without a well-graded binder of fine material. Subgroup A-l-b includes those materials consisting predominantly of coarse sand either with or without a well-graded soil binder. Group A-2. This group includes a wide variety of "granular" material which are borderline between the materials falling in Groups A-1 and A-3 and the silt- clay materials of Groups A-h, A-S, A-6 and A-7. It includes all materials containing 35 per cent or less passing the No. 200 sieve which cannot be clas- sified as A-l or A-3 due to fines content or plasticity or both, in excess of the limitations for those groups. Subgroup A-2-h and A-2-S include various granular materials containing 35 per cent or less passing No. 200 sieve and with a.minus No. hO por- tion having the characteristics,of the A-h and A-5 groups. These groups include such materials as gravel and coarse sand with silt con- tents or plasticity indexes in excess of the limitations of Group A-1, and fine sand with nonplastic silt content in excess of the limitations of Group A-3. 12 Subgroups A—2-6 and A-2-7 include materials similar to those described under Subgroups A-2-h and A-2—S except that the fine portion contains plastic clay having the characteristics of the A-6 and A-7 group. The approximate combined effects of plasticity indexes in excess of 10 and percentage passing No. 200 sieve in excess of 15 is reflected by group index values of O to h. Group A-B. The typical material of this group is fine beach sand or fine desert-blow sand without silty or clay fines or with a very small amount of nonplastic silt. The group includes also stream—deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand and limited amounts of coarse sand and gravel. Silt-Clay Materials (containing more than 35 per cent passing the No. 200 sieve). Group A-h. The typical material of this group is a nonplastic or moderately plastic silty soil usually having 75 per cent more passing the No. 200 sieve. The group includes also mixtures of fine silty soil. The group index values range from 1 to 8, with increasing percentages of coarse material being re- flected by decreasing group index values. Group A-S. The typical material of this group is similar to that described under Group A-h, except that it is usually of diatomaceous or micaceous char- acter and maybe highly elastic as indicated by the high liquid limit. The group index values range from 1 to 12, with increasing values indicating the combined effect of increasing liquid limits and decreasing percentages of coarse material. Group A-6. The typical material of this group is a plastic clay soil usually having 75 per cent or more passing the No. 200 sieve. The group also includes mixtures of fine clayey soil and up to 6b per cent of sand and gravel retained on the No. 200 sieve. Materials of this group usually have high volume change between wet and dry states. The group index values range from 1 to 15, with increasing values indicating the combined effect of increasing plasticity indexes and decreasing percentages of coarse material. 13 Group A-7. The typical material of this group is similar to that described under Group A-6, except that it has the high liquid limits characteristic of the A-S group and may be elastic as well as subject to high volume change. The range of group index values is l to 20, with increasing values indicating the combined effect of increasing liquid limits and plasticity indexes and decreasing percentages of coarse material. Subgroup A-7-S includes those materials with moderate plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit and which may be highly elastic as well as subject to considerable volume change. Subgroup A-7-6 includes those materials with high plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit and which are subject to extremely high.volume changes. Group Index is given by the empirical formula Group index a 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01 bd in‘which a that portion of percentage passing No. 200 sieve greater than 35 and not exceeding 75, eXpressed as a positive whole number (1 to to) b s that portion of percentage passing No. 200 sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding 55, eXpressed as a positive whole number (1 to hO) c a that portion of the numerical liquid limit greater than hO and not exceed- ing 60, exPressed as a positive whole number (1 to 20) d . that portion of the numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30, expressed as a positive whole number ( l to 20) Table 2 gives a summary of the H. R. B. Classification. TABLE 2. - HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAY SUBGRADE MATET‘iIALS (With Suggested Subgroups) ~-_.__‘_._........-. -.,m... .. W/M "- - Silt-Clay Materials General Granular Materials M *e than ,% casing No. 200) Classification (35% or less passing No. 200) ( 01 35 p“ w “- ._..._.. ....-.. -.. ._.i, _.. .. _. --_ _.__,.-,.,_l _.i__. .r _. .. n..- ,fixwm‘r—‘w—‘F A—7 Group A'1 I O AHQ A 0 6 x 9 a t-— A—h A_S A—é A«%-§ Classification A-l—a A-l—b A-3 A-Z‘a A-e-S a—e—i earn! ‘ i_7a6 “- —_ _ “-_r-.a—a—.--_.-‘.._.~_._._.- ..»—~..~.-........._......._ ~~~~~mW~Hlm .W i. ,_ Sieve Analysis, Percent No. 10 50 max. No. hO 30 max. 50 max. 51 min. / . _. ' f . No. 200 15 max. 25 max. 10 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 30 mlfi- 36 min. 36 min. 30 min. Characteristics of fraction passing No. hO: A ‘ . - . LiQUid Limit hO max. hl min. hO max. hl min. ho max. ul min. ho max. hl min.a Plasticity Index 6 max. I.P. 10 max. 10 max. ll min. ll min. 10 max. 10 max. ll min. ll min.- Group indexb o O h max. 8 max. 12 max. 16 max. 20 max. USual Types of significant Stone Fragments, Fine . _ n_ . , Constituent Materials" Gravel and Sand ' Sand Silty or Clayey Gravel and Sand Silty Sclls clayey Sclls General Rating as Subgrade Excellent to Good Fair to poor Classification Procedure: With required test data available, proceed from left to right on abovemchart and correct group will be found by process of elimination. the correct classification. aPlasticity index of A—7—S subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30. than LL minus 30. bSee group index formula for method of calculation. as: A—2-6(3), A—h(5), A-6(12), A—7—S(l7), etc. The first group from the left into which the test data will fit is Plasticity index of A-7~6 subgroup is greater Group index should be shown in parenthesis after group symbol. WI 15 Chart B Chart A Chart 3. Highway Research Board Group Index 16 CHAPTER II THE ROAD The road structure can be divided in two parts: The road surface and the foundation. The road surface consists essentially of a base course whose structure must be such that it can support without failure the combined detrimental action of weather and traffic. The road surfaces we are concerned with in this study are of the flexible type, i.e. they are not designed to support the pressure of the applied traffic load, but to transmit it to the foundation. The road surface is subject to complex efforts: vertical pressure of the vehicles load, horizontal shears in all directions, impact due to accel- erating, decelerating, braking, or skidding. Rain by splash and runoff action tends to wash away the fine soil fraction, dryness with wind blow causes dust and granular fractions to loosen. By the impact, stamping, suction, tangential efforts, friction, vibration of the wheels, the surface fails in several spots, grains are projected and pot holes are formed. As the surface becomes rough vibrations of the vehicles' Springs assembly loosen material in longitudinal stripes like waves whose distance is regular and correSponds to the period of the Spring vibration for the average Speed of the bulk of the vehicles. In order to prevent this deterioration a "wearing course" is usually placed which provides a surface to resist abrasion of tires and water, The foundation or subgrade must carry without failure the stresses transmitted through the base course. Therefore it is necessary to have def- inite information regarding its bearing capacity. Methods used for that purpose are the California Bearing Ratio Test, the triaxial compression test, 17 the plate bearing test and the cone bearing test.(1)* The foundation must be uniform. Weak Spots are likely to settle irregularly with traffic, deflection and cracks may appear to the surface allowing water to enter the structure. It must be stable. Volume changes due to climatic variation and moisture fluctuation must be eliminated. By shrinkage or swelling they provoke breakdown of the soil structure and the lowering of the bearing capacity. (lehe values given by these different tests are only comparative and have not yet been related one to another. * See Appendix I 18 CHAPTER III MECHANICAL STABILIZATION Mechanical stabilization is the title given to those methods of con- struction in which soils or soil-aggregate materials, are mechanically manipulated to provide foundation, base or surface courses, able to carry with only slight degradation traffic loads under all normal moisture and traffic conditions. The purpose of this manipulation is either to increase the density of, to produce a greater uniformity in, or to reduce the moisture content of the soil. This is to be obtained because of the following facts: Effect of Density on Compressive Strength '1 "T l -1- s .i‘i kg . l_ H.- “l," L‘ Figure l emphasizes the following relationzasdensity is lowered, bearing capacity falls off rapidly. Effect of Moisture Content on Bearing Capacity Figure 2 shows that as the moisture content of a mechanically stabilized mix- ture is increased, its compressive strength decreases rapidly. In effect the values corresponding to cohesion, adhesion, compression, shearing resistance are plotted on the same graph. As the moisture content 19 is increased it is readily seen that maximum reactions occur in the plastic .—.— __ -— range 0 l_'._ . -l14.: ' .'\ O -.V -r._'._l1_ .‘fi' 3‘; . . These facts stress the importance of P.I. and L.L. in the selection of -i_1_' materials. In mechanical stabilization soils having P.I. of less than 6 are generally Specified. Once the prOper material is selected moisture contrdl is of utmost impor- tance. It is accomplished by good drainage, proper gradation and adequate .compaction. .Drainage is obtained by shoulders and gutters for surface water and by sub-drains and eventually subbases for ground water. Gradation generally adopted falls in the grading band shown in Fig. h 20 Compaction is made at 95%-lOO% of Optimum moisture content given by the Moisture Density Test*. Mechanical stabilization is obtained by the utilization of the natural properties of the soil components: Gravel and sand make the skeleton. Clay acts as a binder. Silt is a filler. Materials Gravel and sand must be sound and durable. The angular shaped grains are most desirable for they give better interlocking action. Clay must be free from organic or deleterous material. Two types of mixtures are considered:* ' Type A Sand clay mortar Type B Coarse graded aggregate (gravel, crushed stone, slag) Surface Material (1) Gradation Type A Sand Clay Mortar Passing Percentage by Weight 1 inch sieve 100 No. 10 sieve 65 - lOO Material passing No. 10 sieve No. 10 sieve 100 No. 20 sieve 55 - 90 No. 40 sieve 55 - 70 No. 200 sieve 8 — 25 *See Appendix *Ref. 44 .. 21 _Type B Coarse Graded Aggregate Passi Percentage bygfieight 1 inch sieve 100 5/4 inch sieve 85 — 100 5/8 inch sieve 55 — 100 No. 4 sieve 55 - 85 No. 10 sieve 4O — 70 No. 40 sieve 25 - 45 No. 200 sieve 10 — 25 (2) Characteristics of material passing the No. 40 sieve for surface courses 4 . q— o“ . —.-~ -- :~-—--— 7 . e . o » u- - a. - ~ - 5 - \ l , . : I ' I I l I . | . . 1.“... V1 ._._ ..-. -_ ... . -- ._' . _ _ .. _ __‘.___J“ _l_. Fig. 8 Average Relative Effects of Roller and Shrinkage Compaction on the Density and Structural Stability of Calcium Chloride Stabilized Roads In a comparative compactive test carried out on circular experimental tracks, CaClz treated soils required 18,200 trip against 60,000 for plain soil to attain a similar density. Evaporation is reaponsible for the decrease of compaction efficiency as moisture content falls under the optimum value. As shown in Fig. 9, 0 l CaClg slows down the rate of evaporation. ll “ I ; ' "'i" ’ ‘7'”- it 2 ' | ”J. 1 ' 1J— , rr . Fig. 9 Relationship Between the Rates of Evaporation of Moisture from Treated and Untreated Soils and the Effect of the Relative Humidity on the Hygroscopic Property of the CaClg Treated Soils l 3? Uses: Ca012 is employed for both surfaces and base courses. The benefits derived from its use are: Surface course 1. Abatement of the dust. 2. Increase of the binding power. 3. Conservation of the surface material. In a study carried out it was found that the loss of material for Ca012 stabilized roads was only 37 per cent of the loss of material for ordinary untreated roads. 2 Base course 1. Cuts in water costs. 2. Cuts in compaction costs. 3. Extention of compaction period. h. Greater Density. 5. Reduction of Frost Damages. Quantity: Varies with soils Surface course % to 2 lbs. per sq. yd. usually consists of an initial treatment of from 3/h to 1% lb. and of lighter treat- ments of generally % lb. per sq. yd. at intervals during the season. Base course Recommendations are 0.5 lb. per sq. yd. per inch of thickness with a maximum of 2 lbs. per layer (i.e. h" maximum thickness). For plant mixing the finished material must contain 5 to 8 per cent by weight of moisture and at least 10 lbs. of CaCl2 per ton of mixture. Procedure CaC12 is used in the form of flakes or in concentrated solution. In 38 road mixed materials Ca012 is Spread uniformly over the materials by means of mechanical Spreaders or Sprinkling systems. For both surface and base course application must be done during a period of high humidity, i.e. during the night or early in the morning, or when the soil is dampened by rain or by artificial Sprinkling. In plant mixed materials CaClg is incorporated during the mixing period. Limitations In soils having high capillarity, Ca012 concentrates near the surface and can be washed away by rain. In soils having high permeability, Ca012 percolates through the road material to the subgrade. In both cases, the structure looses the additional binding power provided by CaClz and maintenance of the correct amount is very costly. However, with most of the soil—aggregate mixtures, the cost of initial and periodical application of Ca012 is approximately equal to the cost of replacement of the loosened material resulting from surface wear which is estimated to be approximately % to 1 inch per year. Moreover, elimination of dust hazard and smoother surface results in saving for the public. Ca012 stabilized roads furnish a good base for higher type surfacing. CaClg seems to aid the absorption of bituminous priming materials. 39 CHAPTER V SOIL-BITUMEN STABILIZATION .Soil-Bitumen Stabilization is the name given to those methods of con- struction in which a bituminous material is incorporated in a soil or soil- aggregate mixture in order to stabilize it and render it capable of carrying the applied traffic loads under all normal conditions of moisture and traffic. In cohesive soils the bituminous material acts as a waterproofing agent in order to maintain a low moisture content. In non-cohesive soils it acts also as a binding agent by binding the soil particles together. In no case must the bituminous content be in excess of the volume of voids from the Proctor density in order to prevent excess lubrication of the particles giving instability. There are several types of bituminous stabilization. The principal ones are: Natural Soil-bitumen mixture generally refers to a waterproofed system of a naturally cohesive soil without reSpect of gradation of soil material. Dense Graded-Soil-bitumen mixture is a system of well graded soil material from fine to coarse having high potential density (could be mechanically stabilized) and waterproofed by a uniform distribution of a small amount of bituminous material. Qpen Graded-Soil-bitumen mixture, also called Sand-bitumen, is a system in which loose beach, dune, pit or river sand is cemented together by bitum- inous material. ho Dense Graded-Soil—bitumen Stabilization Dense Graded-Soilfbitumen Stabilization is used as a base course of h to 8 in. thickness. It consists of a mixture of sand or stone screenings, gravel or crushed stone, a clay binder, and waterproofed by the incorporation of from 1 to 2 or more per cent of bituminous waterproofing material. Materials Aggregates must be free from injurious quantities of flaky materials, soft shale, organic matter or other deleterious material. Soil Binder must be free from injurious amounts of organic matter and all passing a 1 inch sieve. Water must be clean, free from any injurious substances as salt, oil, acid, alkaly organic matter, etc. 0 O O 0 %\1 Bituminous waterproofing material can be: Tar grade RT - h Emulsified ASphalt grade 1 and 2 Cut-Back ASphalt grade RC - l Bituminous Primer Tar grade RT2 to RTh Emulsified ASphalt grade 1 and 2 Asphalt grade MC - 0 Gradation Gradation is of utmost importance. The gradingsused are similar to those used for Mechanical Stabilization. However, since the fine fraction requires more bituminous material than the coarse one, it is advantageous to *LESeedretic use gravel and/or crushed stone. b1 Three possible gradations are given below. They have given good results, however they are not the only ones and others may prove satisfactory. Grading Type A Type B Type C Passing: % % i 1% in. square screen 100 .......... 1 in. square screen 80 - 100 100 ----- 3/h in. square screen 65 - 85 80 - 100 100 No. h sieve hO - 65 50 - 75 80 — 100 No. 10 sieve 25 - 50 hO - 6O 6O - 80 No. hO sieve 15 - 30 20 - 35 30 - 50 No. 100 sieve 10 - 20 13 - 23 20 - 35 No. 200 sieve 8 - 15 10 - l6 l3 - 30 Recommendations: colloidal clay fraction $. 8 per cent (for type C only) fraction passing No. hO sieve > hO per cent of fraction passing No. 10 sieve fraction passing No. 200 sieve < 60 or preferably 50 per cent of fraction passing No. hO sieve a tolerance of 15 per cent at every point of the grading curve is generally adopted (see Fig. Bitumen Content, in percentage of the dry weight of soil: For type A or B: in dry climates in climates having moderate to heavy rainfalls For type C: in dry climates h)- a minimum of l per cent a minimum of 2 per cent a minimum of 2 per cent in climates having moderate to heavy rainfalls a minimum of 3 per cent L2 Moisture content Must be in a range of plus or minus 0.5 per cent from the optimum moisture content. Optimum moisture content is for types A and B about 6 per cent. " " " " for type C about 8 per cent. Construction Equipment In order to give reliable service all pieces of equipment must be in first-class condition. Equipment having crawler treads must be equipped with wood-block treads or steel street plates. All wheels except a flat wheel roller must be equipped with rubber tires. All equipment must be such as not to disrupt the treated surfaces. Equipment consists of the standard equipment used for Mechanical Sta- bilization: Trucks or Wagons Tractors Three-Bottom Gang Blows Heavy—Duty Orchard Type Cultivators Disc Harrows Windrow Eveners Spreader Boxes Blade Grader Multiple Blade Drags (blade depth 20 in. minimum) Sheepsfoot Rollers (optional) Spring Tooth Harrows Multiple4Wheel Pneumatic-Tired Rollers (3 to 7 tons, 200 lbs. per in. of tread width) Tandem Rollers (rolls of at least h2 in. diameter, h8 in. width and 200 to 300 lbs. per linear inch) Nail Drags Broom Drags and of specialized pieces of equipment including: Hgating equipment (when necessary). Bituminous material can be heated directly inside the tanks by means of coils— steam, oil or electrically heated (and plunged into the material. An outside system is used when the material is in a pumpable state. It is then circulated through a heating system called booster and dumped again in the tank where temperature raises quickly. For small amounts portable kettles are used. No water or injurious materials must be allowed to enter the system. Thermometers must indicate temperature of the material near the source of heat or in the heating system. Bituminous Distributors. Normal capacity from 600 to 1,500 gal. They are equipped with an independent heating device and a pump distributing system having a capacity of at least 200 gal. per min. Distribution is made by means of nozzles mounted on Spray bars on various widths (6 to 2h feet). Distributors must be equipped with a tachometer and distribution tables, thermometers, adequate pressure and volume gages in order to control the temperature and the quantity of Spread material. Traveling Mixing Plants can be used. They are Single-pass stabilizers which can incorporate the desired amount of bituminous material to the soil aggregate and leave it ready to be compacted. Central or Portable Plants can be used when the mixing plant is preferred to the mixed in place method.. They can be provided with bituminous material storage, heating, feeding and dosing system to get the material ready to be Spread and compacted. With the two last auxillary loading devices, supplying tanks and pumping systems are required (varying with the make). Construction Procedure Base Course: Base courses are usually laid b to 8 in. thick. Preparation of Aggregate Materials Plant Mixing. Selected materials are loaded and moved from the pit to the plant in the proportion required to meet the Specifications for type A, B or C. Road Mixing. When part or all of the materials are furnished by the road bed, this one is scarified or plowed to a depth sufficient to furnish enough loosened material which is put in windrows of preper size on one side of the roadway. When part or all of the materials are taken from other sources, they are hauled and placed in windrows as specified before. The soil binder material must be pulverized so that 85 per cent passes the No. h sieve. Subgrade must meet the general requirements of foundations as eXplained in Chapter 3. Temporary drainage must be provided in order to prevent water from accumulating in the subgrade or on the material in the process of mixing. Primingza prime coat of bituminous material is generally placed on the subgrade to prevent capillary rises from the subgrade through the base. Prime coat is applied on the free part of the roadway in a wet state, to facilitate absorption. When this is completed (generally in 2b hours), the windrows of soil and aggregates are moved from one side of the road to the other and priming is completed on the untreated part and allowed to be absorbed by the subgrade. Plant mixing. Aggregate and soil binder material are fed in adequate proportions into mixing units and thoroughly mixed with prOper amounts of water and bituminous material. r‘- ‘J‘L Blade Mixing - Windrow of aggregate and soil binder is Spread. Materials are pulverized by harrowing, discing, and blading and are uniformly moist. Bituminous material is Spread by means of distributors and thoroughly mixed with the moist aggregate by harrowing, discing, blading and with addi- tional sprinkling of water to keep the mixture moist. Then the mixture is bladed into windrows. Traveling Mixing Plant - Materials in one or more windrows are picked up by the traveling unit which mixes them while moving with proper amounts of water and bituminous material supplied by portable Supply tanks. Spreading Spreading is accomplished before the moisture content of the mixture falls below the Optimum moisture content* by means of Spreading boxes, blade graders, rubber tired motor patrols with a wheel base of at least 15 feet a? traveling plants (certain types). The layers are of a uniform thickness of not more than 2 inches. Compaction Rolling‘of each layer is accomplished immediately after spreading. First with a steel wheeled roller and then with pneumatic tired rollers. The mixture must not be allowed to dry at any time during the Operation and water must be Sprinkled when necessary. If too wet, the mixture must not be applied but kept until it can be worked satisfactorily. Each layer is rolled until 95 per cent of the Proctor density is obtained. If depressions occur, additional mixture must be provided, bladed and rolled until proper grade is obtained. Each layer is allowed to dry when compaction is finished, until moisture content is inferior at h per cent. * Determined by the Standard Compaction Test ho When emulsions are used the remaining water content must not exceed 25 per cent of the Optimum. When rain is not anticipated during construction, layers of up to 6 inches in thickness can be compacted with Sheepsfoot rollers. The construction of bituminous stabilized bases must not be attempted. when the temperature is 35 degrees F. or less and is falling. fearing Surface Soil—bituminous mixtures are generally too friable and wear rapidly under traffic. They must be protected by a wearing surface very soon after construction. The thickness of the surfacing varies with the anticipated volume of traffic. Usually for light traffic a penetrating prime and an application of high viscosity emulsified aSphalt, R.C.-cut-back, hot penetration asphalt or tar of O.h to 1/2 gal. per sq. yd. is satisfactory. It is Spread by means of distributors and covered by means of mechanical Spreaders with clean stone chips up to 1/2 inch in size. The surfacing must be well sealed against entrance of surface water. h? Natural Soil-Bitumen Stabilization Natural soil-bitumen stabilization is used as a base course of h to 8 inches in thickness. It consists of a mixture of natural cohesive soil to which bituminous materials are incorporated in the prOportion of from b to 7 per cent of the dry weight of the soil, in order to waterproof it. It is a variation of the method previously described, in which greater tolerance in gradation results in higher bitumen requirements. Materials Sail must be free from injurious amounts of flaky materials, organic matters or other deleterious materials. Presence of large quantities of sand, gravel or crushed stone is desirable as it increases the stability and decreases the amount of bitumen required. General recommendations are: Gradation, Maximum size: Must not be greater than 1/3 of the compacted thickness, or if the base is made up of several layers can be of the same size as the compacted thickness of one lift. Passing No. b sieve > 50 per cent Passing No. no sieve from 35 to 100 per cent Passing No. 200 sieve from 10 to 50 per cent Characteristics of fraction passing No. no Sieve L. L. < to P. I. <; 18 Eater must be clean, free from any injurious matters as salt, acid, alkaly organic matter, etc. Bituminous materials. Although rapid, medium, or slow-curing liquid have been successfully used, medium-curing cut-back are recommended. Preferred h3 tars are RT3 to RT 6 grades. Emulsions must be tested for several viscosities, and their use involves features differing from that of liquid asphalts and tars. In fact many types of bituminous materials have been used and there is a need for materials Specifications and tests standardization. Construction equipment is the same as listed on page.h2a Moreover a minimum of 20 in. for the discs of disc harrows and 1h in. for plows in gang is recommended. Construction procedure is the same as described on page Lib. h? Qpen-graded Soil-bitumen Mixture (Sand-bitumen) Sand-bitumen stabilization is used as a base course 3 to 10 inches in thickness. It consists of a mixture Of sand, with or without mineral admix- ture, and a bituminous binder. Materials Sand must be free from organic matter and Of lumps, balls or adherent films of clay. Gradation passing No. 200 sieve 12 per cent for wind blown or dune sand passing NO. 200 Sieve 25 per cent providing that fraction passing Field Moisture Equivalent 20 " NO. hO sieve have Linear Shrinkage 5 per cent Stability Stability for cut—back aSphalts Modified Hubbard-Field Stability test value(1) .2' 1200 lbs. Stability for tars Florida Bearing Valueu) >/ 25 lb. per sq. in. Stability for Emulsified aSphalts Florida Bearing Valuea) 2 30 lb. per sq. in. Mineral admixture (Optional) can consist of: crushed stone, crushed slag, crushed or round gravel, stone or slag screenings, rock dust, loess, other sand or non-cohesive mineral matters which give to the mix the desired stability and density. Bituminous Binder Tar(2) RT _ 6, RT — 7, RT - 8, RT - 9, RT - lO. UjSee Appendix II (2)8ee Table Bituminous Binder (Continued) Cut-back ASphalt RC - 1, RC - 2, RC - 3. Emulsified ASphalt Grade 1 and 2 Recommendation Tar: Mixing Methods Sand Passing Recommended NO. 200 Sieve Grade Of Tar % Blade 12 - 25 RT - 6,7 Blade 0 - 12 RT - 7,8,9 Plant 12 — 25 RT - 7,8 Plant 0 — 12 RT - 8,9,10 Cut-back ASphalt: Mixing Methods Sand Passing Recommended NO. 200 sieve Grade of % Athalt Blade 15 - 25 RC - 1 Blade 0 - 15 RC - 2 Plant 15 — 25 RC - 2 Plant 0 - 15 RC - 3 Emulsified Asphalt - Grade 1 when to be Spread with a distributor truck Grade 2 may be diluted prior to application to reduce viscosity. anstruction Equipment Same as described on pageth. In addition: When the depth of pavement is more than 5 in. Three-Bottom Gang Plows with 1h in. bottoms, capable Of plowing to a depth of 10 in. are used. When the depth of pavement is less than 5 in. Heavy Duty Orchard Type Cultivators are used. 51 Disc Harrows must be equipped with 22 in. Windrow Eveners must be equipped with an adjustable gate not over h ft. 'wide and not less than 2 ft. high. It must be large enough to carry at least 2 cu. yd. of material in addition to the volume occupied by the windrow itself in the evener. The height of the windrow must be not less than 25 per cent of the width. Construction Procedure Same as described on page.h5. In addition, aeration or curing Operations must be carried out with blade drags, until the bituminous mixtures meet the following requirements: Cut—back Asphalt - Average minimum Hubbard Field Stability value Of 1200 lb. Tag - Average minimum modified Florida Bearing Value of 150 lb. per sq. in. Emulsified ASphalt - Average modified Florida Bearing Value Of 150 lb. per sq. in. The bituminous binder must not be applied when the air tanperature is less than 50 deg. F. Surface requirements. The surface must not show any depression greater than l/h inch when a 10 ft. straight edge having a standard template, cut to the true cross section, is laid parallel to the center line Of the completed base. Any definiency must be corrected. Seal Coat. The mixture being Of the Open type, generally three weeks after completion a seal coat is applied in order to prevent entrance Of water. It consists of a uniformly applied coat of the bituminous material used in the base course construction, Spread by means Of a pressure distributor, then covered with coarse sand, or fine, clean stone or slag chips, and broom dragged until the binder has been blotted up or blended with the underlying surface. 52 Limitation Dense graded soil—bitumen is a very suitable stabilizing method re- quiring only a small amount of bituminous material. The maintenance is easy and consists of patching and eventually re—shaping. The material so stabilized can be reaworked without any trouble. Natural soil-bitumen requires a little higher percentage of material but is scmewhat less troublesome as for tests and gradation. Sand~bitumen is limited to areas where sand is predominant. Dense graded soil-bitumen base and sand-bitumen base are very satisfac- tory as an intermediate type pavement. The latter two bitumen bases plus the natural Soil—bitumen base can be used as foundation for a higher type pavement. 53 Other types of Soil-bitumen Stabilization are: Oiled Earth Roads Oiled Earth Roads are prOperly graded, compacted and drained earth roads, waterproofed by application of Oil or other low viscosity bituminous material. In this process, the bituminous material is not mixed with the soil but allowed to penetrate 3/h to 1 inch deep. Requirements Surface. The surface must be sufficiently moist so the pore Spaces are Open. If too dry, dust film will prevent penetration or cracks will result in non-uniform penetration. Material. Uniform products containing all intermediate fractions are preferred to heavy material, cut-backs with light volatile material. A variety of products have been used. Slow-curing cut-backs, eSpecially SC—2, are particularly well adapted but Medium-curing material, MC-l and MC-2, are preferred in some areas. Tars used are RT-l and RT-2, or when the soil to be treated contains substantial amounts of aggregate admixture, RT-2 and RT-3 are used. Construction Equipment Consists of standard grader and bituminous pressure distributor. Construction Procedure Just before treatment the road surface is bladed in order to eliminate dust, crust and depression, thus leaving a surface clean and containing sufficient moisture to facilitate penetration. The Oil is applied by means of a distributor in one or three coats, three coats being more desirable, allowing the bituminous material to be SS Asphalt Membranes Stabilization This method is an improvement of Mechanical Stabilization. As shown in fig. 10, it consists of two waterproofing coats one under, the other above a mechanically stabilized base course which is confined and kept at a chosen moisture content so that weather fluctuations have no influence on its behavior. During construction precautions must be taken so that the under coat is not damaged. It is better ro protect the shoulders from mutilation. Fig. 10 Stabilization with Membrane Subgrade Oiling It is a treatment which consists of insulating the soil which will serve as a foundation from the base to be constructed. Comparing with sand subbase, oiling prevents water from percolating as well as rising by capillarity. In fact it is similar to an Oiled Earth Road taken as a foundation for a base course for new construction. Sh completely absorbed before another coat is applied,which can require from several hours to one or more days depending on weather conditions. Light application of clean sand or fine granules may be scattered on the surface but excess must be avoided. When applications are completed, the surface is allowed tO cure for 2h hours and then Open to traffic. Maintenance of Oiled Earth Roads usually takes place after each season's use. This consists of patching and of surface treatments after irregularities have been Shaved. Oil Quantity. The three applications of the initial treatment total 1 gallon per sq. yd. The first season's treatments 1/2 gal. per sq. yd. The second and following treatments l/h gal. per sq. yd. Limitation. This methOd is not used where granular type soils are encoun- tered but with silts, clays and silt-clay soils where local aggregates are not available. It is a low cost, semi-permanent improvement of earth roads. 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