AN INVESTEGATION 0F CERTAEN CHARACTERESTICS OF ATHLETE AND NON-ATHLETE HIGH WEIGHT GAINERS Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MECHEGM STATE WEE-’E S’ITY Marvin A. Zuidema 19.59 mm MSU LIBRARIES 4—3—— RETURNING MATERIALS: RIace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. AN INVESTIGATION OF CERTAIN CHARASTERISTICS OF ATHLETE AND NON-ATHLETE HIGH HEIGHT CAITERS BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH COLLEGE OF EDUCATION MICHIGAN sum: movies“! EAST wsme, ”scum By Marvin A. Zuidema A THESIS Submitted to the College of Education of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTEF CF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1959 ACKNOWIEDCEIEI‘iTS I wish to eXpress my indebtedness and appreciation to Dr. Henry J. Hontoye for his guidance and assistance so generously given me in this research project. I am also grateful for the 000peration given me by Mrs. Norma Ray of the Tabulating Department, Michigan State University and Mr. .John Van Dyke, Statistics Department, Michigan State University. DEDICATION to my wife Virginia and infant daughter Dawn Elaine who went to be with the Lord, July 30, 1958 CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . Importance of the Study . . . . . . Definitions of Terms . . . . . . . . Limitations ............ REVIEWOFLITERATURE. . . . .. ... Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal Weight: Overweight : Obesity Medical Ailments and Weight . . . . Sucking andWeight. . . . . . . . . Activity and Weight Control . . . . METHODS OF PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . Introduction............ Source of Data . . . . . . . . . . . Subjects.............. Tabulation of Results . . . . . . . Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . WEIGHT ANALYSIS . . . . . .- . . . . . PresentAge ............ Per cent Increase in Weight . . . . Actual Increase in Weight . . . . . Weight at Graduation . . . . . . . . Present'tqeightooooeoeee 00 iv PAGE 5‘ II" N \J'l 16 19 23 23 2h 21; . 28 28 29 29 29 29 31 33 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cent CHAPTER v. MEDICAL HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . Ailments.............. \ 0/ Ailments - Respiratory and Circulatory . . . . . . . . "Other" Diseases 0 o e e e o e e e 0 Present State Of Health 0 e o e o 0 VI. ECONOMIC AND MARITAL STATUS: SMOKING AND DRINKING HABITS Economic State During College . . . Econamic State After College . . . . I-IaritalStatus........... Drinking Habits . . . . . . . . . . Smoking habits . . . . . . . . . . . VII. VOCATIONAL AND AVOCATIONAL ACTIVITIES: SPORTS ACTIVITIES EVALUATION OF ATHLETICS: MILITARY SERVICE . . . . . . Vocational and Avocational Activities Sports Activities . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of Athletics . . . . . . Military Service . . . . . . . . . . VIII. HEREDITY HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . Number Living and Dead of Kins . . . Age of Death of Kins . . . . . . . . Causes of Death of Kins . . . . . . Ailments of Fathers and Mothers . . SizeOI‘FaInilyeeoeeeeeooo PAGE 3b 3b \3) C\ 39 39 39 Al D3 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.) CHAPTER PAGE IX. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOA‘EIEI‘IDATIONS . . . . . . . . 80 Summary........................ 80 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cl Recormnendations.................... 8b BIBLIOGRAPHY .. 86 vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Number of Subjects in the Michig n State Study of "Longevity and Horbidity of College Athletes" Providing weight Infonuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 II. Number of Subjects in Age Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 III. Nunber of Subjects in High and Low Weight Increase Groups . 28 IV. The Ages and weight of High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 V. Mean Per cent Weight Change in Age Intervals . . . . . . . 31 VI. Diseases of High and Low Weight Gainers . . . . . . . . . . 35 VII. Incidence of "Other" Diseases reported by High and Low Height.3roup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 VIII. Present State of Health of High and Low Weight Groups . . . 38 IX. Economic Status of High and Low weight Increase Groups . . to X. Marital Status of the High and Low Weight Increase Groups . A2 XI. Drinking Habits of the High and Low Height Increase (amps ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .lfi XII. A Comparison Between the High and Low weight Increase GroupsinUseofTobaccc................M4 XIII. A Comparison of the Amounts of Tobacco Used by the High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . b5 XIV. A Comparison of the Method of Tobacco Used by the Smokers in the High and Low weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . he TABLE XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. LIST OF TABLES (Cont.) Comparison of High and Low Weight Gain Groups in Non- Sports Vocational and Avocational Activities At Various Age Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of High and Low weight Increase Groups Participating in Sports Activities in Later Life . . . . The Opinion of the High and Low Weight Gain GrOUps on Whether Athletics are Harmful or Beneficial to Competitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Military Service EXperience of High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Branch of Service for the Subjects in the High and Law weight Increase Groups in Service . . . . . . . . . . . Activity in Service of the Subjects in High and Low Weight IncreaseGroupsinService............... Years of Service of the Subjects in High and Low Height Increase Groups in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage Living of the Grandparents of the High and Low MflmWCHmms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Percentage of the Fathers of the High and Low weight Groups Living and Deceased . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Percentage of the Mothers of the High and Low Weight Increase Groups Living and Deceased . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Brothers of the High and Low Weight Increase GroupsLivingandDeceased............... viii PAGE 1:8 58 60 62 62 6h 65 66 68 LIST OF TABLES (Cont.) TABLE PAGE XXVI. Percentage of Sisters of the High and Low Weight Increase Groups Living and Deceased . . . . . . . . . . 69 XXVII. Mean Age at Death of Fathers, Mothers, Brothers, and Sisters of the High and Low weight Increase Groups . . . TO XXVIII. Causes of Death of Fathers of the High and Low weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 XXIX. Causes of Death of Mothers of the High and Low Height Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 XXX. Causes of Death of Brothers of the High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . ._. . . . . . . . . . . . 7h XXXI. Causes of Death of Sisters of the High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 XXXII. "Ailments“ Of Fathers of High an? Lou Leight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 XXXIII. ”Ailments" of Mothers of High and Low Weight Increase mews. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78 XXXIV. The Mean Number of Brothers and Sisters for the High and Low Height Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Mean Per cent Weight Change for the High and Low Weight Increase Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2. Hean Hours Per Day Spent in Vocational and Avocational Activities by High and Low Height Increase Groups . . . . 51 3. Percentage of Combined High and Low Height Increase Groups Participating in Sports Activities in Later Life . . . . . So CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Overwemt is regarded as the primary health problem in the United States.1 Much has been written on the dangers of overweight. Yet, the incidence of overweight appears to be increasing. One-fifth of the peeple in the United States over 30 years of age are considered over- weight.2 The problem has becmne so acute that many medical and actuarial groups are making a national attack on it. 'The urgency of the problan demands continued careful investigation of all phases of it. Statanent of The present study was carried on for the purpose of We" obtaining and comparing information on activities, habits, medical ailments, heredity and environmental conditions, and other closely related characteristics of a group of former college athletes and non-athletes who had gained considerable weight since leaving college and a comparable group of former college athletes and non-athletes who had not gained weight since leaving college. ézélportance 9_f_ Overweight as our primary health problem needs careful .2. $.22 study and research. Every authentic study completed in this area will aid in the fight against this national menace. Research lHoward A. Rush, "Overweight: Our Primary Health Problem," Readers Digest, 62: 122-h, February, 1953. 2Donald B. Amstrong, Louis I. Dublin, George M. Wheatley, and Herbert H. Marks, "Obesity and Its Relation to Health and Disease ," Journal 93: the American Medical Assgciation, 11:7: 1007-101h, Novanber 10, must join in the fight if the battle is to be carried forcefully forward. The conclusions of this study may reveal new insights into the problem. They may serve to verify known facts. New channels of attack may also be opened in the fight against overweight. Definition The following definitions apply to terms used in this 0? Terms study: 1. Athlete - A person who has earned a letter in a major varsity sport at Michigan State University. 2. Non-athlete - A person who has not earned a letter in any major varsity sport at Michigan State University. 3. Eh Weight Gain Groin; - A group of graduates from Michigan State University who have gained considerable weight since leaving college. (Their mean weight gain was 23.8 per cent.) 11. low Weight Gain Grog - A group of graduates from Michigan State University who have gained relatively little weight since leaving college. (The mean weight change in this group was -1.? per cent.) Limitations The limitations of this study are as follows: l. The data was drawn fran answers to a questionnaire which was made up by the Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity's Committee on Longevity. In some instances the questions on the questionnaire were ambiquous. 2. The results of this thesis, as in most questionnaire studies, contained a certain number of biased answers due to the fact that the responses were on a subjective basis. 3. "Michigan State Longevity and Morbidity Study" showed a return of 55.6 per cent and h9.9 per cent of the questionnaires sent to former athletes and non-athletes, respectively.3 Since the same subjects were used in this study the limiting number of responses also affects this study. h. This study investigated only graduates of Michigan State university. The findings were thus based on a somewhat select environmental group although the student body does come from all parts of the world. 5. Subjects were selected according to a stratified random sampling technique based on date of birth and per cent body weight change after leaving college. No consideration was taken of initial weight in college. It perhaps would have been better to stratify the sample according to initial weight in college also. This would have eliminated the possibility of any persons being placed in the high weight gain group who now were ”normal" weight but who while in college were greatly underweight. The probability of this occuring is low but a few cases may have been involved. gflenry J. Montoya, Wayne D. VanHuss, Herbert W. Olson, William R. Pierson, and Andrew J. Hudec, The Longevity and Morbidity of College Athletes, (Phi Epsilon Kappa Fratem ity, l§575, p. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE I. INTRODUCTION There are many indications that overweight is becoming increasingly important in medical practice. More men and women are living to the ages in which adipose tissue is easy to acquire and difficult to lose. The high level of national income has permitted many persons to indulge their desire for food and drink. Recently, the high cost of protein foods has favored increased carbohydrate and high caloric food intake. Increased sedentary living has come with the mechanical age. On the other hand, a growing segment of the public is showing real interest in weight control. This appears to stem from a desire to learn and adOpt changes in diet and mode of living that promise better health, longer life, and improved physical appearance.1 The conditions favoring overweight and the growing interest in weight control have led to much study, research, and discussion. Such factors as frequency, causes, harms, prevention, and treatment have been investigated. Much has been said regarding the relationship of overweight and diseases. In reviewing the literature no studies were found comparing the characteristics of a group of "overweight" individuals with a group of "normal" weight individuals. This was the impetus of the present study. 1Donald B. Armstrong, Louis I. Duolin, George M. Wheatley, and Herbert H. Marks, "Obesity and Its Relation to Health and Disease," Journal of thg_nmerican Medical Association, 1h7:1007-lOlh, November 10, However, the literature does contain many references to studies involving an analysis of factors and characteristics associated with overweight and obesity. This chapter contains a review of the literature pertaining to the factors and characteristics associated with overweight. II. NORMAL WEIGHT: OVERHEIGHT: ORESITY In the literature the conditions of underweight, normal-weight, overweight, and obesity are distinguished. However, the criterion for distinguishing these conditions is not always agreed upon. The usual policy has been to consider all persons 10 per cent below "average" as underweight, 10 per cent above "average" as overweight, and 20 per cent above "average" as obese.2’3 Obesity is defined as "abnormal amount of fat on the body“.)4 There, however, appears to be no cannon agreement 4 upon what the "average" or "ideal" weight is. The most papular criterion for "average" weight has been the well known age-height-woight tables. Perhaps, the most widely used of these have been the " Ideal Weight Tables" prepared several years ago by the MetrOpolitan Life Insurance Canpany.5 Sane of these tables also include 21bid. 3Harrison H. Clarke, gfiucation of Measurement to Health and Physical Education, (New for : nt c'eT-Hall, Inc” l§§h5 p. 116.— hClarence Wilbur Taber, Cyclggiic Medical Diction , (Philadephia: F. A. Davis Company, 19146.) 5,, . . . Ideal Weights for Men" , Metro olitan Life Insurance C , Statistical Bulletin, 21:26, June, 1-953. “Idea-Weights for amen“, Hetropofltan EB'e Insurance Oanpany, Statistical Bulletin, 23:6, October, 191:2. a body type index along with the age and height indexes. These tables have the advantage of universal appeal and understanding and simplicity and economr of measurement. 6 Pett7 has prepared a table of "average" weights for height, age, and sex which he recommends as a criterion for determining overweight and obesity. The table was constructed from a sample of weights, heights, and skinfold measures of 22,000 Canadian people. The author says that this table gives a better reference point in studies on overweight because it involves the "average“ weights of a more representative sample than do many of the current tables now used.3 The use of these "average" or I'ideal" weight tables has been criticized by several authors. Mayer9 feels they do not represent the average weights of the world's pOpulation today. Pett10 challenges their origins. Curetonl1 calls then "rough guides". Prediction equations have been advocated by many as a better method of weight analysis.1‘?’13 Of these Cureton's equationlh is perhaps best 60mm, 22. Cite, p. 110. 7Lionel Bx‘adley Pett, "A Canadian Table of Average Weights for Height, Age, and Sex", Biological Abstracts, 30: 5606, January-June, 1956. 8Ibid. 9Jeen Mayer, "Overweight and Obesity," Atlantic Monthly, 196:69-72, August. 1955. loPett, o . cit. , p. 5606. 1l‘l‘holnas Kirk Cureton, P sical Fitness Appraisal and Guidance, (St. Innis: C. V. Mosby Canpany, 191:7), p. lEI. 12 Ibid. 13C18rke, SE. Cite, pe 110'118e mCureton, . cit., p. 114]» known. ‘Weight according to his method is predicted on the basis of calculated skeletal, muscle girth, and adipose indexes. Overweight and obesity' are determined by comparing actual weight with predicted weight. The guide of 10 per cent above predicted weight as overweight and 20 per cent above predicted weight as obese can be used. Prediction equations were originated because body build and tissue components were found to be very important in determining "average" weight. The "Ideal Weight Tables" had completely neglected body build, skeletal dimensions, and gross proportions of bone, muscle, and fat.15 The main disadvantage of prediction equations is that they demand accurate personal.measuring programs. Such measuring programs are impossible in questionnaire type studies on overweight and obesity. Hayer in 1955 reported a criterion for determining "normal" weight. In criticizing the age-heightdweight tables, he says: "Your safest guide as to what you should weigh is not a table based on the estimated weights of a selected group of fully clad professional men of a bygone era, but it is what you, yourself, weighed at the peak of your physical fonm, when you were about 25. At that age both your bones and your muscles have stapped growing. It is a.weight that you.should be able to maintain, with out undue suffering, by diet and regular exercise."1 One restriction to this criterion is cited by Mayer. He says that the weight at twenty—five may not be the prOper guide for the minority of peOple who do not become fat as a creeping process in.the middle years of life due to physical inactivity and accessibility of food, but 1SClarke, gp. cit., p. 110. 1"E’Mayer, op. cit., p. 70-71. who were obese throughout childhood and youth.17 Mayer's criterion has the advantage of simplicity of administration, especially in questionnaire type studies. Also, each individual in this method acts as a control for himself. This eliminates many factors that otherwise might come into the picture. The criterion works nicely into the commonly used guide of 10 per cent above “average" being considered overweight and 20 per cent above "average" being obese. The "average" in Mayer's criterion.would be a.person's own weight when he was twenty-five. Summary Various criteria have been used to judge nonmaldweight, overweight, and obesity. Usually 10 per cent below "average" is considered underweight, 10 per cent above "average " is overweight, and 20 per cent above "average" is considered obese. Different criteria have been used to determine the "average". Among these are age-heighteweight tables, body build tables, and prediction equations. Recently, Mayer has recommended using a person's weight at twentyefive as his most "ideal" or "average" weight. III. MEDICAL AID-YEN TS The association of overweight and obesity with many serious physical impairments is evident from numerous studies. Zisowitz18 says that obesity is a major cause of poor health easily outranking such widely publicized.menaces as smoking and drinking. The studies found 17Ibid. 18Milton L. Zisowitz, "Dangers and Cures of Obesity," American Mercury, 65:60h-610, November, 1957. in the literature regarding obesity and impairments mainly deal with the relationship of obesity with heart disease, high blood pressure and hypertension, arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer. These studies are reviewed in this chapter. Much study and discussion has been made on overweight and heart disease. Rushl9 says heart disease, whatever its Specific cause, is always aggravated by obesity. Briggs20 in 1951 said that a normal heart or a heart only slightly diseased may show symptons that are solely the eXpression of some extra-cardiac disease such as obesity, which condition may manifest itself in the cardiovascular system. Doyle and his associate321, in a recent study of 1,913 male office workers in Albany, investigated the relationship between weight and ischemic heart disease. They found that in subjects grouped according to the "MetrOpolitan Ideal Weight Tables" a body weight up to 39 per cent over "average" weight carried little increased risk of ischemic heart disease. However, body weights over to per cent nearly quadrupled the risk. In the same study, Doyle and his associates also grouped the subjects ascording to weight gain after the age of twenty-five. The result here showed that an increase of body weight of more than 20 per cent above the weight level existing at the age of twenty-five doubled the risk of developing heart disease.- 19 2 0John F. Briggs, "Reversible Forms of Heart Disease," Biological Abstracts, 25:112h, January-June, 1951. 21Joseph T. Doyle, A. Sandra Heslin, Herman E. Hilleboe, Paul F. Formel, and Robert F. Korns, "A Prospective Study of Degenerative Cardio- Vascular Disease in Albany: Report of Three Year‘s Experience in Ischemic Heart Disease," American Journal of Public Health, Supplement April, 1957, p. 25-32. “...—-.....“ Rush, 0p. cit., p. 122-12h. lO Chapman and his associates22 recently completed a study on weight and coronary disease. Their subjects were 2,252 civil service employees in LosAngclcs. JEach subject was placed in one of four weight classifications according to a weight scale based on height divided by the cube root of weight. Their results showed that among men hO-Sh Years of age, the inCidence of coronary disease was highest in the heavy weight class and lowest in the light weight class. In the 55-70 year-age group, the incidence of coronary disease among males in the light heightdweight class was similar to the incidence in the heavy class. In viewing studies of coronary heart disease, Gubner23 says that although too much emphasis has been put on overweight as the direct cause of coronary heart disease, the indirect relationship between the two conditions is even greater than many studies have indicated. Furthermore, he contends that statistical studies that show little difference between overweight people and the so-called average weight ones as far as heart diseases go are misleading. Millman2b takes a more conservative view when he writes that obesity by itself causes no heart disease but unquestionably hastens and aggravates it. Master and Jaffe25 in a study 22Johnh. Chapman, L. S. Coerke,‘Wilfred Dixon, Donald B. Loveland, and Edward Phillips, "The Clinical Status of a POpulation Group in LosAngeles Under Observation for Two to Three Years," American Journal 35 Public Health, Supplement April, 1957, p. 33-h2. ...—.... """""" 23Richard S. Gubner, "Bigger Link Between'Weight, Heart Disease," Science News Letter, 72:h06, December 28, 1957. 2hMax.Nillman, "Weight, Heart, and Blood Pressure," Todays Health, 30 3 28-29, November, 1952 e 25A. M. Master and H. L» Jaffe, "The Incidence of Obesity in Coronary Disease," Abstracts 3f'World Medicine, 18:162h, July- December, 1955. ...... """"""""""‘ of persons with coronary heart disease found that obesity is more common in persons with coronary disease, but report that no conclusion can be drawn as to the etiolOgical relationship between these two conditions. 26 says that a critical Taking a somewhat reactionary view, Keys review of the question of the relationship between obesity and degenerative heart disease indicates that overweight alone does not account for the present high incidence of coronary heart disease in the United States. He feels the relationship of obesity to degenerative heart disease is yet to be studied adequately. Increased blood pressure and hypertension have been linked to overweight and obesity. A study27 of army officers showed that sustained high blood pressure developed among overweights at an annual rate of 34.6 per thousand as compared with only 1.8 per thousand among those of normal weight. The recent report of Master, Dublin, and iarks28 based on a sample among 7h,000 industrial workers showed at every age and in both sexes a steady progression in average blood pressure, both systolic and diastolic, with increase in body weight for height. In general, the largest differences were found at the older ages and among women. Schnurman29 in analyzing blood pressure found a definite 26Ancel Keys, "Obesity and Degenerative Heart Disease," Biological 27Rush, gp. cit., p. 123. 28A. M. Master, L. I. Dublin, and H. H. Marks, "The Normal Blood I ...—0..“- 29Albert G. Schnurman, "Blood Pressure in Relation to Age, Height, and Height. An analysis of 15,225 Blood Pressure Determinations," Biological Abstracts, 16:h2h5, January-June, l9h2. 12 rise in blood pressure with respect to both age and weight, but that blood pressure was not correlated with height. Schreier3O found a fall in blood pressure following reduction of excessive weight and a rise of blood pressure again after weight, previously lost, had been regained. Ramsey31 also reports that overweight persons are most apt to develop high blood pressure. Levy and his associates32 found that sustained hypertension in 22,7h1 army officers developed in those overweight at a rate two and one-half times greater than those not overweight. Jouve and Albouy33 distinguished between two types of obese subjects: android and gynoid. They found in the android obese person a close correlation between degree of obesity and intensity of hypertension. Jistudy by Faber and Lund3h in 19h9 showed the incidence of hypertension to be much higher in obese than in normal weight subjects. In contrast to the above, Bjerkedal3S 30Herbert Schreier, "Obesity, a Health Hazard," Todays Health, 2h: 110-111, February, l9h6. 31.Frank B. Ramsey, "Overweight," Todays Health, 31:13, June, 1953. 32R. L. Levy, P. D. White, w. I). Stand, and c. c. Hillman, "Overweight, Its PrOgnostic Significance in Relation to Hypertension and Cardiovascular-Renal Diseases,“ Journal of the American.Medical Association, 131: 951, July 20, l9h6. 331. Jouve and M. Albouy, "Obesity and Cardiology," Biological Abstracts, 2h:15239, January-June, 1950. 3‘43. Faber and F. Lund, "Influence of Obesity On The Development of Arteriosclerosis in Human Aorta," Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, 19 3 11985, 19’49‘500 35T. Bjerkedal, "Overweight and Hypertension," Abstracts of world Medicine, 23: 1367, June, 1958. at the University of Oslo found no real relationship between obesity and hypertension in a study of groups of underweight, normal-weight, and overweight individuals. In 1951, Masters, Jaffe, and Chesky found that hypertension was more common in obese men than in those of average weight or underweight. However, they say that the exact relationship between hypertension and obesity remains obscure. Their report says: “There is no definite evidence that obesity is causally related to hypertension. It may be that the factors result- ing in hypertension alSO produce obesity, e.g., emotional influences, faulty metabolism, or a.hormone disturbance. It is questionable that obesity is ever the sole factor in the develogment of hypertension, for it is quite common to find a normal blood pressure in the presence of excessive obesity. There is no doubt, however, that overweight is detrimental when the blood pressure is already eleVgged and that improvement usually follows a loss of weight." The relationship of obesity to arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis has been extensively investigated. The association between vascular Change and obesity is illustrated by Wilen's37 study based on autOpsy material. He divided his cases into three groups according to the State of nutrition evaluated at autopsy. Considering only evidence of adVanced atherosclerosis, he found that the percentage of the obese with atherosclerosis was very high. For example, at ages ’45 to Sh, 20 per cent 01' the obese showed advanced changes in the arteries as compared with 6-7 per cent of those classed as of poor nutritional status; at 65 to 7h the proportions were 16.3 per cent and 20.2 per cent, reSpectively. 36A. M. Masters, H. L. Jaffe, and K. Chesky, "Relationship of Obesity to Coronary Disease and Hypertension," Journal 21; the American m Association, 153311499: December, 1953' 37Segnund L. Wilens, "The Bearing of the General Nutritional State on A‘l"!11;-.rosclerosis," Archives Internal Medicine, 79:129, February, 19147. Coronary atherosclerosis of advanced degree was also more frequent among the obese than among the nomal-weight and underweight subjects, the differences being eSpecially great in men. Tuttle38 in her investigation of ooesity shows how obesity increases blood cholesteral which in turn could be reSponsible for atherosclerotic changes. Goi‘man and Jones39 found a strong) positive association of lipOproteins with atherosclerosis in the human. Also, the correlation of these lipoproteins to obesity was positive. They theorized that this positive association of lipOproteins with both atherosclerosis and obesity might account for most, possible for all, of the association of obesity with atherosclerosis. Studies show that diabetes and obesity are related. Joslin and his associatesbo investigated a large group of diabetic subjects. Using as a basis the previous maximum weight prior to onset, they found that among patients no and over at onset 60 per cent of the diabetics were at least 20 per cent over average weight and an additional 25 per cent moderately overweight, or a total of 85 per cent with some degree of Werweight. Only 5 per cent were Imdemeight. Adamshl reviewed 673 38Esther Tuttle, "Obesity: Psychiatric Plus Dietary Approach to Its Treatment," Biological Abstracts, 23:11:362, January-June, 191:9. 39John W. Gofman and Hardin B. Jones, "Obesity, Fat Metbolism, and Cardiovascular Disease," Biological Abstracts, 26:21267, July-December, 1952. hOGeorge F. Baker Clinic and Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Diabetes in 3113 l9h0's, (New York: MetrOpolitan Life Insurance Company, ‘J‘E‘ranklin S. Adams, "Obesity as a Precursor of Diabetes ," W W. 5:7663. January-Me, 1931. 15' case histories of diabetic patients. He found that 91 per cent were overweight and 82.9 per cent were more than 10 per cent overweight before the diabetes began. Vila)42 claims obesity is an excitant cause of diabetes on the basis of a study of 6558 patients. He found that 80 per cent of these were obese before the onset of the disease. That all obese persons are potential diabetics is claimed by Zubiran.h3 Likewise, Dahlbergm‘ found an association between obesity and diabetes, but he believes that obesity may be an early Sign rather than a predisposing cause of diabetes. He theorizes that there is an initial stage before sugar begins to appear in the urine in which blood sugar is raised sufficiently to increase appetite and this causes the subject to put on weight. Some Speculation has been made on the relationship, if any, of cancer with obesity. In 19141 , Tannenbaumhf” reported that insurance studies indicated the tendency to deve10p cancer was greater among overweight persons than among those of average weight or less. He also found that mice held down of food are less likely to develop cancer.”6 uzOscar Vila, "Etiologia De La Diabetes Mellitus," Biological fiQStractg) 19:15916, July-December, 19h5. hBSalvador Zubiran, "La Diabetes Functional ," BiOIOgical Abstracts, “4:1141166, January-June, 19h2. MG. Dahlberg, "Fettleibigkeit Und Diabetes," Nutrition Abstracts SEE Reviews, 20:2780, 1951. 1‘5 Albert Tannenbaum, "Relationship of Body Weight to Cancer Incidence," Biological Abstracts, 15:2351, January-June, 19141. 1‘6Miriam Z. Gross, "Why Fat People Die Sooner," Todays Health, 27: February, 19119, p. 130. 16 This holds true even for mice bred to be susceptible to cancer. Skinny cancer-susceptible mice get cancer, eventually, but they get it consider- ably later than their associates who ate all they could. A possible relationship between cancer and obesity is also indicated by )4ch.“ However, very little appears to have been written recently about obesity and cancer. Summary Other diseases and conditions associated with obesity are also found in the literature. They are, however, not pertinent to the present study. From the literature studied it would appear that overweight (obesity) is a definite factor in certain diseases. High blood pressure, hypertension, atherosclerosis, coronary heart defects, and diabetes appear to have a greater incidence in obese than in normal-weight individuals. The etiological relationship between obesity and these diseases is not certain in all cases. IV. SiOKINGAND HEIGHT Comparatively little experimental work on the effect of snaking on What has been done seems to indicate What this link is, nutrition and weight has been done. there may well be a link between weight and smoking. however, is not known at the-present time although some conjectures have been made. h7"Eat Less to Live Longer and To Escape Some Diseases," Science E1": Letter, 51:31, January 11, 19147. "‘— 17 It is a common observation that persons who suddenly stop smoking rapidly gain in weight. Brozek and Keysw’u9’50 conducted a stuiy of the change of body weight in normal men who stOpped smoking. The " experimental" subjects were men who voluntarily stOpped smoking and on whom weight data was available for two years before and two years after the year in which they stopped smoking. A control group consisted of smoking men matched with the eXperimental group as to age, relative body weight, and actual body weight during the first year of the five year period. It was found that the eXperimental group gained significantly greater weight in the two year period after smoking was stopped than the control group who had continued to smoke. The "t" between the mean weight changes of the two groups was 5.39 which was highly significant. Walkersl reports 'a study by Koehler, Hill, and Marsh on increase in weight in suckers suffering from malnutrition. The hypothesis was that excessive smoking caused in these subjects a failure to gain weight as they should. Thus, if they stOpped smoking their nutritional state should quickly improve. To test this they selected six patients, each of whom was smoking regularly fifteen to thirty cigarettes a day. They 1 5 hens-bop Moking and Gain Weight," Science Digest, 142:100, September, 9 7. 249.1. Brozek and A. Keys, "Changes of Body Weight in Normal Men Who Stop Smoking Cigarettes," Science, 125:1203, June 114, 1957. 50A. Keys, The BiOIOgy of Hanan Starvation, (Minneapolis: University °f Minnesota Press, 19555, pl—BEO. . 51J. M. Walker, "Physiological Effects of Smoking," Nutrition My Proceedings, 12:157-160, 1953. '——'—'" 18 were told to step smoking and were observed for periods varying from 8 to 36 weeks. Every one of the subjects began to put on weight at once, the amount gained per week being between 0.5 and 1.6 pounds, with a mean of 1.1 pounds. This gives support to the idea that there is a connection between smoking and nutrition. Several conjectures have been made as to the cause of this increase in weight with steppage of smoking. Brozek and Keys52 suggest that smoking tends "to depress the felt need for food". They base this on observations that gastric hunger contractions are checked by smoking53 and that there is an increase of tobacco consumption among individuals who are on a diet.51‘ If this were true, it would also be conceivable that smoking tends to reduce food intake. This definitely would have an effect on body weight. WalkerSS flso believes that smoking has an effect on food intake. He feels that tobacco lessens the appetite. The problem then remains how does tobacco lessen the appetite. The researcher says that possibly the very act of putting a pipe or cigarette in the mouth is partly responsible. Also, the faculties of taste and smell may be deranged and this causes loss of appetite. Walker, however, goes further and 311% gests that tobacco acts directly or indirectly on the hypothalamus rfisulting in a reduction of appetite. S2Brozek and Keys, op. cit., p. 100. 53R. C. Batterman, "The Biologic Effects 9i Tobacco," (Boston: E. L. Wynder, Eda, Littlemm’ 193),, p0 3400 ShKeys, op. cit., p. 830. SE‘L‘Ialker, 0p. cit., p. 158. Swmnary Studies on the relationship of smoking to weight seem to indicate that a definite weight increase follows steppage of smoking. It is Speculated that this is due to an effect of smoking on food intake whereby a stoppage of smoking leads to increased food intake. Lessening of appetite and felt need for food may well be associated with smoking. It is furthermore conjectured that tobacco may have a pharmacological effect whereby nicotine acts directly or indirectly on the hypothalamus and causes lessen appetite. V. ACTIVITY AND WEIGHT The preper balance between caloric intake and energy expenditure is recognized as the most important element in the maintenance of PrOper weight.56 For this reason the role and effects of activity and exercise on the majir'L.-=::xziz':ce of weight has been investigated rather extensively. Mann and his associates??? at the Harvard School of Public Health Studied the role of activity on weight. They capsuled the periods of Vigorous youth and sedentary middle age of the average man into a ten Week testing period for four 24-year old men. The four were put on a big-nasal, heavy-exercise routine, typical of young adults, and then Shifted to the big—meal, light-exercise routine of many businessmen. All four subjects put on fat. After this their meals were cut back to mOdeI‘a‘be supplies of calories, coxmaensurated with the moderate exercise \ Mo 56Jean I-zayer, "Exercise Does Keep the Weight Down," 9.239.212 %, 196:63-«36. July, 1955. Latt S7"Food Without Exercise Makes Middle- “zed Fat," SCiQNCC 13'2“" w, 67:286, April 30, 1955. 20 of middle-age. The subjects all stOpped pu ting on weight. From this the concluded that too much food without eno i'h exercise is what causes 3' “a fat. ‘Another study on this subject was conducted in 1953 by Brozek and Keys.58 They took two groups of men engaged in clerical and executive work. The men were alike except for the extent of exercise taken, being described as active or inactive. It was found that the active men were the heavier, but that it was their lean body mass which considerably exceeded that of the inactive men. That sedentary occupation may well play a large part in the inereased incidence of obesity is concluded from a study conducted by Mayer, Roy, and l’-‘Iitra.59 This conclusion was reached from a study of 213 workers at a jute mill in Chengail, West Bengal. Mayer60 commenting upon the many veterans he observed who tended ’00 put on weight rapidly after leaving service says this is not due “elusively to a return to home cooking and peaceful atmosphere, but to a Very sedentary life as well. He also believes that obesity is truly 1“ many instances a "disease of civilization." 3y "disease of civilization" he means that our mode of life in the United States is Such that for many individuals physical activity is depressed to \__ N t , 58J. Brozek and A. Keys, "Relative Body Weight, Age, and Fatness," W Abstracts and Reviews, 23:b816, 1953, Int 59J. Mayer, P. Roy, and K. P. Mitra, "Relation between Caloric p0 aka , Body Weight, and Physical Work: Studies in an Industrial Hale ‘ .Iignation in West Bengal," American Journal Clinical Nutrition, ‘ - 9r17§,1r1arch-April, 1956‘“. "" W _ 60 , . . M Jean I-iayer, "Exerc13e Does Keep The cleight Down," Atlantic out1'11 , 196:63-oe, July, 1955. ' _' 21 stu:h.an extent that the sedentary state is reached and excessive calories accordingly accumulate as fat. He concluded by saying that if we want to ervx>id obesity, we must either exercise more or feel hungry all our lives.- Others have questioned the role of exercise in weight control. Criticism has mainly hinged on two ideas. The first is that exercise requires little energy expenditure.’51 Such comments as "a person would kianre to climb 20 flights of stairs to prevent the energy contained in one slice of bread from being converted into fat" are often given. The catnner criticism is that physical activity increases appetite and often leads to a caloric intake far greater than that expended during exercise.62 As such, physical activity is self-defeating as a weight-control measure. Mayer in his article "Exercise Does Keep the Weight Down" attempts t4) disprove the afore-mentioned criticisms. Four rebutals are given to tkiez idea that exercise requires little energy expenditure. He says: "1. 'Sedentary' men need less calories than 'active' men. 2. The enemies of exercise when saying that a pound of fat can be worked off only by walking 36 hours visualize any given wearying performance as being accomplished in a single uninterrupted stretch. The energy expenditure accompanying physical activity takes place, whether the activity is performed in a day or a decade. Exercise is culumative. 3. Energy'expenditure in most types of activities where all parts of the body are moved, is directly proportional to body weight. h. If excess body weight is such that it impairs body movement, the cost of exercise will actually increase faster than does body weight."63 61Zisowitz, op. cit., p. 606. 62Max Millman, "Exercise and Reducing," Todays Health, 29:111-15’ May. 1951, p. 52. “"3 “““'" 1 63Jean Mayer, "Exercise Does Keep the Weight Down," Atlantic Monthly, 9’5 =63-66. July. 1955. "‘“"“' 22 To the argument that increased physical activity leads to increased caloric intake, Dr. Mayer mentions certain animal studies. He says that studies done on rats did not show that the rats used more food when under greater activity. Sumnfl The role of activity in weight control has been investigated by many researchers. Most studies indicate a positive relationship. Caloric intake and energy eXpenditure for activity are closely tied up in weight-control. The two can not be clearly distinguished. Studies do show, however, that lessening of activity without lessening caloric intake leads to an increase in weight. Certain writers have sought to question the role of exercise in weight-control. Their statements, however, have been critized by other researchers. Thus, it would seem that the studies found in the literature do show that Physical activity is important in weig t-control. CHAPTER III METHODS OF PROCEDURE Introduction A national study of longevity and morbidity of athletes in colleges and universities, Sponsored by the Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity,1 was launched in 1950. In 1953 a pilot study on this subject was undertaken at Michigan State University. The results of this study are published in "Longevity and Morbidity of College Athletes" by Montoye, VanHuss, Olson, Pierson, and Hudec.2 A part of this study consisted of an analysis of certain weight characteristics of former athletes and non-athletes at Michigan State University.3 This analysis included a comparison between the athletes and non-athletes in weight in college and weight increase after leaving college. As a continuance to this, it was felt that an analysis of the characteristics of the athlete and non-athlete high weight gainers would be profitable. The present study was an attempt to analyze certain of these characteristics 0f high weight gainers. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the procedure by which the high and low weight increase groups were selected and to describe the method by which certain characteristics of these high and low weight increase groups were tabulated and statistically analyzed. 1A national professional Physical Education fraternity. And 2Henry I-Iontoye, Wayne VanHuss, Herbert Olson, William Pierson, and re“ Hudec, The Longevity and Morbidity of College Athletes, (Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, 19377;}?- 1‘E9°— BIbido, p. 614-71. 2h Source of Data The major source of the data came from a questionnaire Michigan athletes sent to letter winners who graduated prior to 1938 from State University and to a randomly selected sample of non- who attended Michigan State during these same years and l-rho were matched according to year of graduation with the letter winners. Relatives were asked to fill out the questionnaire if the athlete or non- .athlete was deceased. Some of the areas covered in the questionnaire were: :11. The data are W weight at graduation and present weight. Medical History. Present state of health. Economic status. Marital status. Smoking and drinking habits. Sports participation in adult life. Activity during adult life, excluding participation in sports. Evaluation of athletics. Military service. Heredity history. methods and procedures used in obtaining and recording this h reported by'Montoye, VanHuss, Olson, Pierson, and Hudec. Table I gives the total number of athletes and non- athletes who responded to the questionnaire in the H v. ' - Elohlgan State Study", or these respondents, only the living athletes \ thido, pa 3-ho TABIE I NIDIBER OF SUBJECTS IN THE I-iICHIGAN STATE STUDY OF "LONCEVITY AND MORBIDITY 017‘ COLIEGE ATHLETES" PROVIDING WEIGHT ITEFC-‘I’YIIATION W Number Number of Living Per cent Living Answering Deceased Living Providing Not Providing Questionnaire ‘ Weight Data Weight Data Athletes 628 66 562 522 7.1 Non-athletes 563 56 507 1.171 7.1 and non-athletes were asked to indicate their weight in college and their present weight. For the deceased athletes and non—athletes, only the weight in college was requested of the relatives, but few offered this information. When the weight in college and present weight were listed by an individual, his actual pomd weight change and per cent Weight change based on weight while in college were calculated. The following procedure was used to select the high weight increase gr011ps and the low weight increase groups based on the subjects utilized in the"Michigan State Pilot Study". The procedure involves the use of a weigl‘lt criterion very similar to the one advocated by Mayer; for detemining underweight and overweight. All deceased athletes and non-athletes were eliminated as no weight change infomation was available on them. Also, as shown in Table I, the 7.1 per cent of both the athletes and non-athletes who \ q . “Jean Mayer, "Overweight and ObeSlty," Atlantic Monthly, 196:70-71, Auguat, 1955. “"— failed to report the weight information were excluded. This left a total of 522 athletes and h7l non-athletes who reported change of weight and hence could be included in the weight Change Sample. Due to the fact that a high correlation was found between weight in college and year of birth,5 it was felt that the available sample should be stratified according to year of birth. This was done by grouping the 522 athletes and the 1471 non-athletes into 13 age intervals based on their date of birth. (Table II) Then, the number of athletes and non-athletes in each age interval reporting weight change was calculated. (Table II) The athletes and non-athletes in the age intervals were next divided according to per cent increase or decrease in weight. Finally, in each age interval the 25 per cent of athletes and the 25 per cent of non-athletes that gained the largest percentage 0f weight were selected as the athlete and non-athlete high weight increase groups while the 25 per cent of athletes and the 25 per cent 01‘ non-athletes that gained the least percentage of weight were selected as the low weight increase groups. These low weight increase groups incllided persons who had lost weight or who had retained the same weight Since leaving college. Table III shows the final breakdown of the 522 athletes and the 1471 non-athletes into the high and low weight increase groups. Both the high and the low weight increase groups consisted of 250 subjects. or these 250, 132 were athletes and 118 were non-athletes. \ . 6Montoye, M, p. 129. 27 TABLE II NUMBER OF SUBJECTS IR AGE INTERVALS Athletes Non-athletes Nunber Number to Number Numberfito Age Date of Reporting be placed in Reporting be placed in Intervals Birth 'Weight High and Low Weight High and Low Change ‘Weight Group Change Weight Group 1 1855—1859 0 0 0 0 2 1860-186u 0 0 0 0 3 1865-1869 2 1 1 0 u 1870-187h 2 1 9 2 S 1875-1879 15 h 1h 8 6 1880-188h 2h 6 2L 6 7 1885-1889 33 6 31 8 8 1890-189h bl 10 hi 10 9 1895-1899 63 16 53 13 10 1900-190h 72 18 63 16 11 1905-1909 103 26 8h 21 12 1910-191h 109 27 100 25 13 1915-1919 58 15 51 13 1‘0th 522 132 1171 118 28 TABIE III NUMBER OF SUBJECTS IN HIGH AND LUJ I'EIGHT INCREASE GROUPS Weight Groups Athlete Non-athlete Combined High Per cent Weight Increase Group 132 118 250 Low Per cent Weight Increase Group 132 118 250 Tabulation Tabulation was done insofar as possible on I.B.M. sorting of Resfits and computing machines. Certain information not punched on the I. 8.14. cards was tabulated directly from the original questionnaires re turned by the individuals in the athlete and non-athlete high and low, weight groups. Statistical The statistical analysis of the data assembled on the £2 3'3 8 various characteristics of the high and low weight gain 31‘9 ugps was made by using the "t" and chi-square tests. 7’8 The "t“ test was used as a test of significant differences in arithmetic means c0‘11’11311ted for various characteristics. This test was used on all quay) titative data. The probability level of 5 per cent was regarded as Statistically significant in all cases. The chi-square test was used on qualitative data. It was used when there was a need to know how the ind ividuals distributed themselves with regard to a certain characteristic but, no quantitative data was available. \ I 7Elmer B. Mode, Elements of Statistics, (New York: Prentice-Hall, nc - , 1951), p. 185-2tsg, Bax-3%. So 8Quinn MC Nemar, Psychological Statistics, (New York: John Wiley 8: “8. Inc., 1955), p. quo. CHAPTER I! A1513? AID {HEIGHT PATJZLQS Table IV gives a sumxary of the resent age, mean per cent change in weight, mean actual pound ci’large i: Leight, Iriean weight in college, and mean present weight of the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight increase groups. Since the high and low weight increase groups were selected according to a stratified random sampling technique based on the data of birth, it was suspected that the present age of the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight increase groups would be very similar. hon-rs this to be true. The difference betv—zeen the ages was 8" TaLle I“! 3 Close as to be very insignificant. These results demonstrate that the stratified random sampling technique used in this study gave a ver;r cles age relationship betx-xeen the high and low weight increase groups. A comparison of this type helps to validate the sampling technique. The high and low weight increase groups were also selected according to per cent change in weight. Table V ano Figure I pic tune the mean per Cent weight change for the athlete an‘. non-athlete high and low weight gainers in each of the 13 age intervals. A: might be suspected, a wide exists in per cent change in weight between the corresponding Elng and low weight increase groups in each of the age intervals. This wide Ear) gap can also be seen when viewing the mean per cent change in weight of ge intervalS. This 18 t O I v ' I he high and low weight groups disregard-int; the a pre Sented in Table IV. Table IV also shows the mean pound change in TABLE IV TIE AGES AND E‘EIGHTS OF HIGH AND LOW T‘TEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS Present Mean f3 Mean Pound Mean Weight Mean Present Age Change in Change in in. Weight Height Weight College Athlete High Weight 51.97 22.13 33.73 15h.97 138.60 Group (N=132) Low Weight 52.05 -l.27 -2.27 171.65 169.242 Group (N-132) "t" .06 31.03 5.85 6.h9 P .95 .00 .00 .00 Non-athlete High Weight 52.36 25. 70 36.70 lhb.69 181.33 Group (N=118) Group (N=118) "t" .05 30.78 5.147 10.82 P .96 .OO .00 .OO Combined Group (N=250) Low Weight 52.156 -1.72 -3.02 165.10 162.12 Group (N=250) "t" .coh h3.uo 7.65 11.31 P .997 .00 .00 .00 TABLE V BEAN PER CENT BRIGHT CHANGE III TEE AGE INTERVALS A m ‘— 1- Subjects Age thIete Athlete lion-athlete Non-athlete Intervals fIigh Weight Low Weight High Weight Low Weight Group Group Group Group 3 +32.0 +11.0 ----- ---- h +10.0 - 9.0 +38.5 -5.0 S +23.S - 6.0 +2u.s -7.0 6 +2h.7 - 3.3 +23.8 -6.5 7 431.0 - 0.5 +32.9 -1.6 8 +22.0 - 0.2 +26.? -h.'(‘ 9 +27.0 - 0.2 +255 -2.Ll 10 +21.8 - 0.5 +25.1 +0.9 11 +21.S - 2.5 +26.3 -3.2 12 +19.9 - 0.8 +23.3 -O.9 13 +16.7 - 1.h +2h.S -1.6 Mean Per cent Weight Change +22.1 - 1.3 +2S.7 -2.2 W weight. The results here again show that the high weight increase groups haVB a significantly greater gain in weight. The mean weight in college for the high and low weight groztps was analsfzed. The results are in Table IV. Among both the athletes and non“athletes the high weight increase groups were significantly lighter In college than the low weight change groups. This might appear to be a FIGURE I MEAN PER CENT WEIGHT CHANGE FOR THE HIGH AND LCM WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS 32 Athlete 15 27 26 18 16 10 8 6 h 1 1 N: Non-Ath. 13 25 21 16 13 10 8 6 I. 2, o 38 36 3h ., 32 0‘\ 0 30 _ 28 O ' 26 A. :- 12 ’ \\ I) A 3-» ' 0 2h ,5. 3 a an ‘ 5 22 g 5 u .c: 20 G o p 18 6 ”Sb 16 High Weight Increase Grows ...-1 1h 0 3 12 +’ 10 c: g 8 x. 6 n‘.’ h 2 O ‘2 ~44 -—6 —8 ~10 w o. O\ .3 C\ .:r O\ .3 O\ .:r O\ :3: i :3: :9 a 2‘: :3 z :1 :2 :1 M .3 .3 m m \0 \O K‘- N CO CO AGE H Athletes H N on-athletes 33 significant factor in that the high weight groups might have been under- weight in college and since have made up this deficiency. However, when we consider the age at which the individuals in the high weight increase groups acquired their additional weight, this factor does not seem significant. Increases in weight at an age after leaving college would very likely be in the form of fatty tissue. With such a large per cent increase in weight and most of this in the form of fatty tissue, the individuals, even though they might have been underweight in college, would now be overweight. The critical factor is the per cent increase in weight and not the weight in college or the present weight. This is true because the per cent change in weight indicates how much weight in relation to body size is being gained. It would, however, be interesting to compare the results of this study with a study using high and low Weight increase grows which had been chosen by stratifying the sample according to weight in college as well as date of birth and per cent Change in weight. Table IV also shows the mean present weight of the athlete, non- atJilvzste, and combined high and low weight increase grows. It can be seen that the high weight groups were heavier than the low weight groups. These differences in present weight were significant at the l per cent 13V91. This is the opposite from the weight trend while the individuals were still in college. Thus, the mean weight of the high weight increase gr°ups passed from a significantly lighter weight than the low weight increase grows while in college to a significantly heavier weight after leaving college. CHAPTER V MEDICAL HISTORY The present chapter deals with the medical history of the high and low weight increase grows. A comparison between the ailments of the high and low weight increase grows seemed worthwhile in light of the common notion that peOple who are overweight are more susceptible to certain ailments, eSpecially heart defects and hypertension. Because no difference in ailments was found between athletes and non-athletes in the "Longevity Study",l no distinction was made between athletes and non-athletes in this chapter. Certain diseases and ailments of the high and low weight increase groups are compared in Table VI. They were found to be verysimilar. Chi—squares were computed in regard to these diseases and none were found Significant. However, certain differences in the table do indicate that a. large scale study, involving many nor cases, of these medical aSpects might be fruitful. With such a study it Could be determined precisely WhGather there was a significant difference in the ailrmnts of the high and low weight increase grows. Table VI also presents information on certain respiratory and Circ Illatory diseases of the high and low weight increase groups. There were so few cases of these diseases reported that no precise conclusions can be reached. From the data available, however, there seemed to be \ 1Henry Montoye, op. cit., p. 36. ‘1gn aelglt ainers TABLE VI DISEASES OF HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT GAINERS ' .w .-.e git Gauiers 3S 11:25’0 1; =250 Tumber SS ’ I‘Ifiiber 75 f" Diseases Respond- Yes No Respond- Yes No X2 P(l df.) ing ing Heart Defects 2M3 10.51 93.? 2‘49 9.6 90.1; .11 .70-.80 Growing Pains 250 7.2 92.8 2370 5.2 511.8 .86 .30-.10 Chorea 250 1.2 98.8 2V0 0.0 100.0 3.02 .0:- .10 Rheumatic Fever 250 11.11 95.6 2149 2.0 98.0 2.32 ..LC- .20 (First Attack) Rheumatic Fever 290 1.6 98.11 250 .8 99.2 .67 .hO- .FO (Second Attack) Rheumatic Fever 250 .8 99.2 250 .h 99.6 .33 .50- .50 (Third Attack) Tonsillites 250 29.6 70.11 2570 35.2 624.8 .7 .10- .20 Tonsils Removed 2119 51.8 1.8.2 250 52.0 218.0 .00 .99-1.oo High WIéight Gainers IT=2ETO How We ightTainers N=2SO ReSpiratory and ' Age at Cnset Age at Onset Circulatory ‘76 With Number I-Iean 5‘! With Numbier Kean __ Diseases Disease Reporting Age Disease Reporting Age Hypertension 6.11 13 50.0 6.1: 8 ’49.3 Arteriosclerosis .8 l w ).0 1.6 3 65.7 Angina Pectoris 1.2 o ---- 1.2 o ---- Coronary Thrombosis 1.6 2 “3.0 1.6 2 56.0 Diabetes 3.2 n 50.5 2.8 2 26.5 Peripheral Vascular oh 0 "-""' 000 O "'"""" DisQBases 36 little difference between the high and low weight increase groups in regard to these diseases. The mean age at onset is also reported, but here again there is such a limited number of cases that no conclusion can be drawn. In filling out the questionnaire, the high and low weight groups were asked to list any "other" diseases that they had contacted during their lifetime. In Table VII 3. list of the diseases that were reported at. least five times are given. The use of percentages was not advantageous in this table because any subject could list more than one disease. Also, the limited number of cases made statistical analysis of little importance. The high and low weight groups appear to be fairly similar in the listed diseases although the number of diseases reported by the high weight group does exceed the number reported by the low weight grow. The subjects were also asked to evaluate their present state of health. They were asked to rate their our. state of health as "good", "fair", or "poor". These were gross classifications which were not defined t9 the subjects. The limitations of such an evaluation are recognized particularly in regard to the indefinite limits of the group- ings and the possible personality difference of the subjects in admitting whether or not they have poor health. However, an analysis of such an eValuation seemed worthwhile in retrospect of how the high and low weight inCrease grows evaluate their own‘ health. The results of this analysis are found in Table VIII. Chi-squares used in analysis of the data showed no significant difference between the athlete, non-athlete, or combined hlgh and low weight increase grows in their judgement of their present State of health. 37 TABLE VII INCIDENCE OF "OTIER" DISEASES REPORTED 1’1" HIGH AInED LUL'J WEIGHT GEOFF W Diseases High Height Grow Low Weight Grow Typhoid Fever 10 h Scarlet Fever and Streptococcal 28 31 Sore Throat WhOOping Cough 9 S Diphtheria h 9 Smallpox 8 h Measles 33 26 All other diseases classified as 17 13 infective and parasitic Influenza 10 8 Pheumonia ‘ . IL; A 9 Ulcer of Stomach and Duodenum 8 10 Appendicitis 19 11 All "other" Diseases 83 90 TOTAL 21:3 220 W TABLE VIII PRESEL'IT STATE OF HEALTH OF HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT GROUPS W State of Health Number T '5’? % ZZZ Subjects Responding uood Fair Poor (2 df.) Non-athletes High Weight (I--.:=118) 117 83.8 16.2 0.0 3.26 (P=.]O-O20) Low Weight (I:=118) 117 83.0 13.6 2.6 Athletes High Weight (1:=132) 132 88.6 8.3 3.1 1.53 ‘ (P=.EO-.§0) Low weight (I~3=132) 132 81nd 12.9 2.3 \ Combined High Weight (N=250) 2h9 88.3 12.1 1.6 .60 (P=e 70-.00) Low weight (11:250) 219 811.3 13.3 2.14 CHAPTER V I ECONOMIC AND MARITAL STATUS: SE-ICKETG Al‘fD DRINKING HABITS This chapter deals with four characteristics applicable to the individuals in the high and low weight increase groups. The characteristics are: economic status, marital status, drinking habits, and smoking habits. Table IX illustrates the economic status of the high and low weight groups during: and after college. Each resgondent was asked to check whether his economic status was "satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory" (a) before and during college and (b) 'vter college. The table shows that the non-athlete, athlete, and combined high and low weight increase groups rated themselves in better economic status after college than before college. This is not surprising considering most peOple after college begin their careers and usually find a certain amount of success at what- ever they are doing. This would give them a certain amount of security and pride in their economic status and would lead, them to give a "satisfactory" rating. The high and low weight increase groups were ver;r similar in their aLTISWers on economic status both during and after college. Chi-squares revealed no statistically significant difference in the athlete, non- athle’ce, and combined high and low weight groups. This is not surprising in View of the fact that there was no means of quantifying the results. The interpretation of the adjective "satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory" is left entirely to the individual. As a result, an income which might b . . . m e C01’131dered "satisfactory" to one wouli not be to another. ine problem TABLE II ECONOiIC STATUS OF HIGH AND LOJ IEICHT INCREASE GROUPS High Weight Gainers Low weight Gainers 1:2 Status Ta'ufiber 71' 58' Number Z 73 During Weapond‘p Satis- Unsatis- Respond- Satis- Unsatis- (1 df.) C3<>llege ing factory factory ing factory factory Non-athlete 118 87.3 12.7 118 88.1 11.9 .038 (N==118) (P=.8o-.90) Athlete 131 90. 8 9.2 128 90. 9 . b .000 (N=132) (P=.,>:=—1. “0) c ombined 289 89. 2 10. 8 2216 89.24 10. 6 .005, (IJ=250) (P=. o-.C§) 3136iidms AJTTuer 393*em ---.ge A w l--- i Von-athlete 118 99. .8 11': 100.0 0.0 1.001; ( N =118) (P=.30-. lo Athlete 130 99.2 .8 12:2 98.}; 1.6 .33 (If =132) (P=. E’s-.60 Combined 2.1;}. 79.2 .8 23,3 99.2 .‘3 .000 (TF=2§0) (P=.f,’9-l.00) is further complicated by the reluctance, perhaps, of some to indicate an "unsatisfactory" economic status. The percentage of married and single among the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight increase groups are given in Table K. The non-athlete high and low weight STD-LET‘S had the same per cent married d The athlete high weight group, however, ha-.. 3 per cent more and single. of its members married than the correSponding athlete low weight group. Inn-ion analyzed by the chi-square this difference was almost significan at the 5 per cent level of confidence. The combined high and low I-reight increase groups showed a difference of 1.6 per cent with the high t-Jeight group having more 1.:arried, but this difference again was not statistically s ignificant. The drinking habits of the non-athlete, athlete, and combined high and low weight increase groups are given in Table XI. It was found that both athlete and non-athlete low weight groups had a larger percentage of drinkers than the correSponding high weight groups. This was interest- ing in light of the fairly common notion that excessive drinking leads ’00 an increase in weight. Chi-squares were run to test these differences. None were found to be significant. Therefore, from the data available, we must conclude there is no significant difference in the use of 31° OhOlic beverages between the high and low weight increase groups. Perhaps, a clearer picture of the drinking habits can be gained by l“91(ng at the amounts of alcoholic beverages consumed. An attempt was made to do this in the questionnaire by asking the subjects who drank to rate their consuz'zption as (a) "moderate" or (b) "excessive". It was f ' ‘ 0 1' 0 '\ n . n 1 ound that practically all the 1nc11v1o.uals rated tnerrlselves 1n the b2 TABLE X MARITAL STATUS OF THE HIGH MID LO .-" WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS _ High Weight Group Low Weight Group X2 Nunber Number Subjects ReSpond- Married Single Reapond- Married Single (1 (if. ing 1113 Non-athlete 118 97.5 2.5 118 97.5 2.5 .000 (N=118) (P=1.00) Athlete 132 99.2 .8 131 96.2 3.8 2.73 (N3132) (P=OOS-olO) Combined 250 98.1. 1.6 21.9 96.8 3.2 1.36. (b13250) (PaoZO‘OBO) TABLE XI DRINKING HABITS OF THE HIGH AND Lw’ I‘JEIGHT II'JCREASE GROUPS 2 Use of Alcohol X P Nunber % ‘7. Subjects Responding Drinliers lion-drinkers (1 df.) NCHI-athlete HOVO.IQG.1 (N=118) 115 67.0 3300 .176 .60“. 70 L.'.~!.G. (N=1l.‘.5) 118 .69. 5 30.5 Athlete 7? 0‘ J'l’ocl'e (3:130) 130 7609 23.1 0 (xi/3 0 73"080 L. ..'.g. (M130) 130 7%.: 21.3 Combined H -.'IOG. (H3250) 2115 720 2 2708 0233 0".)0-0 7O L.-YOC‘0 (I‘EBZSO) 2’43 7h02 2500 §~ ...: ~~' m N— 1 High 12" eight Group 2Low ".Jeight Group L3 "moderate" classification. Some of this may have been due to the some- what ambiguous categories and the the reluctance of individuals to indicate their drinking as "excessive". Lecause of this it seems impossible to make any precise conclusions regarding the amount of alcohol used. A comparison between the high and low weight increase groups in the use of tobacco is found in Table XII. The difference in percentage of smokers and non-smokers between the high and low weight groups among: the athletes and non-athletes was not statistically significant. However, a trend was noted in both the athlete and non-athlete groups whereby the high weight groups had a larger percentage of non-smokers than the low weight groups and correspondingly the low weight groups had a higher percentage of smokers than the high weight groups. When the athlete and non-athlete groups were combined this difference was statistically Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. This significant difference is interesting in light of the theory set forth by Walker3 that smoking lessens the appetite and by Z-rozek and Keysb' that Smoking d‘t-“J‘¥33."esses the felt need for food. If these theories are true, smoking; may well serve to hold down weight. This may explain why a significantly greater number of smokers are found in the low weight increase group. COT—T‘e spondinglyl it might be that persons who do not smoke have better app‘E‘Z‘tites and tend to gain weight. Hence, we might expect to find less Smokers among high weight gainers as was found in this study. \ 7). 15k; 0 lrfalker, p. cit., I. Brozek .mc‘: Keys, 0p . cit., p. 100. T;L3LE XII 'JETEBT’ THE E-II‘LH AK”) Lo? QTITTITT IITC‘ZEASE URUUF‘S I31 USE A COI—IPARISQIY OF TOBAGO fl _. Nmber ,4 ,o 2 P Subjects ReSponding Smokers Non-smokers X (l ‘5.) Non-athlete High Weight Group (N=118) 111 55.9 1111.1 2.08 .1o-.2o Low Weight Group (N=llt5) 115 6:32 3h.8 Athlete High Weight Group (Th-132) 121: 63.7 36.3 2.30 .lO-.2O Low Weight Group (I'I=l32) 128 2.7 27.3 Combined High '.'.'eight drown (I\T=ZSO) 235 50.0 140.0 11.35 .02-oC‘S Low Weight Group (N=2§O) 2&3 (35'. 30.9 -..-.- o-—-———.--.-.- —- An analysis was also made of how much the smokers in each of the high and low weight increase groups smoked. (Table XIII) The amount of tobacco used was divided into "little", "moderate", or "great deal". Chi-squares were computed to test for significant differences. Between the high and low weight gainers in both the athlete and non-athlete groups, there was no statistically significant difference. However, when the athlete and non—athlete high and athlete and non-athlete low weight EIT‘OLIps were combined the resulting chi-square was 6.73 which was Significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. The significant JCmend was for the high weight group to have a larger percentage in the "little" category and a lesser percentage in the "moderate" category With the "great deal" category being approximately the same. This result follows the same path the analysis of use oi‘ tobacco showed. Not onlg.r does the high weight group have less smokers but also those who smoke A COI‘TPA‘ZISOT‘T OF THE MIOUNTS OF TOBACC T" DY? A: 1U.) TABLE "(III —~-.-1--n 7“r JDLD pl "3 JRUUPS T1173 HIGH AND LOW LJ'EISI‘IT Subjects Number % 1 % who Respond- Little Moderate Great K2 (2 df.) P Smoke ing Deal Non-athlete High Weight Group 62 25.8 30.0 2h.2 2.91 .2c-.3o (N= 62) , Low h’eight Group 75 13:.7 :.>l.3 214.0 (#75) Athlete High Weight Group 79 25.3 56.8 27.9 3.85 .l)-.20 (N=79) Low Weight Group 93 15.1 60.2 214.7 (N=93) Combined High Weight Group 1111 25.57 L~.2 26.3 6.73 .02-.OS (N=1h1) Low Weight Group 168 114.9 60.7 2L.h ( rel-38) -=r’“—‘--2z====_ v—w ,:: 4~ —— tend to smoke less. Perhaps, the wei ’13:. iicrease of the high weight gainers can partly be explained by the fact that they take "snack breaks" While the low weight gainers take "cigarette breaks". Table I'ZIV offers a comparison of the J'iethod of using tobacco by smokers in the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight gain groups. Chi-squares do not reveal a significant difference, although there is a trend for both the athlete and non-athlete high weight groups to have a lesser percentage smoking; cigarettes and pipes and a greater *7 . . , . . herCentage smoking Cigars than the corresponding low weight groups. E g E :.wH N.H m.m H.NH o.3n mod Awoauzv edohw pcgfle3_zoq oa.-mo. eq.m q.ca 5.0 o.mH e.w .\ 04H AHQHueV macho enmflez swam maneso .mH N.m e.m N.ma e.m Hm Ammumv .esoeo enmeee.zoq oH.-mo. en.e a.ea 0.0 o.mH m.n N.. am Amwuuv ceeeo eemfie: ewe: epeaeee q.wH 0.0 0.: ~.0H w.~m ah Ameumv esoeo enmeee sea om.-o:. oq.m m.e e.H m.m N.@ m.me Ho Ammunv eeoeo pewao2.ewem epoanpeueoa A.me 4v coapmnflaseo Sumo ndmfio mafia meppmhmwwo wnwbcoawom oonm 0:3 mpoonnsm {w Mm m m in“ 909252 ooodnoa Ho mm: mmbomo mmHN HAm4H CEMPTER VII ---- VOCATIOIIAL A777) Al’cCATIQIFAL A3TI"I'IIT35: SP c1". '38 AC"I fI'IILS: EVAL :AiiL-IE OF AIR 'JTIC .I' ILITA TI SERVICE Participation in various forms of physical activity is an important factor to consider when studying; weight gain. This chapter includes an analysis of four factors directl, or inciirec 1y associaLed wit: p .vsical activity. These are: vocational and arocaaonal activities, storts activities, evaluation of athletics,a. yili La service. Altr ough evaluation of athletics and military service are not directly associated with physical activity, the former discloses a 7 .erson' 3 {go eneral attitude towards Sports activities while the latter portrays a person's "activity" during a certain part of his life. Hence, they are included in this Chapter on activity. The mean hours per day spent in "vigorous", "moderate", and "mild" Vocational and avocational activities, eg-zcluding Sports participation, by the athlete, non-a thlete and combiner. high and low weight increase groups are found in "fable IV. This infonaation was derived from an ..Iers to a question asked the subjects regarding the number of hours Spent per day in "vigorous", "moderate", or "mild" physical activity, except S_:.‘"Ol‘tS, at Various ages in their life. The ages i” participating were classified into 20-29,3 ,LO-L9, 50-59, and 3"- 112:. Tiased on these classifi- cat10118, the mean hours of "vigcrous", "rm-“erate”, and "mild" physical ac 1131-“7311.3; per day ..ere calculated for the high and low weight groups. Figure II offers a comparison of the 3:315: ined high and combined 10 ' I c o . a o . n o 1: Weight increase groups in vocational and evocational activ1ties. TABLE XV COMPARISOI‘I OF HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT GAIL! $137113 III TECH-SPORTS VOCATIUI-IAL AND AVOCATIOI‘IAL ACTIVITIES AT VATILUS AGE PERIODS Mean "Vigorous" Hours Per Day High Weight Group Low Weight Group Number Mean Hours Nunber Mean Hours 'Years Participating Reporting Per Day Reporting Per Day 20-29 Athlete 95 3.29 92 2.h9 Non-athlete 80 2.75 91 2.71 Combined 175 3.05 183 2.60 30-39 Athlete 90 1.83 91 2.65 Non-athlete 77 1.8h 87 2.5h Combined 167 1.8h 178 2.60 140-119 lion-athlete 65 1.25 66 2.73 (Zombined 131 l.h9 129 2.39 50-59 Athlete 25 1. 2'1. 30 2. 0? I:on-athlete 27 1.57 37 2.L6 (Zombined 52 1.h6 67 2.28 ”3C3-plus Jithlete 11 1.6h 12 1.67 N on-athlete _13 1. 06 16 1.06 TABIE xv (census) COKPARISOH OF HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT GAIN GIOUPS IN NON-SPORTS VOCATICHAL AND AVCCATIONAL ACTIVITIES AT VARIOUS AGE PERIODS Mean "Moderate" Hours Per Day High Height Grey Low Weight Group Number Mean hours Number I-Iean Hours Years Participating Reporting Per Day Reporting Per Day 20-29 Athlete 98 2. l." 96 2 . 6h Non-athlete 81 2.10 93 2.19 Combined 179 2. $.12 18 9 2. 5"? 30-39 Athlete 95 2.37 92 2.67 Non-athlete 85 3. 73 91 2 .8 Combined 180 3.27 183 2.77 140-119 Athlete :38 2.68 6 2.112 N on-athle te 68 3.16 69 2 . 6-5 G ombined 136 .92 13b 2 . 511 50—59 Athlete 26 3.08 35 3.31; N on-athle te 29 2.115 37 3. LL9 c ombined SS 2. 75 72 3.142 f O -p1us Athlete 9 l. 78 12 3.83 Non-athlete 13 l. 95 1'5 3 ° 75 Combined 22 1.8-2 28 3.79 TABLE xv (CGITTIILED) COMPARISON OF IIJT AID LOU WEIGHT GAII GROUPS IN Nth-SPORTS VOCATIOHAL AND AVOCATIONAL ACTIVITIES AT VARIOUS AGE PERIODS Mean "Mild" Hours Per Day High Weight Group Lew'weight Group Number Mean Hours Number ‘Hean Hburs Years Participating Reporting Per Day Reporting Per Day 20-29 Athlete 90 1.73 95 0.8h Non-athlete 77 1.95 91 1.50 Combined 157 1079 189 1°31 30-39 Athlete ‘3 1086 89 1.22 Non-athlete 79 . 2.05 88 2.03 Combined 165 1.95 177 1.53 110-149 Athlete 66 2.08 63 1.71 Non-athlete 68 2.37 67 2.12 Combined 13h 2.22 130 1.92 50-59 Athlete 28 2. 61 31 1. 7‘4 lion-athlete 30 2.77 38 1.87 (Zombined 58 2.69 69 1.81 ‘SCL-plus Athlete 10 3.00 11 2.115 TGon-athlete 15 2.1 17 1.71 C3ombined 25 2.68 28 2.00 51 96.8 33.3 :3 eofieseo «Ila zOHeH904 Sass: e: .2on32 a slam E LE 2% 2% HH mmDmHh IIIAIIUV d0 SEIVH SSEHL NI IEIVU LNHdS SHDOH NVHN 52 The graph shows that the low weight group Spent more time daily in "vigorous" activity than the high weight increase group after the age of thirty. Also, while the low weight group spent approximately the same hours per day in "vigorous” activity betvmen the ages of 20 and 140, the high weight group decreased 1%- msan hours per day in "vigorous" activity during these years. This is significant in light of the fact that individuals are inclined to gain their most weight during these years. Perhaps, this reduction in "vigorous" activity of the individuals of the high weight increase group is responsible for their increase in weight. This would agree with theory set forth in Mayer's article entitled, "Food Without Exercise Hikes Middle-aged Fat".1 The graph on “moderate" activities shows a dual trend. Up to the age of ho, the individuals in the high weight increase group tend to spend more hours daily in "moderate" activity than the individuals in the low weight increase group. After 140 years of age the reverse is true. Individuals in the low weight group Spend more hours per day in "moderate" activity. Mean hours of "mild" activity daily are in favor of the high weight gainers in all the age classifications. This is shown in Figure II. In viewing the composite picture of the "vigorous’, “moderate", and "Mild" vocational and avocstional activities, it would seem that the low w. ight, group is more "vigorously!" active than the high weight increase “0111:. \ Le 1"Food Without Exercise Makes Middle-aged Fat," Science News ”ct-r 67:286, April 30, 1955. 53 Their are certain limitations to the above comparison. The data is not quantitative. Whether or not an activity is considered “vigorous", "moderate", or "mild" varies among individuals. What might be “vigorous" to one would not be so to another. Due to these limitations, precise conclusions cannot be given. However, the findings do seem to agree with the idea that a reduction in physical activity makes weight gain more probable. Regular physical exercise throughout the entire life span also involves sports participation. Vocational and avocational activities ..re supplemented by athletic and recreational activities. An analysis of the sports participation at various ages of the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight groups is found in Table XVI and Figure III. Table XVI pictures the percentage of the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high weight and low weight groups participating in sports ac tivities during various age periods. The nunber of cases available in each age period varies because some subjects had not yet reached the upper age periods. The graph in Figure III discloses the trends in the Percentage of the combined high and canbined low weight groups Participating in sports activities. From the table and graph, it can be seen that up to the age of 55 the high weight groups and low weight gI‘G’ups tend to vary in who has the highest percentage participating. HWeVer, after the age of 55 there is a decisive trend for the athlete, nonvathlete, and combined high weight groups to have a higher percentage of pmicipants. These differences in percentage participation in sport, activities between the athlete high and law, non-athlete high 5h .Amm.wom.um~ $.43 RA .. «$33528 .n. III lull"! I, .II'I |I‘l1ll..u 1"." “Itasca. .ue swam ope cp.| 1"..“l 8a. -8 ...: Am. £3 84 .. «winsodzfcoz o as e :35” new caduceus: rhea ',".|Ii||' 'll‘l...‘ m.m as :.~H mm 30a soaansao om.-o~. mu.” o.mH ow oo.a oo. a.~a am new: socapsoo ad on ed 3 :3 3.2%-:02 o~.uoa. Hm.~ o.o~ om oe.nom. mm. m.ea ma swam .aoansannoz o.oa on o.ma ea seq .p.a=p< oo.a oo. o.oa on oe.uom. ma. e.m o: swam .».an< amumm :mnom m.ma mud c.aa oNH seq soaansso om.uom. so. o.ma mud 02.nom. Hm. m.ma oaH new: cosanauo ~.oH mm m.~ om non .poass< :oz om.-oa. mo. m.HH mm on.-o~. aa.a m.~a om swam .p.a:a< :02 «.ea so e.ma om sag .p.aep< o~.noe. 4N. 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HhHA mmHHBo< memomm 2H 02HBN an. macaw l"'l"' l-‘I-‘mm omrmmommeON 56 FIGURE III PERCENTAGE OF COMBINED HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS PARTICIPATING IN SPORTS ACTIVITIES IN LATER LIFE N - 250 222 170 123 89 60 to 2b 12 High weight Group 30-31: 35-39 ho-hh h5—h9 50-514 55-59 60-6h 65-69 I 70-75 AGE AT PARTICIPATION O—-O High Weight Group H Low Weight Group 57 and low, and canbined high and low weight groups were analyzed by the chi-square. None of the differences in each age period were found significant. The chi-square for all age periods was also not significant. A chi-square was also canputed for the comparisons up to FE and another above 55 years of age. Neither was found significant. An analysis of the sports participated in by the high and low groups was difficult due to the limited nunber of cases. Golf, tennis, swimning, softball, baseball, bowling, hunting, and fishing were listed most. Percentage participation in tennis, softball, and baseball decreased with advancing years, whereas golf and bowling were the "old age" sports. No attempt was made to compare the high and low weight increase groups in the sports. The opinions of the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight groups regarding athletics are found in Table XVII. These Opinions were interesting even though the subjective Judgments of people regarding such matters must be viewed with some reservations. To facilitate analysis, the opinions were classified as "harmful", "no Opinion", "beneficial", or "beneficial with reservations". "Beneficial with reservations" included all opinions that contained qualifying remarks. This classification was somewhat artificial since in all probability those who listed athletics to be "beneficial" would no doubt agree with the qualifications expressed by others. However, to facilitate analysis it was included. The results showed that the largest percentage of subjects from both the athlete, non-athlete, and combined high weight increase groups and the athlete, non-athlete, and combined low weight groups thought that athletic competition was in the main 58 TABLE XVII THE OPINION OF THE HIGH AND W WEIGHT GAIN GIOUPS ON WHETHER ATHLETICS ARE W01. 0R ENEFICIAL TO COMPETITORS Rating Categories Nunber % Rating flaming % Rating I Rating ‘ m Subjects Report- Beneficial Beneficial Hamful No Effect No ing With Reserva- Opinion tions Athlete H.w.o.2 122 67.2 2h.6 2.5 L.9 .8 (n-132 L.W.G. 128 61.0 2h.2 2.3 11.7 .8 (tn-132) 12 3.75 (P'eltO-eSO) ()4 d1.) Non-athlete H.W.G. 102 110.2 22.5 9.8 17.6 9.8 (NI-118) I..W.G. 111 37.9 33.3 7.2 Huh 7.2 (ll-118) 3:2 3.1.6 (P'JJO-eSO) (h df.) Combined HQW.Ge 22h She9 23e7 508 10.7 ’409 (Iv-250) L.w.o. 239 50.2 _ 28.1: h.6 13.0 3.8 (new) x2 2.61; (P-.60-.70) (1. df-) 231s: Weight emup 31.0w Weight Group 59 beneficial to its participants. Also, only a small percentage in each group listed athletic competition as harmful. To test the differences in the "categories" between the high and low weight increase grows, chi-squares were computed. None of the chi—squares were fomd to be statistically significant. We may conclude then that the Opinions of the athlete, non-athlete , and combined high weight grows and the corresponding athlete, non-athlete, and combined low weight grows regarding whether athletics are harmful or beneficial to competitors were not significantly different. Table ‘XVIII gives a sunmary of the military service experience of the high and low weight grows. The non-athlete , athlete, and combined low weight grows had 6.9, 9.5, and 8.3 per cent, respectively, more of their members in service than the corresponding high weight grows. When these differences between the number reporting military service and number reporting no service in the athlete, non-athlete, and combined weight groups were analyzed by the chi-squares, no statistically significant differences were found to exist. However, the differences in the athlete and combined weight increase groups were close to Significant with the trend being for the low weight grows to have a higher percentage of members in service. The subjects were also asked to indicate the branch of the armed f<>P<=e in which they served. (Table XIX) In the athlete, non—athlete, and Combined high and low weight grows a higher percentage were in the may than in the other branches of service. This, of course is to be 8118pected as the army receives a larger percentage of draftees than do the other branches of service. To facilitate analysis, the branches of TABIE XVIII MILITARY SERVICE EXPERIENCE OF HIGH AND IDW WEIGHT INCREAE GROUPS Military erience “Nam: r 12 Subjects Reporting Service we Service (1 df.) P Non-athlete HeWeGeh (N'llB) 85 S7 .6 112.11 0 76 01-10-050 LW.G. (Nd-18) 76 6,405 3505 Athlete H.w.0. (Na-132) 95 63.2 36.8 1.9h .10-.2o LeW.G. (““132) 88 7207 2703 Combined ' H.w.0. (N-QSO) 180 60.6 39.1. 2.61: .10-.2o I..w.c. (xv-250) 161; 68.9 31.1 TABIEXIX RANCH OF SERVICE FOR THE SUBJECTS IN THE HIGH AND LW WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS IN SERVICE i:- Branch of Service Number ‘INunber 2 i g I? 5 Subjects in Report- Army Navy Others (2 df.) Service ing» Non-athl te “3‘06. (H.118) ’49 ’48 8303 loell 6e3 1e27 .SO-.6O IveWeGe5 (II-118) '49 ‘49 830? 1b.“ 200 Athlete H.H.G. (II-132) 60 60 73.3 16.7 10.0 5.88 .05-.1O Combined 11.1.4.0. (N450) 109 108 77.8 13.9 8.3 6.85 .02-.os L.‘d.G. (NI-250) 113 112 75.9 22.3 1.8 hHigh'w’eight Group SLOWW’eight Group 61 service were divided up into army, navy, and "others". This "other" category included marine, coast guard, merchant marine, and "more than one". Chi-squares were run to determine if there was a significant difference between the corresponding high and low weight grows in regard to branch of service. The chi-squares were not significant in the non-athlete and athlete grows, but a trend toward the high weight grows having less in the navy and more in the "other" branches was noticed. When the non-athlete and athlete groups were canbined, the difference between the combined high and combined low weight grow in branches of service was statistically significant at the 5 per cent level. The trend was for the combined high weight grow to have more members in the army and "other" categories and less in the navy than the combined low weight grow. Those who were in service were also asked to report their activity in service. The answer was made in the form of a choice of "vigorous", "moderate", or "mild". A smmary.of the result of these answers is given in Table XX. The only trend observed was for the athlete, non- athlete, and combined high weight grows to have a larger percentage of their service men rate their activity as "mild". Chi-squares, however, do not reveal a statistically significant difference in activity in Se mice. The mean number of years in service for the athlete, non-athlete, md combined high and low weight gain service men are found in Table XXI. The differences in years in service were very small. "t" tests do not rOVeal significant differences. 62 TABLE XX ACTIVITY IN SERVICE OF THE SUBJECTS IN HIGH AND LW WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS IN SERVICE Activity in Service Ember in fiber % §ub3ects Service Reporting; Vigorous Moderate Mild L2 df.) Non-athl te H eWeGe (N'lla) '49 ’49 28. 6 we 9 26s; 3.12 L.w.0.7 (Iv-1w) h9 1.8 22.9 62.5 1h.6 (P-.10-.20) Athlete H.W.G. (NI-132) 60 S9 32.2 52.5 15.3 .143 L.w.0. (NI-132) 61. 61; 37.5 50.0 12.5 (P-.80-.90) Canbined H.w.o. (N'IZSO) 109 108 30.5 19.1 20.1. 1.99 L.w.G. (N-250) 113 112 31.2 55.1: 13.h (P-.30-.h0) W TABLE IOU. YEARS IN SERVICE OF THE SUBJECTS IN HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT INCREASE GROUPS IN SERVICE ._ Years in Service Nunber in Nunber Tiean Tears Stiblecm Service Reporting in Service "t" P Non-athl te H.w.c. (N-118) 19 MS 3.96 .1h .89 L.w.G.7 (NI-118) h9 h9 b.10 Athlete H.w.o. (Iv-132) 60 59 ink? .ho .69 LeWeGe (N'BZ) 6h 614 heOB Canbined H.W.G. (II-250) 109 107 11.211 .22 .83 L.H.G. (NQSO) 113 113 11.09 1 6mg. Weight Group 7Law Weight Group CHAPTER VIII HEREDITY HISTORY The heredity history of the athlete, non-athlete and combined high weight and the corresponding low weight increase groups is dealt with in this chapter. The following characteristics are considered: 1. Number of grandparents, parents, and siblings living and deceased. 2. Age of death of deceased parents and siblings. 3. Causes of death of deceased parents and siblings. h. Ailments of parents. 5. Size of family. The high and low weight increase groups were selected according to a stratified sampling technique based on date of birth.1 Because of this, individuals in the high and low weight grows were matched according to present age. This enabled an analysis of heredity history Without considering the factor of present age. Table XXII presents the percentage living and deceased of the Paternal and maternal grandparents of the combined high and the combined low weight increase grows. It was found that a large percentage of gI‘a-ttldparents in both the high and low weight grows were deceased. The colnbined high weight increase grow and the combined low weight grow "ere found to be very similar in the percentage of grandparents living ““1 deceased. The small differences were not statistically significant. \ 1p. 27 e 6h TABLE XXII PERCENTAGE LIVING OF THE GRANDPARENTS OF THE HIGH AND LOW WEIGHT GROUPS Combined High Weight Grow Canbined Low Weight Grow 4g N-ZSO N-QSO Nunber ifl % Number 1 3,. Grandparents Re spond- Grand- Grand- Rewond- Grand- Grand- X2 ing parents parents ing parents parents Living Deceased livgg Deceased ( 1 df.) Paternal .Ol Grandfather 210 1.0 99.0 196 1.0 99.0 (P-.9o-.9S) P‘“mll 1e 00 Grandmother 210 0.0 100.0 198 .5 99.5 (P-.30-.h0) “313017181 e02 Grmdr‘ther 213 e5 99o; 189 e5 9905 (P'eBO-e90) Maternal e01 Grandmother 209 1.1; 98.6 193 1.6 98.14 (P=.90-.95) The percentage of living and deceased of fathers of the correspond- Ling athlete, non-athlete, and combined high and low weight increase grows is found in Table XXIII. The data showed a trend for the high weight increase grows to have a higher percentage of fathers deceased than the correSponding low weight grows. However, chi-squares did not show this trend to be statistically significant. No concurrent trends appeared in the analysis of the data on the Percentage of mothers of the high and low weight grows living and dGCeased. (Table XXIV) As with the analysis of the data on fathers, chi-squares do not reveal significant differences. 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