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i:l\).:1‘.u§3 4.4. .841

’V 1 x ' '_"' ‘. +i ‘
odomLtfeu go Ure
L
b

of Michigan 5
O C)

Department of Marketing and Pransportation administration
SJrricqlam of F30u Diatrlbutioa

This thesis involves a study of irresistion preser-

vation snfl it

(Q

potential as a method ftr beef sroccssinr. Io

lie

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tt

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--s

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attempt is made to consider the nan? note ntiel as

.J

of ilralistion to the entire fieic of food processinj.
Either, an attempt is :sde to exolsin tie te.chn0105y and

rotentisl of irradiption in the field of beef processing. An

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erocessinr, once it is morfected, will nsxe on the distri-
Wution and marehsndisin; of beef in supermarkets
The writer, having been a su;.e :zrret Lens er en: sien-
nin: to make a career of supernerket mercnsneisin? an: :cn-
sent, is interestec in determining tne potential eifect

1

'5

radiation processinf will have on the sale of beef thrcujh
supermarkets. Since beef is a hive tor n:.e item for super-
markets, any technological development that will recuce the
Cost of distributing it or increase total sales ?Jlu10
Should be of interest to cersons nrouqnout the inimstrv.

Alt oufih very little work has be:n done on the co:;er-
cisl amplicettio: of irradiation to beef processing, tnc

A ,-,. z . '~ . + ‘ ., ’i" M
rest-arcs connected in a:. eIIort to i..-

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eXte ns iJe amogn

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n ’ V" . z :« V . l- « R- v‘-‘ ‘ I . .gs‘s ‘.A G .v‘ 4 *
:Poue nil tery rations “es nro.ilec tics wallsole iclormctio:

COncernin: the effc ts of irradiation on beef. This paper is

O

a Consolid'fi ion 0: some of the informsticn ruined from this

f u
H.
F.

Eb

research in a manner that shoulj be seloful to supermv‘
management in formulatinf solicies that will allow the: to

realize the full potential of irradiation processed oeef

jirector of the Less Esrketing Program at Lichi an 4 at
University, for sis ass_stsnce, guidance, and surrestlons in
firegsrin; tdir Defier, uni to Dr. Daniel L. Slate for his sl-
vice on all biases of thesis “rocedur

No thesis is the oroiuet of one individual. gsnv per-

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”a -\ 1 - v M 4. . " .‘
sons pro id;c reSearcn material or rezeslei

fortetion of which the writer was unaware. He is ‘rstefsl to

all those wno have assisted in any wax.

m1

lne writer also wishes to gratefully acknowledge 31

members of the Yro¢er Tomnsnv who nsfie sttenian e at Lichijeu
Stat. 'hiizezugitv tunuzioie.

Jo‘cisl SCInJVIei; ant is due ;s15ers of my fa 11y for
their ”)"tl’l."l,“} an” V): rilf‘Jlx-I '1 V V "'1wa, "‘1’31: for “’33“ 3"
VGiJRQlé secretariil sssist nee ind sniimitei moral suprort

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O C O O I O O O O O
INTRODIJCTION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

The Problem

Objectives

Hypothesis

Approach

Limitations of the Study

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF IMPORTANT TO THIS
DISCUSSION 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

Marketing

Definition of Beef
Composition

Color

Other Characteristics
Distribution Costs

TECHNOLOGY OF IRRADIATION PRESERVATION . . . . . .

Introduction

Definition

Measurement of Radiation Dose

Sources of dnergy

Application of Ionizing Radiation to Beef
Processing

THE.FEASIBILITY OF USING IRRADIATION IN BEEF
PROCESSING O D O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O I

Introduction

Availability of Energy Sources

Availability of Irradiation Processing
Facilities

Results of Tests to Date

Costs of Irradiation Treatment

Extension of Storage Life

Central Neat Cutting Facilities with
Radiation Pasteurization

Reduction of Distribution Costs

Lnlargement of Market Segment

Packaging of Irradiated Beef

V

\O

OBSTACLES TO
TO BEEF PROCESSING .

SUEMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

Conclusions

Recommendations
APPENDIX . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . .

COMMERCIAL

APPLICATION

OF IRRADIATION

m

(72

34
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tftl’lxllt’l_ til—é SLOPE‘L- e- lllt-r Of fl‘ust. ”Ail—it, Z‘C)-.'l,‘.f.', (.511 ll:

rfille r:tvinin* sensory :ronertics of frees product: i
to he sol'ed.

The conventional met ois of 330d ‘r‘:ervation .r
Ian? undesirable Chan‘s: 1: fresh beef. Those :et;oi3

‘ ~
.

“ ‘ ' 4-" " .”‘ ' '- .‘1 " ‘ . '3’ T 1 fl- 1-: C ‘u ‘r " . " A .4.“ " " A
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limitathus. precain , for instance, requires cont

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{aleCaUIOU of tne process 0: tde food OCOULQOSbS. ll

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The Problem

 

Fresh beef accounts for a major portion of the meat
department sales in the average supermarket today. Any
technological development that will extend the storage life,
reduce distribution costs, or enlarge the market area for
this high volu e product is of extreme interest to me mbers
of the food industry. Supermarket mara:,ment must Keep
abreast of technological develOpments in order to utilize
these derelonnents in retail store Operation. The specific
problem of this paper is to analyse the potential of irradi-
ation as a means of achieving more econom. ical sales of beef

in supermarkets.

ijectivcs
Distribution costs continue to rise in the food retail-
ing industry. The Ohysical handling and risk of loss due to

perishability in the marketing of beef, a high tonnage item,

are significant contributors to these costs. The objectives
of this study are to deternine: (1) The technical feasi-
bility, (2) the economic potential, (5) the chief restric-
tions to implementation, (4) the most likely application,
and (5) the pose 'Jle ef ct irradiation preser’atio n of beef

may have on the distribution of beef throuvh BUDQPmQTIGPS-

Hypothesis
Realizing that much additional work nust be done before
radis tion is conzne rcially applicable to beef pros essin: it

13 hYpot zesized thzt irradiation will have its most im::eilate

application throunh the use 0 stelcisa.ion JOu&'L to e:-

f
tend the store 0 life of the fresh oroduct under rzfri erate

L’

1

conditions. It is further hypothesizef tnat irradiation
.asteurization, once perfected, will be an aid to central

meat cuttinw operations of sunermarket chains.

 

Phe linited nunber of books that have been written on
irradiation preserlat 10 on of food were reviewed to establish
tde te oniiolOfy of the pr o ”G . The most prolific sources
of infornation were current periodicals and res ints of pro-

~ - \— -‘ ‘ ‘ r - .- . r‘ ‘- a. v - ‘ -\ 4-
aress reuor s issued 0y various researca xroups that

"D
(D

ierfO“‘=1 rr‘ei “n for the Quartennaster Corps. In addition,
t*e guirter ester Cor“; and tH ate”in inergy Commission
suuplied much valuable information "ethc-ed from their ex-
tensive rescwrnfizycrojec ts.

An Attempt has been made to consolidate a largo anoun
of technical material into a paper t.at can be read and

”nderstood b“ laymen. For this reason the main text of the
fiaher is void of detailed analysis of scecific experiments.
Results of specific experiments are contained in the appendix
and even these are concerned more with end results than with

I ~ 4. , .
tne tecqnicalities of condtctlng tee experinents.

Llflltations of the Study
Research is limited by the quantity of available infor-

mation relating to the scone f the study. Although researci

on irradiation has been underway fo r a number of years and

beef has received more emphasis than most other food products,
etailed research is needed before irradiation
treatment of beef is commercially adaptable.

iaterial contained herein is an agglomeration of bits

of information secured from a variety of sources plus aJneag-
ure of personal speculation. The author bears full

responsibility for any shortcominrs and Opinions expressed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF IKPORTAHT TO THIS DISCUSSION

garketing

 

"r"

The Job of sucplyins beef for le million consumers is
the business of 53 million farmers and ranchers and thousands
of marketing a encies. The production and marketing process
is indeed couplcx. It consists of many different and neces
sary jobs to move beef from tne farms into the hands of con-
sumers at the time and place and in the form they desire.1

Any technological development that will aid in supply-
in: the consumer with a product as good or better than is

now available, at a competitive price, should be welcomed by

the various narketin: ajencies and producers.

J

Definition of l

L

eef

\L

Beef is described as ”the edible portion of the muscle

n2

0f cattle. The term “fresh” is used to describe meat which

has not been preserved with any additive or cooked in any

W a"; o 3

1”}:8346 ,f
D. 997.

t

Collier’s Encyclooedia, 1Q§5 ed., Vol. fidlII,

 

Llovd S. Jensen,
0 c 3 Company, 1?49), p. 13.

. ) , The Chemistry and Tec.
flggfizgod Products I.v Kort: Interscienc- rublish*

(I)

 

UT

Zomoosition

The principal constituents of beef are water, protein,
fat, and minerals. Small quantities of clueose, glycogen,
and lactic acid are also present. Lean beef is a highly
nutritious human food containing approximately ?5 per cent
high-quality protein and the necessary B vitamins and
raise of beef have a lower per centagc of

protein due to their hi; her fa t content.

Beef is usually thought of as having a brilliant red
color. This color is due to the presence of two basic cole-
cular picmcnts--hemoglobin and myoqlobin. Eyeglobin acts in
the livinc animal as a storace mecha.lsn for oxygen while
hemoglobin acts as a transport mechanism.

Oxygenation, formin: a bright red pigment, occurs when
neat is cut and exposed to the air. As time passes iron
atoms present in the r.ne t oxidi ze ani form Pei, Chang n; the

q

color from deep purplish re hi lin about 72 hours.

(L
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,3

Tnis oxidizat io on makes the meat less eye a sealing to

potential customers although it does not affect the quality

in an"? VIE—311.7 3

\.

 

 

1H ‘- -- r ”a 'V V ‘
"3eef, “ejraw-fiill encyclopenia of science anc
Iichnolo~z, 1331 ed., Vol. I, p. Sol.
2”Foods - Lirh and Othr er :nc1c lor edia of Chemical

 

,
IEChnoloqx, 95 ? ed., U31- 1111. D- 395-

3American Ieit Institute Foundation, The science of

:22£_andf at Products (San :r M1018 u. H. Freeman a.i
70moany, 1953), pp. 8:3-91.

 

“\l

 

Other Characteristics

other than a pleasing color, beef must have other
attributes, such as freshness, palatability, and nutritional
value to make it a desirable food. Freshness basicall?

means that

faction. Palatability and nutritiona value
described in terms of tenderness, taste, moistness
and those qualities of vitamins, min rals,
buildins values.1

Distribution Costs

 

Slauchterin: the beef steer,

in: the beef carcass,

processing and

!

J

are factors

caused by bacteria has not caused outre-

flan/OI“,

and other body-

wholesal-

constitute the major distribution expenses encountered in

marketing of fresh bee . The costs of marketing beef
lated to the channels throufh which the animals move,
the marketing services provided.

d. 5. Choice rrade beef accounts for about half
total U. 3. supply of bloc? beef for which adequate

statistical

data are available for study.

ELI“

C)
u

and

and retailing the fresh beef carcasses

 

25 per cent of all beef is sold as processed meat; there-
fore, the marketinn costs for beef sold in fresh for; are
Iery si’nlficant factors in the beef industry.

About 50 pounds of carcass beef are obtained from ‘30
pounds of live steer of U. 5. Choice grade and about 93 per
cent of the U. 8. Choice grade carcass issnueable retail cut
—_.___

1Frank E. Hallech, actors Affecting Quality of Pre-
packoged Heat,” flood Technologl (June, 1973), o. 305.

 

Only auproximatelv

ll

(1)

O

The remaining 20 oer cent of the carcass represents fat,

suet, bone, and trim which does not move over the retail
counter. Retail composite prices are derived from the prices
obtained from individual retail cuts of beef. Since only
about 46 or 4? pounds of aleable retail cuts of beef are
obtained from 100 pounds live weight of U. 3. Choice grade

steer, additional loss s in weieht and value of the product

1

Y‘r’
A

L

l

sulting from ssoilage can be very significant.
The additional losses in weisht and value of the ore-

duct from spoila e and salvage selling are not actually

known. The USDA estimated them at 3 to 5 per cent of retail

sales in a study in olvinr beef markatins margins and costs

in 1956.“ If only half of these thoasands of pounds of fresh

heef which are lost due to snoilase every year were saved

by the use of irradiation treatment, the farmer, the pro-

cessor, the retailer, and the consumer would all benefit.

1It ta es aporoximately 2.15 sounds of Choice grade
1}Ve cattle to yield one pound of U. 3. Choice grade beef at

U

 

. 3., Department of Agriculture, Seef is
fiiZiip. and Costs, Asriculture Karketin; Servi
U- < Government Printing Office, February, 19~~

i131

"9xoLoey

Introduction

7
J‘fl

til

oervin fools h
the early 19th
'far iou s s

that i nizing
The French file
114 however,
research has bee

Irradiati

‘

SLIM

altho

meat,

Deef preserved

for rate 11 sell

0f irra adi ation

Or rroalC‘

in

Q

M

1Norman W. Desrosier and

:eChnolovy in

radiatio

ill the

much

any

C? I BRAD 1‘qu

IATI

advent of radicti on, no new method 01 are-
ad apmae red since the discovery of cannin in
fl 1 1

V ):1 L1 L11”?! 0
neculations were made during pre-war years

:31 zht be used for ores foods.

rm
alL)

er“in¢

d a ratewt as a has: as 1'29. Or ly since
has research been intensive. The mzioritv of
n done by or in conjunction with *o'ernrent

United dc and Great

w

'3te3’ ‘J~?.1.& .’ L -1.
on nreser 3 ion is still in the develot.ental

beef attentior than an?

o
11--m
mr' ti

:1 is neces Mef

(1

addition sary

y irradiation treatment will be available
in: in the sunernar.zcts. The nresent status
preservation is reviewed and 80:3 e of the

i i:

inherent in its implsaentation are discuss

the following pares.

 

 

3Onnecticut:

3.216

' wan h. Rose: stoc‘t, A.diatlog
Food, Agriculture and Bio lory (vestnort, _

AVI Publishing 30119? n inc., 1353),

 

R. 5. Hanna and E. u. Thornley, "Rafiatlo Processinc
of Foods,“ Fourral of ancrican Dietetic Association, KiKlI

{U
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H
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d-

-31”

 

Irradiation oreservation makes use of the ionizing ef-
fects of fast movin: sub-atomic particles or electromaxnetic
waves which are enerfietic en ough to strip electrons from the
atoms or molecules of matter. Ionizing radiation is produced
in three different classes of naturally radioactive materials:
(1) Alpha narticles, (2) beta rays, and ad} in T: rays which
like the better known H-rays are highly energetic ele ctro—
magnetic waves. Protons, the ultimate units of nerna ra"s

or of X-ravs have energr levels in the range of one Lev (one

I

\

llion electron volts,, compared to the binding forces of

valence electrons in atoms or molecales which are of the
order of only 13 electron volts.1

It in the el ectricelly charged particles that oroduce
the overwhclxinr preponderance of the acts of enertv-
transfer Which give ionizing radiations their significance
in technolocv. Jhen swiftly moving electrons, alp~
Cles, protcns er deuterons penetrate matter, the molecules
near which they pass are subjected to an intense electrical
force which is devastating.

In contrast to the process of life involving rela-

tIVely low turn-overs of energy and a high degree of self-

” F‘- a -
‘eilllatlng harmony, ionizing radiation conveys huge oaczets

k

1Ferdine and P. Mehrlich, The Current Outlook for fiaji-
ation Processed Foods. A s:eech oresented at the 15th annual
meatlnn of the Research and Dev elOplent n ssoc iates, Richmond,
ir"1nia, Aoril 4,1961.

_ 9-3. L. Plaezznan, ”l‘fhat is Ionizing; Radiation?"
:__2_jgfic American (larch, 1351), p. 75.

“

 

of energr and upon interaction with living matter provokes

LA

l

anarchy. In every case the ultimate d mag arises from in-
jury done to th .e individual cell. Such injury causes lethal

uaaf

malfunctions through destruction of the permeability of

cellular membranes permitting the interaction of ensznes and
subtra es in unwanted wars. This undesirable interaction

produced by ionization leads to the destruction of micro-
or3- Wuni 13 and can also render enzymes ineffective, thus ex-

,
tending the product life for a longer period.“

Measurement of Radiation Dose

Two types of units are in common use for measuring
radiation used in food creservation: (1) Electron-v olts- -—a

 

neasure of the intrinsic enerry of each narticle of the

radiation. Ihe si 1 ficance of radiation treats: ent is seen
' Ost easily with this measurement since, in effect, it ind;-
Cates the velocity of each particle and hence its penetration.
nergy for food processing is linited to about 13 Lev if in-
duCed radioactivity is to be avoided. (2‘ j;i--the Quantity
(If radiation energy absorbed by a mediim in any given
‘3 rad corresponds to an absorption of 100 errs D81 gram of

material. another unit of measurement, the rec (10

e3’.LIi*I:—I‘!.ent nhysical‘ was widely used until recent years.

I! ~
LQ ‘ A " ‘ ‘ -‘ n v» ,. “-~A~ V‘ \ ‘1‘ 9. d L
'vcaus: ran has tifierent “we- .in-s to see 1U of oifiencc

fl . .
~43untries, an]: secause it is similar to rad, it has lost its

 

 

 

\ ‘—
1 ~- » u ._.- n.-
i. I"oll..-.e.ider and G. s. itanelton, Ionisins haci-
‘7‘ q V ,‘ _ o - n n I, P ‘ _ -" ‘
“ion era the Liiin" 3011,‘ scientific Auericin \-arcn, 133;),

copularitv as a unit for measuring radiation dosare
Electron-volts, eobrev ated ev, and re d will be used through-

out this paper when referring to dosages.

Sources of Ener;y

There are two methods for securing radiation energy

0

for use in food preservation. First, electrical devices may
be used to prod ouce X-rays or cathode rays. Several types of
:achines have been desigr ed, the linear accelerator gener-
ating an electron beam, being the most suitable for sec urin:
appreciable penetration. Ample electrical power can be
delivered by these machines for treatment of food in ozantity.
Most of the present cornercial models ha e a power output
sufficient to treat about one ton of food per hour with pas-
teurizirz doses and hither powered models are under de elep-
rent. Second, aturally radioactive ma teri 191 is, suc
Spent fuel rods or radioisotOpes such as Cobalt-CO, may be
used for securing gamma and beta rays. Since the intensity
0f radiation from these materials declines rapidly, the pre-
ferrmd source for industrial use is obtai need by the ct Hi
e‘3’513‘Paction of nuclear fission nroducts in used fuel rods to
91Ve the isotope, Cesium-137. Cesium-137 has a long half

lLfe, over 30 years, and emits a penetratina radiation.‘

Construction of an elaborate extraction plant is

 

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‘3- 457.
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necessary to secure Cesium-1g{. Tne complex operation of

the extraction facility requires a larce number of technically

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trained personnel. ;1erc factors make the use of natu* l y

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radioactive materials more costly the; aacnine produ'

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radiation at the present

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xe-ar less of t e source used, angle protection “use

V _ «I. - ~ I ~~ an 1“ ‘ 1: ’
e the nacninae can we turuad Qfl anr rescue;

" : ,..-. , ,3 L a 520.0 , ' &. . .
:ooo process 3, ”RCUCQ for uiiierences in penetrating

abi ity of the various rave as sh wn in Table 1.

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exte n:;ion of proelct LLfU under seeeiuiei so“ ltlDuS slog e;
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Peirl eretion.
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133 -norte oi *“h WetLon rsov'vwwl to pmmrNACe eteril ed

is not known with a nice defiree of preoiseness : this tide.

+ “ .: . 0.!" " -‘+ .- ¢ '- r~ "' '\ I ‘ ' '- j'.
velia is oiiiere u. in yeQerdl, soore: see 7&03 mere reel-

atiOn-resistsnt tLen are vegetative forms. Aoeer=ntlv, the

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°teITilizetlon requirement for this micro-organise using

radiiltion alone in a ro~-ec cid, lo- -salt medixn, such as Iresg

In

, ’3
, is 4.x ”1- lion reds.“

 

sh 1%. ". Urbain, rrafietion for the Refit influstrV. |x
b;e€fi3h crosonted at the fenth fiesearch Conference spons refi
igtrze mower» lav sory Council of the American Ir-at Insti-
uucez at the Univer Sl itv of Zhicago (larch ?7-23, 1b-?)-

 

The use of salt, soices, and ajiit ives and i :p: yei
‘echniques both in irraiiation and measurement of dosage
indicate toot t?1e sterilizi g dose for non-acid materials
may be 20 per cent lower than previously assumed. The real

value than aopears to be aporoximet;ly 3.6 to 3.x mefisruds.1

icare

"b

Regardless of what

st eri Mi atlou requirement of ceef, one can state at tn»

4‘ I ‘ 5" +-‘ I w v.“ ‘ , +1 . . . 1'. .3 . .,.y

lect tae senso1: rrooertles oi neil so treatel. ll: uDSt

"I. I V. " '1 '. A-a . 7 Q ~ ,-. a -‘ '— - A 4-
tote ale oqgu,e is a chV1:e in fla.or and bee- is opoarent y

o czsnge than are ot1cr fresh meets.

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more sensitiv-
It has beet found that the degree of foreign f-s2or Jcries
is oroportion with the amount of radiation used.

A major area of cor cerr for sterilized beef is the

inactivation of the enzymes. It has been shoun t.: V82 '

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duce complete

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estruction of micro-organisms and even larger amolnts are
PEQuircd to inac 1vgte enzymes. It is :enerally conceficd

+u .

v‘at irr aliation cannot be 330:: to pro Euce enzvme inacti-

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‘wblon oecaose oi toe unde31raolo omen es in sensory cro-

Der‘ties result in“ from the large r3
\ _—

ich The Current Outlook for Radiation Processed
W 1

lelin, Irradiation for the Rent Injustrl, o. a.

113

tests on nests irrania ed with quantities sufficient to de-

.. why n.)

mrqyonly the micro-organisms have shown evidence of enzyme

activity n the production of off-flavors and in the growti
of crvsts is of the amino acid, tyrosine, on the surf s,e of

thinkin? is that heat will be required to

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the meat. Pres

‘

inactivate en2t es leading to the inzef. ate conclusion tnct
sterilized necf will orobably he cooked beef.1
Because of the undesir hie 0.19 nges in the SGlS'Py pro-
perties of beef sterilized by irradiation treatment nas-
teurizstion treatment reauiring a lesser tosase appears more
feasible. As with sterilized foods, one of the most im-
znortant nieces of infcrnation to be determined for pasteur-
'ised products is the dose requirements. isis appears to
ioetter known, although it is necessary to specify the in-

‘tended use and life of the nroduct in order to be able to

Sfiecify preciselv what doscve is rec'ir-‘.

T" ' . V‘ . l-Ql'“ i' . 4' ' ‘r

ire W3JOP spoilate Licro-orAanisns trosent in fPOSl
,

q. ‘ ,q -, . ~, ,- ‘ ‘ ~A
09813 are Escuuomonastresic:>.lat,_a. .iltno y'n so' 3 inset nice

 

’Wregent in sea juices martiallr nro ects this micro- -or aisfl
a?*iinst "rxma radintion, it is still relatively sensitive to
Peuiiation. fecnuse of the sensitivity of these micro-
or“Canisns to irradiation, it appears that approximately

1“30,000 "ais is a use ful dose on fresh meat.

 

 

o .. , .., . ,. . .. u ..

“Dot1, scn.cigert, given, ann arayoill, loni: inL mael-
gfiLégns for heat Proccssinq (Ch ica3o: American nest Institu t3
L‘Dllndstion, January, 1932?, p. 13.

Uacterial yrowth will as sufficiently impeded by a
dosage of 190,000 rads so that, at the end of two or three

weecs,::icrobial spoilafie has not occurred. This amount of

radiation is sufficiently small to impart little or no off-

I

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flavor. Consequently, elf-flavor problems with pasteuris~
meats a e at a minimum. However, the objective is to obta n

a product 9 chility with respect to all desirable properties.

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It has been found that discolorations, in particular, occur

Ck I)

ter of a few dais.

C”

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at refri.erator temperatures in a as

ts the life of the product from a sale-

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little commercial value at the present time. It may oe

(jesirebie properties of fresh meats can be maintained ior a

- . ‘1
Sltfficiently lone perioc so that utility exists.

J“¥

 

4". 5A. ‘- - ‘- T- ra"“$ . ‘\
4.0.. L‘A-‘fi .Cflu *leikA'nz J'S‘Ir, J. 1k).

THE FEASIBILITY OF USING

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IRRADIATION

IN

332 PHOLILLLS DIN‘T
Introduction
(ofozr3 aiar tecflraolrxgicrl_ c.»e:lo.,u nt (:an lye {QKD‘Othf

'Nommerciallv, its techaiual and economic feasiblli v 'u‘t
€13 ertine.. Ia the case of irrad L3tion, such factors as
sonirces of rafistion ener33, lacilitiec f-r 3erfor in: the
trneatnent, the expected LoLt of the rrocess, and the "ffe t
thfi? {recess 13“ on the sensory properties of the beef flSt
be <3ohsidar:i. Tie Ioliowinj rc~es contain a reneral
arualysis of all tiese factors. nor a z_iore detailed re 1e:
‘337 EPEeFiflC experitents and the effect on sensory propertie
33€23 th3 appenfiix.

 

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iLigiLiiaiiitr Oi Lnerrv SoMIIces
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i" 'b {d - a —‘ ”.1. u L . ‘ fl 1‘ I ' ‘ ' I‘ ' 1‘ v' "’
~1 0 fool use an out rovta OI nccle r reactor haze Q,J
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‘f3r0= cts rtslltwL in a search -or possible utilisatio
,
t fl 0 s .1 I, \« f‘V. . .- h‘ “r, r v- . f -. o
'1 :3 Ot1“””lie unus:c ener3,. _n '43:, u salted otates
.‘1 »- fl‘ \h\ ‘3‘ . V' ‘ H “ a “ 1| 'Ir . ‘ r~ :- '-‘ ‘-
t43x1ic wncrcv uOmKLSSlOU SyOULOPB; sur.e in icateu that
SLICG ‘30"11 “V1 w‘r-vr'u {5 3 cr—‘A'b'y "‘ ‘P r; ‘1'? w-avu.r'u‘fi+i w ‘v
’64::me .1.-.O:-;:L—«..-. O... M14361 Jill: 3.00“ “J 1- - .L-..L4.u 0;; v.0
rs,
1P0 -,“ r J lfi‘b .V‘ y y +- ‘s‘ 1 fi+ ’p!‘ q r- ‘L r‘. A. Q - . "V"v\y.. -
.iuc an lJ'OPtiflu oat ct -o- such proc its and L u

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“1911:

of

' ‘ ’. " rq \ » ‘ *g ‘u i w ‘ It 4 ~ - O - : ‘~ '7. a
the nutritional anu Quail: AClltfl c.:ers: eri tics of the

The 0333ncial use as source” of caste radiation 0;
fuel el.ments durins their 'cooline' nerioc will, in cart,
ciepend on the availability of sufficient quantities of these
in .tec V supply. Althoush the eu

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1 J. I ‘1. A I ' 1 "x 0- o 1‘- - v? I
tie cresent time, can: ies o: tue future will He ,oxer e, :

6

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or lC'Vf‘tOl‘S, prolailf," v-46 .eneration

n .- 1L J. r 4. .- . .0 , 4. L - ,-. L..- F ,: . - ° 3 .

(T’er. fie utilization oi reactors dcslwnfiu swecificeliy lo
f‘ - .3" 4' A 4.1- a. .1- 4
:03 . i “UQlfbiOu, eitner in '-ole or part c aiti techro-

2

N ‘V‘ ‘ F vol-K ‘/\v 1 1 ‘- . (‘4‘ -

10 iic3l 33.;nces as cell as ecoLo3ic dustiiication.
With f‘woh fuel elcnents 3 few d3rs after tixe'r are re-

”, v '. .\ A " 1 w ‘r n 9 1 U 1 z- -- ‘, .
MO~N3d from a reactor, it is _Ossio-e, sits a unitaulc arse,

tWD ssterilise a C-b7-7 inch rac:3._e of beef With ionisinf

V‘fi" . . .4.4. 3 ,.° ,L A ,3. - -0 .. 1.
3 «a Lations in r 72 .0“ 31 min tee. n :taz J 3tr~r2 Ui sac
Y" " A 'r 1 .1 3 -. a 3 ’I -. A n , n '
T“~~-\u7€3 COHiu so CPOCQSoei. A cal: carcass of meal in a

Q J. 31 x, v ~ ’x! (3 fi ’3 "‘
~«uirtable container that a mid pre.ent post treat tn
COTFteninaticn could be sterilized in a similar tixe prrvide'

tniit, the arrov of elements of sufficient activity and cos-

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ss could be sneeccc uo consiceravl; uni -ucl elements

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\ _
m 1Taul C. Aebersoid, W 0 35A Research PPO“”TL on L3;
§EE§§LLRadiation Prgggssin: of Food. A speech present3. :t
$339 Syuaosiun on sotooes Applications, Tenth Pacific
”"1€3nce Con rcss, Ioaoluli, chust 30, 17o1, n. 3.

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Urbain, inraciation ior t.c “eat -pcuc.rgL p. o.

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presently

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more economical 9.9???

electron-sea:

:GUBPBEOPS.

SO‘JY‘CC‘

are three basic types of :enerators which can be con idere1:
<1) ihe resonant transformer, (Q) the ?on de Graff “ener-
ator, ace (7) the linear accelerator. As nentioned eirlier,
tPre linear accelerator appears to possess the :reatest
‘potential because oi its ability to produce th, m"o hi-her
voltsmes necessarr for *reeter penetration. There are
Eixectron-bear enerstors availahl3 todev whi3h can be built

of

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if: an? *thiaglwr instan3e
A
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clzfiilaOilitv Oi Irraoiation r?O?VbblU;3iifillltl s
‘ r . . 4 .. — -~~ ”ta - -~ ‘ ~ -‘.
no r‘oxrer3ial fccllities er! availaole presentir the
ne“ ' \ r3" A - r. ,q- --3 '\1 ~ m ‘0." ~ ~.,-‘-
gjfnjt an. Cflryffitgi -uqtil diflfi, t: ”Mil??l CRWDJLQf: .LllCme..L
I ,3 ' . ' .. . .fi .. " A I,“ - ~ , v p l.‘ K. -> - V . ‘. ‘ t ,~-‘ 1
147 lirrauiation 1».~ngin. hate seen solyed. uzcvrois L‘F ii-
TJ+1 ”3 ":3 ’Ifl.fl 13" a I ', '1 ‘, r‘ v— '-~ A #513 ‘5‘ 0 v'\- v- fir hp
’3 (Dn -GS“J1LL l-ilitiws hate o.en ere sec for purposr- c-
O ‘ ‘ .. ‘ .—~ .. . ‘ .3 .P ’ ‘. ‘ ~ ~ ‘ .
‘Jtvusyin_ t1£83 oroole s tnz refinin, tae irradiation 3r:-
3Q< ‘ '\ n“ .2 on 4- ‘ . ’- ~ I t I‘ I 3 - I :3 -‘ I
~33:ses. ae lar est I these, tae ¢uurtcrtaster £23-3tion
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1bilitjr, s sateduied for completion at “3:12-, p4b233lJ-
\ A
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unce the tecinical 3roole'ns save been solJei ca, ir-
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d.tation processin oecones economiéal, co lensial Liclliti:
1"» .. ' ' ,- 'm- i ‘_ ... 1 ‘ ,._.
H maruan J. Desrosier, i:~ recanolo j of £33“ Pr sun-
‘, 3“ + / 0. . fi ‘ '1. ‘ 3 v‘ -- a .V _ _
I‘33Nlon \Jestport, ,oanectiout: ice “xi ruslis; nv so; hnj,
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env ootenticl scvirrs on oresect procerses realired .903

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the equioment is f.o...siole; that is, that the prccscs allOWs
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Troain, Progress ccfl Proble“: i“ %eii2t‘on Processiig

 

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0e euostantlelly 31:”JP tags LCle touer ior electcod gentr-

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OBSTACLES TO COMMERCIAL APPLICATION OF
IRRADIATION TO BEEF PROCESSING

Many problems must be solved by skillful, controlled
studies before radiation preservation is ready for commercial
use with beef. Control of the sensory changes is essential
if we are to provide the customer with products reasonably
similar to those of fresh beef. ways must be found to over-
come irradiation odors and flavors as well as color changes
produced by the process. Products must have acceptable or
desirable characteristics and should represent substantial
quality improvement over conventional processing methods.1

Closely associated with control of sensory changes is
the problem of enzyme inactivation. As mentioned earlier,
the amount of radiation required to inactivate naturally
occurring enzymes appears to be several times that required
for sterilization. Even minimum sterilization dosages cause
undesirable changes, hence, some other process for inactivat-
ing enzymes will be needed. At this time, the most effective
method seems to be heat inactivation.2

Pasteurization dosages to extend the normal shelf-life

of products do not produce these sensory changes and may be

1Urbain, Progress and Problems in Radiatign Processing

of Food., pp. 9-10.

2H. E. Robinson, "Status of Irradiation Preservation of
Foods," Nutrition Reviews, September, 1959, p. 258.

34

35

more readily applicable. However, when attention is
directed to products so treated it must be recognized that
quality improvement, detectable to the consumer, may not re-
sult. The results are more likely to be reduction of spoil-
age losses, extension of the marketing period, and access-
ability of hitherto unreachable markets. The value of such
benefits is primarily economic and for this reason economics
and not product quality improvement will determine whether
or not the process is commercially applicable.1

Any use of the process commercially depends upon its
ability to fulfill a useful purpose at an allowable cost.

The extension of storage life, in the case of pasteurization,
for example, must produce savings equal to or greater than
the costs involved in the process.

Furthermore, the commercial utilization of irradiation
for preserving beef cannot become a reality until its use is
approved by government regulatory bodies, specifically the
United States Food and Drug Administration. Under the Fbod
Additive Amendment of 1958, the burden of proof of safety of
a food additive or process is on the one who wants to use it.
The prospective user of the process, then, must convince the
Food and Drug Administration that the process is safe in order
to gain approval for its use.2

Other problems that must be solved are: (1) Wholesomeness

 

1Urbain, Progress and Pnglemg in Radiation Ppgcgssigg
of Foods, p. 10.

2;b1d., p. 9.

36

must be established, (2) adequate sources of radiation must

be available, (3) problems of packaging to prevent post-
irradiation contamination must be solved, and (4) control of

the process through suitable radiation dosimetry must be

solved.1
Finally, the consumer or public attitude toward irradi-

ated beef will be a large if not dominant factor in its

success. Even with the assurance of safety based on govern-

ment approval for irradiation preservation, the public will

act on its own confidence and understanding. Public con-

sciousness of the hazards of potentially carcinOgenic sub-

stances in beef, and its awareness of the dangers of radi-

ation per as are bound to raise questions regarding safety.
The possibilities of confusion between the effects of radi-

ation on the human body and the consumption of irradiated

heat will require education to clarify. The seller of

1Jfirauiiated beef will need to secure public confidence through

an <>1figmnized information program.2

1
IIrbain, Irradiation f0: thg Meat Industry, p. 11.
2 .
(erain, Progress and ngblemg in 529121102 chcessing

0
‘LF-m. p. 12.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

Because of government controls over radioactive materb
ials, the high cost involved, and the amount of risk, present

research is being conducted in the United States by two
the Atomic Energy Commission and the

government agencies:
Research in other countries is

Army Quartermaster Corps.
In all cases many

also being handled by government agencies.
of the research projects are contracted out to industrial

Organizations and educational institutions, giving numerous

People experience in irradiation processing of beef.

The most extensive programs being conducted, that of

the Atomic Energy Commission concerned primarily with
DaSteurization dosages and that of the Army Quartermaster
Corps concerned with sterilization dosages, are complimentary

to each other. Although the Army program is primarily de-

31Sued to improve the logistics and acceptability of military

rations, many of the problems concerned with commercial
application of irradiation sterilization may also be solved.
The ABC program is designed to determine the products and
Dmceases suitable for radiation pasteurization. This pro-

gram may provide many of the answers needed before radiation

pasteurization of beef is commercially feasible.

'1’719 irradiation process could have a radical effect

37

upon distribution costs and merchandising policies of beef
in the nation's food industry. Successful businesses and

industries are built upon their ability to adjust to new ways

of manufacturing, transporting, storing, and merchandising
products that allow more economical service to the consumer.
Current research projects, therefore, have as their
objectives the development of systems, processes, and pro-
ducts which will assure that meat items of good quality will
be available to the consumer at prices competitive with other
processing methods.
I The following criteria should be used to determine
whether or not beef preserved by irradiation is commercially

feasible.

1. The beef must be acceptable, palatable, nu-
tritious food. It should resemble very closely
the original fresh product in all organoleptic
characteristics.

2. The beef should retain most of the essential
nutritive elements present in fresh meat.

3. The product must be stable for considerable
periods of time under adverse storage condi-
tions or the storage life must be extended
under present storage conditions. No unde-
sirable odors or flavors should develop on
storage and there should be little or no
loss of essential nutrients.

4. Costs of performing the process must result in
competitive prices at the point of consumption.
If preparation accomplished heretofore in the
field is now done at the packing-house or in a
related food-processing facility, it is reason-
able to believe that the processed product will
show a higher unit cost there than previously.
Offsetting savings in transport, storage, and/
or packaging would be desirable, therefore, to
keep costs competitive.

39

Conglusions
Research and analysis of work to date tends to sub-

stantiate the hypothesis. Although no method Of irradiation
processing is being used commercially at the present time,
all indications are that pasteurization dosages will be the
most immediately applicable form Of irradiation processing.
Low-dose pasteurization treatment produces little or no unde-
sirable changes in the sensory properties Of the fresh pro-
duct. The biggest problems remaining are refining the pro-
cess to make it more economical and getting approval for its

use by the Food and Drug Administration. In anticipation Of

these accomplishments, policies must be formulated for inte-
grating this new process into supermarket Operation and con-
sumer education programs must be started.

From a review Of the limited amount of data available
on central meat cutting and packaging Operations, it is evi-
dent that irradiation pasteurization Of beef will aid in over-
coming the major problems plaguing this type Operation. This
substantiates the latter part of the hypothesis, that per-
Ifiection Of the irradiation pasteurization process will give
added impetus to the adOption Of central meat cutting Oper-
ations by supermarket chains. By treating prepackage retail
(“Its with.pasteurization doses in a central cutting facility,
the shelf-life of such cuts can be extended to allow the re-
tailer to realize the potential economies of a central cut-
ting éuui packaging facility without suffering increased loss

from spoilage and discoloration.

40

Recgmmendationg

All persons concerned with moving beef from the farm to
the ultimate consumer should encourage and support continued
research toward solving the many problems associated with the
commercial application of irradiation to beef processing. It
is suggested that more progress in the develOpment of com-
mercial applications may be made through the combined or co-
Operative efforts of research teams sponsored by equipment
manufacturers, chemical companies, equipment manufacturers,
government agencies, meat packers, and retail food chains.

Research must continue to:

1. Perfect the processes so that none of the

sensory properties of the fresh product is

altered.

2. DevelOp materials and methods for packaging
products processed by irradiation.

3. Investigate and develOp merchandising methods
and policies that are applicable to irradi-
ation processed beef.

4. Investigate and optimize methods of trans-
portation and storage.

The commercial utilization Of irradiation processing
cannot become a reality until its use is approved by govern-
ment regulatory bodies, such as the Federal Food and Drug
Administration. The food industry should tell the story Of
iruumiiation processing in general and encourage congressional
representatives to approve its use.

Consumer or public attitude toward foods processed by
irradiation will be a large if not dominant factor in its

success. Emen with the assurance Of safety based on

41

government approval, the public will act on its own confidence
and understanding of the process plus the economic value of
the end products. The consumer should be interested, pro-
vided the quality of products so processed is equal to or
better than what is now available or a particular need is
satisfied.

The cost of applying the process is very small compared
to the potential savings and advantages to be gained.

Whenever a new method of food preservation is dis-
covered there is always the fear that more established methods
will disappear. Consequently, resistance arises from trade
unions and established processors as well as from consumers.
Ultimate acceptance Of irradiation processing will require a
thorough educational job Of all concerned and proof that the
process does Offer unique advantages.

It is expected that radiation processing of beef will
eventually find its place among the historic processes of
drying, salting, canning, and freezing. A particular pro-
duct or process finds acceptance when there is unique appli-
cation, through the competitive action of the market place.
Much additional research is necessary, however, before irradi-

ation processed beef is ready for this final market test.

—— —..- .—v—-

 

APPENDIX

Results Of specific experiments are presented below to
provide deeper insight into the effects irradiation has on

bacterial growth and on the sensory properties of beef.

EXPERIMENT 1

EFFECT OF GAMAA RADIATION (100,000 rep) ALONE OR IN
COMBINATIOT WITH THE ANTIBIOTIC OXYTETRACYCLINE
(10 p.p.m.) UPON THE QUANTITATIVE BACTERIAL
FLORA OF BEEF ROUND HELD AT 20 c.

 

 

Bacteria per gram_jx10§l_

 

 

Treatment 0 days 8 days 14 days 20 days
Control 90 700,000 4,000,000 --
Irradiated 0.5 100 50,000 800,000

Irradiated +
oxytetracycline 0.5 1 60 2,000

 

Source: C. F. Niven, Jr. and W. R. Chesbro, "Antibiotics
and Irradiation in Meat Preservation," Proceedings
of the Eighth Research Conference, sponsored by
the Council on Research, American Meat Institute,
at the University of Chicago, March 22-23, 1956,

p, 49.

42

43

EXPERIMENT 2

RELATIVE EFFECTS OF GAMMA RADIATION (100,000 rep) AND
THE ANTIOBIOTIC OXYTETRACYCLINE (10 p.p.m.) UPON THE
QUANTITATIVE BACTERIAL FLORA IN GROUND BEEF OF
POOR QUALITY HELD AT 2° C.

 

Bacteria per gram (x103)

 

 

 

Treatment 0 days 6 days
Control 100,000 1,000,000
Irradiated 300 10,000
Oxytetracycline 60,000 1,000,000

Irradiated +
oxytetracycline 100 100

 

Source: Niven and Chesbro, "Antibiotics and Irradiation
in Meat Preservation," p. 50.

EXPERIMENT 3

Boneless U. 3. Choice beef rib roasts were packed in
standard No. 2 tin cans and sealed under vacuum. After
sealing the samples were frozen and irradiated to a level of
5 megarads with a Cobalt-60 source. The enzymes were heat
inactivated in the cans by raising the internal temperature
of the roasts to 1650 F. The cans were stored throughout
the experiment at a temperature Of 76° F.

For panel testing the meat was heated to an internal
temperature of 1500 F., cut into small samples, coded, and

presented to an 18-member untrained panel, who rated the

44
samples on the 9-point hedonic scale.1

THE EFFECTS OF PRE-ENZXME AND POST-ENZYME INACTIVATION
STORAGE UPON PANEL SCORES OF IRRIATED BEEF ROAST

Length Of Samples
storage tested Samples tested
prior to at time after 90 days

 

enzyme of total
Treatment inact inact storage
Frozen-unirradiated control 90 days -- 7.?
(frozen)
Pre-irradiation enzyme inact 0 days 4.9 5.2
Post~irradiation enzyme inact 0 days 4.4 4.9
Post-irradiation enzyme inact 4 days 3.6 4.4
Post-irradiation enzyme inact 8 days 5.1 5.1
Post-irradiation enzyme inact 16 days 4.8 4.2
Post-irradiation enzyme inact 2 days 4.8 4.7
Post-irradiation enzyme inact 64 days 3.3 3.7
Meansa 4.4 4.6

 

aMeans does not include unirradiated control.

Source: A. M. Pearson and L. J. Bratzler, "The Effects of
Pre- and Post-Enzyme Inactivation Storage on
Irradiated Beef and Pork Roasts," Food Research
XXV:6, 1960, p. 690.

 

1The hedonic scale makes ratings in terms of likes and
(dislikes as follows: 1-dislike; 2-dislike very much; 3-dis-
liJna moderately; 4-dislike slightly; 5-neither like nor dis-
Ilikeq 6-like slightly; 7-like moderately; 8-like very much;
9—1 1 ke extremely .

45

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Imam ho mpomumm one: .zoadpmoo .z .m was .aoasamam .h .4 .nomasom .2 .< ”moasom
muss mo. K m as cmusdcmppa nmadsmm Haas

mwsAOpm mnpnos o as mano possess

 

 

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m.q a.e e.m m.m m.m .a com. .a ompm
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a.n a.a e.a a.n m.e .a com. .a cop.
m.n o.a 0.4 _.m n.s .a ems. .a 0mm,
mnpnos nnpcoa nuance mausoe mpmpm mcLsOmLOOEOp mmhspdacnsma

 

 

 

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mwmmHquJHQImmmumm Hmnnoan Hassopxm

0.!

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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a ezmszmmxm

46

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.nOHpmemnsH mo HO>OA Mo codenamsH was: .pmflspwnm .h .A can nemsscm .2 .d "condom

 

 

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mesa mo. x os.m

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mean no. a ma.m

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unaccouaoppnoo

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i

mmmm meooommm m0 mMMOUm Hmz<m 20m: mo<moem ho
mawzmq mad .mmDH<mmmEmB .ZOHB<HQ¢mmH mo 4m>m4 ho Hommhm mus

m Bzmszmmxm

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as

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49

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50

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