PEASANT TYPOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR: A FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY IN SIX INDIAN VILLAGES Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY K. S. SRIPADA RAJU 1969 .t..-, Itsz .. w A. II?“ g L1L,I\...43 — l3‘ 22%: , CA“ his.» 5’ PONDICHERRY ” STATE ..sORzoo, 79'4““ 5"{3 . c “ZQMADRAS _ CAPITAL TowN ... C$ZU “’ o . , z Luca ' 79-. SIKKIM ..- --- 22° 5 o r' f, HIMACHAL PRADESH 5° z 34 7‘} TRIPURA .-- ... m ’0‘ . o ’ 3 o 0 r g ' TRIVANDRUM5 ”MAN '" (291:3; -— 3" u , I N D II A N c E A N 7’ ‘6 E 7;“ 76. ‘0 ‘ - A N 04 88° 92" E Manchili (Andhra P.) Kanchumarru (Andhra P.) Polamuru (Andhra P.) Pophali (Maharashtra) Mulawa (Maharashtra) Amdole (W. Bengal) Harishpur (W. Bengal) Laxmidanga (W. Bengal) 21 spread over eight villages across the three Indian states. Table 1 gives some particulars about the Samples selected. Figure 1 shows the location of eight villages surveyed in the Phase II study. Description of the Villages Studied Manchili (N=99), Kanchumarru (N=33), and Polamuru (N=99) villages are located in the West Godavari District delta which is well-served by a network of irrigation and transport facilities. All the three villages are situated three to six miles from each other in the same administrative block. The nearest town market is within 13 miles connected by all-weather road, except for Kanchumarru village. The social structure of each village is characterized by a hierarchy of different castes.* Caste gives an ascriptive social status to its member in the village social system. In Manchili and Polamuru villages, the dominant castes engaged in farming are (in order) Kshatriya, Kapu, Reddy, Telaga, Settibalija and Mala. In Kanchumarru the dominant caste is Kshatriya. The three villages are part of a "package district" in which an intensive agricultural program was established in *Castes are endogamous groups restricted in many cases to certain limited geographical areas. A certain degree of traditional behavior is enforced in many cases among the members of the caste by a caste council made up of a number of reapected older men in a caste. These castes live together with other castes without mingling except on certain occasions. Inter- communication between castes is peripheral and tangential. A caste generally has a hereditary occupation which is, however, not exclusive to it. Castes are arranged in a hierarchical order (Karve. 1968). 22 Table 1. Location and Size of Sample Villages Selected for - the Phase II Study in India. - State District Village Village Number of . Population BeSpondents Andhra Pradesh West Godavari Manchili 1,500 78 Andhra Pradesh West Godavari Kanchumarru 2,600 33 Andhra Pradesh West Godavari Polamuru I 3,AOO 99 Maharashtra Yeotmal POphali 1,149 100 Maharashtra Yeotmal Mulawa 3,3h8 1A6 West Bengal Birbhum Amdole 2,A60 103 West Bengal Birbhum Harishpur* 1,709 59 West Bengal Birbhum Laxmidanga* 1,573 62 *These villages were dropped from the present study because information on caste or other sociologically similar measurement of ascriptive social status was not available. Source: Roy and others, 1968. 23 January, 1961. The program was designed to ensure needed A resources--seeds, fertilizer, irrigation water, implements, credit, and technical assistance-~in a "package", so that agri- cultural development could proceed at the maximum pace. The villages had populations of 1,500, 2,600 and 3,u00, reSpectively, in 1961. All the villages are well-served by a network of irrigation canals from the Godavari River. Filter point wells are also sources of irrigation water. The peasants of these villages use modern agricultural implements like the iron ploughs, push-hoes, Sprayers, and even some tractors. Chemical and biological inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, improved varieties of seeds, and improved cattle are used by some peasants. Co-operative credit institutions make available farm credit in all three villages. There are two crop seasons: Sarawa (beginning from.June-July) and Dalawa (beginning from December-January). Though agricultural laborers form one- tenth of the total population of the district, there is a considerable shortage of labor in the peak agricultural seasons. Many laborers are also engaged in part-time farming as share-croppers. Paddy, sugar-cane, banana, groundnut, and chillies make up the main crops. Coconut plantations are frequent. Marketing services for food grains are offered by both private traders and public corporations like the Food Corporation of India. All the three sample villages have shown prize-winning performance at the state or district level in the progressive adoption of high-yielding varieties of seeds and plant protection measures. 2H Pophali and Mulawa, the two sample villages in Maharashtra state, are located within 10 miles of a town served by all- weather road and state-owned tranSport buses. Bullock carts are the chief means for transporting agricultural produce. The population of these villages in 1961 was 1,1“9 and 3,3h8 respectively. The predominant Hindu castes in Pophali village are Maratha, Kasar, Dhanagar, Koshti, and Chambar in addition to some Muslims. In Mulawa village the predominant castes are Brahmin, Maratha, and Dhangar in addition to some Buddhists. The main crOps are Jowar and cotton, pulses and wheat are minor crops. Use of high-yielding cotton seed variety is in vogue, whereas hybrid Jowar seeds are not in much use. Peasants obtain credit facilities both from co-Operative society and private money-lenders. Electricity is available in both the villages, but only a few landowners have electric pumps or oil engine sets to lift water from wells for irriga- tion purposes. The chief agricultural implements used are the indigenous harrow, iron and wooden plough, hoes, sickles and local seed-drills. Improved modern agricultural implements are not in much use. Since there is no assured irrigation water supply, fertilizers are not in wide use. The three West Bengal villages of Amdole, Harishpur,* and Laxmidanga* have a population of 2,460, 1,709, and 1,573, reSpectively. Except for one village which is situated on an all-weather road, the villages are difficult to reach in the *These latter villages are not included in the present analysis. 25 rainy season. Paddy and sugar-cane are the main food and cash crops. Pulses are grown for domestic consumption.) Improved paddy seed, pesticides and Sprayers are in use, but there is little interest in improved cattle. Private money-lenders are the principal source of credit. The predominant caste in Amdole village is SadagOpe, while Muslims are dominant in Harishpur and Laxmidanga villages. Instrument Construction The interview schedule was constructed to measure the desired variables. It was first translated into the Telugu language and was pre-tested in the state of Andhra Pradesh. After this first pre-test, suitable changes were made, keeping in mind the capacity of the peasant informant. A second pre- test of the instrument was completed in all three states after translating the survey instruments to the respective state languages.* The pre-test responses were then tabulated and screened to identify the meaning and use of expressions familiar to the peasant in all the three language areas. Role-playing methods were employed in training the interviewers. Several interviewer training sessions, spread over four weeks, were held both before and after the pre-testing of the questionnaire. *Telugu in Andhra Pradesh, Marathi in Maharashtra, and Bengali in West Bengal. 26 Data Collection Interviews were conducted in each of the three states by teams of four interviewers led by a supervisor. Because of language differences, the team members who spoke the approp- riate regional language as their mother-tongue worked only within their home state. All teams had prior field inter- viewing eXperience and had participated in Phase I interviews, training sessions, and pre-testing. The writer was one of the interviewers in Andhra Pradesh. All the interviewers had Masters' degrees in sociology, economics, social anthropology, and agricultural science plus eXperience in rural studies. The interviewing teams typically established residence by staying in a private home in a sample village. They made lists of eligible respondents by consulting official voter registra- tion lists, village officer's cultivators' list, and knowledgeable people in the village. They then divided the list and proceeded to interview eligible reSpondents. There was good rapport since the teams previously visited the village during Phase I study of the Project. Typically, about 1% hours were needed to complete each interview. Interview schedules were checked by the supervisor in the field, making it possible to return to the reSpondent if a question was omitted. The field work was done in March and April, 1967. After completing field interviewing, the team members coded all the interview data for computer processing. Code categories were established on the basis of sub-sample, and 27 then the data were systematically converted to numerical form. All coding was checked for random as well as systematic errors. Subsequently, a variety of scales and indexes were constructed for many of the variables (Roy and others, 1968, pp.ll-12). Selection of Variables All the Phase II data from the six villages were scrutinized in selecting the variables for this study. As our main objectives are to describe the peasant types and their communication behavior, it seemed that 66 variables would be meaningful for that purpose. The main criterion in selecting these 66 variables was whether the variables would be conceptually and statistically useful in describing the demographic, economic, sociological, social-psychological, and communication behavior of the peasant. Table 2 shows the variables that were tentatively chosen for the first step in the data analysis. Stages and Steps in Data Analysis Stage I Step 1: Keeping in view the objective of describing the peasant types and behavior, 66 variables were tentatively selected (Table 2).. Step 2: The 66 variables were used for computing basic statistics: mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. A zero-order correlation matrix was obtained for all the 66 variables. 28 Table 2. List of Variables Selected in Stage I of the Present Study Serial Name of Variable Number 1. Caste: ritual rank 2. Caste: economic rank 3. Caste: power rank n. Religion 5. Family size 6. Age of respondent 7. Education level of respondent 8. Education level of reSpondent's spouse 9. Respondent's children's education index 10. Number of acres cultivated by respondent last year 11. Number of different crops sold last year 12. Total value of agricultural produce 13. Self-evaluation of crop yield 1A. Employment other than own farming 15. Number of days worked in 1966 on job other than own farming 16. Tenure status 17. Trial of high yielding variety (HYV) 18. Channel orientation of HYV knowledge 19. Information source that convinced respondent to try HYV 20. Chemical fertilizers bought in 1967 21. Index of change agents known 22. Change score on farm in next 2-3 years 23. Social participation 24. Residential experience outside the village (another village, town, city exposure index) 25. Urban contact index 26. Urban pull 27. Radio exposure 28. Family's radio exposure 29. Movie exposure 30. Newspaper eXposure 31. District news channel 32. Patriachialism 33. Educational aspiration for the youngest son 3%. Occupational aspiration for the youngest son 35. Village norm for housewife to learn to read and write 36. Self-reliance 37. Village norm for men's vasectomy adoption 38. Fragmentation index ’ Contd. 29 Table 2 (continued) —# V. _--.—_-—« c Serial Number Name of Variable 39. Channel credibility 40. Deferred gratification 41. Income aspiration 42. Taxes paid 43. Number of days on farm reported for operator 44. Number of days on farm reported for wife and other family members combined 45. Number of days reported for labor (grand total) 46. Sum of operator labor, wife and family labor, and hired labor 4?. Percent of total which is female labor 48. Family categories 49. Farm labor efficiency I 50. Measure of commercialization 51. Agricultural (innovation) trial index 52. Index of times talked to extension agent (Extension agent contact) 53. Level of living index 54. Achievement motivation 55. Political knowledgeability index 56. Credit-risk orientation index 57. Secular orientation index 58. Empathy index 59. Interpersonal trust index 60. Inter-village ritual caste ranking 61. Bullock power used 62. Mass media index 63. Farm efficiency II (rupees per day of labor input), raw data 64. Farm efficiency III (rupees per day of labor input), standardized for village differences) 65. Health (innovation) trial index 66. Polymorphic opinion leadership 30 Step 3: Basic statistics and correlations for the 66 variables were carefully inSpected. Consequently, out of the tentatively selected 66 variables, 21 variables were dropped from the analysis for the following reasons: 1. Missing value for some variables were more than ten percent. 2. No strong justification could be made for some variables torsatisfy the assumptions of ordinality. 3. Some were not significantly correlated (i.e., correlation was less than .12 which is significantly zero at the five percent level) with at least three other variables of the selected set. 4. Some variables were considered redundant as there was already a satisfactory measure in the selected set of variables. Stage II Step 4: After screening the variables in the light of the previous considerations, 45 variables were retained for purposes of further analysis (Table 3). Out of these 45 variables, ten variables were classified as communication variables and removed. The remaining 35 variables which measured demographic, economic, and social psychological traits of the peasants, were submitted to R-type* factor analysis to reduce the large number of variables to a more parsimonious set of dimensions. *See Appendix for description of R-type factor analysis. 31 Table 3. Variables used in Data Analysis at Stage II (R-type Factor Analysis I) Variables discarded* Variables retained Communication for R-type factor Variables analysis I retained as dependent variables for correlational analysis 1. Caste: ritual rank 1. Family size 1. Channel orienta- within village 2. Caste: economic rank within village 3. Caste: power rank within village 4. Religion 5. Education of respondent's spouse 6. Children's education 7. Self-evaluation of crop yield 8. Employment other than own farm 9. Number of days employed off farm 10.Tenure status 2. Age 3. Education 4. Extent of land cultivated 5. Number of crOps sold 6. Total value of agricultural produce 7. Trial of high- yielding seed variety 8. Consumption of fertilizers 9. Change agent knowledge 10. Planning change on farm 9. 10. tion of high yielding seed knowledge Information source convinc- ing the trial of HIV. Urban contact index Radio exposure Family exposure to radio Movie eXposure NeWSpaper exposure District news channel Channel credié bility Extension agent contact *Due to (1) missing values for more than 10% of respondents (2) very low correlation (3) redundant measure Cont'd. Table 3. (continued) 32 Variables discarded Variables retained for R-type factor analysis I 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. — Patriarchialism Educational aSpiration Occupational aspiration Deferred gratification Labor days on farm by wife and farm laborers Hired labor days on farm Female labor percent Family categories Mass media index Farm efficiency II (rupees per day of labor input) Farm efficiency III (rupees per day of labor input standardized for village differences) 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Social Participation Residential experience outside the village Urban pull Village norm regarding housewife's education Self-reliance Village norm for men's vasectomy adoption Fragmentation of land Income aSpiration Taxes paid 0perator~ (peasant) days on farm Total labor employed on farm Farm efficiency I Commercialization Agricultural (innovation) trial index Level of living index Achievement motivation Political knowledgeability 33 Table 3. (continued) -- —— —.—v A - Variables retained for R-type factor analysis I 28. 29. 3o. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. —.—._ Credit-risk orientation Secular orientation Empathy Interpersonal trust Ritual caste status Bullock power used Health (innovation) trial index Polymorphic opinion leadership 34 Step 5: Factor analysis results (of the R-type) based on the 35 variables were examined. An examination of the zero- order correlation matrix and rotated factor structures led to the decision that some of the variables could be dropped by screening them more rigorously. Accordingly, for the sub- sequent analysis, 26 variables were retained on the basis of the following reason: Correlations should be such that at least five percent of the variance of the selected variable should be explained by the other variables in the set. The figure of five percent of variance explained (which is more conservative than significance of r at five percent level) was arbitrarily stipulated. The effect of setting this criterion was to remove most of those variables either having lower communalities*(h2) or lower and more complex factor loadings.* This enables in retaining those measures which have a large amount of common variance. It is recognized that this "puritan" approach in factor analysis precludes the influence of many conceptually important variables. A , researcher has to resolve this dilemma setting his own guide- lines. Stage III Step 6: The screening process mentioned in Step 5 reduced the number of variables to 26 for a second factor analysis of the R-type (Table 4). Step 7: Again, scrutiny of the second factor analysis * See Appendix for meaning. Table 4. 35 Variables used in Data Analysis at Stage III (R-type Factor Analysis II) Additional variables discarded* Variables retained for Factor Analysis II Age Urban pull Village norm for house- wife's education Village norm for men's vasectomy adoption Operator (Peasant) days on farm Farm efficiency Achievement motivation Credit-risk orientation Inter-personal trust 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25 26. Family size Education Extent of land cultivated Number of crops sold Total value of Agricultural produce Trial of high yielding seed Consumption of fertilizers Change agent knowledge Planning change on farm Social participation Residential experience outside village (cosmopoliteness) Self-reliance Fragmentation of land Income aspiration Taxes paid Total labor employed on farm Commercialization Agricultural (innovation) trial index Level of living Political knowledgeability Secular orientation Empathy Ritual caste status Bullock power used Health (innovations) trial index Polymorphic opinion leader- ship *Due to lower communalities or lower and more complex factor loadings. 36 results indiCated some complex factor loadings. Eight more variables were dropped to remove the degree of complexity in the factor structure. Stage IV Step 8: At this stage, 18 variables were submitted to the third factor analysis of the R-type (Table 5). Stage V Step 9: At this stage, the factor structures based on 18 variables were studied. Of 18 variables, consumption of fertilizers item appeared both as an independent variable and as an item used in the construction of agricultural innovativeness. This double inclusion reduced the cleanliness of the factor. In order to increase the simplicity of factor structure, consump- tion of fertilizer as a variable was deleted and final factor of analysis based on 17 variables was obtained (Table 6). Stage VI Step 10: At this stage, factor scores for the three dimensions (of the 17 variable R-factor analysis) were obtained for the 559 respondents. Step 11: Correlation analysis between the factor scores on the three dimensions and scores on the six communication variables was performed. Stage VII Step 12: At this stage, 94 peasant reSpondents (16.8 percent) from among the 559 were selected by Systematic random sampling for a P-type* factor analysis. Seventeen *See Appendix for description of P—type factor analysis. 37 Table 5. Variables used in Data Analysis at Stage IV (R-type Factor Analysis III). Additional variables discarded* Variables retained for Factor Analysis III 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. Number of crOps sold Trial of high yielding seed Planning change on farm Self-reliance Income aspiration Level of living Secularism Empathy 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. l3. l4. 15. 16. 17. 18. Family size Education Extent of land cultivated Total value of agricultural produce Change agent knowledge Social participation Consumption of fertilizers Residential experience outside the village (cosmopoliteness) Fragmentation of land Taxes paid Total labor employed Commercialization Agricultural (innovation) trial index Political knowledgeability Ritual caste status Bullock power used Health (innovations) trial index Polymorphic opinion leadership *Due to complex factor loading 38 Table 6. Variables used in Data Analysis Stage V (R-type _ , Factor Analysis IV and P-type Factor Analysis). Variable discarded* Variables retained for the final R3Pand P-type factor analyses 1. Consumption of fertilizers 1. 2. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Family size Education Extent of land cultivated Total value of agricultural produce Change agent knowledge Social participation Residential experience outside the village (cosmopoliteness) Fragmentation of land Taxes paid Total labor employed Commercialization Agricultural (innovations) trial index Political knowledgeability Ritual caste status Bullock power used Health (innovations) trial index Polymorphic opinion leadership *Due to redundancy in measurement 39 variables, chosen for the final R-type factor analysis were used for the P-type factor analysis (Table 6). Stage VIII Step 13: Based on 17 variables (used in extracting the R-type and P-type factor structures), a typology of peasants was described by using WRAP. program available at Michigan State University Computer Center. This program enables one to assign standardized scores of the variables for the subjects, loading on each type weighted by the subject's factor loading. Stage IX Step 14: Analysis of variance was done to determine significant differences in the communication behavior among the peasant types. Figure 2 gives a picture of the various stages involved in the data analysis. Operationalization of the Variables Outlined in this section are the operational procedures used to measure 23 variables finally retained from Stage V onwards for the present analysis. 1. Family size refers to the number of members related to the head by kinship ties, sharing food from a common kitchen, and shelter. ‘40 mammamsw Novomm omwpum “on mwsnmsums as on» suns mmm was no mucopsommou vm mo oaQfimm Betas“ ¢ woman unemmmm macaw Hos Ibmsmn aoaumofissssoo :H moosmHOMMHo asses uncommon mo mmoHomNu lmwaowm on» new» on _!Ii| .I.v u no coaumfluommo v mosmflum> mo mwmhamsd an manna womv mowoom Moscow um manna was spas mflmwamsm HasOHumHmuHoo How ucowcwm not we moanmawm> m vocamumu \/ xv Aw manna ommv mammHmsm Houomm omaunm use >H mammamsm uouomm mmmuum Now mmflnmflnm> SH wmmwmumu Am manna some HHH mamaam use Moscow wmhulm Mom moanmwnm> ma vwmmmuou xv manna some HH mHmSHm use Monomm ommulm Mom moanmwum> on Umcflmuon a. 382. $3 > moanmwum> ssousommo mm moanmw Ism> sofiuMOflsssEoo 0H censuses .QHIII H mamaamsm Houomm ammulm 02m mom mmHQMmeb mm conflmuou .IAV~ HH> mmmpm h "HHH> ommsmfl .l xH monum— moanmfium> w moanmaum> mv snow tommouc most w>wumassso «afi H> ammumfw A, manmwnm> w moanmflum> mm oso commoup moat o>HumHsfiso (HAM > A, moanswnm> w moansflwm> mm unmet commouv moan Obflumasfiao *||||||||u_ >H woman? (it? .A/ moanmflum> w moanmflum> em on“: tommouw moan w>flumasaso WIIIIIWIIIE (H/ _HHH 0 mumfl (xv mmHAMfiHM> \ Hm commonv HH mmmum +D———> mmHAMHHm> mo mo cowuooaom HmauflsH A H mmmum .wwsum usmmoum may cw pews mvosumz mamhaMGMImuma can no passe sonII.N .mwm 41 Table 7. Variables used in Correlational Analysis between Factor Dimensions and Communication.Characteristics (Stage VI). Factor Dimensions Communication.Characteristics l. Orientation to Change 1. Urban contact 2. Farm resources 2. Radio exposure 3. Social activity 3. Radio exposure of family members 4. Movie exposure 5. Newspaper exposure 6. Extension Agent contact 2. Education refers to the degree of a person's ability to read and write a letter with formal schooling. The variable was measured by asking actual school years completed and noting the actual grade, matriculate, first year college, B. A.. M. A., etc. 3. Acres cultivated refers to the total extent of land cultivated by the reSpondent during the agricultural year of July to June, 1966. The total acreage cultivated includes all the land irreSpective of tenancy relations and ownership rights, as declared by the respondent. 42 4. Total value of agricultural produce raised refers to the monetary value (at the appropriate market price) of the quantity of agricultural products. 5. Change agent knowledge is the degree of awareness of the extension workers. Operationally, an index of change agent knowledge was constructed by summing ‘- the scores on the responses to the following question. l"Do you know the names of any agricultural development workers who come to this village, or who are assigned to work here?" "How about health and family planning workers?" The responses were coded as follows: 0 - No names or positions known 1 - One position (no name) or one name (no position) known 2 - One name (with position) known or two positions (without name) known 3 - One name (with position) known and one position (without name) known 4 - Two names (each with position) known 6. Social participation refers to the degree of behavior orientation of a person interacting with other persons in a group. Operationally, social participation was measured in terms of the degree of membership or offices held by a person in formal organizations like co-operatives, youth organizations, local political decision making bodies like Panchyat (village council), religious and cultural organizations. The variable was measured by summing the scores assigned for membership. 43 7. Cosmopoliteness refers to the degree to which an individual is oriented outside of his system. Operationally this was measured by scoring the reSponse to the question "Have you ever lived away from this village for more than one year?” 0 - No; 2 - Yes 8. Fragmentation index is an indicant of the extent of scattering of cultivating plots of land in non-contiguous places. The index was constructed based on the number of non- contiguous places at which land was cultivated. 9. Taxes paid refers to the value of local taxes like housing and prOperty tax (excluding land tax) annually paid by the respondent. 10. Productive man work units are the estimated number of man days (hired as well as family) used in farm operations through the year. This was estimated by noting the number of man days Spent in the production of crOps. ll. Commercialization is the degree to which an individual is oriented to the market forces for his output diSposal. Commercialization measure was obtained by dividing the value of total agricultural products sold by the value of total products raised. 12. Agricultural innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new agri- cultural ideas than other members of his social system. Operationally, agricultural innovativeness was measured by asking the following question about each innovation and 44 summing the scores across items as follows: "Have you ever used ... Ng Yes (1) Ammonium sulphate? 0 2 (2) Superphosphate? 0 2 (3) Mixtures? 0 2 (4) Insecticides for plant protection? 0 2 (5) Green manure? O. 2 (6) Cultivator or weeder? 0 2 (7) Improved breeding of cattle? 0 2 (8) Animal inoculation? 0 2 (9) Rat poison? 0 2 (10) High yielding varieties (Rice-Taichung Native I IR 888; Jowar; Bajra; Maize) 0 2 The summed score could range from 0 through 20. 13. Political knowledgeability refers to the awareness of the individual about persons who are chief policy—makers in government. Operationally, the degree of political knowledgeability was measured by asking the following questions and summing the scores across three items. "I would like to ask you now about a few people. I just want to know to what extent you are familiar with their names and who they are." Incorrect Correct Who is the Prime Minister of India? 0 1 Who is the Chief Minister of your State? 0 1 Who is the Member of the Legislative Assembly? 0 l \wc‘ win/...; 45 l4. Ritual caste status refers to the ranking of the reSpondent relative to other persons in the village according to the acceptability of drinking water and eating cooked food with them. If a person of caste A can accept cooked food and water from a person of caste B, but not vice versa, then caste fi is ritually higher in rank than caste A. Operationally, ritual caste status was measured by rankings of individuals by key informants. A series of pictures of individuals were presented to the key informants, who were to arrange the pictures in the descending order according to who accepts cooked food from whom and/or drinks water. Each picture had cues to the ritual caste status of the person depicted in terms of his work surroundings, dress style, and sitting posture. Based on these rankings, four broad categories of ritual caste status were Specified for the six villages. Thus, the ascending order of caste status was ranked from one (low) to four (high). Each respondent was then placed in his caste, and assigned the corresponding number of his caste. 15. Bullock power is the total number of bullocks or draught animals owned by the peasant. 16. Health innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adapting new health ideas than other members of his social system. Operationally, it was measured by asking the following question with reference to six health items. A unit-weighted index of trial was com- I puted for each respondent to indicate his degree of 46 innovativeness. The format of the question and the scoring procedure were as follows: “Have you or has any member of your family ever tried: 32 Yes 1. Small pox prevention? 0 2 2. Cholera prevention? 0 2 3. Bed-bug prevention? 0 2 4. Making drinking water safe? 0 2 5. Malaria prevention (spray, net, pills)? O 2 6. Modern child birth practices (pre- and post-natal care, trained dai, clinic, hospitals, etc.)? 0 2 17. (Opinion leadership is the ability of an individual to influence the decision-making process of another person. Operationally, opinion leadership was measured in terms of the number of topics on which a given person was sought for advice. If a person were sought for advice, say, on health and agricultural matters, his opinion leadership score was two, whereas if his advice were sought on three matters, then his score was three. 18. Urban contact is the degree to which a person is exposed to the city environment. Operationally, this variable was measured by the frequency of visits made to towns and cities during the previous year by the respondent. The number of visits were determined in reSponse to the following question: "How many times have you visited the following places last year?" 47 Town (less than 1,000,000) City (100,000 and more) 19. Individual radio exposure is the degree of communica- tion contact of an individual to radio. This variable was operationalized by asking the following question, and scoring the reSponse as follows: "Do you listen to the radio?" 0 - No: l - Don't know; 2 - Yes 20. Family radio eXposure is the degree of communication contact of family members to radio. This dimension was Operationalized by asking the respondent : "Does your family listen to the radio?" 0 - No: l - Don't know; 2 - Yes 21. Individual movie exposure is the frequency with which a person visits the movies. The following question was asked: "Did you see any cinema films during 1966? (Reference is to commercial films, not those shown by the Block) How many?" 22. Individual neWSpaper eXposure is the degree to which a person reads a newSpaper. The following question was asked: "Did you read (had read to) any neWSpapers in the past week?" The reSponses were coded as follows: 0 - No paper read to him 1 - Cannot read but had papers read to him 2 - Can read and read one or more papers 48 23. Change agent contact is the degree of interpersonal communication of a client with a change agent. It was operationalized by noting the frequency with which a peasant talked with functionaries of extension agencies, saw block films, and agricultural demonstrations. Operationally, an index was constructed by summing the scores on the responses to the following question: "Last year (1966) did you: Number of times talkedlseen Talk with block development officer? Talk with village level worker? See an agricultural demonstration? See a block film on agriculture? a 1 t c s CHAPTER IV FINDINGS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS Results of R-Type Factor Analysis The principal axis solution using varimax rotations with a Kiel-Wrigley criterion of three (at least three variables; loading highest on all factors) for terminating factor rota- w tions, yielded five rotated solutions. Table 8 gives the per- cent of total variance explained by each of the five rotated solutions. Among the five rotated factor solutions, the second one containing three factors was selected. This solution met the Kiel-Wrigley criterion of at least three variables loading highest on the factor. For selecting the three-factor solution, the main considerations were: (1) The conceptual meaningfulness of the factors implied by the variables loaded on each factor. (2) The percentage of variance explained by each factor. As seen in Table 8, the total variance explained by all the three factors jointly in the second rotation is 51 percent - of the variance present among the 17 variables. The factor structures and their meanings are discussed in the following sections. 49 50 Table 8. Percent of total variance explained by each of the - three rotated solutions meeting a Kiel-Wrigley criterion of three variables for terminating the factor rotation. Rotated solution Percent of total variance explained First Rotation Factor I Factor II Total Second.Rotation Factor I (Change Orientation) Factor II (Farm.Resources) Factor III (Social Activity) Total Third Rotation Factor I Factor II Factor III Factor IV Total 23% 20% 473% 19% 18¢ L“! 51% 18% 18% 11% I92 57% 51 Factor I taps the dimension of change orientation of peasants, Factor II indicates the degree of farm resources managed by peasants, and Factor III indexes the nature of social activity of peasants. Dimension I: Change Orientation The first dimension is named ”Change Orientation" because it contains items which pertain to innovative behavior, educa- tion, political and change agent knowledgeability of the peasant, and degree of experience gained by living outside his village. All these variables.are positively loaded on the change orientation factor (Table 9). Innovativeness as reflected in the trial of new agricultural and health practices has top .loadings of .73 and .70. Next in importance are the factor loadings of knowledgeability and_education.ranging from .61 to .66. Cosmopoliteness has a relatively low loading of .48. Both knowledge and behavioral variables loading on the dimension of orientation to change indicate modernization in peasant behavior. Dimension II: Farm Resources The second dimension is named "Farm.Resources" because variables indicating the basic factors of farm production and the monetary value of the agricultural output are chiefly loaded on it (Table 10). All the economic variables are "pure" in their loading on this factor. The loadings range from .65 to .80. The demographic variable of family size shows a 52 Table 9. Variables loading highest on Factor 1* (Change .3 Orientation), Variable Factor Highest other Highest other hz** loading factor loading factor 1. Agricultural . innovativeness .224 .276 I Farm.Resources .632 2. Health 7 innovativeness .628 .075 III Social Activity .497 3. Education .661 .302 III Social Activity .563 4. Political knowledgeability .654 .396 III Social Activity .586 5. Change agent knowledgeability .606 .507 III Social Activity .624 6. Cosmopoliteness .426 .149 II Farm.Resources. -.262 *Amount of variance explained by Factor I is 19%. **Communality 53 Table 10. Variables loading highest on.Factor 11* (Farm A Resources). Variables Factor Highest other Highest other h2** loading factor loading factor ‘ 1. Labor size I (Change on farm .803 .388 Orientation) .796 2. Value of agri—\ I (Change cultural produce .220 .354 Orientation) .752 3. Farm size .244 .401 III (Social Activity) .742 4. Bullock power .204 .285 III (Social Activity) .580 5. Taxes paid .653 .317 I (Change Orientation) .531 6. Family size .340 .056 I (Change Orientation)-1.119- f *Amount of variance explained by Factor II is 18$. **Communality 54 relatively low loading. The dominant feature of the Farm Resources factor is indicated by the amount of land and labor resources, and the quantum of agricultural production that characterize the economic power of the peasant. Dimension III: Social Activity The third dimension is named "Social Activity" because it contains mainly variables which pertain to the market orientation of the peasant as measured by the proportion of total agricultural production sold in the market, membership and participation in formal organizations like the village Panchayat, cooperative institutions, religious, and other social service organizations. The dimension of Social Activity has a negative association with the fragmentation of cultivation holdings. This factor also indexes the ability of the peasant to influence the decision-making process of the other peasants who need information and advice. It reflects the social interaction experience and management skill of the peasant. This dimension well reflectslproblems of human relations and the many intricate skills involved in marketing and the social decision-making processes, and formation of opinions and attitudes. Ability to mobilize physical and social resources for efficient functioning of the peasant society are some of the traits tapped in this dimension. The factor loadings range from .34 (opinion leadership) to .73 (commercialization). Table 11 shows these details. 55 Table 11. Items loading highest on Factor III* (Social Activity). Item Factor Highest other Highest other h2 loading factor loading factor ,..1 MH_, 1. Commercializa- 11 (Farm tion .233, .159 ZResources) .563 2. Fragmented I (Change Farms -.612 -.O98 Orientation) .393 3. Social I (Change Participation .532 .168 orientation) .332 4. Ritual caste I (Change ‘ status . 83 .430 Orientation) .419 5. Opinion I (Change leadership .338 .295 Orientation) .256 *Amount of variance explained by Factor III is 14$. 56 Communication Patterns One of the important goals in the R-type factor analysis is to be able to assess individuals more meaningfully and economically in terms of the factors which subsume a number of variables. Assuming that the interpreted factors are variables, an attempt is made to measure them. As Guilford (1954. p. 524) says: "A limited list of factor scores would then do the work several times as many tests and do it with greater invariance of meaning." In what follows we shall use the factor loadings obtained from the orthogonal rotation of axes, to arrive at factor scores. Factor loadings of 17 variables on the three factors (Table 12), and the standardized scores of 17 variables, are used in obtaining factor scores for each of the 559 peasant respondents on each of the three factors: Change orientation factor score, farm resources factor score, and social activity factor score. Considering the three factor scores as measures of three independent variables, i.e., change orientation, farm resources, and social activity, a correlational analysis was made between these variables and Six communication variables. The obtained correlations describe the pattern of communication behavior of 559 peasants as associated with their degree of change orientation, farm resources, and extent of social activity. 57 Table 12. Factor loadings for the three-factor solution I. Variable Factor I Factor II Factor III Change Farm Social Orientation Resources Activity 1. Agricultural innovativeness .234 .276 -.l31 2. Health innovativeness .628 .066 .075 3. Education .661 .188 .302 4. Political knowledgeability .652 .024 .396 5. Change agent knowledgeability .606 .023 .507 6. Cosmopoliteness .426 .150 .116 7. Labor size on farm .388 .803 .007 8. Value of agri- cultural produce °354 .222 .043 9. Farm size .163 .744 .401 10. Bullock power -.052 ..204 .285 11. Taxes paid .317 .653 .066 12. Family size -.056 .340 .016 13. Commercializa- tion -.001 .159 .73 14. Fragmentation Of farms ”0098 .047 'e617 15. Social Participation .168 .127 .537 16. Ritual caste status .430 .027 .483 17. Opinion leader- _ .-ship .295 .233 .338 58 Table 13 shows the zero-order correlation between each of the three dimensions of the peasant characteristics. and communication behavior as indexed by exposure to radio. news- paper, urban environment. movies. and extension agencies. The Change orientation dimension has a fairly high positive zero-order correlation with peasant's newspaper exposure (.455), frequency of contact with change agents (.511). urban contact (.354). movie exposure (.282), and radio exposure (.238). Change orientation is also highly correlated with radio exposure of family members (.361). The Farm resources dimension shows comparatively lower correlations with extension agent contact (.255). newspaper exposure (.236). urban contact (.190). and movie exposure (.171). While the correlation with family member's radio exposure is .246, the peasant's radio exposure is not signi- ficantly correlated with the Farm resources dimension (.069). The Social activity dimension shows about the same cor- relation pattern. but in lower degree than change orientation and Farm resources dimension. Social activity is positively correlated with urban contact (.222). newspaper exposure (.220). extension agent contact (.206). radio exposure (.119). movie exposure (.028). and family members' exposure to radio (.002). The later two correlations are not statistically significant. These correlations suggest that Change orientation behavior of peasants has a strategic association with their 59 .Hm>oa usoouom m man no omen Scum usonMMflp MHuQMOHMficmHme mHH. wmo. «NNN. moo. «CNN. soon. %UH>HUUM Hofloom .m moo. «Aha. «oma. «mom. womm. «mmm. mmousomwn Each .N «wmm. *mmm. evmm. «Hem. *mmv. «Ham. soflumucoauo wmcmco .H mudmomxm ousmomxm ucmuaoo musmomxm OHUMH onsmomxw #omucoo oapmm oa>oz song: mHmQEmE wawfimm Homommkmz pammm moapmauouomumno . v . . codmcmuxm paw moflumanouumamno .HOH>m£mn sofluooassfisoo pcmmmmm mo mGOHmcmEHU omasu somzpmn msoHanmunoo umUHOIOHoNII.MH mqmfie 60 exposure to agricultural and health extension workers. mass media, and contact with urban environment. CHAPTER V FINDINGS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS Peasant Typology In the previous Chapter, an attempt was made to describe the subculture of peasantry in terms of three dimensions, namely. Change orientation, Farm resources, and Social activity. The three dimensions were extracted from seventeen variables measuring demographic. economic, and sociological characteristics of the peasants. Correlations between the three factors and the peasants' exposure to mass media. extension agencies and urban environment. were presented. In this Chapter, an attempt is made to construct a typo- logy of peasants based on the same 17 variables (used previously for the R-factor analysis), and to describe the communication behavior of the peasant types. Method of Analysis A systematic random sample of 94 was drawn from the 559 respondents (who were the subjects for the R factor analysis in the previous Chapter) to construct types of peasants. A factor analysis of the respondents in terms of the 1? characteristics was performed using FACT AN program available at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The value 61 62 for each of the 94 subjects on each of the 1? characteristics was correlated with that of every other subject. This matrix of intercorrelations was submitted to P-type factor analysis, so that the persons are "variables" and the 1? characteristics are observations. Because persons are treated as variables, the name usually given to this analysis is P-type (P for people) factor analysis. A principal axis solution was obtained. This solution was submitted to a varimax rotation which produces orthogonal factors. On this basis, a factor represents a grouping of persons around a common syndrome of the characteristics included in the analysis. Hence, a factor represents a type of person. As used here, the principal axis solution was submitted to varimax rotation. The criterion for rotating the factors was arbitrarily fixed at five because it was thought not very useful to go any further. Table 14 gives the number of hypothetical types of persons and the percent of variance explained by each rotated factor solution. For purpose of describing the typology of peasants, the threeufactor solution and six-factor solution were selected on considerations of simplicity and the percentage of variance explained. The three-factor solution satisfied the simplicity criterion (i.e., proportion of people with "pure" loading on each factor was higher when compared to other solutions) and the six-factor solution satisfied the notion of fairly high 63 Table 14. Percent of total variance explained by each of the five rotated P-factor solution Rotated solutions Type Percent of total variance explained First rotation: People-Factor I 16 People-Factor II lfi Total 31 Second rotation: People-Factor I 17 People-Factor II 12 People-Factor III ;2 Total 5:; Third rotation: People-Factor I 16 People-Factor II 14 PeopleuFactor III 11 People-Factor IV .;2 Total 5; Fourth rotation: People-Factor I 15 People-Factor II 13. PeopleéFactor III 10' People-Factor IV 10 PeopleéFactor'V ‘3; Total :52 Fifth rotation: PeopleaFactor I 16 People-Factor II 10 People-Factor III 10 People-Factor IV 9 People-Factor‘V 9 People-Factor‘VI 12 Total 66 64 percentage (66 percent) of variance explained. The following description is confined to the three-factor solution. Description of Peasant Types As used here, the factor analysis model constructs hypo- thetical types of persons based on the way peasants were measured on 1? characteristics mentioned earlier. The co- efficients or loadings in the rotated factor solution can be looked at as each peasant's correlation with each of the hypothetical types. To group the peasants, we can assign them to the type that they are most like on the basis of factor loadings. In deciding on the peasants that define the three types, the following considerations were arbitrarily set. (1) The square of the factor loading of a given subject should approach the communality (h2) of that subject. (2) The subject should be included to define that factor (type) on which the loading is higher than .40. but less than .40 on other factors. (3) Even if the communality is as low as .10. a subject is assigned to the factor (type) if its highest loading on that factor contributes almost all of that communality. Accordingly, the subjects were assigned to the respective types if they met at least one of the foregoing criteria. Those that did not meet the set criteria were considered as Mixed types. Tables 15 through 19 give the factor loadings of the types of peasants. 65 Table 15. Highest loadings on factor (Type) I in three-factor ,_ solution. 3:26:23 Izggiggs Higgzit H6ggzgt (Comginality) fication on Type 1* loading types -.599 -.067 II 36 -.368 -.099 III 15 7 -.327 -.086 III 11 14 -.656 -.362 III 60 15 -.712 -.116 III 53 16 -.488. -.166 11 28 18 -.339 .117 III 13 19 -.354 -.172 III 16 20 -.846 -.163 III 74 22 .303 .073 II 10 23 -.813 -.105 III 68 31 -.828 -.201 III 76 32 .704 -.317 III '60 33 .378 .109 III 15 37 -.427 .201 111 23 38 -.306 -.114 11 11 42 .930 .176 II 90 44 -.632 .308 II 50 54 .831 -.364 II 82 56 .867 -.220 III 80 Continued 66 Table 15 (cont'd.). Highest loadings on factor (Type) I in three-factor solution. Subject Factor Highest Highest h2 , identi- loadings other other (Communa11ty) ficat ion on T ype I* loading Types 69 -.663 .226 II 53 66 .770 .290 II; 68 82 .633 -.378 II 57 87 .721 -.334 II 72 *Total number of subjects in.Type I is 25, and the percentage of variance explained by Type I is 17. 67 Table 16. Highest loadings on factor (Type) II in three- ~. factor solution. Subject Factor Highest Highest h2 identi- loadings other other: (Communality) fication on.Type II* loading Types' ' 8 .494 -.271 III 38 9 -.500 -.031 III 25 10 -.602 -.138 I 38 11 -.650 -.134 III 58 27 -.794 -.091 III 64 30 -.614 .310 I 49 34 -.647 .146 I 45 41 .710 -.148 III 53 43 .840 .292 I 79 49 .649 .444 III 63 52 .490 -.098 I 25 53 .616 .203 III 43 57 .523 .099 I 28 ‘ 58 .650 -.215 I 47 59 .570 -.244 I _42 68 .686 .09u 111 49 72 .390 -.l91 I 20 73 .737 .351 I 74 88 -.589 .340 I 55 89 -.296 -.107 III 10 90 .409 .100 I 18 93 -.327 .115 III 13 94 -.464 .217 I 26 *Total number of subjects in.Type II is 23. and the percentage of variance explained by Type II is 12. Tablfi 17 e 68 Highest loadings on factor (Type) III in three- factor solution. ‘ Subject Factor Highest Highest ,_ h2 identi- loadings other other (Communality) fication on Type III* loading Types 2 .531‘ .320 II 43 21 -.320 .167 II 13 29 -.562 .085 II 33 36 .294 —.130 I ll 39 .650 -.068 II 43 40 .535 .158 II 33 45 .514 -.333 I 40 46 .607 .215 II 42 47 -.419 .140 II 21 48 .753 .274 I an 50 .721 -.105 I 53 51 .623 -.343 II 51 61 .638 .373 II 56 62 .374 -.237 I 23 64 .514 .379 II 42 75 .682 -.241 II 57 76 .562 -.213 II 39 81 .524 -.168 II 30 86 -.561 .371 I 50 *Total number of subjects in type III is 19. and the percentage of total variance explained by type III is 12. 69 Table 18. Mixed types Subject Loadings on 52 . 326::16n Type I Type II Type III (Communality) -.087 -.017 .154 03 .374 -.456 .231 40 5 -.124 -.019 -.287 09 12 -.201 -.502 -.429 48 13 -.414 -.314 -.466 49 17 -.118 .496 -.383 41 24 .051 .149 .173 05 25 -.147 .036 -.194 06 26 -.440 -.435 -.218 43 28 -.359 -.302 -.342 36 35 -.291 .160 .177 14 55 -.401 .128 .362 31 60 .283 .402 .495 48 65 -.303 .431 -.267 35 67 -.426 .335 .243 35 70 -.458 .534 -.468 71 71 .655 ,1,.188 -.489‘ 70 74 -.300 -.452 .668 74 77 .674 -.068 .521 73 78 -.375 -.440 -.215 38 Continued 70 Table 18. (Continued) Mixed Types. Subject Loadings on 1’12 . Type I Type II Type III (3°"munality) 79 .429 -.207 -.458 44 80 $6413 -.281 .479 48 83 .044 .384 ..485 38 84 .368 -.264 "376 35 85 . 560 - o 350 - . 531 76 91 .491 --573 -.182 60 92 .692 -.460 -.011 69 71 Table_19.. Number of subjects loading by types. All Number of subjects subjects 1 Type I Type II Type III Mixed Type 94 25 23 19 27 72 The three types of peasants are described in terms of the following 17 characteristics: 1. Family size 2. Education 3. Acreage of land cultivated 4. Monetary value of gross agricultural produce 5. Change agent knowledgeability 6. Social participation 7. Cosmopoliteness 8. Fragmentation of land index 9. Taxes (housing and other local taxes) paid 10. Total labor employed on farm 11. Commercialization of output 12. Agricultural innovativeness 13. Political knowledgeability l4. Ritual caste status 15. Bullock power employed and owned 16. Health innovativeness 17. Opinion leadership WRAP program was run to describe the characteristics of the persons defining each type. This program computed weighted scores for each of the 17 variables for each subject associated with a given factor. Thus, the higher the factor loading of a subject. the greater was the weight. These weighted values were summed across each variable separately. The arrays of weighted values were converted to Z-scores. Table 20 gives the 73 Table 20. A description of three types of peasants by the ..7 weighted standard scores. Variable Type I Type II Type III 1. Family size 0.29 (Hi) -0.24 (Medium) -0.31 (Lo) 2. Education 0.40 (Hi) -O.21 (Medium) -0.34 (Lo) 3. Acres cultivated 0.26 (Hi) -0.l9 (Medium) -0.30 (Lo) 4. Value of agri- cultural produce -3.l6 (Lo) 3.93 (Hi) 3.90 (Med) 5. Change agent ' knowledge 0.41 (Hi) -0.21 (Medium) -0.32 (Lo) 6. Social participation 0.40 (Hi) -0.21 (Medium) -o.33 (Lo) 7. Cosmopoliteness 0.40 (Hi) -0.21 (Medium) -0.34 (Lo) 8. Fragmentation index 0.40 (Hi) -0.22 (Medium) -0.34 (Lo) 9. Taxes paid 0.38 (Hi) -0.13 (Medium) 0.04 (Lo) 10. Total labor on farm ~2.23 (Lo) -0.97 (Medium) 0.56 (Hi) 11. Commercializa- tion of output 0.15 (Hi) -0.02 (Medium) -0.20 (Lo) 12. Agricultural innovativeness 0.40 (Hi) -0.24 (Medium) -0.34 (Lo) 13. P01113103]. . ‘ knowledgeability 0.40 (Hi) -0.21 (Medium) -0.33 (Lo) 14. Ritual caste status 0.38 (Hi) -0.20 (Medium) 50.34 (Lo) 15. Bullock-power 0.36 (Hi) -0.21 (Medium) -0.33 (Lo) 16. Health innovativeness 0.39 (Hi) -O.23 (Medium) -0.33 (Lo) . leadership 0.40 (Hi) -0.22 (Medium) -0.34 (Lo) 74 arrays of Z-scores for the three types in terms of 17 variables. Type I: Modern Type I peasants have larger-sized families. They belong to a ritually higher caste and have more education. They show a high degree of change agent knowledge and political who is who. They are more cosmopolite. possess a high degree of social participation in formal organization and a high degree of agricultural and health innovativeness. They cultivate a large extent of land scattered in a large number of bits, employ a large number of bullocks. pay a large amount of taxes and show a high degree of commercialization 0f produce. In _ terms of total value of agricultural produce raised and total .quantity of labor employed on.farm, they score comparatively low. Type II: Transitional Type II peasants have medium-sized families. They belong to a ritually medium caste and are less well educated. They show a medium degree of change agent knowledge and political 2 knowledge. Their degree of social participation, cosmopolita- ness and opinion leadership is medium. They manifest a medium degree of agricultural and health innovativeness. They cultivate a medium acreage of land fragmented to'a medium extent, employing a medium amount of bullock- and manppower. They raise a high quantum of value of agricultural output. 75 They have a relatively medium degree of commercialization. They pay medium amount of taxes. Type III: Traditional Type III peasants have small-sized families. They belong to a ritually low caste and have low level of education. Their degree of change agent and political knowledgeability is low. Their degree of participation in formal organizations is low. They possess a low degree of cosmopoliteness and opinion leadership. They cultivate small extent of land with small amount of bullock-power. Their lands are not very much fragmented. They pay small amount of taxes. The degree of their agricultural and health innovativeness is low but their total value of agricultural produce and quantity of labor used on their farms are high. If we look at the variables in terms of the dimensions arrived at by R-factor analysis, the three types of peasants show the characteristics presented in.Table 21. It is clearly seen that Type I peasants show a high degree of orientation to change. Type III seems not to be oriented to the moderniza- tion process or. they may be on the fringe of the modernization process. On the farm resources dimension. Type I peasants show a small amount of employment of labor on their farm and a low value of agricultural produce. In terms of other economic and non-economic characteristics, Type I peasants are relatively higher than the rest. On the social activity dimension also. Type I peasants score high. Type II come next, 76 mmuoom HOHOMNIA Umuflpnmwsmum wounmflm3 moflumflnouomuonu usmmowm am.on -.ou oo.o aaamaooooa aoaaaao .aa om.on o~.ou mm.o msuoum oumoo assuam .oH mm.ou Hm.ou oo.o coaooaaoauuta Hoaoom .ma om.o: mm.on oo.o xoooa aoaomuoosoona .oa ON.OI No.0: mH.o COHuMNHHMHOHmEEOU .MH NBH>HBOd aaHUOm .HHH Hm.ou o~.o- am.o ooam aaaaoa .ma oo.o ma.ou mm.o mama moxma .HH mm.on am.on om.o 9636a xooaaom .oa om.o: ma.on om.o pmuo>fluaso ommouoa .m om.m mm.m 0H.m1 mosvonm HousuHDOHumo mo 05Hm> House .m mmomDOmmm om.o no.0- mm.mu snow so ooaoaaso “coma Hosea .a Emma .HH om.ou Hm.ou oo.o mmoaouaaoaosmoo .o mm.on m~.ou Ho.o auaaanmoaooazoox booms oooooo .m mm.ou H~.o: oo.o auaaaomomooasoox Hooaoaaoa .o om.ou Hm.on oo.o aoaooosom .m mozamo mm.0| vN.ou mm.o mmms0>flum>ossfl spasms .N OB om.OI vm.0| ov.o mmmco>flum>ocsfl Housuasoaumé .H ZOHBmBzmHmO .H HHH mmwe HH mama H came soflmcmfifla .mmoaomwu usmmmom mo mouoom wouflwuopsoum nonsmH03 was moaumflnouomumso usommom mo msoflmsmafloll.am mamme 77 and.Type III score very low. Type I peasants, although innovative and knowledgeable, are low in.agricultural production and the quantity of labor employed on the farm. These peasants who seem to be more modern in terms of their behavioral and knowledge character- istics, may possibly combine other subsidiary economic activities like trade or other professions, with agriculture. Also. these peasants may lease part of their land to others. These are some of the possible explanations for the lower value of agricultural product associated with Type I. Also .there may be some degree of under-estimation of the farm produce among bigger peasants. Type II peasants are midway between the set of peasants who are more modern. and those peasants who are low on the change orientation dimension. These peasants may be transi- tionals. Economically. they show a gross value of agri- cultural production higher than.Type I and slightly higher than Type III. On almost all other measures, Type II are mid- way between.Type I and Type III. Type III peasants are low on the dimension of change orientation and social activity. In terms of the indices of farm resources, they rate slightly lower than Type I. and Type II with the exception of total amount of labor employed. Thus. the foregoing typological description shows three types of peasants: A type of peasant who is relatively low in terms of the value of agricultural produce but big in 78 terms of the extent of land cultivated, and degree of moderniza- .tion. a type of peasant who is medium in the extent of land cultivated. high in terms of gross value of agricultural product, but medium on the path of modernization. and lastly. a type who is poor and traditional in change orienta- tion but tends to be productive. Peasant Types and Communication Posture Given the foregoing three peasant types, could we find any degree of similarity or difference in communication behavior among them? How do those peasants who have a mixed type of factor loading on all the three types compare with each of the other types? An attempt was made to compute the mean scores for each peasant type on three communication" variables. namely, extension agent contact, urban contact. and mass media index.* Table 22 presents the results of analysis of variance performed to test the significant differences among the means for three different measures of communication behavior of a four categories (three types and a mixed type) of peasants. It is seen from the Table, there are significant differences among the four categories of peasant types in the degree of *The mass media index was constructed by summing scores on individual radio exposure. family radio exposure. newspaper exposure, and movie exposure. While the former three were scored dichotomously, the last was a score measuring the frequency of visits to movies. ‘79 .mm was m was Eocooum mo mooumop 05p sons .mo.m ma m mo osam> HMOHUflHo on» “Ho>oa unwoumm m on» us usmoawflsmflm one moosoaommwp soozt oHSmOQXo Asoav o m Romans 0 a Asoav m m Abound a a as a oaoos was: .m . . . . . uomusoo xsoaoosv a as Romany m om Azoav a as Asmaov 6 am .oa m coon: .m pooucoo Azoav m.~ Insane o.m xsoav m.m Asmaav o.m .ma.m scoot scamsmuxm .H 1am u so has n so 1mm u as as . mama UTXHZ AHMGOHUMMMHBV AHMCOflfiwnmmMMHn—L ACHmvaZV OH m HHH a HH 9 .w m oaooaao> mouoom sow: came ucmmmoa .meQMHHm> soflumoflGSEEoo poucmamw so momma “commom mo mouoom :mmzll.mm mqmde 80 extension agent contact and urban contact. No such significant -difference is seen in the degree of mass media exposure. It seems that the degree of communication contact with the exten- sion agency and the urban environment is similar among the modern and traditional types of peasants. The transitional type seems to differ from both the traditional and modern types. The mixed type are more like transitionals in their degree of extension agency contact, and tend to lean toward traditionals in their degree of urban contact. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The objectives of the present study were (1) to describe the subculture of peasantry in terms of a parsimonious set of factors; (2) to construct a typology of peasants by factor analyzing their demographic, sociological. and economic characteristics, (3) to correlate different dimensions of the peasant subculture with selected measures of communication behaviors and (4) to examine whether there were any signif- icant differences in the communication behavior among peasant types. The present study was based on the India Phase II Diffusion.Projeot data collected during 1967. Personal inter- views using structured questions were conducted with 559 peasants, purposively selected from six Indian villages in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and West Bengal. The data analysis started with an initial set of 66 variables that gave a fairly wide description of the behavioral, attitudinal, and knowledge characteristics of the peasants. The major method of analysis employed in this study was factor analysis. When it became clear that measurement procedures of some variables could not satisfy the assumption 81 82 of at least ordinal level of measurement, many of the variables were discarded. Other considerations, such as insignificant intercorrelations and missing data, reduced the number of variables to 23. Many of the social psychological variables, described (Chapter II) as central to the notion of subculture of peasantry, could not be retained. Of the 23 variables finally retained, six variables were classified as communica- tion variables and kept separated from the factor analysis. From the remaining 17 variables three factors were extracted by submitting their intercorrelation matrix to H- type factor analysis, using Kiel-Wrigley criterion. The three factors were conceptually meaningful and explained 41 percent of the variance. They were named: (1) Change Orientation, (2) Farm.Resources, and (3) Social Activity. A correlation analysis of the foregoing three dimensions with six communication variables indicated significant correlations of the Change Orientation dimension with exten- sion agency contact and mass media exposure. The Farm Resource dimension came next in the magnitude of positive correlations with the same communication variables. Social activity had the lowest correlations with extension agency contact and newspaper exposure. A random sample of 94 respondents out of the 559 peasants was selected for P-type factor analysis, where correlation matrices between people as variables and 1? characteristics (used previously in the R-type factor analysis) as observations, 83 were factor analyzed to construct a peasant typology. Based on a three-factor solution explaining 51 percent of the variance, a three-fold typology was constructed. The three types were named: Modern, Transitional, and Traditional. There were also peasants who shared common variance across all the three types. This category was named the Mixed type. An examination of the mean scores on extension agency contact, urban contact, and mass media exposure among the three peasant types and a Mixed type indicated significant differences in the communication behavior among the four categories of peasants. The degree of contact with the extension agency and urban environment was high and similar for both the Modern and Traditional types of peasants, while the Transitional types showed a low degree of exposure to the extension agency and urban environment. Perhaps one of the factors explaining this peasant communication pattern is the deliberate efforts of the extension agency. Due to the drive and initiative on the part of the extension personnel, contacts were possibly established with those sections of the traditional peasants who, if left to themselves, would have had less or no contact with the extension agency. The present study leads to the following conclusions: 1. The development program in India seems to be affecting the peasantry because of the high exposure of the peasants to.the development extension agency. The deminant dimension of modernization process is indicated by the peasants' higher degree of knowledge of the developmental administrative 84 system and contact with the change agents. It is also indexed by an increased propensity on the part of the peasants to adopt new farming and health practices. 2. There are strong economic factors mediating the pro- cess of modernization. In terms of the extent of land cultivated, peasant types with larger cultivated land holdings show a greater degree of modernization. 3. Peasant change orientation is positively associated with a higher degree of external communication contact. 4. There are four categories of peasants with three distinct behavioral traits clustering around: "Modern" type who show a high degree of change orientation and a high degree of social activity, a larger extent of land cultivated but a lower degree of gross value of agricultural produce, low quantity of labor days on the‘farm, and a high degree of communication contact with the external system: ‘ "Transitional” type who manifest a medium degree of change orientation, social participation, farm resources, and communication contact with the external system: ' ' "Traditional" type who exhibit low scores on the dimensions of change orientation and social activity. On the farm resources dimension they are low as indicated by size of farm and taxes paid. But they score high on the quantity of labor used on the farm, and medium on the value of agricultural produce. The degree of communica- tion contact with the external system is also high. There is a Mixed type which share some characteristics of all the foregoing types. Looking at the communication behavior of Type I (Modern) and Type III (Traditional), one finds that both types have 85 high scores on communication contact with the outside system, yet they differ in the total input of labor days on farm and the gross value of agricultural produce (Type I being low and Type III being high). They also differ in the degree of change orientation and social activity (Type I being high on both, and.Type III being low on both). Thus, it seems there is a kind of curvilinear relationship between the degree of change orientation and the degree of communication contact with the external system. These relationships have some implications for future research. Before we indicate some lines for future research, a few limitations of the present study may be mentioned. Limitations of the Study 1. The purposive method employed in selecting peasant respondents in India Phase II study meant the exclusion of peasants who were cultivating less than 2.5 acres and/or aged more than 50 years. Thus the data do not permit a valid claim for generalizing to the peasants in general. 2. Out of eight villages covered under India Phase II Study, two villages had to be dropped because of the non- availability of information on a major variable, caste. Deletion of two villages meant narrowing the range of varia- tion of the traditional and modern characteristics of the peasant society. 86 3. Setting up rigorous criteria for inclusion of variables in the final factor analysis meant discarding import- ant variables which measured other dimensions of traditional- ization. Perhaps, the method used for the selection of variables was too rigid for purposes of this study. Many variables which were excluded from our analysis might conceivably have thrown light on other dimensions of the Indian peasant subculture. Needed.Research The degree of initiative and communication leadership of the administrative personnel may mediate the relationship between the change oriented peasant and his degree of external communication contact. The "push" of communication contacts through the administrative machinery of "development- from-above" may hook up the traditional type of peasant with the external system, in spite of his low orientation to change. By contrast, the type of peasant who manifests a high degree of modernization as measured by level of knowledgeability, may have a higher degree of initiative in his communication contacts with the extension agents. Research is needed on the role of leadership qualities on the part of the extension service personnel who can increase communication inputs to the tradi- tional peasant type. It is possible that the gross measure of communication exposure used in the present study is not a very precise index of the communication process. Other communication 87 measures are needed to provide empirical evidence to test the following Propositions: The modernized peasants show a greater degree of ini- tiative in communication transactions with exten- sion personnel than do the traditional peasants. The content of the messages to which peasants are exposed differentiate the modern from the traditional peasants. The channels and the sources of technical information used differentiate the modern from the tradi— tional peasants. Future research may focus on the relational aspects of communication structure to determine the types of cliques and communication nets that unite different types of peasants. Given a typology as described in this thesis, do the seeker- sought relations and cliques among peasants occur more within a type than across the types? Could we expect the Mixed types to be liaison persons in a peasant society? How do social system characteristics measuring modernization dimensions influence the nature of communication nets within and between peasant types? In the present study six villages were examined with an aggregate analysis. While this aggregate analysis increased the degree of generalizability across regions, it also led to the exclusion of some important social psychological and socio- logical measures of peasant characteristics, because of lack of data across all the six villages. With factor analysis, dimensions extracted are a reflection of the input variables. Further studies are needed to reliably measure social psychological traits like fatalism, empathy, inter- 88 personal trust, level of aspirations, secular orientation, and many other characteristics of peasantry. Many of such variables are very "soft". Consequently, it is difficult to operationalize and measure them with a high degree of valid- ity and reliability. Unless we continue to study and improve basic measurements, many of the observations describing the subculture of peasantry will be inadequate and superficial. Finally, there is a methodological suggestion. When using a large sample of subjeets for factor analysis, it is desirable to have a measure of stability of factor structures of the P- and.R-type. For example, in the present study, as mentioned in the previous Chapter, 94 subjects were randomly chosen out of 559 subjects for P-type factor analysis. This small sub-sample size was necessary because of the capacity of FACT AN program available at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The FACT AN program can work only with a maximum of 100 variables. As each subject (peasant) is considered as a variable in the P-type analysis, the number of subjects could not exceed 100 subjects. Given this limita- tion on the size of the sample, it is desirable to have P- analysis done using more than one sub-sample. In the same way, for R-analysis more than one sub-sample of, for example, 200 respondents, could be submitted for factor analysis. These procedures would allow the calculation of some measure of factor stability. 89 The present study shows how quantitative methods can be usefully employed in parsimoniously describing a large peasant audience so that communication of farm information to the peasant can be effectively planned. APPENDIX Factor Analysis: R and P Types The main purpose of factor analysis is data reduction. Given a large number of variables, a factor analytic technique is a method of analyzing the correlation matrix to determine some transformation of the original set of variables account- ing for most of the variance in the original. Factor analytic techniques enable one to empirically search for basic dimen- sions and a parsimonious description of the phenomenon under investigation. A "factor" may be regarded as a hypothetical construct deriving its meaning from all those variables shar- ing common variance under it. All variables are assumed to be normal, linear, and additive. To the extent these assump- tions are not met, the results of factor analysis must be treated with caution. Depending on the variables that make correlation matrix, and call for transformation into factors, we can talk about the responses or tests, and persons. If we correlate and factor responses or tests for a sample of people, with time held constant, then the factor analysis is known as R-type analysis. If we correlate and factor people for a sample of responses or tests with time held constant, then the factor analysis is known as P-type analysis. Maclean (1965) shows different types of factor analytic schemes labeling them 90 91 R, Q, P, O, T, and S. The factor analytic methods of B and P used in the present thesis correspond to what Maclean calls R and Q. His description of P analysis is entirely different from what goes by the name P-type analysis in this thesis. But the illustration of his Q analysis is the same as P-type used in the present thesis. R-type Factor Analysis The following steps illustrate hypothetically what- happens in H—type factor analysis. A score of matrix for 559 peOple measured on 1? characteristics was obtained. R Score Matrix People Characteristics Land Education value of . . .- Innova- agricultural tiveness produce 1 9 6 10,000 . -.» . 2 8 5 9,000 . . .. 3 3 3 3.500 . . . 4 559 3 0 2,000 . a. . 3 In the foregoing matrix person 1, for example, scores high and person 559 scores low on all the characteristics. 92 Then we constructed a correlation matrix for the R score matrix: B Correlation Matrix Characteris- Value of ~ , tic Land Education agricultural , , , Innova- W til—um Land 1000 03“ 065 o 0‘. .2“ Education 03“ 1.00 03“ a e a .35 Value of agricultural produce .65 e3“ 1000 o e-e .43 O O O O O O IQ-QzO O Innovativeness .24 .35 . ... r 1.00 where we see that persons who are more educated are likely to be more innovative as also those cultivating more land raise higher value of agricultural produce. Next, the foregoing correlation matrix was used to extract the factors by using orthogonal rotation. Rotation is essentially a mathematical means of looking at the data from different angles with a view to simplifying factor structure and also to identify the most invariant factor structures. Orthogonal rotation maintains independence between two factors so that their correlation is always zero. Oblique rotations do not place this constraint upon factors. The following table gives the number of factors extracted, factor 93 loadings, and communalities. Factor loadings express the correlations between variables and factors. Communality refers to the proportion of variance of each variable accounted for in the factor solution. Ch e t __ Factozg _ I . II III hz (Communality) Land -.056 .340 .016 .742 Education .661 .188 .302 .563 XSIESrZI 2:28:09 .354 .790 .043 .752 Innovativeness .743 .276 —.l3l .632 Now, looking at the factor loadings, one can describe each factor in terms of those characteristics showing their highest correlations with the factor. Thus, Factor I can be described in terms of education and innovativeness and named as change orientation; Factor II can be described in terms of land and value of agricultural produce and named as farm resources. Now, one can describe the sample in terms of two dimensions instead of four measures. Thus, one has achieved some degree of parsimony in description. 91: P-type Factor Analysis P-type factor analysis is simply the obverse of B. One can transpose the R score matrix of the characteristics of the people in the following form: P Score Matrix Characteristic Person 1 2 3 .. .. .. 559 Land 9 8 3 .. .. .. 3 Education 6 5 3 .. .. .. 0 Value of agri- cultural prOduce 10,000 9,000 3,000 as as as 2,000 Innovativeness 7 6 4 .. .. .. 3 where one can see person 1 scoring high on all the characteristics and the 559th person scoring low on all of them. For P-type factor analysis, instead of correlating the characteristics of the person, one can correlate person 1 with person 2 and person 1 with person 3 and so on out to. person 558 with person 559. The correlation matrix takes the following forms 95 P Correlation Matrix Egress __ Bezs2n_ .2 1 2 3 . . . 559 1 1.00 .65 .09 . . . -.05 2 .65 1.00 .15 . . . -.15 3 .09 .15 1.00 . . . .75 559 -.05 -.15 .75 .. . . 1.00 This means that persons 1 and 2 are much more similar in the characteristics under consideration than are persons 3 and 559. This correlation matrix, when factor analyzed by ortho- gonal rotation, gives the following factor matrix. P Factor Matrix Pepsop Fagpgrs _1 ._ I II III 1 .70 .06 .12 2 .65 .04 .20 3 .11 .02 .75 559 .02 .09 .85 96 In P factor matrix one can see the characteristics of persons 1 and 2 closely associated with Factor I which is one type, and persons 3 and 559 are alike and define another type associated with factor II. 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