THE IAMAICAN LAND REFORM PROGRAM: SOME SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSITY JiLL VAN DEUSEN 1969 I LIBRAP' THESIS : . ' i Muchlgan tum.- , .1“ U nivcrsity f m 1.1.1.5“ \ BINDINGS BYS me as - noun amnrnv "mt: ii H '2 menva sens ABSTRACT THE JAMAICAN LAND REFORM PROGRAM: 501% SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS By Jill Van Deusen In those parts of the western world where the popu- lation is still predominately rural, land reform has become a factor in economic and social development. Focusing on Jamaica, this study analyzes the land reform program as it affects the social and economic status of the participants. The study includes 1) the historical background of agricul- tural reform in Jamaica, 2) the objectives of modern land reform on the island 3) an intensive study of one settlement within the reform program, and h) an evaluation of the total program in terms of its potential for success. Data for the study were obtained by interview, by field observation, and by a survey of literature both in Jamaica and at the Michigan State University Library. Inter- views were conducted with appropriate government officials in Jamaica, with professors at the University of the West Indies, and with personnel of the American Embassy in Kingston. A survey was conducted of farmers on the Tremoles- worth pilot project of the Jamaican land reform program, and another included farmers in a control area immediately adjacent to Tremolesworth. Jill Van Deusen The government of Jamaica has used agricultural settlement for over thirty years, mainly to keep people employed and to increase crop production. There has also been a recognized need to provide social amenities with the land, such as roads, water, schools, and electricity. Under land reform these goals persist, and two new ones have been added. The government is now more concerned that the farms should be economic units, not just a means of subsistence. Reform farms developed to their fullest potential should gross for the farmer U.S. $1,250, considered the threshold of Jamaican "middle class" income. The government also hopes to make farming more attractive as an occupation. It is believed that if the farmer reaches a middle-class income level and receives sufficient education to farm more scientifically, the occupation will have more appeal. Short range operations seem quite successful; long- range goals appear less likely to materialize. The reform program is putting idle land into production, is providing land to farmers who never owned land before and is extending credit to farmers for the development of their land. Because of frequent contact with the agricultural agents, settlement farmers have greater prospects for learning scientific methods of cultivation. Settlement farmers have experienced some increase of income, but they have not yet reached middle class. It appears that under the present program, participants will not reach that level of income without continued subsidization or Jill Van Deusen additional employment by the government. Although the land reform farmers have more potential for changing their methods than those not involved, only about half of the farmers interviewed are actually changing. They still tend to accept temporary jobs and hire someone else to work their land. many consider farming an occupation of hard work and little pay. Only two children in the families interviewed want to become farmers. To increase the income of farmers beyond what the land reform program has achieved, it will be necessary for the government to make largerfarms and to encourage mechani- zation. To achieve these ends the government will have to exert effort on both a long and short-range basis. More extensive data concerning the agricultural sector are needed, as are research in rural sociology, and research to find better uses of available resources. The farmers need improved education to facilitate the application of information made available to them. An educational campaign is needed to convince the public that larger farms are needed within the agrarian settlements. However,the widespread desire for land ownership and the general problem of unemployment discourage elected officials from dividing public lands into larger farms. The reform program could be improved immediately if officials used a merit system to select participants who could make bet- ter use of the land. The government also needs to continue improvement of the marketing system for domestic crops. THE JAMAICAN LAND REFORM PROGRAM: SOME SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS By Jill Van Deusen A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Social Science 1969 453337 /0/22/(.‘/ DEDICATION To the Tremolesworth farmers, for the spirit with which they face their problems and their faith in the future of Jamaica. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PPLEFACE o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 V LIST OF LEAFS AND TABLES o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Vii Chapter I o IIITRODUCTION o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o PI‘Oblem. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Study Area 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 -q P’ A) +4 Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Physical Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Historical Background. . . . . . . . . . . . 13 II. FROM LAND SETTLEMENT TO LAND REFORM, 1835—1962 18 Land Settlement from 1835 to 1938. . . . . . 18 Land Settlement from 1938 to 1962. . . . . . 19 The Change to Land Reform, 1962. . . . . . . 26 III. LAND REFORM: THE EXAMPLE OF TREMOLESWORTH . . 32 Physical Characteristics of the Tremoles- worth Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Economy of the Tremolesworth Area. . . . . . 35 Creation of the Settlement . . . . . . . . . 37 iii Table of Contents.-—Cont. Chapter Page Change in Level of Income. . . . . . . . . . A0 Change in Agricultural Methods . . . . . . . A2 Attitudes Toward the Reform Program. . . . . A9 Attitudes Toward Farming . . . . . . . . . . 50 IV. CONFLICTS OVER LAND REFORM . . . . . . . . . . 53 Social Goals and Physical Reality. . . . . . 53 Agricultural Planning and the Rural Populace o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 57 Conflicts within the Agricultural Policy . . 59 V. EVALUATION AND PRCCANENDATICNS . . . . . . . . 65 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 APPENDIX A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 APPENDIX B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 iv PREFACE We have passed the day when men believe that honest, hard work and a hope in Heaven (or Utopia) are enough. Whether reformers are decrying the "exploitation of the masses," "control of the establishment over the culturally deprived," or urging reform to improve the "dignity of man," they have all been caught up in a new idea: Poverty is no longer the sin of the poor, but of the rich, and it must be eradicted. Reformers today are demanding social and economic equality now. The methods to achieve such goals are as varied as the vocabulary used to describe the problem. In our own Western Hemisphere, for example, where in many countries the people are still predominantly of rural background, land reform is one of the most common means being used to improve the condition of the poor. Some reform programs came as a result of an overthrow of the government, as was the case in Mexico and Cuba. In other countries, such as Jamaica, programs have been designed and implemented through the established system. Focusing on Jamaica, this study examines pragmatically the effects of land reform. 'What is the Jamaican land reform program? Have the participants gained economically or socially? What are the likely long—range effects of the program? v The study would not have been possible without the aid and advice of many people, of whom only a few can be mentioned here. Professors contacted at Michigan State University and the University of the west Indies were very helpful, as were personnel of the Jamaican Government and of the American Embassy in Kingston. Sincere appreciation is expressed to my thesis advisor, Dr. Clarence W. Minkel, Associate Dean of Graduate Studies at MtS.U., for his guidance and time given during the entire study. I wish also to thank Miss Adel Wint, sociologist in the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Kingston, who helped prepare the questionnaires and who made all arrangements for administering them. Mr. Cecil Langford, Commissioner of Lands, provided useful information and maps and arranged my first tour of the Tremolesworth settlement. mr. Hugh Shaw, Manager of the Land Development and Utilization Commission, and Dr. Irving Johnson, of Economic and Statistics Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, provided realistic perspectives on the reform programand on Jamaican agricultural problems in general. I am also grateful to Dr. Barry Floyd, Chairman of the Geography and Geology Department at the University of the West Indies, and Mr. Floyd Davis, Food and Agriculture Officer at the American Embassy, for suggesting valuable contacts for the study. Mr. Floyd Davis also arranged for a tour of the Rhymesbury dairy farm schemes. I would also like to thank Virginia Forstot who drafted the maps. vi Tr LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES map 1. JAMAICA: LOCATION MAP. . . . . . . . . . Map2. JAMAICA: PLACENAMES.......... Map 3. JAMAICA: LOCATION OF LAND SETTLEMENTS. . Maph. TREMOLESWORTHAREA............ Table 1. GOALS OF THE AGRICULTURAL POLICY OF THE JAMAICAN GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . vii 28 39 6O CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The use and administration of land is of vital significance to the welfare of a nation. Land use may determine how well people eat, and administration of the land influences the social and political status of the rural population. Together, these factors affect the present and potential standard of living in any given area of the world. Man learned the importance of land administration long ago. "Land to the landless" is a political legan at least 3,000 years old. Plutarch wrote that the Gracchi tried to restore the old order of society based upon a more equi- 1 In 560 B.C. the Greek Pisistratus table distribution of land. attempted land reform to solve extreme social differences and to ease an economic crisis.2 Since then men have used land reform to redistribute land, to ease unemployment, or to promote the diversification of crops. lClarence Senior, Land Reform and Democracy, (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1958}, p. l. 2Elias H. Tuma, Twenty-Six Centuries of Agrarian Reform: A Comparative AnaIysis, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), p. 25. Land reform programs have received great emphasis during the past two decades. Due to the continued revolt against colonialism, the ideological struggle between East and West, and an increasing concern over world food production, land reform has become a prominent aspect of developmental programs. The United States government, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the International Labor Organization, and many non-governmental organizations now recognize the necessity of world—wide agrarian reform. Problem MOst of the Latin American countries have established official land reform programs. Mexico initiated its program in 1915; Guatemala in 1952; Bolivia in 1953; and Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela mostly within the past decade. In addition to economic considerations are the social aspects of land reform. The United Nations urges countries to use programs that will encourage community development. The World Conference on Land Tenure stressed the development of programs that would promote the dignity of the individual and produce greater educational opportunities and a better standard of living. Because of the new emphasis, land reform programs such as that in Jamaica are important in both agricultural planning and social development. They include not only land 3 distribution but also the construction of roads and schools, agricultural training, research, and low—interest loans to farmers. A complete study of land reform in Jamaica would include an analysis of land use, plus related economic, social, and political conditions of the country. Because of the wide scope of agricultural reform, this study is limited primarily to an examination of what the Jamaican government has been doing to raise the standard of living of the rural population through its program of land reform. What are the goals? What is being done to implement these objectives? What was the previous ownership of the distributed land, and how was the government's acquisition financed? Who is eligible to obtain land? What is the system of administrating the land, and what services are provided by the government for those participating in the reform program? How closely are the goals of the farmers aligned with those of the government? Finally, can the Jamaican government succeed, through land reform, in its efforts to establish a rural middle class? The findings of the study are organized to include: 1) the historical background of agricultural reform in Jamaica, 2) the objectives of modern land reform policies, 3) the results of a pilot study on one settlement adminis- tered under the land reform program, and A) an evaluation of the prOgram in terms of potential for success. A Study Area Ninety miles south of Cuba lies Jamaica, third largest island in the Greater Antilles (Map 1). It is ap- proximately 150 miles long from east to west, and 50 miles across at its widest point from north to south. Much of the island is covered with limestone, and the soils are rich with bauxite deposits. There are two exceptions to the general limestone covering. One is a mountain chain of igneous and metamorphic rocks running north and south across the northeastern side of the island called the Blue Mountains. These mountains include the highest point on the island, about 7,200 feet. The second exception is the alluvial plains found around the coast, particularly the south coast, and in the limestone plateaus where solution basins have been filled with fertile 22333 {Egg soil. The most productive farms and sugar plantations are located in these flatter areas, which unfortunately include only about 1A per cent of the surface of the island. The rest of the topography is mountainous. The climate is very pleasant. Average monthly tem- peratures vary only about five degrees during the entire year. Kingston temperatures range from 76 to 81 degrees Fahrenheit. Differences in temperature are caused more by altitudinal vari- ation than by seasonal change. Some 100 to 200 inches of rain per year falls on the windward side of the Blue Mountains. West of the Blue Mountains progressively less rain falls until in the southwestern part of the island irrigation is needed for dependable farm crops. Hem: jug-NHIU) fi‘hbb btié‘ ‘Nh 5.0400 §1H§Q~§3Q (038‘s m4: 20:400.. (0.48:. ‘3‘00 93“.“ ‘K .335 a d \x (:71: \\ ...... .... 2.323.. .v: \\ 123.53 31.59:». fibxkh‘ KO Ka§b 6 Vegetation on the island is as diverse as the topog- raphy. In a natural state the eastern side of the Blue Mountains produced great cloud-forests. Evergreen and decid- uous limestone forests covered the central and western uplands, and herbacious swamp and marsh forests grew in the lower areas. Man, however, cut off much of the natural covering and most of the unused land is now covered with a second growth scrub called ruinate.3 A specific study area is Tremolesworth, the 1,200 acre site of the pilot project of the Jamaican land reform program. Located in the Blue Mountains in St. Mary parish, this settlement is characterized by clay soils, temperatures ranging between 75 and 80 degrees, and 50 inches or more of rainfall per year. The location is especially suitable for the cultivation of tree crops and vegetables. The Lands Department, under the direction of the Jinistry of Agriculture and Lands, purchased the Tremolesworth Estate from a private owner and divided most of it into 110 agricultural lots averaging seven acres in size. In 1966 and 1967 settlers began to work the land. Roads and water, provided by the Lands Department, were ready for the settlers' use. Electricity and schools were to be provided upon sufficient demand. Agricultural agents were available to 3The Ministry of Agriculture and Lands defines the term "ruinate" as land covered with weed—growth, sometimes including shrubs and small trees. It is usually land which was previously cultivated, but then allowed to lie fallow. 7 provide technical advice, and credit was made available. Government action was also underway to improve the marketing system. An objective of this study was to determine how the project is affecting the participants. Procedure Data for the study were obtained by interview, by field observation, and by a survey of literature both in Jamaica and at the Michigan State University Library. Sixteen interviews were conducted with government officials directly involved in the reform program, with men at the University of the West Indies, and with personnel of the American Embassy in Kingston. A The limited availability of statistics made it expedient to study an individual land reform project in operation, and Tremolesworth was the project recommended by officials in the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. Started in 1964, Tremolesworth is currently in operation, almost completely settled, and unique in its local leadership. Two of the ten weeks spent in Jamaica, from June 14 to September 3, 1968, were devoted to the Tremolesworth preject located near Highgate in St. Mary parish (Map 2). To provide an overview of the settlement, Mr. Cecil Langford, Commissioner of Lands, arranged for a tour of Tremolesworth. The remainder of the two weeks was used to conduct personally a survey of farmers on the settlement. A random sample of thirty—one of the 110 Tremolesworth agricultural lots was New: u> 0.001 3?! cog-tot illl .2338 III: 99% an o a slab a p o mtg-08081. sin/.33 .2 .. a n t / \ 35.3.3 .8 a. ’ x/unuf400_3/ a O- ‘I all. 1 ‘OOO I‘OOOOOIO‘\\\ C \k ul:!..\\ "I 2.32.2333 ._ .1. < 3...: c o u \c- . at 11/ xx ’ I ’|"" mmzdz mo<4m (028‘s 9 drawn, and twenty—five interviews were completed. The remaining six could not be conducted because the respective farmers were not available during the survey period. A third week was spent administering a control survey in Harmony Hall, an area immediately adjacent to the Tremoles- worth settlement. The local extension agent of the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands helped select the sample. The survey of both groups was designed to test four hypotheses: 1) The land—reform farmer is more oriented towards commercial farming than is the small, private farmer. 2) The land—reform farmer is more receptive to government aid and advice than is the private farmer. 3) The land-reform farmer enjoys a standard of Thing approaching what can be considered middle class. A) The land-reform farmer has a more favorable attitude towards the future of farming as an occupation than has the private farmer. Miss Adel Wint, a sociologist working for the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, helped prepare the questionnaire and made the necessary arrangements for administering the survey. ‘ A survey of literature was conducted in the Ministry of Agriculture library, the University of the West Indies library, and the Social and Economics Research library on the U.W.I. campus. Other sources were found at the Jamaican government printery, the American Embassy in Kingston, and the office of Mr. Hugh Shaw, Manager, Office of Land Develop— ment and Utilization. lO Findings of the Study Many of the short—range goals of the Jamaican land reform program have already been realized or appear likely to be achieved. The program has helped the under—employed rural population by providing jobs on public—works projects, has put formerly unused land under cultivation, has extended credit to some farmers who could not obtain it previously, and has increased the amount of land owned by small farmers. The program offers potential for advancement toward crop diversification and offers practical education to small farmers in managing their own cooperatives. Another encour- aging feature concerns the Jamaicans who administer the program. Most officials interviewed were remarkably candid about the success and failures of the program and realistic concerning the limited resources available. They are constantly studying the program. A thorough economic analysis is needed, however, as is a rural study to help coordinate social endeavors. The long-range goals have yet to be achieved. From the limited statistics available, it does not appear that production has increased. While the income of farmers has increased to some extent, it has been at great expense to the government and has not yet reached the level of "middle class." The Jamaican land reform program is an attempt at welfare government, not an instrument to alter the control of economic power. 11 Physical Setting Columbus, sailing into St. Ann's Bay in 1494, described Jamaica as "the fairest island that eyes have beheld."l‘P The island offers a variety of scenery and a pleasant climate. The Blue Mountains, rising over 7,000 feet in the eastern part of the island, and plateaus as high as 3,000 feet in the central and western territory, account for 86 per cent of the 4,411 square miles. The remaining area is rolling plains, mainly along the south coast. Patterns of rainfall are influenced by the topography. The northeast trade winds drop as much as 200 inches of rain on the northeast slope of the Blue Mountains, fifty inches or less on the leeward side, and progressively less as they cross the island. The southwestern part of the island is subject to drought. Lying between seventeen and nineteen degrees north latitude, the island is surrounded by warm waters and experi- ences only a modest range of temperature. Kingston averages 79 degrees Fahrenheit and varies only five degrees between winter and summer. The greatest variations in temperature are due to elevation, not seasons. The temperature drops about three degrees for every 1,000 feet of elevation above sea level. “Clinton Black, The Story of Jamaica, (London: Collins, 1965), p. 25. 12 Some of the features that make Jamaica so appealing to tourists, however, make work difficult for the 39 per cent of the Jamaican labor force engaged in agriculture.5 Within an area nearly the size of Connecticut, only 1.7 million acres, about one acre per person, are suitable for agriculture. The beautiful Blue Mountains are composed of igneous, sedi- mentary and metamorphic rock. The central and western area is covered largely with limestone. Because of the limestone, soils are highly permeable and there is insufficient surface water. Land in the southwest must be irrigated to produce dependable crops. Over 80 per cent of the island surface is steep-sloped. Soils are shallow from natural erosion and abusive farm practices. The Economy Jamaica's economy is based largely on agriculture and mining. By value, bauxite accounts for 49.4 per cent of the exports, sugar for 26.7 per cent, bananas 8.5 per cent, citrus 4.3 per cent, spice 2 per cent, and other 6 agrilculturalproduce 4 per cent. Tourism is also important to the economy. In 1966, some 345,300 tourists spent U.S. $67,000,000 in Jamaica. 5Jamaica, Central Planning Unit, Five Year Independence Plan, 1963—1968, (Kingston: Government Printer, 1963) p. 34. 6A. J. Newman, Jamaica, the Island and Its People, (Kingston: Times, 1963), p. 105. 13 Manufacturing accounts for only 5 per cent of Jamaican exports, by value. Internally, however, manufacturing is of increasing importance. At present, most industry is located in the Greater Kingston area, but the government is trying to move industry to small towns throughout the island. Lack of a cheap fuel on the island limits the potential of the heavy industrial expansion needed to absorb the unemployed in the urban areas and the under—employed and seasonally unemployed in rural areas. Historical Background Approximately 1000 A.D., the Arawak Indians stepped from their dug-out canoes onto the island of Jamaica. It is believed that they migrated from Venezuela to Trinidad, and then to Jamaica and other islands. The occupants spread over the island, up to elevations of 2,000 feet. Most of the vil- lages were located near the coast, however, to make use of the sea. Besides hunting and fishing, the Arawaks cultivated gardens of cassava, maize, sweet potatoes, cashews, and guava. It is also known that they cultivated cotton. The women wove cloth and hammocks for their own use and for trade with Indians on Cuba and Haiti.’7 In 1494 Jamaica was discovered by the European world. Columbus, on his second voyage to the New World, approached 7Black, op. cit., p. 16. 14 the north coast of Jamaica to replenish his supply of food and water. His immediate welcome was by canoes loaded with shouting, angry natives. 0n the following day the natives brought a peace offering. No Spanish records survive in Jamaica, and Spanish history makes few references to the island. Clinton Black states that: Generally speaking the island as a Spanish colony was a failure from the start. It never prospered, was alwayg poor, more of a burden than a benefit to Spain. The Spaniards were disappointed at not finding gold and subsequently used the island mainly as a base for Spanish ships to pick up supplies. A few colonists made their living from agriculture. They raised cattle and pigs and exported leather and lard to neighboring islands. They also cultivated cotton, cacao, tobacco, and grapes. All of the common fruits except grapefruit were introduced, plus coconuts, bananas, plantain, and sugar cane. In the 150 years of Spanish rule, the Europeans managed to enslave and eliminate the entire native population. Some Arawaks died of white men's diseases, and some died of hunger after the Spanish pigs, goats, and cattle ruined their crops. Some died from abuse, and some, rather than face such a life, committed suicide. 8Ibid. p. 32. 15 English rule of the island from 1655 to 1962 is dramatically divided by a single law, the emancipation of slaves in 1838. Before emancipation the English rule of the island was the story of sugar and slavery. The English Governor, Sir Thomas Modiford, started the sugar industry in Jamaica. From 1664 to 1673, fifty-seven sugar estates were established. By 1739 there were 430. The British West Indies sugar industry had more political influence on the English parliament than did the American mainland colonies. The first slaves were shipped to Jamaica before 1517. After the development of the sugar industry, about 5,000 slaves per year were imported from West Africa. The British also tried to use forced white labor, but it proved unsuccessful. Emancipation of the slaves in 1838 had immediate effect upon the sugar industry. Labor became more scarce and expen- sive. Despite the fact that wages were low, owners had a new problem in the need for a steady supply of money. The increased labor cost came at the same time that production was declining. Too many plantation owners were absent, and hired managers were often inefficient. The land was becoming infertile from over—cropping, and the additional expense of purchasing equipment to replace manual labor drained away profits. Even low wages could not displace the total rise in costs. The final problem came when England started equalizing the sugar tariff in 1846 and eventually stopped subsidies altogether. The entire British West Indies economy declined. 16 Many sugar estates were divided into small plots and sold; some were abandoned. Acres of land lay fallow. Emancipation had social and economic effects that are still felt in Jamaica today. The ex—slaves saw land as a symbol of security and power. They remembered that landowners had privilege, power, and influence. After emancipation some slaves stayed on the estates to work for wages, but thousands left. Since the best agricultural land on the coastal plains was already owned, the ex—slaves either moved to the hilly and mountainous land, or squatted on crown land to start small subsistence farms. Today the island has serious economic problems, and the government must formulate an agricultural policy to accommodate both a latifundia and a minifundia farm structure. Before emancipation, the slaves had never established family life. Children were born, but most of them never knew their father, and they never lived as a family. Too far removed from African culture, and not westernized, the free Negro had to suddenly develop a whole new social system. Such basic needs as family relations and land ownership had to be developed. The year 1938 is significant in Jamaican social history. Riots broke out, and social unrest and economic depression mounted to explosive proportions. No longer able to continue under the status‘qgg, the British government sent an investigating committee to the West Indies to determine the cause of riots and to recommend corrections. The riots 17 and action that followed started an evolutionary process which moved the Jamaican government from a colonial status in 1938 to independence in 1962. Since independence the new government has strived to transform the island from a nineteenth century colonial economy to a twentieth century, world—wide competitive economy. The causes for such dedication are both idealistic and realistic. First, Jamaica is a paternalistic democracy, and leaders want to give the large class of poor people not just a subsistence living, but move them to an improved socio- economic status. Second, the stream of emigrants to North America and to the United Kingdom, once a safety valve for the increasing population, has been reduced. Jamaicans are no longer needed in such great numbers in those countries. The government must cope with an increasing population. The birth control program has still relatively little effect because the people who need it are neither willing nor well enough educated to use the information available. Children are still the only social security plan most Jamaicans have. The government, then,hopes to solve both its economic and social problems by improving the economy. It seeks to increase food production through better farming methods and to absorb the unemployed by expanding industry. CHAPTER II FROM LAND SETTLEMENT TO LAND REFO M, 1835-1962 The program of land reform in Jamaica has been evolutionary, rather than revolutionary as in Mexico or Cuba. Thus, while there have been modifications in goals and emphasis, basic policies remain essentially unchanged. The goal of the first government-sponsored settlements was to provide employ- ment and security for tenants. By 1962, when land reform became an integral part of agricultural policy, the emphasis was to improve the agricultural economy and to aid social development in the rural areas. Land Settlement from 1835 to 1938 Baptist missionaries started the first planned agricultural settlements in Jamaica.9 In 1835, three years before emancipation, the first settlement village was founded in the vicinity of Spanish Town to help freed slaves. In 1838 another village was established, complete with church 9NormaWalters in The Role of Land Settlements in _Agricultural Development defines settIement as "a scheme into which people are organized for settlement on a designated area of land in order to engage in agriculture." The term "colonization" is sometimes used interchangeably. 18 19 and school, on a 500-acre site in St. Ann parish. When 311,000 slaves suddenly became citizens upon emancipation in 1838, settlements spread rapidly. By 1840 there were 800 peasant freeholders, and by 1845 there were 19,000 free- holders and some 200 settlement villages. The only new agricultural settlements on the island during the next several decades were those under the direction of missionaries. The government has long given aid in some form to occupants of the land, if only through the sale of land to individuals by the Surveyor General's Department. Between 1929 and 1938, approximately 28,700 acres were allocated to 5,897 persons, with an average of 4.9 acres per sale. Land Settlement from 1938 to 1962 The year 1938 can be considered the starting point of several important trends in the political and social history of Jamaica. The first was initiated when Lord C. C. Woolley began using land settlements as an instrument of government policy. The evolution from the land settlement policy of 1938 to land reform in 1962 occurred simultaneously with the movement of the government toward independence and the formation of a comprehensive agricultural policy for the island. As the government gained more control over its own affairs, it began to develop a more "national" outlook. One of the first and most urgent tasks was to develop a viable agricultural program,of which land settlements prior to 1962 and land reform thereafter were important features. 20 Two social forces met in 1938. .At that time Jamaicans were struggling within the clutches of the world depression, and the uneasy populace had a growing desire to gain control over its own governmental affairs. Sugar prices were down. Wages were low for men fortunate enough to find work, and those without jobs were desperate. The pOpulation was mostly rural in background and, because agricultural produce found no market, farmers migrated to the cities in search of work. Most found only unemployment. The crown government's attempt to provide social amenities seemed only to make Jamaicans realize how much more they wanted. On May 3, 1938, nearly 1,000 workers on the Fromme Sugar Estate became irate when they learned that their daily wages had been cut. The following day armed police were called in to stop demonstrators from destroying estate property. Firing on the mob, the police killed four demonstrators and wounded nine. On May 20 a second riot broke out in Kingston during a dock strike. Police were armed and the militia was called in. Great Britain, concerned about the riots spreading not just within Jamaica but throughout the West Indies, sent an investigating commission to the area. Before the commission arrived, however, Governor Edward Denham suddenly died. The Honorable C. C. Woolley took office and promised a "New Deal" for Jamaica. To alleviate the depression, the government under his direction, spent over one million dollars in the creation of land settlements. A Lands Department was established to administer the program. 21 The first Commissioner of Lands, Captain F. Burnett, suggested that settlement holdings should be no less than ten acres in size and that houses, roads, water supplies, and other facilities should be completed, or nearly so, by the time settlers moved to their allotments. These recommendations were largely ignored. During the first year, some 52,757 acres were allotted to 11,384 settlers. The settlers paid 10 per cent down and had ten years to complete payments for the land. The people settled were not necessarily suited for agricultural careers. The Royal Commission to the West Indies arrived November 1, 1938, and was composed of leading politicians, sociologists, and economists. The Commission held public hearings, with a cross-section of the population in attendance, and inspected the island to analyze the prevailing conditions first-hand. A summary of the Commission's report was published in 1940. It indicated that the answer to Jamaican problems lay in agriculture. The world depression had harmed Jamaican industry and caused widespread unemployment at the same time that the people were demanding a better life. The major relief had to come from a new agricultural policy, and under the agricultural section of the report the commission recommended: 1. That the island improve present farms and start new settlements. 22 2. That the island not limit itself to freehold tenure, but ex eriment with both freehold and leaseholdl 3. That the government should assume the power of compulsory acquisition with regard to agricultural land needed for settlement. 7 4. That while credit might be needed in the early stages, the ultimate aim should be self-support. The first aim of agriculture, the commission stressed, was to increase home production of foodstuffs. The need for mixed farming on settlements, instead of single export crops, was also emphasized. Heading the Royal Commission to the West Indies was Lord Moyne. After returning to Britain and submitting his report, he was appointed Secretary of State for the Colonies. Moyne recognized the political aspirations in Jamaica. Since 1877 there had been some agitation for a change in the colo— nial government. Although Jamaicans rejected his famous dispatch of 1941, the Constitution of 1944 carried many of Moyne's ideas. The new Constitution ended the Crown Colonial period by expanding the elected House and granting universal adult suffrage. Out of the 1938 riots, two labor parties with strong political ties evolved. During the first election under the 1944 Constitution, the two parties became recognized as definite political entities: 1) the People's National Party, 10Leasehold farmers occupy the land but do not own it, whereas freehold farmers own the farm they operate. 23 and 2) the Jamaican Labor Party. These parties, for reasons of both political expediency and national interest, knew that it was necessary to aid the rural population and attack agricultural problems if the Jamaican economy were to improve. From the enactment of the 1944 Constitution to the present, a great amount of effort and money has been expended on agriculture. In 1953 the Constitution was changed to give the elected House control over the Executive Council. Only the Colonial Secretary and the Attorney General retained much power. Under this Constitution the government established the Central Planning Unit of 1955. Planning for development was institutionalized under the CPU, and the government was ready to develop a national economy on an integral basis. Programs were replaced with "schemes." The ExeCutive Council was replaced in 1957 by a Council of Ministers and the Governor became a figurehead, and in 1959 the Council of Ministers was renamed as the Cabinet. The Ministry of Home Affairs assumed the responsibilities that previously pertained to the Colonial Secretary and Attorney General. Jamaica practiced home rule. The Agriculture Development Court, the Jamaican Agriculture Society, the Land Authority, the Agricultural Marketing Corporation, and the Watershed Protection Commission were all placed under the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. In 1962 Jamaica became fully independent, managing its own international affairs but choosing to remain within the British Commonwealth. 24 As the Jamaican government assumed greater respon- sibility, the agricultural policy was further developed. In 1942 a committee investigating the land settlement program reported that the Lands Department had approximately 101,200 acres of land, exclusive of training centers, but that there was no money to help farmers develop their holdings or increase their production. The system allowed no control over farming practices. Settlers could grow crops for which there was no market or ruin land through poor agricultural practices. There was, likewise, no money to finance rural housing. Money obtained for this purpose came from loan banks and carried interest rates too high for most farmers. The progress of the investigating committee was nearly paralyzed by the lack of reliable statistics with which to work. There was, for example, no date to indicate what should be considered a minimum economic unit under the varying conditions prevailing in Jamaica. The committee recommended that the government formulate an agricultural policy that would include not only land tenure, but the entire agrarian structure. Following these recommendations, the Agricultural Pol- icy Committee was created. One report published by the committee, in 1945, was the "Special Report on Land Settlement." The report summarized existing services as being inadequate and recommended that a long-term policy be developed. It further suggested that the main objectives of land settlement 25 programs were to conserve and develop the land, bring land into its fullest use while still serving to solve unemployment, and to redistribute property while providing adequate housing and rural amenities. The committee recommended that instead of the Lands Department being made fully responsible for roads, housing, and cooperatives, existing agricultural and rural services should be coordinated and used. The government should also organize farmer cooperatives and expand village development. Agricultural reports, plans, and laws of recent decades have drawn heavily from the report of the Royal Commission to the West Indies and those of the 1945 Agricultural Policy Committee. The 1955 Farm Development Scheme proposed to pro- mote the efficient use of land to increase production and lower unemployment. The Land Bond Laws passed in 1955 pro- vided the means to finance land acquisition. The National Plan for Jamaica, published in 1957, emphasized optimal land use. The Agriculture Development Program of 1959 placed greater emphasis upon credit and the spread of agricultural knowledge. In 1960 the Agriculture Credit Board, replacing the 1944 Agricultural Loan Society, was created to promote loan societies which would lend money for agricultural development. The Five Year Independence Plan 1963—1968, which introduced land reform, emphasized loans and subsidies. 26 The Change to Land Reform, 1962 Under the Five Year Plan the government proposed to carry out its agriculture policy by means of two programs, land reform and the Farm Production Program. The objectives of land reform are basically to subsidize existing programs rather than to change the economic power structure of the country. The Inter-American Committee for Agricultural Development, appointed by the Organization of American States, would, therefore, call the Jamaican program "indirect land reform." "Direct land reform" occurs when there is a change in the economic power structure.11 The 1945 Report of the Agricultural Policy Committee recognized the need for a long-range settlement program and included both long and short range goals. The Report listed three main objectives: 1) to conserve and develop agri- cultural land, 2) to bring land into full use and still provide maximum employment, and 3) to procede with orderly plans for settlement, adequate housing, and rural amenities. The reform program aims for economic development and social equity, or equal distribution of earning opportunity. Its short-range objectives are to increase production by 11Inter-American Committee for Agricultural Develop- ment, "Land Tenure Conditions and the Social-Economic Development of Agriculture in Latin America," (Washington: Organization of American States, April, 1966), p. 27. 27 organizing proper distribution, offering better services, using a larger portion of the land, and urging intensive land use. Success is to be measured by higher production and greater utilization of the land. One development that has occurred since the 1945 Report is that the agricultural officials now have a better idea of the potential of the land being sold. The reform program ideally sells farms of more than five acres, instead of the two to five acres that were customarily sold under the settlement program. Based on the criterion of economic potential, land is subdivided so that the farmer's income, by optimal use of mixed farming and livestock, should average U.S. $17 to $22 per week. With optimal use, then, the farmer nearly reaches the $1200 per year income which is considered the threshold of "middle class" income in Jamaica. Within the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands the single division having most influence over the reform program is the Lands Department, although the department works in co-operation with other government offices. The Lands Department purchases land, subdivides it, and is responsible for the settling and control of reform settlements. (Map 3). Land used in the reform program is primarily that which was previously under-utilized land. Landowners who possess 100 acres or more and have unused or underdeveloped land are asked to submit to the government a program for development. And, they are to actually start development, or lease the land, or sell the land for agricultural purposes. 28 n ma: u> iii-3302.28 COU- Q..QQ\\QU meNZMJhkmm 024.. no 20:400.. (o.(3<9 29 If the owner does not comply, the government can acquire the land with a compulsory lease with option to buy, can purchase the land with bonds, or can purchase the land with cash. There are two types of land bonds. One kind is redeemable in twenty years at the option of the owner. The other is generally redeemable in forty years, although some redemption can be made after five years for purposes of investment within the country. The bonds pay 4% to 5 per cent interest. After acquiring the land, the Lands Department subdi- vides it and decides the price per acre. The price is determined by production potential and by the amount of investment made by the previous owner. The Department also engineers roads and water systems on the settlements. Settlers, however, are hired to do the manual labor. The wages provide the settlers with cash until the farms are in production. Once the lots are ready the Lands Department adver- tises them for thirty days. Persons interested in the lots visit the settlement and choose the lot they wish. They then fill out a written application which outlines the rules by which they must abide. The Commissioner receiving the application understands that the applicant wants the lot, has the down payment equal to 5 per cent of the total value of the lot, and agrees to abide by the rules. The signed application also indicates that the applicant agrees to keep up his payments, will develop at least one—third of the lot within one year and three-fourths within four years, will 30 use good conservation practices, will live on the lot unless he had permission not to do so, and will not transfer title without permission of the Commissioner of Lands. If he fails to comply, he forfeits the property. Once settlement is initiated both an economic and social community must be developed. Rural people, strongly loyal to kinsmen, may move only a few miles to the settlement but must build a new community and new loyalties. To develop such a community, the Lands Department and the Jamaican Social Welfare agency co—ordinate their efforts. The effort to develop a "We" feeling is promoted through the Settlers Association. The settlers select their own officers and pay dues to the Association. Recreational ground is provided in the subdivision of the settlement, and up to $500 in subsidy is provided for the materials to build a Community Center. The settlers must organize, request the subsidy, and build the Center. The entire effort requires organization, trust, and co-operation among settlers. Once the center is built, it is used for business meetings of the association, recreational purposes, home economics training for women, and for agricultural extension services. The Lands Department has officers living on the settlements who serve as a link between the farmers and the government. They collect payments, distribute public works jobs, keep records, and inform the farmer of available government services. 31 The settlers receive aid for housing under the Farm Production Program. The applicant must pay $37 to $75 down, depending upon whether he wants atwo or three room house. In signing the application he agrees to prepare the site, transport materials from the unloading site, and construct the house. The Housing Department supplies prefabricated units and delivers them to the nearest unloading site as soon as the application is approved. The Department also provides technical assistance, but the farmer provides the labor to build the house. CHAPTER III LAND REFORM: THE EXAMPLE OF TREMOLESWORTH The concern of this chapter is the effect of the Jamaican land reform program upon the participating rural population. Investigation was limited to four topics: 1) change in the standard of living, 2) change in the methods of farming, 3) attitudes of the Jamaican farmers toward the reform program, and 4) attitudes about farming as an occupation. At the time of the study no analysis of the reform ‘program, either economic or social, had been completed. Officials interviewed in the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands suggested that an investigation of one settlement could be conmfleted in the time available for research and offered gxnaerous assistance. Of the sixty properties included under Tflfle reform program, the one most often suggested for study 1was the pilot program, Tremolesworth, since it is the settle— Inent.longest in operation. Information concerning Tremolesworth was gathered t'hir‘ough a questionnaire administered to a random sample of 'thnentyéfive of the 110 farmers owning land on the settlement 811c1 by interviews with land officers there and in the Lands Department. A control questionnaire was administered in the 32 33 immediate area of Harmony Hall to eighteen farmers owning approximately the same size of farms as those on the settle- ment. One of the purposes of studying Tremolesworth was to determine whether or not the land reform program is raising the participants' standard of living to a middle—class level. The minimum figure for middle—class income in Jamaica is about U.S. $1,200 a year. According to the Lands Department a farmer should earn about $1,250 a year from his lot, if it is put to maximum use. This means that the land must be farmed by scientific methods, planted to diversified crops, and include the raising of livestock. Dr. David Edwards in an economic study of small farming concluded in 1961 that the small, traditional farmer raised about 12% cents worth of produce for each hour of labor invested.l2 He also found that the traditional farmers do not adapt readily to change. Tremolesworth farmers will have to use scientific methods to raise their income. How capable and how receptive are they to new ways? The invisible drive of human motivation is the greatest unknown variable, but information obtained from this study provides some measure- ment of the farmers' potential for change. The goals and machinery of the reform program have been outlined in Chapter II. The plan is to improve the farmers' 12David Edwards, Report on an Economic Study of Small Farming in Jamaica, (Kingston: Institute of Social and Ebon— omic Research, 1961). 34 economic and social life, increase production, and maintain a high level of employment. This study was designed to dis- cover whether the goals of the program are being achieved. The Jamaican government is continually combating an unemployment problem. Official estimates for 1957 indicate that 18 percent of all persons wanting to work were actually unemployed:13 A major cause of rural unemployment is season— ality in the production and processing of crops. Sugar workers, for example, are needed only about six months of the year. Another major cause of unemployment is the migration of people from rural to urban areas. The rate of this migra- tion increased during the depression of the 1930's, when agricultural prices dropped, and again after natural disasters such as the five hurricanes between 1932 and 1945. The spread of sigatoka disease in the 1930's, which nearly wiped out banana production, had a similar effect. Migration was stimulated, too, by the fact that urban income increased much faster than that of the rural areas. To decrease unem- ployment and to slow rural—to-urban migration, the government relied on its settlement program. More recently, people in government have hoped that agricultural education and a higher standard of living would help to make the farmer content with his occupation. 13Five Year Independence Plan, 22. cit., p. 35. 35 .Ehysical Characteristics of the Tremolesworth Area Tremolesworth is a 1,257—acre settlement on the slopes of the Blue Mountains in St. Mary's parish. It lies ten miles by road from Port Maria, on the north coast, and is everywhere at least 800 feet above sea level. Rainfall averages 50 to 55-inches per year. Soils are clay loam or a dark brown silt clay. Temperatures average in the high 70's, with a seasonal variability of about five degrees. Land not being farmed is in ruinate. The Tremolesworth area has a good transportation network. The railroad from Kingston to the north coast passes within three miles of the settlement and provides access to the major markets of the island. Also, a country bus can be hailed at any place on the highway which connects Kingston with the north coast. In addition to the main highway, there are numerous secondary and connecting roads. Trucks are now the most common means by which farmers transport their commercial crops to packaging or processing plants. .Economy of the Tremolesworth Area The major occupation in the Tremolesworth area is agriculture. Bananas, coconuts, pimento, and citrus are the main export crops, while some vegetables are produced for local consumption. Iost small farmers earn extra money by doing estate work, by working on the government experimental farm at Orange River, by accepting temporary government employment on public works projects, or by following a 36 second trade such as carpentry. There are only four factories in the area, including a cocoa fermentation plant in Richmond, banana packaging plants at Richmond and Albany, and a copra plant near Whitehall. A common occupation for women is that of taking farm produce to market, or "higgling." The women may canvass the immediate neighborhood for produce in addition to their own. They walk to the nearest market, two miles away at Highgate, or pay to ride a truck. Only a few go to more distant markets. In any event, their margin of profit is very narrow. Other women, if they have no infants to care for, supplement the family income by dressmaking or working in one of the factories. The marketing system for export crops contrasts strikingly with that for domestic trade. In the Tremolesworth area, as in most of Jamaica, the major cash crops are exported. Bananas, for example, are moved efficiently from the farm to packaging plants and refrigerated ships. With produce for the domestic market the story is different. Livestock is sold, for the most part, to provide a supply of meat only for the local neighborhood. While rural markets are relatively over-supplied with produce, merchants on the north coast and in Kingston must import vegetables, canned meat, cheese, butter, and even canned fruit to supply their supermarkets. The higglers and small farmers simply do not keep a steady and reliable supply flowing to the areas of demand. 37 The Agricultural Marketing Cooperation is trying to improve the domestic trade by buying and selling directly from the producers. A truck visits the Tremolesworth area every Mbnday, but the volume of produce obtained is highly variable. At the time of the investigation the biggest problem seemed to be in getting more farmers to make consistent use of the service. Creation of the Settlement Tremolesworth was originally a banana estate, and at the time the settlement was formed some land was still in bananas and coconuts. Mbst of the property, however, was ruinate. The Lands Department completed subdivision of the property in 1966 and lots were offered for sale during the same year. Over 1,200 people applied for the lots, and the Commissioner of Lands office was responsible for narrowing the selection to the 110 people who were to receive the agricultural lots. Awards were determined on the basis of need. 13 Prices, ranging from about $150 to $500 per acre, were determined by the existing stage of development of the land. Gobd land planted to bananas was valued at nearly 3500 per acre, pasture land at around $200, and ruinate at 3150. It cost the government about $3,400 per family to l[William Charlton, personal interview held on Tremolesworth, August, 1968. 38 settle Tremolesworth. The total investment in the settlement will not be returned through the sale of land. Rather, officials believe the settlement will pay for itself indirectly by keeping Jamaicans employed, raising farm production on the island, and eventually providing a tax base. At present the property is divided into 110 agricul- tural lots, of which 103 average about seven acres in size (Map 4). The remaining seven lots range from fourteen to thirty acres. On the southwest corner of the settlement is a 104-acre forest reserve, while near the center is an area reserved for the construction of a village. The latter will include a community center, school, shops, and civic buildings. Each farmer is entitled to one half-acre lot in the village and is urged to build his home there. The settlement office and some homes for farmers have already been constructed. Many settlers have expressed the hope that churches, a fire station, police station, medical center, and stores will also soon be located on the settlement. In the southeast corner of Tremolesworth, near Harmony Hall, are several additional half-acre lots for homes and commercial enterprises. There, lots are sold to non-agriculturalists or to settlers with farms nearer Harmony Hall than to the central village. The Lands Department builds roads and installs utilities before farmers move to the settlement. As a result, two dirt roads cross Tremolesworth and connect with the paved highways leading to Highgate. These are usable the year round for cars, trucks, and heavy equipment. Branch roads, not yet fully developed but plotted by the Lands Department, will 39 4mm: a) I feel-93...!» (u.