.——- "W-Ur— I I II III — — — iii —‘ , , _V — P—— | 1 l ‘ I I I A SUB JECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES As A TEACHING DEVICE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANSITIONS AND LOSS OF EYE CONTACT Thesis for the Deans of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE Gordon Lawrie Thomas 1941 m m .I‘A ' | - v .3 " - ‘ . I ' ' - v . E a u “‘ I ' VJ. ' ‘I- . ,' r t -. V - . . ' .' , I“: .«-g.:--;3~I.rfi'.- ~ . mv-- .4 . -. . . - - ' . 3W3 .3 ‘ ,o 1” x” . ‘ I.‘ ( . ' g . ' h 3. , , ‘ J -% I ’ ’ 5‘.“ " . ~I‘ I > ‘ 4‘ ’ .- I'. I; : .h . I, 5" L.‘ w . , ’ 0. ‘_ I \‘ w -. 4| $~ N ‘ ‘ . ‘ ”‘7 ' . ‘3 ' § - - Q '& - r '«‘ fl 3:."léfi’ '1 ”Q 2’ 3 I I f C ‘ *-.- I I ' " ’k ‘ x ' .‘ ' ' ‘ ‘ V “I ' - ‘ ~ L. I f, '. ' I D ‘Mafi‘fi “' l " i I. I‘ I 9}“: _ ~ - ‘1}, 3 .QO f. “_ _ .1 ‘ c ' '. ‘ a . .~- . " :h '4 I . _ _. i . Q. 'l_‘ .‘1‘ , ,. _ _ . 4 i I. ’f '26.: ' . .. 4' ' 1;':gfifi7i5‘§' .t ‘3 £3? ‘7‘ Q ‘ '- ‘ Il ' -' In ". .‘D “ y-“llj‘ifi ;JJ¢ftt,g:)¢ \‘ . . .é a x-... W. "' ‘3". «14 . - O - m, , 9W”? .. l!!i: " ‘0‘ ' . . _ 17- I ~ . Ir "“du' "I"? «"1"-- , ‘1. ‘- u", _ . "3 at. ‘t!1¢;:fj\"firfh n, writ)... .. ‘ .n " - ' . ' I ' " . . I I " ., ,x‘331‘r'5 7 " ivr_,? ',_V . ‘ ‘ ~ . . “a ‘ ' : . ":-’J‘ V .' 3"" II "* ' . ‘ 7 . ‘..3T‘i'v’§.‘.{"§v.~' *3 5‘7“.- , . _~ 5 ‘_ . 4.; - ., . ' - “ . ‘ ‘I . _ ' ‘ . ,t .I. . . . - . A \ I . In .3" 3;? £25533; i-' . "N I“? ,. . a I ' u v -5...- a $ - ‘-< “I 11:3,? “.3?“ ' (€31. - 1~ ‘ ;flflh( 1 ‘_ _— _ l .. ’ _ .‘ta ’3' .' *5?» k x | v ,5 A SUBJECTIVE AKD OBJECTIVE EVALUATION OF THE USE OF MOTION PICTURES AS A TEACHING DEVICE IN PUBLIC SPEAKING WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANSITIONS AND LOSS OF EYE CONTACT by Gordon Lawrie Thomas 9" ”la-Lass A THESIS Submitted to the Graduate School of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Speech 1941 THEQYS This studv was conducted unfler the direction of Dr. Donald Hayworth The writer wishes to express his gratitude to the follow- ing people for their cooperation in this study: Mr. William L. Shea and Mr. Hubert Cordier for aiding in the collection of the data; Dr. W. D. paten for his assistance and suggestions con- cerning he statistical calculations; Mr. Frank Linn for his generous donation of necessary motion picture equipment; Mr. Walter Kendzierski for his aid in the taking of pictures; and Miss Phyllis N. Lenzner for her suggestions and proof-reading. LIST OF CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. TABLE OF COI‘TTEI‘ITS AJLES o o o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 INTRODUCTION 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o PROBLEMS TO BE INVESTIGA‘E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARA TERISTICS OF GROUPS STUDIED. . . . . . . . . . . . DEFINITIONS AND RECORDING OF PHEHOMENA . . . . . . . . . METHOD OF TAKING THE MOTION PICTURES . . . . . . . . . . PROJECTION OF THE PICTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MOTION PICTURE EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBJECTIVE EVALUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION. o o O o o o o o o 0 o o o o o o 0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RFD SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY. BIBLIOGRAPHY o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 13 19 27 32 35 44 65 73 78 Table II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. Composition of Control Groups . . . . . . . . . Composition of Experimental Groups. . . . . . . Comparison of Control 8 Um. Camerss . . . . 16 Mm. Cameras. . . . Hm. ProjectorS. . . l6 Mm. Projectors . . Length of Length 01 Length of Length of Amount of Loss of Eye Control Group. . . Amount of Loss of Eye Experimental Group Amount of Loss of Eye Control Group. . . Amount of Loss of Eye Experimental Group Number of Transitions Experimental Group Number of Transitions Control Group. . . Number of Transitions Group. 0 o o o o o Transitions Group . . . Number of mental and Experimental Groups . Initial Speeches for Control Group. . Final Speeches for Control Group. . . Initial Speeches for Experimental Group Final Speeches for Experimental Group . Contact in Initial Speeches Contact in Initial Speeches for Contact in Final Speeches for Contact in Final Speeches for in Initial Speeches for in Initial Speeches for in Final Speeches for in Final Speeches Control Experi- 16 17 18 4O 41 42 43 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 6O Table XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd) Improvement of Loss of Eye Contact between Initial and Final Speeches for Control Group . . . . . . . . Improvement of Loss of Eye Contact between Initial and Final Speeches for Experimental Group. . . . . . . . Improvement in Number and Final Speeches Improvement in Number and Final Speeches of Transitions between Initial for COHtTOl Group a o o o o o o o of Transitions between Initial for Experimenta Group. . vi rm. . o" (4.9 O» H C) N 63 64 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In recent years much work and experimentation have been done in the use of motion pictures as a teaching device in both the high school and college levels. Such a visual aid has been utilized in almost every academic subject, although its major use has been in the field of science. Most of these motion pictures have been commercial produc- tions, but now that necessary equipment has become economical and sim- plified in operation many institutions are producing their own films, both silent and sound.1 For the most part, such films have been con- cerned with school news and public relations.2 Lately, however, school- made films have invaded even the field of speech, particularly in dra- matics. Investigation and experimentation on motion pictures as a visual aid in public speaking have been sporadic and largely unscientific. Little has been published and much has been guessed at. Since studies have been made in other fields of the value of motion pictures as a 1According to H. R. Finch, over two hundred schools in the United States are engaged in the production of films. H. R. Finch, "Film Production in the Schools," Educational Screen, XVII, 216-218. 2A list of such school-made films can be found in Educational Screen for March and April, 1940. This list was compiled by H. R. Finch.who had made an investigation of this type of production. Since that time Educational Screen has published a special column entitled "School-made Motion Pictures.” 2 teaching device and the results have proved positive,3 the analogy has evidently been drawn by some in the speech field that a similar result would occur if films were used in that subject. Indeed, at first glance, it might seem that motion pictures would. be especially applicable in the field of speech since they can be used as a direct and immediate aid in helping the individual student recog- nize and solve his problems. Such subjects as geography and the social sciences are "knowledge" subjects which may be taught successfully through textbooks and lectures; speech, on the other hand, is a "skill" or "performance" subject and requires more than textbook reading. Speech not only demands actual practice but it also requires the es- tablishment of a tangible standard by which the individual student may evaluate his own speaking ability. This standard, heretofore, has been supplied by various elements such as criticisms and speeches by instructors and students. These methods have their shortcomings, however, since criticisms, although helpful, are often meaningless and sometimes make little im- 3"In the majority of the tepics in General Science, as well as in Geography, instruction with the aid of the films proved to be superior to instruction without the films." “Wood and Freeman, Motion Pictures ig‘thg Classroom. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920. P. 216. "During the early period of enthusiastic use of educational pic- tures and the period of the slump which followed, certain experimental psychologists and educators had given attention to the possible uses and values of the motion picture in educational procedure. Experiments were conducted in various parts of the country by such pioneers as ‘Weber, Freeman, Johnson, Rusch, McClusky, and others. It was found that there were certain definite values to be expected from the proper use of the motion picture." Ellsworth 0. Dent, 122 Audio-Visual Hand- book. Chicago: Society for Visual Education, Incorporated, 1938. P. 87. 3 pression upon the student. As Utzinger has pointed out, "We can criti- cize the student repeatedly for the lack of physical vitality, bodily action, or correct posture, but in many cases to no avail."4 Likewise speeches by instructors or by other students are helpful to the individual in many ways but they do not supply him with a con- crete picture of his own speaking habits, both good and bad. In other studies the student's weak points can be easily discovered, analyzed, and demonstrated. In geography or social science, tests can be admin- istered to show the student his weaknesses; in art and natural science the student can actually see his own work, his own accomplishments; but not so in speech. Here the individual must rely on other people's subjective evaluation of his speaking qualities; he must gain knowledge of them entirely through inference, comparison, and instruction. Motion pictures, then, either silent or sound, would seem to be the solution for this problem. Such pictures could be in one of two classifications. Either they may be pictures of speakers other than the individual being considered (perhaps of a model speaker or a suc- cessful, well-known speaker); or they may be pictures of the indivi- dual student himself. The former type, however, would be of little value, for they would contribute nothing to the class that either in- structor or students could not contribute. This is one of the criti- cisms that can be made of Utzinger's use of motion pictures, for in his work with them the films were shown to all members of the fundamentals course at Carroll. This method would be valueless, or almost so, except 4V. A. Utzinger, "The Use of the Moving Picture Machine and the Recording Instrument in Teaching Speech," The Quarterlngournal g; S eech, XXV (February, 1939), 12. when each individual saw his own picture, for in all other cases the pictures would be merely a reduplication of the classroom situation. The films and recordings would not add to what the students had already observed while in class. Showing these films two or three times would not supplement the classroom situation since in the latter the individ- ual could be observed by the others in many speeches given throughout the course. Indeed, the motion pictures would cover only a very lim- ited view of one individual speech. For a student who has perfect eye contact with his audience, it would be a waste of time to watch a num- ber of films taken of other students whose eye contact was poor. This fact is one of the basic tenets for the use of motion pictures as a teaching device.5 Their use cannot be justified--either as to time consumed or money expended—-if they do not supplement the techniques already in use in the classroom. 5The first advantage for motion pictures as listed by McClusky carries this warning with it: ”It is, however, an expensive visual aid and for that reason should be resorted to only when necessary (1) to show activity which no other pictorial aid can actually portray and (2) to provide such vicarious experiences as may be brought to us because we cannot get them in any other way." McClusky et a1, "Visual Instruction in the Modern School." Syllabus of a proposed text. CHAPTER II PROBLEMS TO BE INVESTIGATED The only method, then, of using motion pictures as a teaching de- vice in public speaking classes that would be satisfactory and contrib- ute something new to the students' knowledge would be to take pictures of the individual student using them as a supplementary device to point out observable weaknesses which othenwise could not be demonstrated. Limited, therefore, to this particular method of using motion pictures in public speaking, four problems naturally arise which should be answered: (1) Can a reliable objective testing device be set up to evaluate ability in public speaking? (2) If such a device can be formulated, does the use of motion pictures, when utilized as a supplementary device, improve the students' ability to speak? (3) Is there a subjective value in the use of motion pictures as a supplementary device? (4) Is the objective and subjective value of motion pictures significant enough to justify the necessary expenditure of time and money?6 The purpose of this thesis is to attempt to answer these four questions. The results of this investigation are especially important 6These are similar in content to the questions studied by Wood and Freeman. See Wood and Freeman, motion Pictures in 323 Classroom, p. xix. 6 in view of the fact that special facilities were incorporated in the new public speaking classrooms at Michigan State College to take motion pic- tures easily and unobtrusively, and plans are being considered to take such pictures in all of the beginning speech classes. In considering the first of the problems noted above, it is inter- esting to observe that testing devices have been set up in other fields. ‘Wood and Freeman, in their exhaustive experiment to measure the value of motion pictures as a supplementary aid, were able to formulate comp prehensive objective tests in geography and general science.7 Naturally in factual subjects such as geography and general science, it is come paratively easy to test objectively for improvement. In speech, a skill subject, the problem, however, becomes more difficult and elusive. ‘What specific item or items can be used to measure improvement? Ob- viously a written test of knowledge would be entirely unsatisfactory, for knowledge of and ability in speaking are not necessarily corre- lated. A rating by instructors or students on "general effectiveness" might be used but such an evaluation would be too subjective to be scientific. Not only would the ratings be entirely subjective and dependent upon the individual philosophies of the observers, but such a device would not be accurate enough to determine, closely enough, significant changes in status. Then, too, "general effectiveness," a rather vague and loose term in itself, includes many elements such as organization, subject matter, fluency, etc. which could not possibly be influenced by the use of 7See the discussion of comprehensive tests, Wood and Freeman, 2.2- 9.13.” PPO 47'57- 7 motion pictures. A testing device therefore must be formulated which will measure objectively and accurately those elements of speech which can be taught and observed through the medium of films. In short, such elements must possess two characteristics: (1) That they can be objectively counted and recorded and (2) that they can be observed in the pictures when projected for the individual student. Instructor evaluations then are not sufficient. Too many general statements and guesses have been made in regard to the value of motion pictures not only in the field of speech but in other fields as well. Utzinger, without any objective basis, hastily generalizes as follows: many students expressed themselves as being highly elated over the opportunity to see and hear themselves speak. Many of them were made to realize for the first time how stiff and awkward they looked while making a speech. Some of the postures were humorous, of course, and the student who stood on the platform on one foot, leaning over the reading stand, looking down at the floor, was certainly impressed with his inadequate speaking manner. I am sure that, as those fifty- six students saw themselves as others see them while making a speech, many made silent resolutions to develop a more pleasing platform personality. . . . I have discovered in my classes that those stu- dents whose physical manner was faulty have corrected these faults since they have seen their pictures.8 Again, at the 1939 meeting of the National Association of Teach- ers of Speech, a special conference on the use of motion pictures for speech training found that motion pictures served three teaching ends: (a) As an aid to mass cultivation of better speech, incidental to motion picture appreciation work; (b) As a direct teaching medium giving correct pronunciation and delivery, recording dialect and 8UtZinger, QR. _c_i_t_e, 12o 8 other speech patterns, and aiding in the vitalization of drama teaching; (c) As a recording instrument for the research worker.9 _Such blanket statements are without objective foundation and are but guesses, although perhaps correct guesses. These all-inclusive evaluations should be avoided, however, unless based upon objective data.10 In view of the prerequisites given above, what phenomena in public speaking can be used as a measuring stick of ability in public speaking if silent motion pictures are to be employed? Content, organization, and fluency cannot be included since they cannot be affected or im- proved by a teaching device such as motion pictures, while facial ex- pression, posture, use of notes, and personal appearance, although capable of being observed, are too vague and indefinable to permit accurate recording even by trained observers. ‘With this in mind, only four elements that contribute to the total physical activity of a speaker would meet satisfactorily the two prerequisites. These four are (1) loss of eye contact, (2) transitions, (3) gestures, and (4) head movements. Two of these, loss of eye contact and transitions, are to be dealt with in detail in this paper. It might be argued that these elements are not an accurate pic- ture of the "whole" speaker, that they are not an adequate measure of his ability. In this respect I think it is apt and helpful to 9"Case of the Motion Picture in Speech Training," Educational Screen, XIX (January, 1940), 76-7. 10Ellsworth Dent in The Audio-Visual Handbook warns of this pos- sibility saying that such attitudes have actually retarded the use of visual-sensory aids. P. 3. quote an example as used by Adrian Rondileau in g Research into the Teaching 2: Public §peakingz When an automobile dealer evaluates a second-hand car to determine how much he will allow for trade-in value, he seldom inspects the car thoroughly. That would take hours, and it would be necessary for him to look inside the transmission, differential, and many other parts. The dealer knows by long experience the predictive value of a few obvious items. One dealer based his whole estimate on a quick glance over the car plus a careful examination of the upholstering of the driver's seat. He did not even consider it necessary to start the motor. From thousands of appraisals he came to believe that he could tell with predictable accuracy from the general appearance and the amount of wear on the upholstering of the driver's seat what kind of treatment the car had been given. In the same way, it is conceivable that a few items, such as fluency or random movement or eye contacti might enable us to appraise the effectiveness of a public speaker.1 It is more than conceivable, then, that if an individual‘s eye contact and use of gestures, transitions, and head movements have im- proved over a certain period of time his tgtal ability in delivery would likewise have improved. Conversely, if an individual had lost ground in respect to these isolated phenomena, it would follow that his total ability would have decreased. It is upon this assumption, and a justifiable one, I think, that the following investigation was based. It remained only to find a method of counting these elements. Fortunately a very helpful back- ground in this connection had been laid by the investigation and findings of the Committee on Cooperative Research of the National Association of Teachers of Speech in its report on the teaching of public speaking.12 That investigation established basic techniques 11Committee on Cooperative Research of National Association of Teachers of Speech, A Research into the Teaching 2: Public Speaking. P. 53 lzIbid. 10 for counting and recording speech phenomena, techniques which were, in the main, followed in this experiment. The first problem, therefore, seems to have been answered. A reliable, objective testing device gag be set up to measure certain speech phenomena. (If a test can be devised, it follows that improvement in speaking ability can be measured accurately and objectively and thereby the exact value, if any, of the use of motion pictures as a teaching aid can be determined. This, then, would meet the second problem. The third problem was not a difficult one, for the subjective evaluation of the motion pictures by and the reactions of both student and instructor were recorded both at the time the student watched him- self on films and also after the experiment was over in the form of a written questionnaire. The fourth problem depended, of course, entirely upon the results obtained from solving the previous questions. Statistically, it can be determined whether there is a significant difference between the classes in which motion pictures were used and those in which none were used. If no significant difference is apparent, the use of mo- tion pictures as a teaching device can hardly be justified. Motion pictures are expensive both to the institution using them and to the individual student. Then too the taking of such pictures and showing them to the students occupy much valuable time which could be used to advantage in other activities. However, even if no objective value is found in the use of motion pictures, there may be subjective advantages which would justify such an expenditure of time and money. 11 In passing, one other consideration might be mentioned. At all times, simplicity was the keynote of this experiment. It was felt that by limiting the data observed to a few definite, tangible elements the accuracy and validity of the experiment would be greater. A large number of phenomena, some of them intangible, would serve only to comp plicate and obscure the findings. As has been noted previously, if substantial improvement can be demonstrated in a few, clear-cut items by the use of motion pictures, it would be justifiable to conclude that their value as a teaching device was proved. For the same reason, that of simplicity, acetate or aluminum recordings were not made of the speakers over the portions of the speeches being filmed. Here again it was felt that, by introducing more elements, further complications would result when analyzing the results. Moreover, without special and expensive equipment it is difficult, if not impossible, to synchronize perfectly a silent film and an independent recording of the voice. Not only would such recordings complicate the experiment but re- cent findings seem to show that recordings are of little value as a teaching device. ' One such study was made by Nystrom and Leaf at Wheaton College. This investigation was similar in general procedure to the procedure used in this study. Two beginning speech classes, a control and an experimental group, were selected. Both groups were rated objectively at the beginning of the term by five instructors on their ability to read orally and interpret three minute selections of poetry and prose. In the following week recordings were made in the experimental section of each student reading the same material as he had read previously. 12 Recordings were then made approximately every two weeks, the student being required to spend one half hour each week listening to his own recordings. No help or instruction was given to the individual in respect to these recordings. At the end of the course both groups reading the same material as previously were again rated by the same judges. Averages and im- provement for each group were then calculated. From this study, Nystrom and Leaf concluded that "the recordings and their subsequent study by the experimental group under the conditions of the study had not significantly stimulated the group to greater progress in achievement over the group not so stimulated."13 It should be added that the investigators point out that this study is not conclusive and that a contribution may possibly be made by recordings. This conclusion, of course, is merely a conjecture. Until an objective evaluation proves otherwise, we must conclude that recordings have little value as a teaching device. It must be admitted, however, that, presupposing motion pictures are helpful, the use of a synchronized recording or of sound film would be desirable in that it would present a more natural and mean- ingful picture of the total speech characteristics of an individual. It would also enable the student to study more effectively certain elements, such as fluency and composition, not observable with a silent motion picture. For the purposes of this experiment, however, such devices were avoided. 130. L. Nyetrom and Roberta Leaf, "The Recording Machine as a Teaching Device," Quarterly Journal 9: 5 each, XXV (October, 1939), 437. 13 CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS STUDIED The students used for the purposes of this experiment were those enrolled in eight classes in Public Speaking at Michigan State College during the winter term of 1940-1941. This course in Public Speaking is an introductory or fundamentals course with the major emphasis being placed on delivery rather than content. During the term ap- proximately fourteen speeches, varying from one to seven minutes in length, are presented by each student. These speeches are not mem- orized and with the exception of two of the longer speeches the students are not allowed to use notes. These factors were particularly desirable in the taking of motion pictures since, for the most part, students were unhampered by notes or a speaker's stand, This permitted the greatest freedom on the part of the students while speaking, and fur- thermore made it possible to take motion pictures in which nothing interfered with or obscured the students' activities. Two instructors divided the eight classes between them, each having two control and two experimental groups. The method used in selecting the persons involved was as follows. At Michigan State College, all students desiring to take Public Speak- ing at a particular hour register as one section. On the first day on which this section meets, it is divided into two or three permanent groups, each consisting of a maximum of eighteen students. For the purposes of this experiment it was felt highly desirable to create control and experimental groups which would be almost iden- tical in composition. Therefore, on the first day on which the entire 14 section met, the details of the experiment were outlined to the stu- dents. They were told what the experiment intended to prove, the benefits they might receive from motion pictures, and the approximate cost to each individual. While it was urged that they enter the experi- ment, it was made clear to them.that they were under no compulsion to participate and, of course, that it would in no way affect their term marks. Those interested in having motion pictures taken of them.while speaking were then asked to sign their names on a paper handed out for that purpose. These students, generally about fifty percent of the entire group, were then divided equally into two sections, others not desiring to enter the experiment making up the complement of eighteen in each class. Those signing up for the experiment were divided, as closely as possible, on the basis of the college division in which they were enrolled, the class or year to which they belonged, and their sex. Though this method did not result in a perfect division, it was surprisingly close for such a heterogeneous group as would be found in an introductory speech course. Of the two sections or groups thus created at any particular hour, one was designated as a control and the other as an experimental group. It would have been possible, of course, to take pictures of all those who wanted them and compare these with students who showed no desire to have them taken. However, the results might justifiably be open to criticism since the experimental group might differ in some fundamental respect from the other. The very fact that one group chose to have motion pictures might indicate that they differed from the others in regard to financial status, intelligence, speech back- 15 ground, introvert-extrovert behavior, etc. Tests, of course, might have been made over such factors but this would have been almost im- possible since, if data was to be gathered over the first few speeches, the groups had to be determined the very first day of meeting. Statistical data, then, were gathered not for all the students in each class but rather only for those who had indicated a desire to have motion pictures taken. This unfortunately reduced the number of students available for study, but, at the same time, it made for a much closer similarity between control and experimental groups. Tables I and II show the composition of the control groups and experimental groups, while Table III summarizes and compares these two. It can readily be seen from the latter table how similar the groups were in respect to sex, division, and year of attendance. It may also be noted how close are the respective means of the docile ratings obtained from scores made on the psychological examination given to all freshmen upon entering Michigan State College. This test, the American Council 23 Education Psychological Examination edited by L. L. and T. G. Thurstone, unfortunately was not identical for each of the four years in which the students involved in this experiment may have written it. Since each test had a different maximum score, a direct comparison and average were impossible to obtain. It was felt sufficient, however, to average the decile ratings by which each of the students had been classified according to his score on the test. ‘When this was done, the mean of such ratings for the control group was found to be 5.2, and that for the experimental group, 5.6, a very negligible difference being present. am TABLE I COMPOSITION OF CONTROL GROUPS 16 Student Teacher D°Ci1° Sex Year Division Rating Cl T 8 M 2 A. S. 02 T 6 M 2 L. A. 03 T 7 M 2 Eng. 04 T 8 M 2 Eng. 05 T 8 F 1 L. A. C6 T 6 M 3 Ag. 07 T 2 F l H. E. 08 T 5 F l H. E. 09 T 6 F l H. E. 011 T 2 F l H. E. C12 T 2 M 1 Ag. 013 T 2 M 1 Ag. 014 T 7 F l H. E. 015 T 10 M 3 Eng. 016 T 3 M 1 Eng. 018 T 2 M 2 Ag. 019 T 2 M 2 Ag. 020 L 10 F 3 H. E. 021 L l M 2 Eng. 022 L 5 M 3 Ag. 024 L 2 M 1 Ag. 025 L 4 M 1 Ag. 026 L 7 M 2 Eng. 027 L 8 F 2 H. E. 028 L 8 M 2 Eng. 029 L 8 M 2 Eng. 030 L 1 F l H. E. 031 L 5 M 2 Ag. 032 L 2 F 2 H. E. 033 L 8 F l A. S. 034 L 7 F l L. A. TABLE II COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS Student Teacher D°°i1° Sex Year Division Rating Xl T 4 r 1 Ag. X2 T 9 M 1 Ag. X3 T 3 M 2 Eng. X4 T 5 M 3 Ag. X5 T * M 1 Eng. X6 T 10 F 3 H. E. X7 T 9 M 1 Eng. X8 T 2 F l H. E. X9 T 4 F 2 H. E. X10 T 6 M 2 Eng. X12 T 7 F 1 H. E. X13 T 2 F 2 H. E. X14 T 1 F l A. S. X15 T 8 F l L. A. X16 T 7 M 3 L. A. X17 L 5 M 3 A. S. X18 L 3 F 4 L. A. X19 L 5 M 4 Ag. X20 L 10 M 1 Ag. X21 L 2 F l H. E. X22 L * F 3 H. E. X2 3 L * M 1 Ag . X24 L 8 M 2 Eng. X25 L w M 1 Eng. X26 L 6 F l A. S. X27 L 4 M 1 L. A. X28 L 5 F l H. E. X29 L 1 F 1 L. A. X30 L 8 M l A. S. X31 L 10 M 2 Eng. X32 L 9 M 3 Eng. X33 L 5 F l H. E. X34 L 8 M 2 Eng. X35 L 8 F 1 H. E. *Not available 18 TABLE III COMPARISON OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS W Control Experimental 3.6.2: Male 22 20 Female 12 15 Year Freshman 15 17 Sephomore 14 10 Junior 5 6 Senior 0 2 Division Agriculture 9 6 Applied Science 2 4 Engineering 11 10 Home Economics 9 10 Liberal Arts 3 5 Mean of Decile Rating 5.2 5.6 19 CHAPTER IV DEFINITIONS AND RECORDING 0F PHENOMENA As noted previously, four different phenomena of delivery were statistically recorded for each student involved in order to determine the initial and final status of the control and experimental groups and thereby determine relative improvement of the two groups. These phe- nomena were (1) loss of eye contact, (2) transitions, (3) gestures, and (4) head movements. This thesis is concerned with the first two of these only. In order to count loss of eye contact and transitions objectively and accurately, it was, first of all, necessary to establish definitions of these elements. It was here that the research done by the Committee on Cooperative Research of the National Association of Teachers of Speech was extremely helpful, for in this study definitions had not only been set up but had been tried as well. Therefore, problems, questions, ob- jections concerning the collection of such data had already been met and worked out. For the purposes of this experiment loss of eye contact was defined as an unnecessary, meaningless looking away from the audience. This would not include, therefore, a break in eye contact accompanying a gesture such as might happen when pointing out a direction; nor does it include looking at visual aids or a loss which occurs during a mean- ingful transition. Likewise, in one of the speeches in which a speaker's stand and notes were employed, needed reference to such notes were not recorded. ‘When the speaker continued looking down at his notes though obviously not using them as an aid, such a break was recorded. Also 20 such obvious losses of eye contact as looking out of the window, down at the floor, toward the ceiling, or even noticeably not focusing the eyes directly on the audience were all counted. “While such definitions or .limitations do not cover every imaginable situation, exceptions to the above explanations are so rare that they would make little if any dif- .ference to the final computations. Too fine a discrimination in de- ciding what constitutes loss of eye contact and what does not would only tend to confuse and complicate recordings. In defining transitions it is well to note at the outset that only meaningful transitions were counted. For the definition of such movements it is simple enough to quote the comments concerning them as given by the Committee on Cooperative Research. There are several good reasons for meaningful transitions (walking on the platform). A few of these might be: They serve as a method for defining the large divisions of a speech; they suggest to the audience a shifting of position thereby relaxing the audience; and they aid the speaker in securing the attention of his audience. Each time a movement of the foot is made by the speaker and the weight of the body is shifted, it is considered a transition, except in case of a gesture which requires movement of the foot. There are at least four kinds of transitions that should be considered meaningful: .1. Transitions on taking up new phase of speech. 2. Transitions to demonstrate something, as at the blackboard. 3. If speaker is using blackboard for illustration and leaves blackboard and comes to his audience and returns to the blackboard again, each such movement is considered a transi- tion. If speaker steps about at the blackboard in explaining illustration, without leaving the blackboard, it is not con- sidered a transition. 4. Transitions for special description-~such as "At the end of the motor car is the crank, and" (transition) "at this end is the transmission." 5. Transitions that serve none of the above purposes and seem to be for no other reason than that the speaker is nervous or 21 restless should be considered meaningless. Each change of direction when the speaker is pacing about is considered an additional meaningless transition.l4 Having defined the phenomena to be counted, observers were selected for the purpose of recording this data. These observers included two graduate assistants and six college students several of whom had pre- viously been enrolled in a beginning speech course. In addition, the two instructors themselves helped in recording some of the material. After explaining to the observers the nature of the experiment and of the phenomena as outlined above, several practice sessions were held in order to familiarize them with this material, to give them practice in recording the data, and to answer any problems or questions that might arise. At first each of the four factors was taken up separately, various persons giving speeches emphasizing a certain factor. All of the ob- servers recorded these phenomena individually and the results were then compared at the end of each speech. From the very beginning the corre- lation among the separate recordings was encouragingly high and as more speeches were given, the correlations were often as high as .90 or .95. In a few cases some of the observers seemed to have a little difficulty in recording one of the elements as indicated by a very high or very low number when compared with the others. When this occurred, the individual was not allowed to record that particular element for the purposes of the experiment. Indeed, a decided effort was made to have each observer count only the factor or factors for which he had showed the greatest aptitude in the trial tests. 14Committee on Cooperative Research, 23. 313., p. 26. 22 When each person had been assigned his specific "task," several speeches were given combining examples of the four phenomena to be counted. This enabled the observers to obtain further practice in their particular "fields." For each class, either experimental or control, one observer was assigned the task of counting loss of eye contact and another the task of counting gestures and head movements. Since the number of transitions in any given speech would be few, the instructor took it upon himself to record these, thus eliminating the necessity of using an extra observer for each class. A student, one not involved in the experiment, was asked to record the time of each speech given by persons included in this study. Such a task, of course, was relatively simple requiring no special training or skill. The actual counting was now ready to begin. The observers sat in the back of the room behind the class as unobtrusively as possible. No mention was made by the instructor as to who they were. Since every member in each of the classes was generally unknown to the others, the presence of the observers was not questioned; indeed, they may have been taken for regular members of the class for the first few meetings. After that time the classes became used to their being in the room and also became accustomed to the speech situation so that the observers were, for the most part, ignored or forgotten. This fact, particularly at the beginning, was felt highly desirable since students in the first few meetings of a speech class are extremely self-conscious. Any very noticeable and unusual occurrence would easily upset them and make the classroom "atmosphere" unnatural and tense. All in all, from comments made later by many of the students, the presence of the observers had little, if any, effect upon the speakers. 23 This was still true even at the end of the term when the observers once more appeared in each of the classes. By this time the members of the classes were far more self-confident and undisturbed by the appearance of new faces. In only one case was this not true and this exception would hardly be enough to affect the results of the experiment. The observer who recorded loss of eye contact was supplied with an electric clock which could be turned on by pressing a push-button switch. When a speaker lost eye contact, the switch was turned on until the speaker resumed looking at the audience. In this way, the cumulative time was easily recorded. Since the highest number of transitions for any one speech given during the term was fifteen, it was not too much extra work for the in- structor to count these. The length of the speech was recorded to the nearest second and was clocked by means of a stop watch. All this data were placed on special forms supplied for the pur- pose, samples of which are included at the end of this chapter. The names of the students for a particular section were written in alpha- betical order beforehand to simplify the work of the observer and to expedite the work of transferring the data to tables. These forms were handed in to the instructor immediately after the class period. Data were recorded for the first three speeches of the term and for three of the last four speeches. The first three were given on topics assigned from several chapters contained in Hayworth's Egglig Speaking although an unusual personal experience could be used on the first speech. The last three speeches consisted of a five to six minute per- suasive speech, a six to seven minute persuasive speech, and a one to 24 four minute speech of any type given during the final examination period. One speech assigned in the syllabus used in this course and appearing between the two persuasive speeches was not recorded in the experiment since it called for the use of visual aids. Such a speech would have and did interfere with the speaker's gestures, eye contact, and even transitions so that it would not have given a true picture of the final status of an individual in the use of such elements of delivery. Altogether a minimum of sixteen minutes and a maximum of twenty- four minutes of speaking for each student were assigned. No specific criticism was made on any of the first three speeches. In order to determine initial status it was felt best to record the phenomena as present in each speaker's delivery uninfluenced in any way. Indeed throughout the entire term the students were never aware of what items were being counted nor was any special classroom in- struction given to the individuals in either control or experimental groups beyond that usually given in this course. No difference was made between the two groups as far as instruction or criticism was concerned since the use of motion pictures was intended as a sup- plementary device and not a substitute for instructor criticism. Emphasis was placed upon delivery but to no greater extent than is usually done in such a class. OBSERVER OBSERVER BLANKS ”SUD FOR COLLECTING DLTA ON TRANSITIONS AND LOSS OF EYE C ITA‘T I m t‘.‘ . o E '3 ‘ 0H 5; g Lo 5, E3 a) 4 4 e .56 i P. :5 Fl] O 0 e 6 o o o o 0 U) H N "W .3 U“ \0 F- M) O“ A >90) sun c3 tn}: 2: or) 0 (13 % (n+3 ms: 00 mu: 1 .4 Q E z 1 (5 1 m.‘ 0 O O O o o 0 U} H N M .21' m \C N 00 0‘. 12. I TELAIFK USle FOR COLLJCTIIF‘} DATA OI! L"‘3"’“ ~J‘ \KJ OBSERVER sac. Dm__ flame E1 OF SPEJCIIIJS @0110. Length of Speech(5ec.) 27 CHAPTER V METHOD OF TAKING THE MOTION PICTURES The classroom set-up for the taking of motion pictures was admir- able. The keynote during the whole experiment was to make the class atmosphere as natural as possible and to avoid any obvious and dis- tracting factors while taking the pictures or while recording the phenomena. Such a purpose was greatly aided by the fact that the classrooms for public speaking at Michigan State College had been designed with the idea in mind of taking motion pictures in them. The room in which each experimental group always met was approximately eighteen feet by twenty-four feet with a ceiling of ten feet. At one end was a raised platform running the entire width of the room and extending six feet from the front wall. In the center of the back wall next to the ceiling was an aper- ture, eighteen inches by eighteen inches, cut through into the next room but closed off from it by two panes of glass. Through this open- ing the pictures were taken, thus eliminating the necessity of setting up equipment in the room itself. The glass window made the operation of the motion picture camera soundless to the student giving the speech. Indeed, the sound was only faintly perceptible at the back of the room and even then would hardly be recognized as a camera in Operation. In order to keep the actual taking of pictures as unobtrusive as possible, the window itself was entirely covered with heavy paper except for a small opening just large enough for the lens and view finder. 28 The room was lighted naturally through three large windows at one side and artifically by six 250 watt overhead lights. Although this amount was hardly sufficient on dark, cloudy days, it was excel- lent on very bright days. A Super-X panchromatic film was used to insure the greatest amount of sensitivity possible. In only a few cases was any extra artificial equipment used. At one time a 500 watt spotlight was thrown on the ceiling just in front of the head of the speaker; at another time a 1000 watt floodlight was added but was found impractical since the electrical circuit in the room was not sufficient to carry such a load; again, a white sheet was utilized as a background instead of the regular blackboard background. In all such cases the addition of such equipment improved, to a lesser or greater extent, the clarity and sharpness of the subject but at the same time introduced elements which obviously called attention to the fact that pictures were being taken. If sufficient natural and ordinary overhead lighting could be obtained without resorting to extra equipment, the speech situation would be far more natural and desirable. Some experimental shots were taken under the above conditions to determine just how satisfactory the pictures would be. The pic- tures, however, were taken late in the afternoon and were not very conclusive evidence of the results that might be obtained during the middle of the day. Still, since these trial pictures were discern- ible even though taken under the worst possible conditions, it was felt that they would be quite satisfactory under more normal conditions. During the previous term some sixteen mm. experimental pictures had been taken as well as an acetate recording to be synchronized (\J LO with the film. Objections were apparent in both aspects of this trial, however, and no further work was done with these. The decision was finally made to use eight mm. equipment for the purposes of this experiment. Since the pictures were to be shown to individuals in a small room and not to large audiences, a large pro- jected image would not be necessary, and ratio of the conparative costs of sixteen mm. and eight mm. pictures was about four to one. At first an f 2.7 lens was used but later an f 1.9 lens was employed and found to be far more satisfactory. The distance from speaker to camera was approximately thirty feet. The taking of the pictures was now ready to begin. The first series were taken of the sixth speech given during the term, a two to three minute expository or persuasive speech. Io indication was given nor mention made of the fact that pictures were to be taken during that particular speech. A signal had been arranged whereby the instructor could notify the camera operator exactly when to take a shot. This signal was simply a hand operated switch plugged in at one end to an electrical circuit and at the other end to an outlet in the back wall appearing again on the other side of the wall in the next room, where operator and camera were situated. To this outlet was attached an electric alarm clock with the alarm turned on. When the switch was pressed in one room the alarm rang in the other, informing the Operator that he should start taking pictures. The shots of an individual student were not selected in any way. Once the operator was signalled, he continued to "shoot" until the student's allotted twelve feet of film had been used up. Indeed, in this first series there was no possibility of selecting the shots, 30 for after every four or five feet of film the camera had to be rewound, and since the speech itself was short, the operator was forced to waste as little time as possible in order to get the entire twelve feet taken. In one or two cases where the student spoke a little less than the mini- mum time suggested, taking the full twelve feet was not accomplished. In such cases an attempt was made in the second series to adjust these deficiencies. Since the camera held but twenty-five feet of film, only two stu- dents could be taken consecutively. Then a minute or two had to be allowed for the operator to remove the film and reload. In order to save time, a speaker not in the experiment was therefore placed between each pair of students who were in the experiment. Because of this necessary arrangement, it was not possible to "shoot" all the subjects in one day, two days being devoted to this task. The second series of pictures were taken during the ninth speech of the term, a four to five minute expository or persuasive speech. Unfortunately this happened to be one in which a speaker's stand and notes were used. There seemed to be no way of avoiding such conditions, however, unless the syllabus employed in this course was completely changed. So despite the rather handicapping nature of these elements, they were left in the assignment. It was felt also that they would not interfere too greatly with the phenomena being examined and that an absence of such traits in a speaker's delivery would still be ap- parent even when that speaker was using notes and a stand. The second series was taken in exactly the same manner as was the first. Again care was used to keep the students from knowing what was happening and to keep the speaking situation as natural as possible. 31 The original plan was to use a motor driven camera, thus elimina- ting the necessity of having an operator and of rewinding and reloading the camera. Such a system, however, is not available for eight mm. equipment. This fact necessitated the training of several operators who could be available at the times at which the experimental classes were held. CHAPTER VI PROJECTION or THE PICTURES As soon as the films were processed, arrangements were made to show the pictures to the students. A small conference room located in the Speech Clinic and containing no windows was used for this purpose, and because light could be eliminated from it completely, it was well suited to the requirements of projecting films. No projection screen was avail- able so, instead, a sheet of white cardboard about three feet square was utilized. Although this substitute undoubtedly was inferior to a beaded or other surface screen, it was found adequate for this particular situ- ation where an especially large image was not needed. Indeed, the dis- tance from projector to screen was only six to eight feet in most cases. A shorter projecting distance was imperative at times when the film was dark. Fifteen minute conferences were held with each student on the first series of pictures. Previous to this, the instructor viewed all of the films and made careful notes concerning the four phenomena being inves- tigated. In addition, notes were also kept of other elements of speech not being counted, such as posture and aimless movements. During the conference itself, the student was shown his own film and comments based on the notes were made by the instructor with some elaboration. Because many details are lost in the first showing through the novelty and complexity of the film, it was run through a second time and on this occasion special notice was paid to only the four elements of delivery involved in this study.‘ Despite Utzinger‘s statement that comments "seem unnecessary for all of the faults are so easily observed 33 by the students themselves,"15 in my opinion such an assumption cannot be taken for granted since many faults, even when seen on the screen, look perfectly natural to the individual and arouse no criticism in his mind. Care must be taken, then, to point out such shortcomings even though, to the instructor, they may seem quite obvious and inescapable. Since, during the processing of the films, the shots of four dif- ferent students would be spliced together, each student was obliged to observe the pictures of the other three on that particular reel. Al- though mention has already been made that there is little, if any, ad- vantage over the classroom situation for the individual in looking at films of speakers other than himself, as much benefit as was possible was obtained from.this situation, which was more or less impossible to eliminate. Attention was called to other speakers on that reel who had the same shortcoming as the conferee; or a comparison was made between a speaker free from a certain bad habit and the conferee in whose deliv- ery this habit appeared, showing how much more poised and effective the former looked. The use of other pictures in conjunction with the shots of the individual himself was felt justifiable since that person always had his own picture as a basis for comparisons and contrasts. For the second series of shots, the same method was followed in the conferences except that half hour rather than fifteen minute periods were arranged with the students. In this series it was possible to com- pare the first and second groups of pictures and to point out to the student where he had improved or where he failed to improve his faults as had been suggested in the previous conference. 15Utzinger, 2p. £13., 12. 34 Besides mere suggestions being given, the film was thoroughly dis- cussed with the student and any questions he had in mind were answered. At this time a questionnaire covering all phases of the experiment was given to the conferee who was requested to fill it out and return it to the instructor. CHAPTER VII MOTION PICTURE EQUIPMENT Cameras.--As has been mentioned previously, an eight mm. camera was used in this experiment. Although it is to be admitted that a sixteen mm. camera would result in a larger and perhaps clearer image, a large picture was hardly necessary since the films were shown to individuals 'rather than to large groups. The eight mm. size has in its favor most of the features to be found in a larger camera plus the fact that it is considerably cheaper. Twenty-five feet of double eight mm. film (this can be reversed giving a total of fifty feet) is approximately one-third the price of 100 feet of sixteen mm. film. Both will run the same length of time, about four minutes. In general, the sixteen mm. camera does have the advantage in that it will run a little longer on one winding up of the spring and that a faster lens can be obtained. There are exceptions, of course, but in most cases an eight mm. camera will operate for six feet (equal to twelve feet on a sixteen mm. camera) before running down, while a six— teen mm. camera will run from fifteen to forty feet on one winding. Also, an f 1.5 lens can be obtained in sixteen mm. equipment and only an f 1.9 lens in eight mm. The exception to both factors is to be found in the Bolex cameras, distributed by the American Bolex Company. A fast f 1.5 lens can be ob- tained in their regular eight mm. camera as well as a fourteen foot run (equal to twenty-eight feet of sixteen mm.) on a single winding. The cost of such an instrument, however, would be prohibitive for most educa- tional institutions, although it does have the added feature of threading the film automatically. Then, too, for an additional price a motor can U) 0‘: be attached to either the eight mm. or sixteen mm. model, enabling 100 feet of either type film to be exposed continuously, an ideal set-up, it must be admitted, for taking pictures of speakers. For the average institution and for ordinary purposes, an eight or sixteen mm. camera with a fairly fast lens (f 1.9 or faster) and a mega- zine load would be the most practical and economical purchase. The maga- zine load, obtainable in various makes of cameras, enables the Operator to reload the camera instantaneously without the delay and danger of threading a new film. 'When "shooting" one speaker after another, this feature would be especially helpful, since no time need be wasted be- tween every two speeches. Other special features can be found in individual camera models but they would not contribute enough as teaching aids to warrant the added expense. Simplicity coupled with efficiency in Operation and accuracy in results should be the guiding factors in the selection of a camera. Tables IV and V list available eight mm. and sixteen mm. cameras respectively, together with the outstanding features of each one. Eil§.--Unless excellent lighting facilities are available without resorting to numerous floodlights, which are not only expensive but are far from natural, the fastest (most sensitive) film obtainable is recom- mended. For eight mm. equipment a Super or Super1§ panchromatic film with a fine grain can be obtained, while an even faster and finer grained film is to be found for sixteen mm. cameras. The use of color film doubtless would make the pictures more at- tractive, but not only would it add absolutely nothing to the educational value of the pictures, but it would increase the expense and demand at least twice as much lighting equipment. 37 Projectors.--While an inexpensive projector would be satisfactory for most situations, such an instrument lacks three important features very helpful in projecting educational films. One factor is an adequate - and powerful enough lamp. For best results a 500 watt lamp at least is necessary. This can be obtained only in the medium and higher priced machines. The second desirable factor is a fast projection lens which will transmit a large amount of light. Here at least an f 1.85 lens would be acceptable. The third factor is that of a still picture or single frame device. In the use of motion pictures in speech this would be very helpful, for awkward postures, loss of eye contact, peculiar movements could be "held" on the screen as long as desired. Judicious use should be made of this device since, unless the projector has an excellent cooling system, the heat of the lamp will soon burn and scorch the film. A list of the available eight mm. projectors now on the market ap- pears in Table VI, and of sixteen mm. projectors in Table VII. Sound Equipment.--Two possibilities present themselves in consider- ing sound equipment in conjunction with motion pictures. The first of these is the use of regular professional equipment which would record sounds on a film track. ‘While this would be by far the most satisfactory and expedient method, the expense is high, running close to a minimum of $300 for the camera and about the same cost for projector. Not only would the equipment be expensive but the cost of the film would be doub- led since a separate film track is needed for both the picture and the sound in most sound recording systems. From these two tracks a positive, composite print is made, synchronizing the two perfectly. It is possible, 28 of course, to secure a camera that would record both sound and picture on the same film, but again the initial cost would be prohibitive, approach- ing $2000 for the camera alone. The other method of using sound would be synchronizing the motion picture film and an independent recording of the voice. Here the syn- chronization may be done either by means of judgment and "trial and er- ror" or by means of special machinery designed to keep recording and film together. The first method, that of "trial and error," might present serious difficulties particularly when the operator attempted to "play" film and record Simultaneously. The first difficulty would be encountered in starting the two at the same place in the speech, for without a mechani- cal method of starting the camera and recording machine at precisely the same instant there would undoubtedly be a difference of one or two sec- onds between the times at which the two machines were put into Operation. Even supposing that this were accomplished satisfactorily--and unless it were done perfectly there would be little value in using such a technique-- there would be no assurance that film and record would gtay together throughout the length of a particular shot. Slight variations in the speed of a spring-driven motor as used in most motion picture cameras would do much to keep the two from coinciding, thereby rendering such a method impractical. The second method would be by far the most satisfactory. A motor can be obtained that synchronizes perfectly the speed of the camera and that of the recording machine, thus eliminating the necessity of guess- work and constant readjustments of the speed of the recording instrument. Such a system is manufactured by the Presto Recording Corporation, New York City, and consists of three Syncro-Sound attachments, a camera drive unit, a dual speed turntable unit, and a projector attachment. The turntable unit, designed for a speed of 78 RPM or 33 1/3 RPM, oper- ates synchronously with either camera or projector unit making possible "perfect synchronization between sound-on—disc recordings and silent films." By means of the camera drive unit the camera itself takes exactly sixteen frames a second and the sound is recorded at one of the two speeds indicated above. At the time of showing the pictures, the projector unit drives the projector again at a speed of sixteen frames a second while the sound disc is played at exactly the same speed as recorded. Thus the two coincide perfectly. The above units, retailing at $155 for the three, can be adapted to any camera, projector, and recording machine with very little trouble. A five minute recording can be produced for a cost of $1.00 to which, of course, must be added the cost of the motion picture film. TABLE IV 8 MM. CAMERAS 40 Make Model Lens Footage Features Price Run* Bolex H-8 f 1.5 14 Automatic threading $275.00 Cine-Kodak Magazine f 1.9 6 Film in magazine 95.00 Cine-Kodak 20 f 3.5 5%;- 28.50 Cine-Kodak 25 r 2.7 5% 41.00 Cine-Kodak 60 .+: 1.9 5% 65.50 Cinemaster n-B f 3.5 6 27.50 Cine Perfex Double f 2.5 6 59.50 Eight Eumig 03 f 2.7 Single frame release 59.50 Eumig C4 f 2.5 Battery driven 42.50 Excel 39 f 3.5 745 24.50 Filmo Aristocrat f 2.5 5 Single exposure device 109.50 Filmo Companion f 3.5 5 Single exposure device 49.50 Keystone K-8 f 1.9 5 57.00 Revere 88 f 3.5 5 32.50 Revere 99 f 2.5 5 Rotating turret head 65.00 Univex C-8 f 1.9 6 47.25 Univex C-8 f 2.7 6 27.50 Univex C-8 f 3.5 6 21.50 Univex C-8 f 4.5 6 Turret mount 25.00 Univex True View f 5.6 6 9.95 *Number of feet camera will run on one winding TABLE V 16 MM. CAMERAS 41 Make Model Lens Footage Features Price Runfi Bolex H-l6 f 1.5 24 .Automatic threading $275.00 Bolex H-l6 f 1.4 24 Automatic threading 295.00 Cine-Kodak Special f 1.9 39 Single exposure device 417.50 Cine-Kodak E f 3.5 16 39.50 Cine-Kodak E f 1.9 16 67.50 Cine-Kodak K f 1.9 13 76.50 Cine-Kodak Magazine f 1.9 11 Film in magazine 112.50 DeVry 77 f 3.5 Single exposure device 70.00 Excel 38 f 4.5 6 19.50 Excel 40 f 3.5 10 22.50 Filmo Auto Load f 2.7 Film in magazine 115.00 Filmo Auto Master f 1.9 Film in magazine 195.00 Filmo Auto Load f 1.5 160.50 Speedster Filmo 70-DA f 2.7 24 3-1ens turret mount 193.00 Irwin Imperial f 4.5 Film in magazine 22.50 Irwin Moderne Film in magazine 12.95 Keystone A-3 f 3.5 15 Motor lock 35.00 Keystone A-3 f 1.5 15 Motor lock 67.50 Keystone B-l f 3.5 15 29.95 RCA Sound f 3.5 30 Film in magazine 275.00 Victor 3 f 1.6 25 Single exposure device 59.50 Zeiss Movikon f 1.4 20 Single exposure device 385.00 *Number of feet camera will run on one winding TABLE VI 8 MM. PROJECTORS Name Model Single Footage Lamp Lens Price Frame Capacity 'Wattage Ampro A-8 200 500 f 1.6 $ 98.00 Bolex G-816 x 400 750 f 1.5 235.00 Excel 110 200 500 f 1.85 44.50 Filmo Master 8 x 200 500 f 1.6 99.50 Filmo Master 400 x 400 500 f 1.6 112.50 Irwin Zephyr 8 200 250 f 2 29.95 Keystone A-8 x 400 750 f 1.6 72.50 Keystone 8-8 400 500 f 1.85 55.00 Keystone M-8 400 300 f 1.85 39.50 Keystone C-8 . 200 f 2 24.75 KodascOpe 20 f 2.5 23.00 Kodascope 50 f 2.0 37.20 Kodascope 70 200 500 f 1.6 61.50 Kodascope 70A 400 500 f 1.6 71.50 Revere 80 x 300 500 f 1.6 65.00 Revere De Luxe 85 x 300 500 f 1.6 75.00 Univex P-SOO x 200 500 f 1.6 42.50 Univex PU-8 200 150 18.95 Univex P-8 200 SOAC 16.50 43 'IABLE VII 16 MM. PROJECTORS Name Model Single Footage Lamp Lens Sound Price Frame Capacity Wattage Ampro KD x 400 750 f 1.6 $135.00 Ampro UA 1600 750 f 1.6 x 345.00 Ampro UC x 400 750 f 1.6 175.00 Ampro YA 1600 750 f 1.85 x 295.00 Bolex G16 x 400 750 f 1.5 225.00 DeVry G-5 x 400 500 f 1.65 75.00 DeVry Interpreter 1600 1000 f 1.65 x 390.00 Filmo Diplomat x 400 750 f 1.6 * 198.00 Filmosound Commercial 2000 750 f 2 x 276.00 Imperial 3 1600 1000 f 1.65 x 395.00 Irwin 39 400 250 f 2 23.95 Keystone A-81 x 400 750 f 1.6 69.50 Kodascope EE 400 750 f 2.5 62.10 Kodascope G x 400 750 f 1.6 118.10 Kodasc0pe FS-lO 1600 750 f 1.6 Ix 295.00 Kodascope Special 1600 750 f 1.6 . x. 620.00 Mogull- 17 x 2000 750 f 1.65 . X' 410.00 Duplex RCA PG-170 1600 1000 f 1.65 x 300.00 Victor Silent 16 400 750 f 1.60 137.50 Victor AnimatOphone x 1600 750 f 1.6 x 295.00 *Can run sound track film 44 CHAPTER VIII OBJECTIVE EVALUATION The statistical data as gathered by the different observers were compiled in several tables and calculations were made from these. It was possible then to determine objectively whether any significant im- provement had been made by the experimental groups in respect to loss of eye contact and use of transitions. If such an improvement had been made, the use of the motion picture-conference technique as a teaching device would be justified. In Tables VIII and IX, the length of time used by each speaker in the control group for the first three speeches and for the last three speeches will be found; in Tables X and XI the speaking time is shown for the experimental group. The total length, in seconds and minutes, was calculated for each individual. In Tables XII and XIII the amount of eye contact lost by each stu- dent in the control and the experimental sections is recorded for the initial speeches. In the last column, the percent of eye contact lost is indicated for each student; these figures were obtained by dividing the total amount of eye contact lost by any individual speaker in the first three speeches by the total amount of time used during those speeches by that individual. The same method was followed in obtaining the data for loss of eye contact during the final speeches. This data will be found in Table XIV for the control group and in Table XV for the experimental group. Similar calculations were made for the use of transitions. The number used by individual students for both control and experimental groups will be found in Tables XVI and XVII. The number of transitions 45 used per minute was obtained by dividing the number made during the three initial speeches by the total length of those speeches. This was also done for the final speeches, the figures for both being given in Tables XVIII and XIX. Before deciding how beneficial-—if at all--the use of motion pic- tures had been to the experimental group, it was necessary, first of all, to determine whether there was any difference at the beginning of the term between the two groups in their use of transitions and also in the amount of eye contact lost. As has already been noted, the control and experimental groups were very similar in composition, but this fact would not necessarily preclude the possibility of their being significantly different in their speech characteristics. 2333 2: E12 Contact.--The averages of the two groups for loss of eye contact were quite close to each other, the control section having an average loss of 35% and the experimental group an average of 30.5%. Is this difference of 4.5% large enough to prove that, for some reason, the two groups at the beginning of the eXperiment were not similar in their speech habits? The formula16 used to determine whether a significant difference exists between the means of two sets of variants was employed and no such difference was found. Since the homogeneity of the classes was now established, the im- portant fact to determine was whether there was any significant differ- ence at the end of the term between the average loss of eye contact of the control group (10.40fl) and that of the experimental group (5.70%). 16This formula is fully explained in the section entitled "Compari- son of Two Means" in R. A. Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Workers. London: Oliver and Boyd, 1936. Pp. 128-133. 46 Because two influences--that of different instructors and also that of different methods of instruction--had acted upon both control and experi- mental groups, the effect of the individual instructor had to be elim- inated in order to obtain a clear picture of the influence of motion pic- tures alone. Excluding the effect of the instructors,17 a difference or F value18 of 5.9 was found to exist between the two groups. This dif- ference, in favor of the experimental group, is significant for the num; ber of students involved. A further test was made between the average improvement of loss of eye contact made by one group and that made by the other. The improve- ment made by each student, as shown in Table XX for the control group and in Table XXI for the experimental group, was calculated by sub- tracting the percent of eye contact lost during the last three speeches from the percent lost in the initial three speeches. The average im- provement was 24.85% for the control group and 25.20% for the experi- mental group. The difference or 3 value19 was negligible and therefore not significant. This may seem to be a direct contradiction of the statement made previously that a significant difference did exist be- tween the final scores of the two groups in respect to loss of eye con- taCt e 17In order to do this, the formula for the analysis of variances was used. This formula is discussed in Chapter 14, "Analysis of Var- iance," W. D. Baton, Mathematical Statistics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938. Pp. 249-262. 18For the number of students involved (69) the value of 5 must be greater than 3.98 to be significant. 19The 3 value, used to determine significant difference between two means, must be greater than 2.00 for the number of cases involved in order to be significant. 47 Upon careful examination, an explanation of this seeming paradox can be found. Even though the difference was not large enough to be significant, the control group started out 4.5% higher than the experi- mental group. The expected improvement of the control group would, then, be greater than the expected improvement of the experimental group since the former had a larger amount of eye contact lost upon which to improve. However, as has been pointed out, the improvement of the two groups was almost identical, indicating that the control group lagged behind the experimental group, the two being almost exactly the same distance apart (4.70%) at the end as they were at the beginning. This, therefore, ex- plains the apparent contradiction of the answers obtained from the two tests. From this data, then, the conclusion may be drawn that the use of motion pictures as a teaching device aided students in decreasing their loss of eye contact. Transitions.--Simi1ar formulas to those above were applied to the data gathered on the number of transitions used by both groups. Again the question may be asked: Were the two groups similar in their use of transitions at the beginning of the term? The very close aVerages, .16 per minute for the control sections and .12 per minute for the ex- perimental sections, would indicate that they were similar in respect to this particular speech phenomena. Upon application of the formula this fact was established, no significant difference being present. were they significantly different in the use of transitions at the end of the term? After eliminating the influence of the instructor, a difference or E value of 5.7 was found to exist between the mean of the control group (.48 per minute) and the mean of the experimental group 48 (.64 per minute). This figure was significant for the number of stu- dents involved. As in the case of loss of eye contact, a further test was made be- tween the averages of the improvement made by the control and by the experimental group. The figures for the control group are given in Table XXII and for the experimental group in Table XXIII. The average improve- ment made by the former was .32 transitions per minute and by the latter, .53 transitions per minute. A difference or 3 value of 4.6 existed be- tween the two means, indicating that in the improvement as well as in the final scores, there was a significant difference in favor of the experi- mental group. From this, the conclusion may be drawn that the use of motion pic- tures aided students in learning to make transitions during a speech. 49 TABLE VIII LENGTH OF INITIAL SPEECHES FOR CONTROL GROUP Student Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total length Total length sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds in minutes C1 123 130 64 317 5.28 C2 144 155 69 368 5.13 C3 177 140 57 374 6.23 C4 253 252 75 580 9.67 C5 112 150 72 334 5.57 C6 155 130 65 350 5.83 C7 180 185 70 435 7.25 C8 117 165 67 349 5.82 C9 80 105 70 255 4.25 C10 140 122 75 337 5.62 C11 * 150 52 202 3.37 012 442 175 174 791 13.18 C13 110 157 60 327 5.45 C14 119 93 58 270 4.50 C15 268 189 93 550 9.17 C16 282 165 63 510 8.50 C17 104 135 71 310 5.17 C18 110 88 115 313 5.22 C19 255 135 * 390 6.50 C20 133 109 73 315 5.25 C21 142 112 56 310 5.17 C22 73 96 70 239 3.98 C23 193 115 61 369 6.15 C24 58 67 69 194 3.23 C25 94 157 63 314 5.23 C26 96 72 59 227 3.78 C27 144 75 51 270 4.50 C28 196 176 71 443 7.38 C29 188 154 64 406 6.77 C30 54 92 59 205 3.42 C31 157 175 114 446 7.43 C32 101 109 57 267 4.45 C33 101 84 64 316 5.27 C34 111 146 69 326 5.43 *Not recorded TABLE IX LENGTH OF FINAL SPEECHES FOR CONTROL GROUP 50 Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total length Total length (sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds in minutes Cl 385 305 95 785 13.08 02 380 485 140 1005 16.75 03 260 289 120 669 11.15 C4 485 520 160 1165 19.42 05 350 420 145 915 15.25 06 350 335 103 788 13.13 C7 300 450 144 894 14.90 08 300 375 128 803 13.38 C9 315 415 137 867 14.45 010 310 475 106 891 14.85 011 320 * 86 406 6.77 012 263 340 153 756 12.60 013 275 380 140 795 13.25 014 280 370 133 783 13.05 015 443 410 130 790 13.17 016 443 410 90 943 15.72 017 290 360 95 745 12.42 018 430 412 88 930 15.50 019 325 300 73 698 11.63 020 375 370 130 875 14.58 021 422 360 180 962 16.03 C22 208 475 219 902 15.03 023 300 240 250 790 13.17 024 145 390 155 690 11.50 025 280 390 195 865 14.42 026 320 595 325 1240 20.67 027 370 324 220 914 15.23 028 455 395 222 1072 17.67 029 280 540 308 1128 18.80 030 255 410 197 1103 16.72 031 465 391 311 1167 19.45 032 405 445 282 1132 18.89 033 190 510 341 1041 17.35 034 330 427 155 912 15.20 *Not recorded 51 TABLE X LENGTH OF INITIAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP Student Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total length Total length (sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds in minutes X1 88 103 77 268 4.47 X2 121 95 108 324 5.40 X3 75 135 75 285 4.75 X4 189 108 90 387 6.45 X5 177 150 60 387 6.45 X6 127 105 70 302 5.03 X7 149 98 81 328 5.47 X8 133 85 74 292 4.87 X9 78 75 79 232 3.87 X10 65 85 58 208 3.47 X11 152 137 49 338 5.63 X12 171 98 60 329 5.48 X13 145 134 65 344 5.73 X14 126 112 61 299 4.98 X15 176 ' - * * 176 2.93 X16 175 72 6‘6 313 5.22 X17 180 187 95 462 7.70 X18 145 155 71 371 6.18 X19 153 128 80 361 6.02 X20 120 98 70 288 4.80 X21 112 96 65 273 4.55 X22 110 161 70 341 5.68 X23 231 174 72 477 7.95 X24 121 135 69 325 5.42 X25 155 166 ' 76 I 397 6.62 X26 58 101 60 219 3.65 ‘X27 298 73 102 473 7.88 X28 76 130 65 271 4.52 X29 160 80 7 45 285 4.75 X30 109 64 67 240 4.00 X31 197 313 76 586 9.77 X32 97 75 57 229 3.82 X33 86 99 76 261 4.35 X34 182 89 70 341 5.68 X35 61 108 70 239 3.98 *Not recorded TABLE XI LENGTH OF FINAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 52 Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total length Total length (sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds in minutes X1 377 398 155 930 15.50 X2 210 470 120 800 13.33 X3 440 390 175 1005 16.75 X4 370 463 190 1023 17.05 X5 564 400 135 1099 18.32 X6 362 375 95 832 13.87 X7 360 555 140 1055 17.58 X8 * 265 140 405 6.75 X9 311 430 115 856 14.27 X10 370 340 95 805 13.42 X11 360 278 80 718 11.97 X12 360 310 115 785 13.08 X13 390 260 135 785 13.08 X14 355 240 100 695 11.58 X15 330 386 110 826 13.77 X16 300 210 95 605 10.08 X17 440 380 282 1102 18.37 X18 485 480 287 1147 19.12 X19 410 590 255 1255 20.92 X20 240 590 186 1016 16.93 X21 240 435 242 917 15.28 X22 410 435 300 1145 19.08 X23 490 315 300 1105 18.42 X24 380 395 268 1043 17.38 X25 480 310 145 935 15.58 X26 100 476 140 716 11.93 X27 175 530 220 925 15.42 X28 280 511 210 1001 16.68 X29 280 409 137 826 13.77 X30 240 301 295 836 13.93 X31 320 417 266 1003 16.72 X32 300 364 220 884 14.33 X33 257 405 180 842 17.03 X34 320 328 209 857 14.28 X35 415 311 187 913 15.22 *Not recorded TARLE XII AMOUNT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT IN INITIAL SPEECHES FOR CONTROL GROUP Student SPeech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total amount Percent of eye (sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds contact lost C1 34 13 4 51 16.09 C2 75 56 25 156 42.40 C3 44 13 1 58 15.50 C4 96 84 18 198 34.14 C5 21 25 1 47 14.07 C6 14 13 2 29 8.29 C7 7 6 1 14 3.22 C8 8 ‘ 17 0 25 7.16 C9 1 0 O 1 0.39 C10 25 14 l 40 11.87 C11 * 24 1 25 ' 12.38 C12 25 15 9 49 6.19 013 64 50 22 136 41.59 C14 47 42 29 118 43.70 C15 191 125 33 349 63.45 016 44 9 2 55 10.78 C17 46 71 20 137 44.19 C18 69 58 29 156 49.84 019 86 110 * 196 63.23 C20 20 3 73 96 34.76 C21 29 26 56 111 35.81 C22 54 18 63 139 58.16 C23 135 55 61 251 65.31 024 40 36 69 145 74.74 C25 32 61 63 156 49.68 C26 27 6 59 92 40.53 C27 101 13 51 165 61.11 C28 24 9 71 104 23.47 C29 35 7O 64 169 41.62 030 5 20 59 84 40.97 31 75 85 114 274 61.43 C32 24 35 57 116 43.45 C33 21 15 64 100 31.64 C34 25 36 69 130 39.88 Average 35.00 *Not recorded 54 TABLE XIII AMOUNT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT IN INITIAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP "—""‘-’“—"‘fl========================================================= Student Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total amount Percent of eye (886.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds contact lost X1 68 51 33 152 56.72 X2 14 7 5 26 8.02 X3 4 17 2 23 8.07 X4 71 6 2 79 20.41 X5 28 73 15 116 30.00 X6 27 18 5 50 16.56 X7 24 10 0 34 10.37 X8 9 0 2 11 3.76 X9 13 10 7 30 12.93 X10 30 23 6 59 28.37 X11 34 39 3 76 22.48 X12 6 17 15 38 11.55 X13 62 33 20 115 33.43 X14 21 39 12 72 24.08 X15 20 * * 20 11.36 X16 31 6 10 47 15.01 X17 55 48 95 198 42.86 X18 25 55 71 151 40.70 X19 18 24 80 122 33.79 X20 120 74 70 264 91.67 X21 3O 39 65 134 49.09 X22 21 51 70 142 41.64 X23 35 57 72 164 33.96 X24 15 33 69 117 36.00 X25 41 57 76 174 43.83 X26 1 5 60 66 30.14 X27 11 1 102 114 24.10 X28 10 23 65 98 36.16 X29 39 24 45 108 37.90 X30 10 5 67 82 34.17 X31 3O 57 76 163 27.82 X32 25 5 57 8 38.00 X33 5 10 76 91 34.86 X34 70 35 70 175 51.32 X35 15 14 70 99 41.42 Average 30.50 *Not recorded TABLE XIV AMOUNT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT IN FINAL SPEECHES FOR CONTROL GROUP —_— -:: Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total amount Percent of eye (sec.) (sec.) (sec.) in seconds contact lost 01 19 6 25 50 6.37 C2 28 12 31 71 7.06 C3 4 7 16 27 4.04 C4 36 18 69 123 10.56 C5 33 12 22 67 7.32 06 11 7 5 23 2.92 C7 12 3 8 23 2.56 C8 23 7 6 36 4.48 C9 5 1 11 17 1.96 010 4 2 9 15 1.68 011 32 * 14 46 11.33 012 43 214 22 279 36.90 013 79 102 19 200 25.16 014 44 76 7 127 16.22 015 32 34 9 75 9.49 016 25 1 0 26 2.76 017 31 53 7 91 12.21 018 152 62 0 214 23.01 019 28 19 5 52 7.59 020 19 66 1 86 9.83 021 16 12 1 29 3.01 022 1 250 2 253 28.05 023 35 5 3 43 5.44 024 47 19 3 69 10.00 025 27 29 O 56 6.49 026 26 12 4 42 3.39 027 46 2 2 50 5.47 028 56 2 O 77 7.18 029 67 62 120 249 22.07 030 11 63 18 92 8.34 031 97 14 52 163 13.97 032 61 8 77 146 12.89 033 13 42 12 67 6.44 034 48 75 14 137 15.02 Average 10.40 *Not recorded 56 TABLE XV AMOUNT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT IN FINAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP -: I J - - _, Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total amount Percent of eye (sec.) (sec.) (360.) in seconds contact lost X1 23 10 1 34 3.66 X2 23 24 1 48 3.60 X3 3 9 0 12 1.19 X4 22 5 0 27 2.64 X5 18 33 1 52 4.73 X6 65 8 1 74 8.89 X7 47 21 O 68 6.45 X8 * 2 1 3 0.44 X9 23 15 2 40 4.67 X10 8 11 25 44 5.47 X11 12 3 2 17 2.37 X12 10 7 1 18 2.29 X13 27 8 7 42 5.35 X14 48 2O 12 80 11.51 X15 15 7 0 22 1.59 X16 3 7 21 31 5.12 X17 23 20 1 44 3.99 X18 138 46 1 185 16.13 X19 4O 95 1 136 10.84 X20 49 145 2 196 19.29 X21 30 4O 3 73 7.96 X22 64 45 2 111 9.69 X23 58 50 6 114 10.32 X24 100 53 1 154 14.77 X25 38 25 9 72 7.70 X26 2 5 1 8 1.12 X27 4 l 1 6 0.65 X28 146 64 17 227 22.68 X29 2 1 0 3 0.36 X30 3 2 0 5 0.60 X31 3 0 O 3 0.30 X32 8 4 0 12 1.36 X33 4 6 2 12 1.43 X34 5 3 2 10 1.17 X35 1 0 0 1 0.11 Average 5.70 *Not recorded TABLE XVI NUMBER OF TRANSITIONS IN INITIAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP Student Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total Number per minute 11 0 0 0 O .00 X2 0 O 0 O .00 X3 0 0 O 0 .00 X4 2 2 O 4 .52 X5 0 O O 0 .00 “ X6 1 1 O 2 .40 X7 0 O O 0 .00 X8 0 0 O 0 .00 19 2 1 0 3 .78 X10 1 O 0 1 .29 X11 0 O O 0 .00 X12 0 0 0 0 .00 X13 0 O O O .00 X14 0 O O 0 .00 X15 0 O O O .00 X16 0 O O 0 .00 X17 1 0 O 1 .13 X18 0 O O 0 .00 X19 0 O 3 3 .49 X20 0 O 0 0 .00 X21 0 O O 0 .00 X22 0 O O 0 .00 X23 0 0 O 0 .00 X24 0 O 0 0 .00 X25 0 0 O 0 .00 X26 0 0 0 0 .00 X27 0 0 0 0 .00 X28 0 O 0 0 .00 X29 0 1 O 1 .21 X30 0 O O 0 .00 X31 0 O 1 1 .10 'X32 0 O 2 2 .52 X33 0 O 1 1 .23 X34 0 O O O .00 X35 0 0 0 0 .00 Average .12 (.1 CO TABLE XVII NUMBER OF TRANSITIONS IN INITIAL SPEECHES FOR.CONTROL GROUP -‘ Student Speech 1 Speech 2 Speech 3 Total Number per minute 01 0 1 O 1 .19 C2 0 0 2 2 .32 C3 1 4 0 5 .80 C4 0 O O O .00 05 O O O 0 .00 06 O O O 0 .00 07 O O O 0 .00 08 O O 0 0 .00 C9 0 O 0 0 .00 010 0 0 O 0 .00 011 * O O 0 .00 012 0 0 0 0 .00 013 0 O O 0 .00 014 1 O 1 2 .44 015 o o o o .oo 015 3 2 1 6 .70 017 O O 0 O .00 018 0 O 0 O .00 019 2 O * 2 .31 020 0 O O 0 .00 C21 0 O 0 0 .00 022 0 O 5 5 1.26 023 O O O 0 .00 024 O 0 0 0 .00 C25 0 O 1 1 .19 026 0 O 1 1 .26 027 O 1 0 1 .22 028 0 O O 0 .00 029 0 O O 0 .00 C30 0 O 3 3 .88 031 0 0 O O .00 032 0 O O O .00 C33 0 0 0 0 .00 C34 0 0 O 0 .00 Average .16 *Not recorded 59 TABLE XVIII NUMBER or TRANSITIONS IN FINAL SPEECHES FOR CONTROL GROUP Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total Number Per minute 01 5 5 o 11 .84 C2 4 O 0 4, .24 03 4 2 o 5 .55 04 3 4 o 7 .27 05 7 7 o 14 .92 05 4 5 o 9 .59 07 o o o o .oo 08 4 5 2 11 .82 09 4 5 1 11 .75 010 5 5 o 11 .74 011 3 * o 3 .44 012 1 o o 1 .08 013 1 o o 1 .08 014 2 5 o 8 .51 015 2 1 o 3 .23 015 2 .3 o 5 .32 017 4 o 3 7 ‘ .55 018 4 1o 1 15 .95 019 4 2 o .52' 020 o 2 3 5 .34 021 3 3 o 5 .37 022 1 o 3 4 .27 023 2 1 o 3 .23 024 o 2 4 5 .52 025 1 2 1 4 .28 025 0 4 2 . 5 .29 027 7 4 3 14 .92 028 o 2 o 2 .11 029 4 8 o 12 .54 030 3 2 5 10 .59 031 o 3 o 3 .15 032 4 4 5 14 .74 033 4 5 5 14 .81 034 2 7 o 9 .59 Average .48 *Not recorded 60 TABLE XIX NUMBER OF TRANSITIONS IN FINAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP _' 1*“ m 7—7— - Student Speech 12 Speech 14 Speech 15 Total Number per minute X1 7 2 O 9 .58 X2 1 0 1 2 .15 X3 7 3 1 ll .65 X4 2 4 3 9 .53 X5 0 4 O 4 .22 X6 4 1 O 5 .36 X7 4 3 O 7 .39 X8 * 1 O 1 .15 X9 3 5 0 8 .55 X10 5 5 2 12 .89 X11 1 3 O 4 .33 X12 0 2 1 3 .23 X13 2 2 2 6 .46 X14 4 3 0 7 .60 X15 2 3 1 6 .44 X16 3 3 O 6 .59 X17 4 4 2 10 .54 X18 8 7 6 21 1.10 X19 3 3 3 9 .43 X20 1 3 O 4 .24 X21 3 5 5 14 .92 X22 6 6 6 18 .94 X23 4 8 3 15 .81 X24 4 5 1 10 .57 X25 5 4 7 16 1.03 X26 2 5 3 10 .84 X27 2 8 3 13 .84 X28 4 7 3 14 .84 X29 8 6 3 17 1.45 X30 3 8 3 14 . 1.00 X31 4 4 3 11 .66 X32 2 5 2 9 .63 X33 4 9 2 15 .88 X34 2 3 3 8 .56 X35 4 5 4 13 .85 Average .64 *Not recorded 61 TABLE XX IMPROVEL‘I‘IJESNT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT BETJJ‘EEN INITIAL AND FINAL SPEECPES FOR CONTROL GROUP m m “—— Loss of eye contact in Lose of eye contact in a Student initial speeches (fl) final speeches (fl) Improvement C1 16.09 6.37 9.72 02 42.40 7.06 35.34 03 15.50 4.04 11.46 C4 34.14 10.56 23.58 C5 14.07 7.32 6.75 C6 8.29 2.92 5.37 C7 3.22 2.56 0.66 C8 7.16 4.48 2.68 C9 0.39 1.96 -l.57 010 11.87 1.68 10.19 011 12.38 11.33 1.05 012 6.19 36.90 -30.71 C13 41.59 25.16 16.43 014 43.70 16.22 27.48 C15 63.45 9.49 53.96 C16 10.78 2.76 8.02 017 44.19 12.21 31.98 018 49.84 23.01 26.83 019 63.23 7.59 55.64 020 34.76 9.83 24.93 C21 35.81 3.01 33.80 C22 58.16 28.05 30.11 C23 65.31 5.44 59.87 C24 74.74 10.00 64.74 025 49.68 6.49 43.19 026 40.53 3.39 37.14 C27 61.11 5.47 55.64 028 23.47 7.18 16.29 029 41.62 22.07 19.55 030 40.97 8.34 32.63 031 61.43 13.97 47.46 032 43.45 12.89 30.56 033 31.64 6.44 25.20 034 39.88 15.02 24.86 Average 24.85 TABLE XXI IMPROVEMENT OF LOSS OF EYE CONTACT Bl vhf V1161). .11 ”4.1.11 J INITIAL AND FINAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP _"‘—'_. “—— 62 Student Loss of eye contact in Loss of eye contact in Improvement initial speeches (fl) final speeches (fl) X1 56.72 3.66 53.06 X2 8.02 3.60 4.42 X3 8.07 1.19 6.88 X4 20.41 2.64 17.77 X5 30.00 4.73 25.2 X6 16.56 8.89 7.67 X7 10.37 6.45 3.92 X8 3.76 0.44 3.3 X9 12.93 4.67 8.26 X10 28.37 5.47 22.90 X11 22.48 2.37 20.11 X12 11.55 2.29 9.26 X13 33.43 5.35 28.08 X14 24.08 11.51 12.57 X15 11.36 1.59 9.77 X16 15.01 5.12 9.89 X17 42.86 3.99 38.87 X18 40.70 16.13 24.57 X19 33.79 10.84 22.85 X20 91.67 19.29 72.38 X21 49.09 7.96 41.13 X22 41.64 9.69 31.95 X23 33.96 10.32 23.64 X24 36.00 14.77 21.23 X25 43.83 7.70 36.13 X26 30.14 1.12 29.02 X27 24.10 0.65 23.45 X28 36.16 22.68 13.48 X29 37.90 0.36 37.54 X30 34.17 0.60 33.57 X31 27.82 0.30 27.52 X32 38.00 1.36 36.64 X33 34.86 1.43 33.43 X34 51.32 1.17 50.15 X35 41.42 0.11 41.31 Average 25.20 TABLE XXII IMPROVEMENT IN NUMBER OF LMMBUHmfiB 63 ETHEEN INITIAL AND FINAL SPEECHES FOR COETROL GROUP Number of transitions Student Number of transitions Improvement in initial speeches in final speeches Cl .19 .84 .65 02 .32 .24 -.08 03 .80 .56 -.24 C4 .00 .27 .27 C5 .00 .92 .92 06 .00 .69 .69 C7 .00 .00 .00 08 .00 .82 .82 C9 .00 .76 .76 010 .00 .74 .74 011 .00 .44 .44 012 .00 .08 .08 013 .00 .08 .08 014 .44 .61 .17 015 .00 .23 .23 016 .70 .32 -.38 017 .00 .56 .56 018 .00 .96 .96 019 .31 .52 .21 020 .00 .34 .34 021 .00 .37 .37 022 1.26 .27 -.99 023 .00 .23 .23 024 .00 .52 .52 025 .19 .28 .09 026 .26 .29 .03 027 .22 .92 .70 028 .00 .11 .11 029 .00 .64 .64 030 .88 .59 -.29 031 .00 .15 .15 032 .00 .74 .74 033 .00 .81 .81 034 .00 .59 .59 Average .32 64 TABLE XXIII IMPROVEMENT IN NUMBER OF TRANSITIONS BETUEEN INITIAL ND FINAL SPEECHES FOR EXPERINENTAL GROUP Student Number of transitions Number of transitions in initial speeches in final speeches Improvement X1 .00 .58 .58 X2 .15 .30 .15 X3 .00 .55 .55 X4 .52 .53 _.09 X5 .00 .22 .22 X6 040 .36 -.04 X7 .00 .39 .39 X8 .00 .15 .15 X9 '78 ~55 -.23 X10 .29 .89 .60 X11 .00 .33 .33 X12 .00 .23 .23 X13 .00 .46 .46 X14 .00 .60 .60 X15 .00 .44 .44 X15 .00 .59 .59 X17 .13 .54 .41 X18 ~00 1.10 1,10 X19 .49 .43 -.O6 X20 .00 .24 .24. X21 .00 .92 .92 X22 .00 .94 .94 X23 .00 .81 .81 X24 .00 .57 .57 X25 '00 1.03 1,03 X26 .00 .84 .84 X27 .00 .84 .84 X28 .00 .84 .84 ng '21 1.45 1.24 XBO .00 1.00 1,00 X31 .10 .66 .56 X32 .52 .63 .11 X33 .23 .88 .65 X34 .00 .56 .56 X35 ‘00 ~85 .85 Average .53 C . (j: CHAPTJR IX SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION In order to determine the answer to the third problem--l§ there a subjective value in the use of motion pictures as a supplementary de- _A-AT vice?--a questionnaire was given at the end of the term to each student in the author's two experimental sections, and notes of their comments and reactions during the taking and projecting of the films were recorded. A sample of the questionnaire will be found on the next page. Fifteen of the sixteen students involved returned the questionnaires, one of them failing to do so because he left school at the end of the term. A discussion of the answers given to the individual questions is contained in this chapter. Ouestigg I. Were vou aware that motion pictures were taken 93 vou? In both the first and the last series, eight of the fifteen students were not aware of the fact that motion pictures were being taken of them. Indeed, so unaware were some of them as to what was being done that sevf eral students a few days afterwards asked the instructor when motion pic- tures were to be taken in class. Thus, for half the students, motion pictures were taken in a situation that was, for them, perfectly natural and normal. Such an atmosphere, as has already been explained, was felt highly desirable. Question 3;. ‘flhat magg Egg agape g; the taking 2; motion ictures? In the first series four of the seven who were conscious of the taking of pictures were aware of it since, because of absence during the regu- lar class period, they were asked to come in at a pre-arranged time other than the hour at which the class met. Likewise, two of the seven who were aware of the taking of the second series of pictures were "shot" O) C) Name Section Division Class Age I. Were you aware that motion pictures were taken of you? The first time: Yes No The second time: Yes No II. What made you aware of this? III. IV. V. VII. VIII. If you were aware of it, did the taking of motion pictures disturb you? Yes No . In what way did it disturb you? 'Describe reaction. If such equipment was used, did the addition of extra lights or a background sheet disturb you? Yes __ No __. Describe reaction. Have you ever had motion pictures taken of you before? Yes No . If you have, state the circumstances. What were your reactions upon seeing yourself when the motion picture of you was projected? Describe in full. Do you believe the use of motion pictures helped you in respect to public speaking? Yes ___ No ___. If answer is yes, in what way did it help you? List any suggestions you might have as to the use of motion pic- tures in the teaching of speech; in the taking of such pictures; or concerning this experiment in general. during a special period devoted to this. Obviously, these students could hardly fail to know what was happening. Of the remaining three in the first series and five in the second series, four students saw the camera lens through the small aperture in the wall, two heard the camera running, and two heard rumors from other students concerning the taking of pictures. These figures indicate that it is entirely possible to keep the students from knowing that motion pictures are being taken of them. It might be added that even in the two cases of the camera's being heard, a different--and evidently nois- ier--camera from the one ordinarily employed was used. Question III. 21g 123 235125 23 mggigg pictures disturb 12g? Only one student was unaware bath times that pictures were being taken. 0f the other fourteen, eight replied that even though they knew about it the motion pictures did not disturb them, although one student did men- tion that he made a conscious attempt to correct the faults that had been pointed out during the first series of pictures. With six students, the taking of motion pictures was a disturbing factor. Such comments as "It made me nervous and I forgot my lines," "I found myself thinking of the way I would look to the camera, and meantime lost the ‘thread of thought,'" and "I felt more self-conscious and consciously tried to avoid moving around and making weak gestures" are indicative of the fact that to many individuals such knowledge is undesirable and is likely to cause the student to do many things which ordinarily he would not do. This fact would seem to support the writer's previous contention that it is best to keep the classroom situation as natural as possible even though some students are unaffected by the knowledge that they are being photographed. 68 Question IE. If such equipment was used, did the addition 2: extra lights 35 g backgyound sheet disturb ou? Only two students had extra- equipment used during the filming of their pictures. Both of these stu- dents answered that they were not disturbed by either the sheet or the light. Since so few people were involved, these comments, however, can hardly be considered indicative of how the average student would feel toward the use of such apparatus. If extra lights and a background sheet were to be used, both should be employed during every speech, re- gardless as to whether the speaker was being "shot" at that particular time, in order to accustom him to their use. The important point to be remembered is not to make the speaker aware of the fact that he is being photographed. Question 2. Have you ever had motion pictures taken gf you before? This question was inserted partly out of curiosity and partly to dis- cover how much experience the students had had with motion pictures. For five of them, this was their first experience. The other ten had' varying amounts of connection with "movies," ranging all the way from amateur filmings of family gatherings to professional motion pictures taken in several sports. One student had even participated in a news- reel which pictured him assisting "in hurling ten automobiles over a 250 foot cliff." In general, the experience of the students involved in the experi- ment was not sufficient or personal enough to influence their behavior before the camera in speech class. 92333122 El. 'What were your reactions upon seeing yourself when the motion picture 2; you was prgjected? The most frequent reaction seemed to be that of surprise. Students were totally unaware of cer- 69 tain characteristic habits of movement and posture and were surprised at their own actions as shown on the screen. This typical comment was made by one student: "I had never been aware of the actions and motions which I went through. As I watched the picture, I could see the favorable and unfavorable movements which I could not realize when others told me of them." Naturally enough, most of the students were perhaps a little em- barrassed when they saw themselves for the first time but quickly lost this feeling, becoming interested not in their general appearance but rather in the specific faults so obvious to them on the screen. They were extremely cooperative and good-natured during the projecting of the films and were quite willing to laugh at themselves during a scene which showed a particularly awkward movement or ungainly posture. In general they readily observed their own shortcomings and were not only anxious but determined as well to correct such faults in the immediate future. A few evidently were a little more than surprised, one commenting that, on first seeing her pictures, she "wanted to tear them up," while still another was "scared“ when he saw a close-up of himself. By and large, however, the students reacted very favorably to the pictures of themselves. Question VII. 23 you believe 322 Egg pf pppipp pictures 221223 ygp_ip respect pp 222112 speaking? Only one of the students did not believe that motion pictures had been a benefit to her, maintaining that the taking of the pictures made her self-conscious and forgetful. The other fourteen answered enthusiastically that the use of motion pictures had been a help to them in public speaking. Perhaps 70 the most satisfactory method of showing their attitude toward motion pictures as a teaching device would be to quote directly from some of the questionnaires: I believe it did help; at least I feel I improved by the time the next film was taken. It may have been because I had had more experience or because I didn‘t know the picture was being taken; at any rate, the picture of that last projection was still in my mind and I tried to improve. It showed where the faults were in the movements more vividly than if I had only been told about them. I have been able to correct several faults, and the chance to see my progress has helped too. It gave me an Opportunity to see myself in a new light. I saw that my speaking was not as forceful as it should be and brought home the point that more gestures were needed. It has helped me because I could see myself as others see me, and not as I see myself. I was able to criticize myself as if I were an- other person projected on the screen. Motion pictures brought out a lot of bad points such as aimless movement, lack of eye contact and forcefulness which I didn't realize before. ' I knew better how to correct my faults for I could see exactly what I was doing wrong as far as gestures were concerned. I think it helped me to realize my need for gestures. I think it helped me to better understand what I should do to counteract my aimless movement. Regardless, then, of any objective value that the use of motion pictures may possess, there seems to be a definite subjective worth in their use. From the comments made by the students in the question- naires and also to the instructors during the individual conferences, the conclusion may safely be drawn that motion pictures do aid indi-_ viduals in public speaking by giving them confidence in their ability to speak, by showing them concretely how they look to other people, and by adding weight to the classroom criticisms of instructor and students. 71 Question VIII. List any suggestions you might have pg :3 the taking o the use pf motion pictures $3 the teaching pf speech pp concerning this experiment itself. Twelve students answered this particular ques- tion. The principal suggestion made by the majority of the students was that motion pictures should be taken more extensively in public speaking classes, either by including everyone in the class or by taking pictures on more than two occasions as was done in this study. One student remarked, "I think this experiment is a worthy one be- cause it shows the speaker so many of his own faults that he can't pos- sibly realize while he is speaking. These movements are done uncon- sciously and motion pictures are very helpful in correcting such faults." Still another said, "I think that pictures will help almost everyone in his method of presentation. They illustrate, better than anything that can be said, the troubles of each individual." Some constructive suggestions were made concerning motion pictures as used in the public speaking classes. Several thought it highly de- sirable to keep the actual shooting of the pictures as inconspicuous as possible, thereby maintaining a natural classroom situation. Other suggestions included the use of sound with the picture and also conferences to be held immediately after the films have been taken (hardly possible since a week must be allowed for processing). In attempting to make a subjective evaluation of the use of motion pictures as a teaching device, care must be taken not to become too en- thusiastic or glowing about the benefits that may be derived. Students, because of the novelty of seeing themselves on the screen and, perhaps, because they think they are expected to see benefits in such a teaching technique, may claim for this method advantages which do not exist. 72 The instructor, likewise, in the desire to "discover" a new method of teaching may be prone to do the same thing. However, from the answers to the questions as summarized above and from observations made by the instructors, the conclusion may be drawn that the students do believe that they were definitely benefited by the use of motion pictures, that the techniques and methods employed in this experiment were, by and large, quite satisfactory, and that motion pic- tures supplied information to each student that could not be gained from the classroom situation alone. Motion pictures, therefore, do supply a motivating factor by creat- ing more interest and enthusiasm in the speech situation and through supplementing oral criticisms by means of a visual portrayal of the speaker's shortcomings. The answer to the third problem then, as de- termined by the students' wn evaluations and by the observations of this writer, would be that motion pictures do have a subjective value as a supplementary teaching device in public speaking. 73 CHAPTER X SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Summary.--In summarizing both the objective and subjective findings of this study, the following points can be made: 1. No significant difference, measured statistically, existed at the beginning of the term between the control group, which did not use motion pictures, and the experimental group, which did use motion pic- tures, in respect to loss of eye contact and number of transitions used. 2. At the end of the term, the control group lost an average of 10.4% of eye contact while the experimental section lost 5.7%. This difference of 4.7% in favor of the experimental group was statistically significant. 3. Both groups improved eye contact lost by approximately the same amount (25%) during the term, no significant difference existing between the two. 4. At the end of the term, the control group made an average of .48 transitions per minute and the experimental group an average of .64 transitions per minute. The difference of .16 transitions per minute in favor of the experimental group was statistically significant. .5. The average improvement made by the control group was .32 transi- tions per minute; the average improvement for the experimental group was .53 transitions per minute. The difference of .21 transitions per minute in favor of the experimental group was statistically significant. 6. The majority of students in the experimental group indicated that they felt the use of motion pictures had been a definite help to them in public speaking. 74 Conclusions.--Unfortunately, errors in the technique and procedure of conducting any experiment such as this one are rarely seen until af- ter the possibility of correcting such mistakes has passed. This ex- periment was no exception. At all times, keeping the study as objective and scientific as possible was felt to be of primary importance. For the most part this objective seems to have been accomplished. However, in retrospect, this writer can now see several ways by which the study might have been made more objective and impersonal. For example, conferences of the same length as those used with the experimental group to show the motion pictures should have been held with the members of the control group. This would have made the teach- ing procedure exactly the same for the two groups except for the fact that motion pictures would be used with one group but not with the other. As it was, the experimental group benefited not only from seeing pictures of themselves but also from the two conferences held with them in con- junction with the showing of the pictures. Thus from this study there is no way of determining which of these two factors caused this group to develop greater effectiveness in speaking than did the control group. In order to discover the most significant technique, experiments similar to this one would have to be conducted of the conference method as op- posed to the non-conference method, and the conference method as opposed to the motion-picture-conference method. Thus the relative value of each of the three techniques could be determined. Again, the number of students involved in the experiment was per- haps too small to permit an accurate, reliable comparison to be made be- tween the motion picture group and the non-motion picture group. With only a comparatively small number concerned, statistical measurements 75 must, of necessity, be cruder, less delicate than they would be if one or two hundred students were used. Keeping in mind that these and other shortcomings do exist in this study, definite answers can now be supplied for the problems as set forth in the introduction. Problem I. 233 g reliable, objective testing device pg pg: pp 32 evaluate abilipy in public gpeaking? As has already been pointed out, such a measuring device had already been set up by the Committee on COOperative Research of the Rational Association of Teachers of Speech. This method of measuring speech phenomena objectively was found to be quite adequate and satisfactory for the purposes of this study. Problem II. If such a test can be formulated, does the use of mo- tion pictures when utilized £3 E supplementayy teaching device improve the students' ability :2 s eak? As far as the results of this experi- ment are concerned--limited as it was by the techniques used, the num- ber of students involved, and the phenomena counted—-all statistical findings indicate that, objectively measured, motion pictures improved the students' loss of eye contact and use of transitions as compared to those who did not have motion pictures taken. Again what has been said previously of the phenomena studied herein must be kept in mind. While loss of eye contact and transitions may be isolated speech elements, they are part of the total delivery of an individual, and improvement in these two phenomena would indicate improvement in the total speech pattern. Problem III. 13 Engpp g subiective value in the use of motion pic- tppgg £3 a supplementayy teaching device in pnblic speaking? From an- swers given in the questionnaires and from comments made by individual 76 students, the conclusion can be made that students believed that motion pictures have a definite value in the teaching of speech. The use of such pictures, without doubt, created more enthusiasm and interest in the classroom situation and provided a helpful motivating force as well as a pictorial corroboration of instructor and student criticisms. Problem 11. 13 the objective and subjective value 2: motion ic- tures significant enough 32 justify thg necessary expenditure 2: time and mone ? Despite the fact that a statistically significant improve- ment was made by the experimental group over the control group and despite the fact that the experimental group felt that a subjective value had been gained from the use of motion pictures, this writer does not believe that the hgman difference was significant enough to warrant expenditure of time and money by the student and the institution. In other words, although, mathematically speaking, motion pictures do have a value as a supplementary teaching device, not enough difference exist- ed between the two groups at the end of the term to be discernible. A difference of 4.7% in loss of eye contact or of .16 in transitions used per minute, statistically significant though it may be, is not great enough to be observed in the total speech pattern of an individual--the difference is not humanly significant. Suggestions for Further Study.—-In the light of the experience gained and the conclusions drawn from this study, these tOpics for fu- ture investigation in the field of motion pictures as a teaching device in public speaking are suggested. 1. To compare, objectively, a group of Speakers, using the con- ference—motion picture method as a supplementary teaching device, with a similar group of Speakers using the conference method alone as a teaching device. 77 2. To compare, objectively, a group of speakers using the conference method as a supplementary teaching device with a group of speakers having only the usual classroom instruction. 3. To study the effect of using sound coupled with motion pictures in the teaching of Speech. 4. To determine the value, if any, of sound pictures over silent pictures in the teaching of speech. BIBLI GRAPUY American Council on Education. Motion Pictures 13 Education. New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1937. Pp. 472. Baten, W. D. Elements rv ”PI‘PWPtIC 1 St? tistics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1938. Pp. x + 338. "Case of the Motion Picture in Speech Training," Educational Screen, XIX (January, 1940), 76—77. Committee on Cooperative Research of the National Association of Teachers of Speech. A Peseerch into the Teaching of Public Speaking. Detroit: Wayne University, 193 9(mimeographedi. Pp. 233. Dent, Ellsworth C. Audio-Visual Handbook. Chicago: The Society for Visual Education, Inc., 1939. Pp. 180. Finch, H. 1. "Film Production in the Schools," Educational Screen, XVII, 216-18. Johnson, W. H. Fundamentals in Visual Instruction. Chicago: The Educa- tional Screen, Inc., 1927. Pp. 104. Koon, C. M. School Use gf Visual Aids. U. 5. Office of Education Qulle- tin, 1938, No. 4. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1938. Pp. viii + 68. McClusky, Frederick Dean. Visual Instruction. New York: Mancall Pub- lishing Corporation, 1932. Pp. 125. McKown, Harry 0., and Roberts, Alvin B. Audio-Visual Aids to Instruction. New York and London: HCC raw-Hill Rook Co npany, Inc., 1940. Pp. xiv + 385. Nystrom, C. L., and Leaf, Roberta. "The Recording Machine as a Teaching Device," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXV (October, 1939), 433-38. “m Rand, Helen, and Lewis, Richard. Film and School. New York: D. Appleton- Century Company, 1937. Pp. xv + 182. Rulon, P. J. The Sound "otion Picture in Science Teaching. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1933. Pp. xi + 236. Utzinger, Vernon A. ”The Use of the Moving Picture machine and the Re- cording Instrument in Teaching Speech," anrterly Journal 2: Speech, XXV (February, 1939), 9-12. Visual Aids in Education. School publication No. 184. Los Angeles: Visual Education Division, Los Angeles City School District, 1929. Pp. 32. Wood, Ben D., and Freeman, Frank N. Motion Pictires in the Classroom. Boston: Poughton Mifflin Company, 1929. Pp. xxi + ‘39 2. Of)”- 24 41 Aug 9 '48 sag 23 '48 Oct 18 348 16 "4" m, 200M USE ONLY .‘n a Kr ‘JU Nov 7 '50 May 12 ’54 is 5 95‘; + 31'» ‘i: ‘ 5'2 Jun ‘"’ ‘3 L. 1 ‘ I \. ‘m l J I e‘ ‘ o A. .r ‘ 0”. I r , a» “» 1%., A WW 1 8* .L r as 1 _wg' by Jun?- we 1 . 41(3- § ' ‘fiu‘ ‘g’iI" I I I; . _ 11., 1. .- «2*? $1“ ‘ . _' ' "5N - c p . . '1} ‘fitht 1'1)”; r. (1‘ " "Y. i {5.7 ’ 0 .‘hfifl' '1 -~. 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