-.‘«.o— .A— —“

THE EFFECT OF VARYJNG AMOUNTS '
OF CALISTHENICS ON PHYSICAL
FITNESS IMPROVEMENT

BY

NELSON EDWIN THOMAS '
AUGUST 1968'

 

LIBRARY ‘

mags S Michigan State
, University

 

 

 

THE EFFECT OF VARYING AMOUNTS OF CALISTHENICS

ON PHYSICAL FITNESS IMPROVEMENT

A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of Health,
Physical Education, and Recreation

Michigan State University

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

by
Nelson Edwin Thomas
August 1968

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I. THE PROBLEM, ITS LIMITATIONS, AND

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . . . . . . . . 1
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the problem . . . . . . . . 1
Need for this study . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Definition of terms used . . . . . . . . . 3

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Attempts to define physical fitness . t . . 5
Measurable components of physical fitness . 9
Related research . . . . . . . . ... . . 11

III. SOURCES OF DATA AND PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . 17
Sources of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Method of procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Method of data analysis . . . . . . . . . . 18

IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA . . . . . 19
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Summary . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . ._. . . 31

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O I O 0 O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 32

ii

TABLE

I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

XI.

LIST OF TABLES

Analysis of Variance of the Freshman,
Sophomore, and Junior Class Boys Post-
Test Shuttle-run Mean Scores . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Freshman,
Sephomore, and Junior Class BoyS‘of
the Post-Test Sixty—yard Dash Mean Scores

Analysis of Variance of the Freshman,
Sophomore, and Junior Class Boys of the
Post-Test Standing Broad Jump Mean Scores

Analysis of Variance of the Girls Post~
Test Shuttle~Run Scores . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Girls Post-

Test Sixty-yard Dash Scores . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Girls Post-

Test Sit-up ScoresT . . .'. . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Girls Post-

Test Standing Broad Jump Scores . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Boys Post-

Test Shuttle-run Scores . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Boys Post-

Test Sixty-yard Dash Scores . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Boys Post—

Test Sit—up Scores . . . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of the Boys Post-

Test Standing Broad dump Scores . . . . .
iii

PAGE

21

21

22

23

24

24

24

25

iv
TABLE ' . PAGE
XII. Analysis of Variance of the Freshman Boys

Post-Test Shuttle-run Mean Scores . . . . . 26

XIII. Analysis of Variance of Freshman Boys Post-
Test Sixty—yard Dash Mean Scores . . . . . 27

XIV. Analysis of Variance of Junior Girls Post-
Test Sit—up Mean Scores . . . . . . . . . . 27

XV. Analysis of Variance of Junior Girls Post~
Test standing Broad Jump Mean Scores . . . 28

XVI. Differences of Means . . . . . . . . . . ... . 29

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM, ITS LIMITATIONS, AND

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

Much concern has been expressed over the poor physical
fitness condition of our youth. The President's Council on
Physical Fitness emphasized the need for fifteen minutes of
vigorous exercise per day. Many physical educators felt
obligated to provide this fifteen minutes per day during
their physical education classes, knowing that this would
be the only exercise for many of the students. This in?
fringement upon class time, which had previously been used
to acquire other objectives, caused mixed emotions and

stimulated the author to complete the following study.
I. THE PROBLEM

Statement 23.222 problem. The purpose of this inves-
tigation was to discover which of the prOposed conditioning
programs would yield the most significant improvement of
physical fitness: Group A, the control group, had no
calisthenics; Group B had eight minutes of calisthenics;
and Group C had fifteen minutes of calisthenics.

V The hypothesis was that Group B would show improvement
comparable to Group C and that both B and C would show a

significant improvement over Group A.

2

Nged for this study. Exponents of physical education
have held that one of the major objectives of the discipline
is to improve physical fitness; however, since there are
other objectives, the time allotted to the achieving of
physical fitness through the use of calisthenics is.
contended. This contention has definite historic over-
tones. Both the German and the Swedish systems of gymnas-
ticsrwere tried and rejected in America, as being alien to
the American desire of individual freedom guaranteed in
the Bill of Rights. Historically calisthenics have been
used to develop fitness concurrently with mass discipline,
an objective commonly associated with the military. V

Most schools have forty-five or fifty minute class
periods. Because of the activity involved in physical
education classes, gym uniforms and showers are usually
required, thus curtailing the actual amount of instruc—
tional time and necessitating careful planning if education~
a1 objectives are to be achieved. This study has attempted
to determine if an eight-minute allotment would produce

results comparable to that of a fifteen-minute period.
II. LIMITATIONS

The freshmen, saphomore, and junior high school girls
and boys at Shenandoah Valley Academy, New Market,
Virginia, were the subjects of this study.

A definite limitation was the fact that the students

were assigned to one of the six physical education periods

per day according to the free period in their schedule.
Thus there were freshmen, SOphomores, and juniors in several
of_the physical education classes.

The attributes of speed, agility, muscular endurance,
and power were arbitrarily selected as the essential com-
ponents for the evaluation of physical fitness.

Dividing each class into three groups created a situa-
tion in which the students in the calisthenic program felt
mistreated. This produced a psychological barrier to whole-
hearted participation.

Having two instructors made it necessary for careful
planning to insure that the mechanics of the experiment

were the same for all subjects.
III. DEFINITION OF TERMS USED

Physical fitness: The ability to perform effectively
and efficiently everyday activities with whatever intensity
may be required, to be able to meet emergencies as they
arise, and to have a reserve of energy to enjoy leisure-
time living.

. Muscular endurance: The ability to continue succes-
sive muscular exertions such as chinning, dipping, sit-ups,
leg lifts, and push-ups. .

Muscular power: The ability to release maximum force
in the shortest period of time such as is employed in the
vertical jump and standing broad jump.

Spee,: The ability to make rapid, repetitive maven

ments of the kind needed in the fifty-yard dash.

Agility: The ability to change body position or
direction quickly as is required for the shuttle-run and
squat thrusts.

Calisthenics: The ability to do physical exercises

 

without apparatus.

High School: To include grades nine through twelve.

 

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There is a vast amount of material published in
regard to physical fitness and it is indicative of current
emphasis, interest, and problems.‘ Following is‘a review
of literature.as it relates to the problem being discussed

in this paper.
I. ATTEMPTS TO DEFINE PHYSICAL FITNESS

The review of literature revealed many widely differ-
ing interpretations of the term "physical fitness." Its
meaning was vague, connotations were numerous and diverse,
and most attempts to describe it had certain admitted
limitations. Actually, the term appeared to defy precise
definition.

Jenss and Souther observed that "fitness is rather
elusive of definition and difficult to determine."1 In a
survey reported by Bucher,2 the students at various levels
of education acquired different understandings and used

different terminology to define physical fitness. Mohr

 

1. Rachel M. Jenss and Susan P. Souther, "Methods of
Assessing the Physical Fitness of Children " U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor, Bureau Publication No. 263 (Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1940), p. 121.

2. Charles A. Bucher, Foundations 2; Physical
Education (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1968),

 

 

summarized her findings as follows:
The many definitions of physical fitness may
be simplified to the following statement: Physi-
cal fitness is the ability to make an adequate
adjustment, physical as well as emotional, to the
demands of everyday living.
Brassfield concurs with Mohr in that he emphasizes "the
ability . . . to adjust to one's environment.“1

The Baruch Committee on Physical Medicine appointed a
subcommittee on physical fitness to define physical fit-
ness. This subcommittee, under the chairmanship of
Professor R. C. Darling of the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, Columbia University, explained it as follows:

Physical fitness describes the functional
capacity of the individual for a task. It has no
real meaning unless the task or job for which fit-
ness is to be judged is specified. . . . Since
physical fitness is often governed by psychologi-
cal factors which overshadow the physical com-
petence of the body, it is important for the
physician to evaluate the total individual wgth
the help of the psychiatrist when necessary.

The American Association for Health, Physical Education,
and Recreation felt it necessary to redefine the term fit-
ness prior to their National Fitness Conference in

Washington, 0.0., 1956. They declared it to be:

 

—-—

3. Dorothy R. Mohr, "The Measurements of Certain
Aspects of the Physical Fitness of College Women," The
Research Quarterly, 15:340, October, 1944.

 

A. Charles R. Brassfield, "Some Physiological Aspects
of Physical Fitness," The Research Quarterly, 14:106,
March, 1943.

5. Robert C. Darling, et a1., "Physical Fitness-~
Report of the Subcommittee of the Baruch Committee on
Physical Medicine, " Journal of the American Medical Ass
ciatign,1136: 764, November, 1948. -

That state which characterizes the degree to
which the person is able to function. Fitness is
an individual matter. It implies the ability of each
person to live most effectively within his potenti-
alities. Ability to function depends upon the phys-
ical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual
components of fitness, all of which are related to
each other and are mutually interdependent. . . .
Fitness is a dynamic, constantly changing quality,
the deve10pment of which should be continuous and
satisfying from early infancy through maturity so
that the inherent potentialities of each person can
be realized. . . . For each individual at each devel-
0pmental stage, there is a desirable level of total
fitness go be sought according to that person's role
in life.

Gallagher and Brouha define physical fitness as: "The
ability to perform hard work in an efficient manner."7

Brown conceived physical fitness as "the general fitness of

8

the various systems of the body." Bucher's concept of

fitness is:

The term physical fitness implies soundness of
such body organs as the heart and lungs, a human
mechanism that performs efficiently under exercise or
work conditions (such as having sufficient stamina
and strength to engage in vigorous physical activity),
and a reasonable measure of skilé in the performance
of selected physical activities.

Dean describes it as being "that state or condition of being

. 6. "Fitness for Youth," Journal 21 Health, Physical
Education and Recreation, 27:8-9, December, 1956.

 

7. J. Roswell Gallagher and Lucien Brouha, "A Simple
Method of Testing the Physical Fitness of Boys," The
Research Quarterly, 14:23, July, 1943.

8. Howard Steven Brown, "A Comparative Study of Motor
Fitness Tests," The Research Quarterly, 25:8, March, 1954.

 

9. Charles A. Bucher, Foundations 2: Physical
Education (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1968),
pp 0 461-62 0

 

 

which makes it possible for an individual to live a full

and vigorous life."10 Cureton's definition of physical

fitness is:

.Physical fitness means a great deal more than
the freedom from sickness or passing a medical
inspection without-a positive prescription for a
,disability. In addition to freedom from germinal
or chronic disease, possessing good teeth . . .
physical fitness means the ability to handle the
body well and the capacity to work hard over a
!long period of time without diminished efficiency.

12

Smith advances the concept that physical fitness is,

in a broad sense, good health. Karl and Carolyn Bookwalter
present a timely and comprehensive discussion of fitness as
it relates to secondary school youth. The concept of total
fitness is said to consist of emotional, mental, and social
fitness, as well as the physical characteristics. Their
conception of physical fitness is as follows:

Physical fitness means a well nourished organ-
ism free from sickness or disease; plus good teeth;
good hearing; good eyesight; good muscular develop-
ment and muscle tone; good posture; good propor-
tions for age and sex (in accord with one's

. heredity); normal bones and joints for growth level;

fit heart and circulatory system; fit digestive 13
system; . . . and good fundamental motor abilities.

 

10. Cyril F. Dean, "A Historical Study of Physical
Fitness in the United States 1790 Through 1961, " (unpub~
lished Doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College for
Teachers, Nashville, 1964), p. 13.

11. Thomas K. Cureton, "What Is Physical Fitness?"
Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation,
27: 8-9, March, 1956.

12. J. W. Smith, "Schools and Physical Fitness,"
Michigan Educational Journal, 20:142-143, June, 1949.

13. Karl W. and Carolyn W. Bookwalter (eds. ), Fitness
for Secondary School Youth, American Association for Health,
Physical Education and Recreation (Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1956), p. 16.

9

Clarke's impression of physical fitness is: "The ability
to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without
undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy leisure time
pursuits and to meet unforseen emcrgencies."14

It would seem that with all this effort and research

an acceptable working definition could have been achieved;

but, even today, fitness still remains an abstract term.

II. MEASURABLE COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

15

Gallagher and Brouha maintain that there are basic—
ally three approaches to fitness appraisal. First, there
is static or medical fitness which relates to the soundness
or function of the body organs. Second, there is a func-
tional or dynamic fitness which is indicated by the mechan-
ical fitness of the body in responding to varying degrees
of stress. Finally, there is fitness demonstrated in the
ability to.perform motor skills. All three of these entail
some degree of neuromuscular skill.

16

Kendall lists the components of physical fitness as

muscular power, endurance, strength, coordination, agility,

speed, flexibility, and balance. She is supported by

-——

14. H. Harrison Clarke, Application of Measurement
to Health and Physical Education (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 14.

 

 

 

15. J. Roswell Gallagher and Lucien Brouha, ”Physical
Fitness, Its Evaluation and Significance," Journal of the
American Medical Association, 125: 834-838, July, 1944.

16. Florence P. Kendall, "A Criticism of Current
Tests and Exercises for Physical Fitness," Physical
Therapy, h5:187, March, 1965.

10

18

Larson,17 Hunsicker, Nicks and Fleishman,19 Campney and

wehr.2° Bookwalter,21

in his study, revealed that the
qualities most frequently measured as factors of physical
fitness are velocity, agility, endurance, strength, and
motor ability.

Johnson, Updyke, Stolberg, and Schaefer22

felt that
coordination, agility, and balance belong to the concept of
motor fitness rather than to physical fitness. They add
circulo-respiratory capacity to muscular endurance,
muscular strength, and flexibility as concepts of physical
fitness. Larson23 includes resistance to disease, nutri-

,tional status, body build, and motor skills as components

of physical fitness.

 

17. Leonard A. Larson, "Some Findings Resulting from
the Army Air Forces Physical Training Program," The
Research Quarterly, 17:144, March, 1946.

 

18. Paul Hunsicker, "What About Testing?" National
Education Association Journal, 51: 36, February, 1962.

19. Delmar C. Nicks and Edwin A. Fleishman, "What Do
Physical Fitness Tests Measure? « A Review of Factor Anal-
ytic Studies," Education and Psychological Measurement,
22:77‘959 April: 1962-

 

20. Harry K. Campney and Richard W. Wehr, "Effects of
Calisthenics on Selected Components of Physical Fitness,"
The Research Quarterly, 36:393, December, 1965.

 

21. Karl w. Bookwalter, "What Is a Physical Fitness
Program for Boys?" The Research Quarterly, 15: 240, May,
l9kh.

 

22. Perry B. Johnson, Wynn F. Updyke, Donald C.
Stolberg, and Maryelen Schaefer, Physical Education - A
Problem-Solving Approach to Health and Fitness (New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and h’inston, 1966), pp. 20-26.

 

 

23. Leonard A. Larson, "Defining Physical. Fitness,"
Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation,
13: 18, January, 1942.

11

According to McCloy,24

physical fitness involves being
free from sickness and disease,,having enough strength to
perform easily the daily tasks, maintaining both muscular
and cardiovascular endurance, demonstrating motor efficiency
skills, and being both flexible and agile. Steinhaus25
contends that nothing less than total fitness is needed for
the survival of our nation. Although the implication for
the physical aspect is readily apparent, his concept of
physic;1,fitness is enlarged to include the mental, emotion-

al, and social aspects of fitness.

Related Research. Wilbur26 compared two programs of

 

physical education, the apparatus method and the sports
method, to determine physical fitness improvement. The
apparatus method was a formalized program consisting of
equal amounts of work on pieces of equipment: tumbling
mats, parallel bars, horizontal ladder, ropes, horizontal
bars, side horse, Swedish vaulting box, and the rings.

- The sports method included boxing, track and field, swim-
ming, wrestling, and soccer. He found that the sports
method was superior to the apparatus method for improving

physical fitness.

 

2#.' Charles H. McCloy, "Militant'Physical Fitness and
Physical Education," Journal 23 Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, 1Q:314, October, 1943.

 

 

25. Arthur H. Steinhaus, "Fitness and How We May
Obtain It," Journal gprealth, Physical Education and
Recreation, 14:427, December, 1943.

 

26. Ernest A. Wilbur, "A Comparative Study of Physical
Fitness Indices as Measured by Two Programs of Physical
Education: The Sports Method and the Apparatus Method,"

The Research Quarterly, lkz326, December, 1943.

 

12

MacKenzie27

supported Wilbur, finding that fitness
depended more on the instructors' methods in controlling
the student activities than on the specific sport.

28

Landiss discovered that tumbling and gymnastics improved

physical fitness as much as a conditioning program.

29

Fabricius conducted an eXperiment which revealed that
just three minutes and nine seconds of added calisthenics
significantly improved the physical fitness of the experi-
mental group above that of the control group. Hilsenda-
ger30 contrasted a calisthenic and a non-calisthenic
physical education program. He discovered that ten minutes
of calisthenics significantly improved the standing broad
Jump, squat thrusts, and sit-ups more than touch football,
volleyball, or basketball. It was interesting to note that

there was no significant difference between calisthenics I

and handball.

Sills31 compared freshman students doing special

 

27. Donald H. MacKenzie, "Effects of Various Physical
Activities on Physical Fi.tness of University Men, " The
Research Quarterly, 6: 125, March, 1935.

 

28. Carl W. Landiss, "Influences of Physical Education
Activities on Motor Ability and Physical Fitness of Yale
Freshmen," The Research Quarterly, 26:295. October, 1955.

 

 

29. Helen Fabricius, "Effect of Added Calisthenics on
the Physical Fitness of Fourth Grade Boys and Girls," The
Research Quarterly, 35: 135, March, 1964.

 

30. Donald Hilsendager, "Comparison of a Calisthenic
and a Non—Calisthenic Physical Education Program, " The
Research Quarterly, 37: 748, December, 1966. '

 

31. Frank D. Sills, "Special Conditioning Exercises
for Students with Low Scores on Physical Fitness Tests,"
The Research Quarterly, 25:333, October, 1954.

13

conditioning exercises with randomly selected freshmen
students from the regular physical education classes. Both
groups gained considerably in physical fitness, but the
special conditioning group far exceeded the regular class
members.
I Hughes32 found that training for four and one-half
hours per week for sixteen weeks produced an acceptable
physical condition; however, three hours of training per
week for sixteen weeks produced only sixty-nine per cent as
much gain as did four and one-half hours per week.

DeVries and Bartlett,33 Kusinitz and Keeney,34
Banister,35 and Campbell36 found that different types of
weight training definitely contributed to the improvement

of physical fitness.

 

32. Byron 0. Hughes, "Test Results of the University
of Michigan Physical Conditioning Program June 15 to
September 26, 1942," The Research Quarterly, 13:498,
October, 1942. '~

33. Herbert A. DeVries and Kenneth T. Bartlett,
"Effect of a Minimal Time Conditioning Program upon Selected
Motor Fitness Measures of College Men," Journal 23 the
Association for Physical and Mental Reha'b'i'i"'i"t"a"tion,‘1’3:99,
August, 1962.

34. Ivan Kusinitz and Clifford E. Keeney, "Effects of
Progressive Weight Training on Health and Physical Fitness
of Adolescent Boys," The Research Quarterly, 29:294-301,
May, 1958.

35. E. W. Banister, "A Comparison of Fitness Training
Methods in a School Program," The Research Quarterly, 36:294,
December, 1965.

A 36. Robert L. Campbell, "Effects of Supplemental
Weight Training on the Physical Fitness of Athletic Squads,"
The Research Quarterly, 33:343, October, 1963.

 

14

A study by Sloany7

on the effect of training on
physical fitness of women showed an increase in physical
fitness.

Rosenstein and Frost38 found that the amount of
activity outside of class had no effect on the physical
fitness of high school boys and girls. However, a report
by Whittle39 showed that twelve~year~old boys who partici-
pated in large amounts of physical activity outside of class
were superior to those who participated very little outside

40

of class. The findings of Drowatzky and Madary coincided

with those of Whittle. They found that boys in grades four
through twelve who participated outside of regular physical
education classes were significantly more fit than those

who did not participate.

41

Taddonio compared the physical fitness of two

37. A. W. Sloan, "Effect of Training on Physical Fit-
ness of Women," Journal of Applied Physiology, 16:226,
January, 1961. ,

 

38. Irwin Rosenstein and Reuben B. Frost, "Physical
Fitness of Senior High School Boys and Girls Participating
in Selected Physical Education Programs in New York State,"
Th3 Research Quarterly. 35:403, December, 1964.

39. H. Douglas Whittle, "Effects of Elementary School
Physical Education upon Aspects of Physical, Motor, and
Personality Development," The Research Quarterly, 32:249,
October, 1961.

40. John N. Drowatzky and Charles J. Madary,
”Evaluation of Physical and Motor Fitness of Boys and Girls
in Coos Bay, Oregon, Schools." The Research Quarterly,
37:32, March, 1966. .

41. Dominick A. Taddonio, "Effect of Daily Fifteen
Minute Periods of Calisthenics upon the Physical Fitness of
Fifth Grade Boys and Girls," The Research Quarterly,
35:135, March, 1964.

 

15
fifth-grade classes, one with a non-physical education
curriculum and the other allowing fifteen minutes daily for
calisthenics. There was no significant difference between
the two groups. The author felt that certain test items
restricted the range of scores by having maximum limits and

this could have affected the results. Hansellq2

and
Kistlerl'3 found that fifteen to twenty minutes of calis~
thenics and exercises improved physical fitness, and
Kistler did not consider this amount of time excessive.

Zimmermankq compared two types of teaching situations,
one group having a special physical education teacher and
the other group having a regular classroom teacher. 'The
results of the Physical Fitness Test of the American
Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation
also showed that the group having the special physical edu«
cation teacher performed significantly better than those
having the regular classroom teacher.

Knuttgen and Steendahl45 found that vacations, short

or long, resulted in a decrease in physical fitness.

 

2. George A. Hansell, "Physical Fitness Can Be
Improved," Scholastic Coach, 31:58, February, 1962.

43. J. W. Kistler, "A Study of the Results of Eight
Weeks of Participation in a University Physical Fitness
Program for Men," The Research Quarterly, 15:23, March, 1944.

-44. Helen Zimmerman, "Physical Performance of Children
Taught by Special Teachers and by Classroom Teachers," The
Research Quarterly, 30:356, October, 1959.

 

< 45. Howard G. Knuttgen and Kai Steendahl, "Fitness
of Danish School Children During the Course of One Academic
Year," The Research Quarterly, 37:276, March, 1966.

 

 

16

Durnin, Brockway, and Whiteherl‘6 used a walking train-
ing program and suggested that walking twenty kilometers a
day would improve fitness in a relatively short time.

Cooper“7

agreed with them but went a step further. He de-
veloped a chart telling an individual not only how far to
walk, but how long it should take, and how often he should
participate to maintain a minimum level of fitness. He
also made charts for various methods of maintaining fitness
that included running, swimming, basketball, squash, hand-
ball, cycling, and running in place.

Bakerqs made a comparison of jogging and rope skipping
as a means of increasing cardiovascular efficiency. He con-
cluded that ten minutes of rope skipping per day was as
good as thirty minutes of jogging per day for the purpose
of improving one's cardiovascular efficiency.

In general the literature indicated that calisthenics,
the conventional physical education curriculum, and weight
_training programs all improved physical fitness. To further
determine the effects of varying amounts of calisthenics

upon the improvement of physical fitness constituted the

core of the current study.

 

46. J. V. G. A. Durnin, J. M. Brockway, and H. W. Whit-
cher, "Effects of a Short Period of Training of Varying
Severity on Some Measurements of Physical Fitness," Journal
2;.Applied Physiology, 15:16lé165, February, 1960.

47. Kenneth H. Cooper, "How to Feel Fit at Any Age,"
The Reader's Qirest, March, 1968, pp. 79-87.

 

 

48. John A. Baker, "Comparison of Repe Skipping and
Jogging as Methods of Improving Cardiovascular Efficiency of
College Men," The Research Quarterly, 39:240, May, 1968.

CHAPTER III
SOURCES OF DATA AND PROCEDURE

Sources gf_gglg. The subjects were the boys and girls
enrolled in physical education classes at Shenandoah Valley
Academy, New Market, Virginia, a private denominational
school with the majority of the students coming from the
states of Virginia and Maryland.

Originally the classes contained a total of 190
students; however, because of withdrawals and absences,
some of the subjects had to be removed from the study.

This resulted in a total of 160 subjects: 20 freshman boys,
22 freshman girls, 23 sophomore boys, 27 sophomore girls,

35 junior boys, and 34 junior girls.

Method 2; procedure. Each class was divided at

 

random into three groups, Group A being the control group,

and Groups B and C being the experimental groups. All the

subjects participated in a regular physical education class

program in addition to their treatment. The control group

participated in the day’s activity while the experimental

groups were completing their required amount of calisthenics.
Groups A, B, and C of the boys and Groups B and C of

the girls were enrolled in the author's classes. GroupfA

of the girls were enrolled in the classes taught by the

lady instructor.

‘ l7

18

Each group was pre-tested and post-tested, using the
Virginia State Physical Fitness Test to measure the com—
ponents of physical fitness as previously defined.

The subjects were given three class periods of orien-
tation and then premtested. Afterward the physical
education classes met for two forty-three minute class
periods per week.

The calisthenics used were the ten listed in the
publications Kim and £353; prepared by the President's
Council on Physical Fitness. Jumping jacks, running laps,
and a special flexibility exercise were added to those
mentioned above. The special flexibility exercise involved
sitting on the floor with legs extended in front and to the
side, trying to touch the head to the floor between the
legs.

After completing ten weeks of the experiment, the

subjects were post-tested and the results recorded.

Methgg a; data analysis. The method of data analysis

was a onemway analysis of variance with unequal N.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Comparisons between Groups A, B, and C were made by
testing the significance of the variance within and between
the postetest mean scores. The F test was used to deter~
minerignificance at the .10 level.

‘A series of seven one-way analysis of variance with
unequal N were run and the results tabulated. The first
analysis of variance was run between sexes. The results
showed a hichly significant F value at the .01 level in all
four of the post-test mean scores. The results were as
expected and simply show that there is a significant dif-
ference between the sexes in the areas tested.

The second analysis of variance was run between classes.
The freshman, sophomore, and junior classes were treated as
entities (boys and girls grouped together in their respec~
tive classes) with no significant differences being found
on the post-test mean scores. The results were clouded by
the fact that both sexes were included in the analysis.
According to Seymour,“9 fifteen-, sixteen-, and seventeenn
year old boys should be included in a single category when

using the physical fitness index to determine physical

 

49. Emery W. Seymour, "Follow-up Study on'Simplifica-
tion of the Strength and Physical Fitness Indexes," The
Research Quarlprly, 31:208, May, 1960. f

19

20
fitness. From the results of his study, we should not
expect a significant difference between the sophomores and

juniors; however, it is possible that we could expect a
significant difference between the freshman scores and
those of the sophomores and juniors.

The third analysis of variance was run between the
treatment groups. Groups A, B, and C were analyzed and the
results showed no significant difference. These results
also were clouded by the fact that both sexes were repre-
sented in all three groups.

, The fourth analysis of variance was run between sex
and class. The boys and girls were divided by sex into
their respective classes. Thus, any significant value
of F was due to the variance between the freshmen, sephomore,
and junior class girls. However, they showed a significant
difference between the freshman, sophomore, and junior
class boys in the shuttlewrun, the sixty-yard dash, and the
standing broad jump. (See Tables I, II, and 111.) There
was no significant difference between the boys classes in

sit-ups.

POST-TEST SHUTTLE-RUN MEAN SCORES

TABLE I

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
FRESHMAN, SOPHOMORE, AND JUNIOR CLASS BOYS

 

 

c“; n .—

 

21

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of DE Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatment '2 2.36 1.18 3.478
Error 74 25.5 .34
Total 76
8Significant at the .05 level.
TABLE II
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
FRESHMAN, SOPHOMORE, AND JUNIOR CLASS BOYS

OF THE POST-TEST SIXTY—YARD DASH MEAN SCORES
Source of DE Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square.
Treatment 2 4.08 2.04 5.378
Error 74 28.0 .38
Total 76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

8Significant at the .01

level.

TABLE III
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

OF THE

FRESHMAN, SOPHOMORE, AND JUNIOR CLASS BOYS
OF THE POST-TEST STANDING BROAD JUMP MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Seurce of DF Sum of -Mean F
Variation .Squares Square
Treatment 2 4.82 2.41 4.308
Error 74. 41.6 .55

. lists} 76 -_i_

 

 

 

 

 

 

8Significant at the .05 level.

The fifth analysis of variance was run between sex and
treatment. The sexes were divided into their respective
groups, A, B, and C; thus, any significant value of F
was attributed to the specific treatment. Tables IV
through XI show the results of the analysis of variance of

the post-test mean scores.

TABLE IV

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
GIRLS POST-TEST SHUTTLE-RUN scones

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of DE Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 1.396 .698 .59
MLbetween)

Error 80 93.991 1.175

w(within) - ===
Iotalfl_ 82 ____N_

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE V

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
GIRLS POST-TEST SIXTY-YARD DASH SCORES

23

 

Mean

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of BF Sum of F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 .659 .3295 .33
wLBetween)
Error 80 80.061 1.001
5(within)
Total 82 ..n.
TABLE VI

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE

GIRLS POST-TEST SIT~UP SCORES
Source of . DF Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 2,347.69 1,173.85 2.483
,_Lbetween)
Error 80 37,806.35? 472.58

(within)

Total 82

 

asignificant at the .10 level.

TABLE VII

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE

GIRLS POST-TEST STANDING BROAD JUMP SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of DF Sum of Mean F

Variation Squares Square

Treatments 2 2.356 1.178 2.10
(between)

Error 80 44.775 .560

_Lwithin)

Total 82

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE VIII

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
BOYS POST-TEST SHUTTLE-RUN SCORES

24

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of BF Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 1.386 .693 1.89
_(between)
Error 7% 27.000 .365

(within) . '
Total 76

TABLE IX

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
BOYS POST-TEST SIXTYwYARD DASH SCORES

_. ————-——_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source of BF Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 1.539 .7695 1.80
_(hetween)
Error 74 31.607 .427
(within)
Total 76
TABLE X
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
BOYS POST-TEST SIT-UP SCORES
Source of DE Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatments 2 228.718 119.359 .07
(between) -
Error 74 114,780.178 1,551.081
_(within)
Total 76

 

 

 

 

 

 

25

TABLE x1

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
BOYS POST-TEST STANDING BROAD JUMP SCORES

 

 

 

 

Source of DE Sum of Mean F

Variation Squares Square

Treatments 2 .373 . .1865 .30
(between)

Error ' 74 46.343 .626

quithin)

Total - 76

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table VI shows the significance of the treatment
effect on the sit-ups among the girls. This was the only
test in this analysis that revealed significance. It was
interesting to notthhat Tables VII, VIII, and IX approached
significance. Some of the possibilities as to why they were
not significant are discussed later.

The sixth analysis of variance was run between classes
and treatment. No significant difference was found between
the freshmen, sephomore, and juniors in Groups A, B, and 0.
Once again the results are clouded by the fact that both
sexes were grouped together in all three groups.

The seventh analysis of variance was run between sex,
class, and treatment. This test divided all the subjects
into Groups A, B, and C, according to their sex and class.
Thus, all the freshman girls were divided into Groups A, B,
and C, all the freshman boys divided into Groups A, B, and
C, etc. This enabled us to credit, for any significant

value of F, the treatment effect between the groups

26

according to their sex and class.

Between the post-test shuttle-run mean scores there
were no significant differences of the treatment effects on
the freshman, sophomore, and junior girls, or the sephomore
and junior boys. Table XII shows the treatment effect on

the freshman boys which is significant at the .05 level.

TABLE XII

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE
FRESHMAN BOYS POST-TEST SHUTTLE-RUN MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

Source of BF Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatment 2 2.517 1.2585 «.99
Error 17 4.276 .252

Total 19

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the sixty-yard dash, the freshman boys were the
only ones to show a significant treatment effect, as is

shown in Table XIII. ‘The F value is significant at the .10

level.

27
’TABLE XIII

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF
FRESHMAN BOYS POST-TEST SIXTY-YARD DASH MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

Source of DF Sum of .1 Mean . F
Variation Squares Square
Treatment 2 2.784 1.392 3.50
Error 17 6.761 .398
/
Total 19

 

 

 

 

 

 

Tables XIV and XV show a significant treatment effect
on the junior girls in sit-ups and standing broad jump
respectively. The other groups showed no significant
treatment effects in the sit—up and standing broad jump

tests.

TABLE XIV

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF
JUNIOR GIRLS POST—TEST SIT-UP MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

Source of . Mean
Variation DP Sagaggs Square F
Treatment 2 1,245.9 622.95 3.798
Error 31 5,089.5 164.177

Total 33

 

 

 

 

 

8Significant at the .05 level.

28
TABLE XV

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 0F JUNIOR GIRLS
.POST-TEST STANDING BROAD JUMP MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

Source ofl DF Sum of Mean F
Variation Squares Square
Treatment 2 3.368 r_ 1.684 1 2.568
Error 31 20.375 2657

Total 33

 

 

 

 

 

8Significant at the .10 level.

Discussion. The results did not Show that eight and

 

fifteen minutes of calisthenics improved physical fitness
significantly more than a non-calisthenic program. However,
it was interesting to note the differences between means of
the pre-test and post-test scores, when an analysis of
variance was run between the three treatment groups,

A, B, and C.

Table XVI shows that Groups A, B, and c declined in
the shuttleerun, but improved in running the sixty-yard
dash, with Groups A and C showing a larger improvement
than Group B. The sit-up test revealed that Group B
improved a greater amount than Groups A or C. The standing
broad jump test showed that Group C were the only ones to

exhibit a noticeable increase.

TABLE XVI

DIFFERENCES OF MEANS

29

 

——

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EITférences
Pre-test Means Post-test Means of Means

A B c A B c A B 0
Shuttle 10.85 10.93 10.65 10.86 11.12 10.79 -.01 —.19 -.10
Dash 9.53 9.69 9.61 9.28 9.61 9.25 +.2S +.08 +.36
Sit-ups 44.52 41.74 41.86 56.09 59.70 53.84 11.57 17.96.LL98
Standing
Broad
Jymp 5.43 5.35 5.40 5.41 5.32 5.57 +.02 +.03 +.17

The fact that there were not more statistically sig—

nificant data could have been due to administering the post-

test shortly after Thanksgiving vacation. In all probability
the subjects did not have enough time to regain the fitness
that was lost during the holidays.

Another factor that could have influenced the data was
the time of day. The subjects were enrolled in classes that
met early morning, mid-morning, just before the noon meal,
immediately after the noon meal, mid—afternoon, and late

afternoon. Psychologically and physiologically one does not
feel like doing sit-ups or‘running the sixty-yard dash on a
full stomach. I

Further studies are needed which consider factors such
as: amounts of time spent in physical activity outside of
physical education classes, the time of day, and the number

of times a class can meet per week.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
I. SUMMARY

The four tests that produced significant results were
the ones between sex, sex and class, sex and treatment, and
sex, class, and treatment. The one between the\sexes was
obvious and expected. The results of the analysis of
.variance between sex and class revealed a significant
difference between the freshman, sophomore, and junior
class boys in the shuttle-run, sixty-yard dash, and the
standing broad jump.

The analysis of variance between sex and treatment
showed a significant difference between treatment effects
on sit-ups among the girls. This was due to the treatment
and it was pointed out that Groups A, B, and C all improved
in sit-ups, but that Group D improved a greater amount than
Groups A and C.

The analysis of variance between sex, class, and treat-
ment showed significant treatment effects among junior girls
in the standing broad jump and sit-ups, and among freshman
boys in the sixty-yard dash and the shuttleérun. It was
interesting to note the action and effect of the individual
groups. Group C improved the standing broad jump in the

junior girls while Groups A and B declined. In the sit-up

3O

31
test, all three groups improved, but Group B improved more
than Groups A and C. Among the freshman boys running the
sixty-yard dash, all three groups improved, but Groups B
and 0 improved a greater amount than Group A. In the °

shuttle-run, Group C improved, while Groups A and B

declined.
II. CONCLUSIONS

From the results of this study, the following conclusions
were reached:

'1. That fifteen minutes of calisthenics improved the
standing broad jump among the junior girls.

2. That eight and fifteen minutes of calisthenics
improved sit-ups among the junior girls.

3. That eight and fifteen minutes of calisthenics
improved sit-ups among all the girls.

4. That eight and fifteen minutes of calisthenics
improved the freshman boys running time in the

sixty-yard dash and the shuttle-run.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Clarke, H. Harrison. Application of Measurement to Health
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Johnson, Perry 8., Updyke, wynn F., Stolberg, Donald C.,
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32

33

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34

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35

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36

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Dean, Cyril F. "A Historical Study of Physical Fitness in
the United States-~179O Through 1961." Unpublished
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\

/(7’ L/ /-r-' (:9