— ‘1.- _‘I-_ - -' vw'-—‘-_" -. AN EXPERQMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF LIME. ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF SUPER CONCRETE MJBTAHS 'N‘Jesis for Degree of B. S. is: Civil EZ‘xgineermg Edi R. \X/aikei I 9‘ 2 C ...VI‘ o rt! luaufid lflfl pun-41:1!!!” 3113‘] ‘ . ‘ .I . . ( . ..nv4‘v . .‘LF‘LUVPIuOlrsfi a n w i.¢ R. Q . O‘ ... )2 . m, 5:1- .. ‘r _ .. . r 4 . J . E I ‘ f 4r... 1 ‘ I I .. . In. I. f. . V x... 1.}! MX S \. ll .\l... \ s . 3.4 \I\\ H o T J , . - ‘ \ 1.21 E441’ii‘lL-4gl'1T2-JJ STUD! Oi" Tii . 11.112 ELL}? 01“ LIKE. ull TEL: TbiiQILE Jim-Jam or 5mm cor-10mm moan-.35 A Thesis Submitted to The Faculty of TH; EIUHIGAN LTnta COLLEGE of AGRICULJT'JRE AND APPLIED SCIEHCE Candidate for the Degree of Bachelor of Science June 1926 THESIS top.\ AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF LIME ON THE TENSILE STREEGTH OF SUFER COBCEET’ XORTARS Super Cement is the discovery of an.3nglish invert- igator. During the World War and since then it has been ‘nsod extensively in England. It was recommended by and used by the English Government for all of its construction work during the war. Shortly after the war, during 1920, it was introduce d in Canada. Here it has proved very popular and has become the standard cement used by the best contractors and specified by the best engineers. The use of Super Cement had become so popular in Eng- land and Canada that Just lately the Pocrlese Portland Cement Company of Detroit purchased the priviledge of manufacturing it in the United States. This company has exclusive rights for its manufactury here. The main differences between Super Cement and ordin- ary Portland Cement as given‘hy the Peerless Portland Cement Company is the addition of a substance known as 'Catacoll'. The true character or "Catacoll“ and what it really is has not been revelled.hy the manufactures. The resulting product in further profected.by extra fine grinding. The effect of the addition of "Catacoll' and the extra fine gringing is to facilitate the reactionshwhich occur'between the mixinngater and the cement and thus iOdOOi insures that these reactions will be more complete than in the case of ordinary Portland Cement. These more effective reactions give Super Con lent concretes a good.margin as to strength or the final product. The actual strengths secured from Super Cement tests are from thirty to forty per cent high- or'than.thoso produced.hy the use or ordinary fibrt- land Cement under the same conditions. The table on the following page are some tests made by Professor*0. J. Hackcnzio, Chairman of the Committee of the Engineeri g Institute of Canada. super cement besides being superior in its strength and wear also has the preperty or setting very rapidly. Its initial set as shown by experiment is slightly over two hours and it also gains its total strength nearly a week.sconer than Portland Cement concrete. This will be poems out latdla‘ in analizing the samples. Suurce 01 Agg. Horse Carsland linnipeg Warman Warman Carsland Average Mix Sup. Gem. Port.cen. Difference loitE 8695 5938 2702 1:1:2 5120 2100 1020 l:l.28:1.84 3505 2515 990 1:1.36:1.66 )5#0 2520 1020 l:2.3:2.8 1885 1250 625 l:1.67:1.33 2291 1802 1489 3839 2698 1141 % of Diff. #5.2 48.6 39.A 40.5 49.6 27.1 #2.} Waterproof Concrete Ho concrete can be so good as a water tight product as to remove the necessity of increasing its waterproof- ing preperities. Super Cement concretes have as one of their merits the property of being very near water- proof. It seems feasible, however, that it this pro- perty can.be further~profected by the addition.of other materials without decreasing the quality of the final concrete, it should.not be overlooked. The object of t these experiments is to find the eiiect of line, which adds to the waterproofing; qualities of concrete, on the tensile strength of Super Cement mortars. As would be exyected difierent per cents of line effect the final strength or the concrete in difierent manners. It not only effects the strength but the time of set and the soundness of the concrete. It is the ob. Ject of the investigator to find the per cent of ingredi- ent which will make a more nearly waterproof concrete and at the same time preserve the above qualities. Lime according to the investigator's knowledge is the ingredient which best fullfills the-dnty of a water- proofer. It is best for‘besides acting as a waterproofing media it ale 0 has adhesive qualities of its own. It leens'nolt logical in this case where it is possible to use this media which.hss adhesive preperities. Ibo addition of line also makes a more plastic and ‘Iorkable material. the Value of waterproof concrete is beyond esti- mate. It is a necessity in many ways and for many classes of work. A few 01 such are, roofs, floors, basement walls, r taining walls, dams, and many other engineering problems. The necessity of waterproofing such structures in not only the keep out the water for Oven if the seepage does not hurt this seepage will cause disintergration of the concrete itself. when a fire occurs in a large department store or warehouse the loss through damage by water is ofter greater than that caused by the fire. This damage is usually done by the water coming from the upper floor. because of poor wa terproofing. If this damage can be prevented by the samll cost of yaterproofing it is money well spent. Roofs exert probably the greatest den.nd for a waterproof concrete. Their duty is such that waterproof- ing them is of vast importance. They must protect the contents of the n ire structure from dampness and watersoaking. It is very easy to waterproof a slanting roof but a flat roof is a much more difficult problem. On a flat roof if the drainage is not perfect water is li- able t o be left standing for some time. In this case it is very diflicult to ntke a waterproof concrete roof. In making one every possible means of bettering it should be used. Super Cement is also reconended by the Peerless Portland Cement Company for use in Stucco. It makes a long lasting and durable stucco which can be pls ced on nearly any surface. Hethod of Procedure The following tests were carried out during the spring months of 1926. The conditions used were as near normal as could be procured_and standard methods were always used where possible. The first Operation carried out was to find the normal consistency of Super Cement. To find this the Vicat apparatus was used. Five hundred grams of Su- per Cement were taken and.m1xed with a measured quan- ity of water and kneaded into a pests. This was form- ed into a ball and placed into the rubLer ring of the Vicat apparatus so as to completely fill the ring. Care should be taken so as not to compress the nest' cement. The ring silled with cement should then be placed on a plate grass and.placed in the apparatus. The rod of the apparatus should then be lonered.un- til it just touches the top of the cement and a reads ing on the scale taken. The rod is then released and allowed to settle for thirty seconds. The per cent of the neaeured.water should be varied until the rod in the above Operation settles ten.nille meters in the thirty seconds that it is released. This percent gives the_normal consis- tanqy of the cement and is consided to be the best percent of water to use in mixing cement mortars. The amount or water was found to be twenty-six percent for iuper Cenent. Taking this nonmal consistency the percent of wet- er to use for 1:: sand.mortar was found from the Stand- ard Specifications by the American Society of Testing Heteriels. This percent of water was used for all sam- ples and proved suizicient except in a few cases as will be shown later. In all samples a mixture of one part of adhesive mat- eriel and three parts 01 sand.were used. This seemed_the best possible combination.as tt gave a fairly rich mix such as would be used.where absolutely waterproof con- crete was wanted. At the same time it did not give unrea- sonable results as the sand.was graded nearly to the stands srds of standard sand which is known to give results be- low normal because of its uniform size. The sand'was ordinary bank sand. It was of a good quality and was in a fairly dry condition. Tests for or- ganic matter shared that it was fairly fees from such. The.sandrwas all passed.through a twenty mesh sieve so as to remove all large particles and a sand very near in quality to standard sand. In.making the briguettes they were made in two groups. the first group to be made contained all the long time tests, those form one to five weeks in duration. The other group contained the one, three, and five day tests. This was done so as to bring the long time tests es near togeflther as possible. The tables I and II five the diIIerent amounts of ma- terials used according to weight for both groups and also the amount of mixing water. The samples used were the standard briquette spec- ified.by the American Society fior Testing materials. The area of the cross section upon which the testing force was applied was one square inch. The machine used was a standard concrete tensile testing machine. The specimens were of one to three mortar as stated above. The line and cement taken tOgether were consid- ered as the cementing preperty. The intire investigation may be devided into eleven series according to the percent or lime used. The cement- ing material in the first series was Super Cement only. In the second series it was a mixture or five percent of lime and ninty-I ive percent of Super Cement. The percent of line was thus changed by amounts or five percent until the last series which contained a cementing mixture of fifty percent of lime and fifty percent of Super Cement. For each or the above groups tests for one, three, and Proportionlng or Sam,lea In the following tables the lime and cement together are conaidored as one. 1 - 5 Week teats. Table I __E£§___~W%th. Rat.1§.gofF6tLt. sand Wt. 11m. fit. came ,__._n__ _ _ in gun. in ems. 1n 503.,4 1n.5ns. 1:3 % 15 L 630 3150 52.5 997.5 m 2.5 ' " f _" e i -501... 945 1:: j 15 " L " j 157.5 892.5 133 ' 1.5 __'f_ 210 840 1:: L 15 " ,Lm _j_ 1 262.5 787.5 1:: 5 15 . " L_ “ g 515 735 [ 1:) j 15 L " L ' 1 367.5 682.5 m 1 15 _LJ'- 629 630 w __j 1.5-1. " i f'_ #726- 577-5 1:: 15 ._ ,-__" E_-__" “_525___ 525.04 __Ei211 WLUH-¥5 * ". [" _mj __ 0 1050 Preportloning of Samples In the following table the lime and cement together are considered as one Table II 1 - 3- 5 Day tests. Mix Wfijift‘en ngétmmseend.Wt:}1¥n§M.§“tc cement Ratio _ Mn ems. 1n gma. in gme. 1n gms. w _12--- r 2.30 16.59 _ 1 52-9 ___sso.o 1" _}5__ -.- f “ 27.5 % _.fl5§§;§_. 1:3 [_ _15 L " " . 55 - ”_gg5g3d. 1:3 ' 15 i " " ; $3.5 gOT'S 1:3 15*“ i ” f I -1£9-- - 440 1:5 15_ l ’5“ f 157.5 __ 412.5 1:3 15 f“ “f L _}52, 585 L3} 15 "__ 1 __+_ 192.5 557.5 1:3 __ml§_fl_ -f“_ «f 239..-- 330.0 1:3 15 f“ ?, M?%Z;§__.M- 802.5 1:3 15 " .:_____ 275 275.0 five days and for one to iive weeks. Eor each or the tests five samples were made the avers go or which gave the data for the following tables and graphs. In.mixing the mortars the maximun amount of care was taken. Every possible method of making the samples uniform was adOpted. As was mentioned above the same percent or water was used for all samples. Each batch was mixed under the same procedure. Ihematerials were measured out by weight and then mixed dry. Ehen.mixed thougoughly in the dry state the water was added. After adding the water the mortar was mixed thouroughly for ap- proximately one minute. The mortar was then placed in the molds. In placing in the molds it was passed in the best possible way and then leveled off even with the t0p. In.packing in the molds the thumbs were used so as to get a compact briquette. Each briquette was then marked so as to indicate its kind and date. The specimens were all cured under standard condi- tions. After being placed in the molds the molds were placed in moist air chambers. They were left ing these chambers for twenty tour‘hours after which the briquettes were removed from the molds and placed in Water to cure. At the preper time the samples were removed from the water and tested. In testing the samples the dams machine was used for all testsand the machine was kept under the same conditions for the writer round that a small variation in the machine made a large diI1erence in.the data secured from the tests. Tensile strength of samples in pounds per sq. in. W 1 day 3 day I-.5_<12¥._]1.2621£JL352912 £35221; Meek 5'”ng 0% Lime 100,5 Gemini- “___ .- -, 1 €62 :59 t- 319 7 ....24° _ 3.1.5-1.3&.5_-M1-_370 350 2 6°_-_-___145--__- 353 ___250 290 550 _350 570 3 80 185 39°.- .___2_19_5+__‘2_8_9_%3'_50 360 570 2. §0_‘_W___1_2_0 200 J 250 282.....21? 570 545 5 60 160 2180 250 280 550 350 355 M?- 6‘:._J -292. J 592. ..--222-». 2.9.2. 241- - 2.60 258 T5112: 55% 3.21655 1 1 .‘o ‘ ‘* ... 3271:2732”2*...“ 3.. .6. 2 60M ”léo'__'2eo ___2_50 _._-.-. ___280 M570“ 3570 580 5 50 170 r 225 270 550 3-6.9... 580 580 4 ___- 60‘ W185“ “532-..- __ ?§9---__§-9§.-- 565 - 570 570 5 60 190 250 T 260 285 “L365 565 570 5... 62 175 227 .___.?_6}___J-__295...??i--. 575 572 _m _m_ lOfi Ldme 90% Cemegtt_d :25“ 1 80 1 185 255 _295 15020“ 530 [590 595 2 60 205 I 255 500 - 31.5-. 2294535380 385 3 96“ MEN 255 éw 280 5 335 3on i 580 570 I‘T“"”26"‘“”1?5”1"125614‘53675M2? _ 576 576 585 __ 2.2.9231 -222. 229.. 232-229-280 22-. fit.” 19o _ 255 7 295 559 1.36.8. i 280i 39L“ SIMPLE l fink—WILdB-y—J lwukiaweekl BucklMl-Swm L—T-.. #1576 Lima __85% GemenL---- _ ..__1__ __70-5435- 2255 - , -270“ 325—1 4702-4712—3952 . 2 sow-_2n5 2,50 290 -- -315- . -560- 582-5855, L 11 so 185 245 510 515 580 570 590 ! 5 so 292 225 295__5.7ao___5go_—592 522 2 L 5 .80 205 2150 510 3520 33m 59_5__;854. Lmr...___80._L—lflé 255 295J4zsl_m__gax2—5as—! ? l .- 56 LmL-Bojiqement ii : 2 sci-12-2071 5195 25022252 522 5% 5-2-1 2 702.2172” --190- 210222.275 512 ,v 375 r _ 5 80 160 180 220 220 5145 355 320 AL 70 170 175 225 22:1 3510 #520544; g '10 159 :90 220 280 320 55g 35g Adm 74 172 186 221 2702 5; 550 55¢ 25 L 253 C 'ment .— 1: 70 159 180 230 25g 310 320 330 i 2 59 __ -- 185 215 550 290 290 545 5 59 550 180 200 270 270 320 350 1;. 50____;50 180 205 259 270 390 330 ___LJ 160 170 210 250 265 290 540 Adv. 61+ 152 179 212 250 281 510 55;} SAJJBLEL 1 day 3 day 5 day lweek 2week Sneak Aweok Swoek 36% Lima 70% Cbment 1 60 125 150 180 225 225 250 230 2 50 120 145 165 220 230 245 250 3 50 110 155 180 205 220 235 250 4 55 115 155 170 210 220 235 240 5 60 115 150 "$75 205 225 -240 235 Av. 55 117 151 172 213 224 241 241 35% Lima 65% Cement 1 5° 95 135 135 210 210 225 230 2 "ES”Mru9S 145 145 215 2 40 225 220 3 ‘55 105 140 155 210 215 235 225 4 40 110 130 160 240 250 220 220 5 45 110 135 145 235 :05"’ 235 225 Av. 47 103 137 1‘6 222 224 228 224 - ‘ 40% Lima 60?‘ Cement 1 45 95 140 160 175 210 190 210 2 50 100 130 150 185 205 200 205 3 4o 90 125 145 180 190 210 195 4 45 95 125 155 170 200 205 210 5 * 45 100 135 150 175 195 210 200 AV. 45 96 131 152 177 _200 » 203 204 _- r m - w“ h. ...— ample 11‘ lazy l 26151 3:19.)! {hes}: ___. r... .— [24221 5955-] £5964 47 ["46 " _hmm_§5_m ' F 85 ‘9’90 9d 85 ___. -4" - . __ _.. i” 39 1r- 140 1-- 115 L _H4o_u ’40” . 4wa’“” 41 ‘ E 5‘ " E “70 55 7d 45:6 Lime 1 ”J I E 4.. '120 110 *..-1—___‘__. .— ‘wmiao ” 190 V” "m ”165 ‘ 55% Omani 130] ’136 ’125"‘{“i75 180—1 “176" 5w”: 200 185 i 180'* 185 ”___—..., 135 . ...— } 145 ......rh .13 } _ 175 175 180 ”$135M"m3fiif”' -...-.Jg.‘_ ‘éofi.pufiafxfi{wbéfiéhi”- __ 1., 125 125 160 _....L.. 140 130 170 “1’65“ __ _ _5_. _‘_- ___.-__..!... .‘16535M_ W””17§fiFM -.-.“ [--- 183 r__ ...-.. 185 3.70 130 175 135 ."179 I I ,I I I I I . I; LIWIIII -I I I II I - I 5 . y» 0+ _ i I 9* 9% 1 In} - ..IFI 37 II -III1-I-IDHI-. In A I I I _I IfiI fl. — I I- I IIIgI III III Oil I I . 5 , ,- - -w . - I I I II II II II II r II I I II I II .II I I III III - 1- - I _ - I I IfiI I- I I II I I 5 - I I IN. IIIII I: I III I II III 1' I I .III I Jr II A If It I I I IIIIIIII IIILII IlIIIITII I IIITI .III III I I I II I I I I I I I. III I III IIFI IIILIII I I I I I I II M - om _ II. I I I. I II III IIIIMI INHIIIIII I I II I .-. I; I II I II I I1 I II Al, I. I I I IJII II II I II II II II n I II I I.I_I MN I IIII .HIII III II I I- II I I III I 8a I III 0 ITIIIT IIIJIIII wIIII. I II .I II II #7 III II III IILI II IIH. II III - w I 2 I1 II - II MI I M IHIIII. I I III IIHI I I. QM II I a. I L I I I III I .I I I .1 II I II n I II II M I L 1 Ik II—I LI,” ILII. L . A . I III.I .w. I Ill-l1! II. I... M ..n I, I I o v I I I I t I I. . I I ItlI cad IIIL II c ..T I III I I II , II II I; Izwmiaam imam; $45 1 I I - I I I I - Q ,I. - HI -- 4 I I I? III I I I I I II. IHIII, IIIIII I III III I III I .II I III «I II I1 “in: 16 SWO an mg fl--- - II In II :I I II II II If II- - u. Eaifiw SWIM? I? Kai I -H ; I II I -- - I I w 1 II, II I # II, I I I I I I I IIIIIII IIIIW I IN JIOI A I! «I4 I w . - - _ - - -I I.. -I-IBEHQIIF PE»: Hum - 1- I - _ mmefIQk - Ii M...-,-III.HII-I m-.dmv-.-HI.T--Im-.r III. I....I CHI . @— .93 231101111: . «.2 ~64 [war tit I: III-.- maa. _ II: .. I;,--..II1---I--I- .I I — .IIII'IIL.‘ I I II II._. I..---1,-II LII I _ I I I . 1 . I I. I I _ I. I I . I 1 - I - III-II, I I. ...-.2: Io baa-d: I22 .55 I . ----III _.-.-I_II-.- II. I I II II -.I . I - .Iw. - I I- I I-IIMH- III-IIIImI ---IIIII II I HI -I II-IIIIfiIIWII-I. HWI . I I I , 535%..3m-nmm1- $1.34,.“ I. I .I-II - .I I IIIJ, - - I I - g - I ----I I- I I - I I - I I I.-. I . I I I k I I III I I - I I I I I I - I; I I I 3 I. 4 II't’Il.|I. I- I‘I IIIl-IA III OI IT IT, LDI II. '- _I I I ILIZII HI I.“ III .1] IEE I; I I I I I I I II L II- III-I... P IIIILI Iml III I LTIII II I I III I I IIII IITI IIIII III 4I I om” I I I I I... I. .IIIYI I I II I I I II # I ILTI I II?! II I I III I I! I II IIIL.I +0 I J u I II I I II I- .I IIIIL I III I l I] ll ‘LI‘ II! IlY l I IIIII III III, I. I -I I I II I lflI II IIrl I I; II I II II III IIIIw I I II I? L | I- II I I I II III I I I I II III I L 0““ II In. I II III I II | IIL: I. I I I I I JIII.II-II I r I I I I L- I II T r! I I! I III. III I IIITI II IIIIIlIIII IIYI III A I. II. fiII. II I IJII IIIIIJ] II Lr IIIi' I II III. I! I I . I II II. I I 2‘ Nd. n-%- -m‘ I O K‘- I I .I..-) .I.-- § -.I' v I I L I I I 3 Y‘) Conclusions. One day tests: The one day briquettes broke very week. Some breaking before any readable pressure would be ap Lied. when Super Cement only was used the briquettes broke on a average of 64 lbs. With the addition of five percent of lime this average decreacdd slightly. It again-rained rose again with the addition of ten percent and fifteen percents auntities of lime to an average of 80 lbs. per square inch or a value of 16 lbs per square inch greater than for Super Cement alone. with the addition of twenty percent of lime and amounts greater than this the decrease in strength was rapid until the point where the adhesive material was fifty percent of each lime and Super Cement the briquetts failed to snow any strength. Increase was 20% Three day tests: The three day briquettes without any lime broke at an average 01 162 lbs. in the three day tests there was , however, no slight decrease in strength than five percent of lime was added. There was a steady increase in the strength up to where fifteen percent of lime and eighty-rive percent of Super Cenent was used as the adhesive material. The percent or this increase was 18.2% . When.more than fifteen porcent of lime we a used the graph of the resulting strength showed a rapid dn§reaso. 5 day tests: The five day tests showed in general abour the sums variiatione as those of the three day tests. There was ,however a very rapid increase from 0% lime to 5% lime in the resulting strength. This does not show up in the other series of tests and therciore is probably a variation in the making or the briquettes. As in the three day tests when more than 15% of line was added there was a very rapid decrease in the resulting strengt The increase in strength from 0% of lime to 15p of lime was 14.8% One week tests: These were similar to the Iive day tests, a rapid increase in strength iron 9% to 10% and then a slight increase from 10% to 15%.oflime. From 20% lime samples to 35% line samples there was a rapid decrease in strength and from 355 to 50% a decrease but less rapid. The increase Iron 0% 01 lime to 15% of line was 14.6% Two week tests: The one pueuliarity oi the two week tests is that the maximun strength seems to be reached with the addition of ten percent of lime. them the per- cent ot lime in greater there is a steady decrease in the resulting strength. There is another variation, With the addition of 35% or line and 65% of’cement there seems to be a sudden jump over the proceeding test. This is thought by the writer to be only a variation in.the conditions under which the samples were made and is there- fore not of any actual importance. The percent of increase in the two week by replacing ten percent or the cement by lime was 14.5% Three, four, and five week tests: The three four and five week tests all behave quite similar to each other. There is an increase in strength between 0% of lime and 15% of line, 15% of lime giving the maximun. From fifteen percent of lime to thirty percent of lime there is a very rapid decrease in the strength. Fr on 50% to 50% there was still a decrease but it was more gradual. The percents of increase of 15% lime over 0% of line were: Three weeks -- 9.9% Four weeks -- 5.65 Five weeks -- 8.2% This increase although is is not very great in very satisbactory considering that at the same time you are also getting a more water thggt product which is the main object in View. one or the things which is important in making concrete and which also shows that lime helps to make a waterproof concrete-is that as more lime was substituted for cement the volume or the sexed mortar became less which indicated that the density of the mortar:must be becoming greater as the same amount of material by weight was present at all times. The exact amount of this decrease was not measured but it was estimated at about five percent. o.- n“- u Another obCIIvation by the writer was that as the amount of lime was increased.the mix became dryer until towards the higher perce nts of lime the mix became very dry and this probably accounts partly for the weak results turned in by the higher percents of line. This drying up of the mortar proves bennificial to a certain extent as is is the tendency to have the mix too wet and.will help to conteract this tendency. Lastly it will becobeerved.that as the amount of lime is increased the time of set is decreased. The amount of this decrease varies with the amount of lime but is noticeable with even the smaller percents of lime. Any appreciable change or change of value in not noticed until 25% or more of lime has been added. fl +. h. A I I "I'il II I I I II III +IIII .IiIII I -.II I i I AIII'II III ’01 II II. 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III I 1 I I . . I ..I I I I I I4. Summary To orIer a means of comparison between Portland Cement and Super Gement as to the matter of the addition of lime in their mortars a series of graphs on Portland cement have been inserted. These graphs here taken form Hool's and Johnsonfs Handbook. ‘In observing the two groups of graphs it will be seen that the two cements act vexy'much the same under the addition of lime in their mortars. It therefore seems that it would be of advantage to use small percents of line-mflt lime in concrete mortars not only when a waterproof concrete was desired.§ut at all times for not only is sthe strength and waterproofing qualities increased but also the workability of the mortar. It was also found in the University_of Wisconsin labrotories that the addition of lime decreased the srinhage of the final condrete and thereby lessened the possibilty of cracks. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES IIIIIII IIII II 3177 9485 I III 3 1293