-.‘—_‘——n"-‘

A BIOLOGSCAL ANS UMNOLOGECAL SURVEY OF A
SULFUR SPRENG AND CONSTRfiCTED TROUT
STREAM

Thesis for the Degree of M. S.
Emmi-{EGAN STATE UNWERSHY
HOWARD D. mom.
1973

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ABSTRACT

A BIOLOGICAL AND LIMNOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF A SULFUR SPRING AND CONSTRUCTED
TROUT STREAM

by
Howard D. Wandell

Early in 1971 a channel was constructed adjacent
to the spring at the Erie Shooting Club and was filled
with water from the spring. During the remainder of 1971
and in 1972, a study was undertaken to gather basic
ecological information to determine the suitability of

this environment as rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)

 

habitat.

In addition to chemical and physical analyses of
the spring's water, macrophyte and invertebrate samples
were collected. Invertebrates were gathered primarily with
an Eckman dredge. Macrophyte standing crop was estimated
by collecting 1-m2 samples from the stream bottom.

Water emerges from the spring at a temperature of
10.6 C and reached a maximum high of 18.9 C in the stream.
The spring water is initially devoid of dissolved oxygen
but reaches concentrations above 7.0 mg/l in the stream.
Fluctuations in the diurnal pulse of oxygen increased from

19171 to 1972, undoubtedly due to an increased macrophyte

Howard D. Wandell

biomass. Alkalinity ranged from 223 to 249 mg/l as CaCO3,
and total hardness (EDTA) varied between 1580 and 1710
mg/l as CaCO3. Sulfate values of over 1200 mg/l were
recorded for the spring and stream but sulfide was detected
in small concentrations only in the deep water of the
spring during stratified conditions.

Only three species of aquatic plants presently

grow in the spring pond and stream. Two of these species

(Potamogeton crispus and Charasqx) are considered indicators

 

 

of hard, alkaline waters. There has also been a substan-
tial increase in the standing crop of these macrophytes
between 1971 and 1972.

Twenty-three forms of invertebrates were collected
from the spring and stream. Nearly all of these inverte-
brates are described as inhabiting pond or stagnant stream
environments. The spring and stream species are essen-
tially identical except that the deep basin of the Spring

is populated only with members of the class Oligochaeta.

A BIOLOGICAL AND LIMNOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF A SULFUR SPRING AND CONSTRUCTED

TROUT STREAM

by

Howard D€ Wandell

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife

1973

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my graduate
committee, my major professor Dr. Eugene Roelofs and
Drs. P. I. Tack and F. M. D'Itri for their suggestions and
recommendations in conducting this research. A special
thanks should be given to my parents and brothers for their
many forms of assistance. I also appreciate the oppor-
tunity to conduct this research at the Erie Shooting Club.

This investigation was made possible through a

grant from the Erie Research Committee.

ii

TABLE OF

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . .
LIST OF TABLES . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES . . . .

INTRODUCTION . . . . .
REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS .

Geological Characteristics
Climate . . . . . .

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
BIOLOGICAL AND LIMNOLOGICAL
METHODS . . . . . .

Limnological . . . .

SAMPLING

Soil-Water Interface Sampler

Biological . . . . .
Macrophytes . . . .
Invertebrates . . .

RESULTS . . . . . .
Limnological . . . .
Biological . . . . .
Macrophytes . . . .
Invertebrates . . .
SUMMARY . . . . . .

LITERATURE CITED . . .

APPENDIX . . . . . .

iii

CONTENTS

SITES

Page
ii

iv

com

12
l6
l7
l7
18
22
22
24
25
25
39
39
44
46
49

53

Table

l.

2.

Al.

A2.

A3.

LIST OF TABLES

Oxygen (DO), Temperature, pH, Methyl Orange
Alkalinity, Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, and
Discharge Volume Values for Selected Stations
from the Constructed Stream for 1971 . . .

Secchi Disc, Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen
(DO), Total Sulfide (TS), Dissolved Sulfide
(DS), Un-ionized Hydrogen Sulfide (H28), pH,
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, Methyl Orange
Alkalinity, and Total Hardness (EDTA) Values
from Various Depths in the Spring Pond for
1972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Dissolved
Sulfide (DS), pH, Methyl Orange Alkalinity,
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, and Total Hard-
ness (EDTA) Values for (Mid) Sample Sites in
the Constructed Stream for 1972 . . . .

Dissolved Oxygen, Dissolved Sulfide and pH
Values for Sample Sites at the Soil—Water
Interface in the Constructed Stream for
1972 O O O O O O O O O C I O O 0

Estimated Macrophyte Standing Crop (g/mz, dry
weight) for the Constructed Trout Stream at
the Erie Shooting Club for 1971 and 1972 . .

Kjeldahl Nitrogen, pH, Total Phosphorus, and
Sulfate Values for Spring and Stream Deter-
mined by Institute of Water Research, Water
Quality Laboratory at Michigan State Uni-
versity . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Benthic Invertebrates Collected from the Erie
Shooting Club Spring and Stream during
1971 and 1972 . . . . . . . . . .

Invertebrates Collected from Submerged Terres-

trial Vegetation Growing along the Stream
Banks 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I

iv

Page

26

29

33

35

40

54

55

60

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1. Average monthly precipitation for 1971, 1972
and the monthly mean for Toledo, Ohio,
nearest weather station to the study area
(data from Environmental Science Services
Administration) . . . . . . . . .

2. Map of study area . . . . . . . . .
3. Sampling device employed to capture a volume

of water from close proximity of the soil-
water interface for chemical analysis . .

Page

13

19

INTRODUCTION

During the spring and early summer of 1971 a
channel was constructed adjacent to a large volume spring
in the Erie Shooting Club marsh (T.88., R.8E., Sec. 22)
near the shore of Lake Erie. Contrived as a small recre-
ational trout stream, this channel was filled with water
diverted from the contiguous spring. Prior to channel
construction this water flowed directly into the sur-
rounding marsh by way of a broad shallow outlet. This
recreational trout stream has thus further maximized a
valuable natural resource through increased utilization.

This study has been designed to evaluate the
described spring and stream as a trout environment. The
environmental factors requiring the greatest attention
are the dissolved gases; oxygen and hydrogen sulfide,
because the waters which issue from the geological forma-
tions at the spring are copiously charged with compounds
of calcium, magnesium, iron and sulfur (Sherzer, 1900)
and devoid of oxygen. The modification of certain
chemical properties of this water is thus essential in

improving survival of the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

 

Richardson, stocked in the stream. The oxygen-free ground

water must acquire concentrations of dissolved oxygen

sufficient to meet the requirements of the trout. Addi—
tionally, the discharge of all hydrogen sulfide (H28)
present in the spring water is necessary prior to its

entry into the stream because this dissolved gas, a

product of reduced environments, is extremely toxic to

fish (Doudoroff and Katz, 1950). It is also imperative

to know if this gas may be produced in the stream, particu-
larly at the soil-water interface, in concentrations
deleterious to the trout.

Concentrations of dissolved oxygen should obtain
levels sufficient to eliminate stress and allow full
activity of the trout. Concentrations at or near reported
minimum levels would permit continued survival for only a
brief interval. Minimum required concentrations of dis-
solved oxygen for trout species is approximately 2.0 mg/l
(Shepard, 1955), depending upon environmental factors and
the age and conditioned experience of the fish. Even
oxygen concentrations slightly above minimum levels may be
undesirable if normal development, growth and activity of
the trout is impaired. A suggested concentration of 6 mg/l
(Fry, 1959) for trout, derived from Basu's (1959) manipu-
lation of respiration and metabolic rates, would provide
for at least marginal development of the species. Higher
concentrations of dissolved oxygen would of course be
additionally advantageous if the stream is able to acquire

them. Diel fluctuations of dissolved oxygen are also of

consequence, for while fish subjected to such fluctuations
benefit some from daily exposure to high concentrations,
their growth is noticeably influenced by the recurring
exposure to low levels of oxygen. These fish, in fact, do
only slightly better than fish exposed to continuously low
oxygen concentrations (Doudoroff and Warren, 1965).

Hydrogen sulfide is the configuration of dissolved
sulfide present at pH values below seven. Between pH 7 and
13 most dissolved sulfide is in the form of hydrosulfide
(HS-), and above pH 13 sulfide ion (8:). Also present in
natural waters are the metallic sulfides, which are not
dissolved but held in suspension as colloidal material
or deposited on the bottom. Ferrous sulfide (FeS) is
the principal metallic sulfide encountered in most natural
systems. The amount of dissolved sulfide in solution will
depend upon the concentration of ferrous ion and the
solubility of ferrous sulfide, the solubility being
dependent upon the pH of the water. The lower the pH, the
greater the solubility of the metallic sulfide (Hutchinson,
1957).

In natural waters sulfide is a result of several
chemical and biochemical reactions. As unoxygenated
ground waters permeate sulfide mineral deposits, such as
pyrite (FeSZ), dissociation of the mineral will result in
the production of dissolved sulfide. In streams and lakes,

especially at the soil-water interface and under reduced

conditions, sulfide is derived from the decomposition, by
putrefying bacteria, of sulfur-containing amino acids and
the reduction of sulfate (80:) by "sulfur" bacteria.
These microbial processes are usually linearly dependent
upon the quantities of organic material and sulfate con-
centrations (Ohle, 1955). Bacteria are also important in
the oxidation of sulfide back to sulfate.

With sulfides present in an environment it is
advantageous to ascertain the concentrations of the hydro-
gen sulfide configuration since it is this form which is
allegedly responsible for sulfide poisoning of aquatic
animals. Work by Longwell and Pentelow (1935) and many
others has since demonstrated that the toxicity of a
sulfide solution is inversely related to the pH of the
solutions. It has also been shown (Jacques, 1936) that
the penetration of sulfide into cells is best explained
by diffusion of molecular hydrogen sulfide through the
cell membrane.

It is thus the purpose of this study to describe
the basic limnological and biological properties of the
Erie Shooting Club spring and constructed channel, and to
relate the findings to the utilization of the system as a
recreational trout stream. The major objectives will
include:

1. a chemical and physical description of the
spring and stream;

2. an account of the relative abundance and
distribution of acquatic plants and
invertebrates;

3. recommendations for management of the stream
as a trout habitat.

The duration of this study extended one year, With
two periods of data collection. During the interim between
July and October of 1971 data was compiled and analyzed
which allowed the stocking of 500 rainbow trout in the
stream. Additional data was gathered during September,
October and November of 1972 which provided further
detailed information of this environment.

Sample collections had been planned for the summer
months of 1972, however, difficulties in securing needed
.equipment and materials precluded sampling during this
period. This proved to be unfortunate since the limnology
of the spring during the summer stagnation period may have

supplied more valuable information.

REGIONAL.CHARACTERISTICS

GeologiCal'CharacteriStics

The environment under inquiry is located in
Monroe county in the extreme southeastern corner of
Michigan. The county is essentially a plain of low
relief, sloping to the southeast. The underlying bedrock
consists largely of limestones and dolomite. Glacial
drift resting over the Paleozoic strata is generally very
thin, averaging less than 30 feet for most of the county.
The primary water supplies are wells completed in bedrock.
Domestic wastes are principally disposed of in septic
tanks. The increased commercial and domestic development
in the county has resulted in the reported contamination
of ground water in places where the glacial till is thin
(Mozola, 1970).

A geological investigation by Sherzer (1900)
reported a large number of flowing wells and springs along
the eastern margin of the county bordering Lake Erie. Many
of these wells and springs were characterized by the
strong odor of sulfide ion. Presently, however, their
numbers have been reduced due to a gradual lowering over
the years of the piezometric level (Mozola, 1970). Sherzer

(1900) also suggested that the presence of these springs

and wells and other geological evidence was indicative of
small subterranean channels in the bedrock. Furthermore,
he proposed that some of the ground water that emerges
from these springs and wells travels via the subterranean
channels from collecting basins in the far western part of
the county.

The chemical properties of the ground water
discharged from the spring under examination is a product
of soil and mineral deposits associated with its flow.
Therefore, the high concentration of sulfur compounds,
characteristic of the Erie Shooting Club spring is attribu-
ted to the action of ground water upon sulfur containing
mineral deposits in the spring recharge area. Mineral
deposits of the county with a sulfur component include
celestite, SrSO4; gypsum, CaSO °2H O; anhydrite, CaSO

4 2 4’

epsomite, MgSO4-7H20; elemental sulfur, SO; and pyrite,

FeS2 (Sherzer, 1900). Of these minerals celestite and
elemental sulfur are practically insoluble in water and
would contribute little to the ground water except for
their presence as colloidial material. Pyrite, although
moderately insoluble, will hydrolyze to some degree to
yield dissolved sulfide, which will be readily held in
solution by oxygen-free ground water. If oxygen becomes
available the dissolved sulfide may be oxidized to sulfuric

acid (H 804), which will react with calcium carbonate

2

and magnesium carbonate of the dolomite to give calcium

sulfate (gypsum) and magnesium sulfate (epsomite). The
gypsum and epsomite deposits may in turn form dissolved

sulfide upon dissociation in oxygen—free ground water.

Climate

According to the United States Department.of Com-
merce Narrative Climatological Summary for Monroe, Michigan,
this area is influenced only slightly by Lake Erie due to
prevailing westerly winds. However, priods of easterly -
winds and local lake breezes do modify summer temperatures
enough to give the county a climate which fluctuates
between semi-marine and continental in character. The
weather is also controlled by pressure systems moving
across the continent, which tend to reduce the extent of
prolonged weather extremes.

This region receives its greatest aggregation of
precipitation between May and October, a large share of
which falls as afternoon showers and thundershowers. While
January and February are the driest months, there is no
exceptionally dry season in the region, for precipitation
is well distributed throughout the year.

Precipitation levels are significant to spring
discharge for, in addition to soil and aquifer permeability
and recharge area, the water available for recharge will
delimit the total volume and fluctuation of spring dis—
charge. During the interim of this inquiry precipitation

levels differed markedly (Figure 1). In 1971 only three

 

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11

months experienced higher than normal rainfall levels,
while in 1972 eight months were higher than normal. TOtal
precipitation for 1971 was 7.32 inches below the annual

average while 1972 surpassed the annual average by 7.91

inches.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

An elementary map of the spring and stream
(Figure 2) was constructed by‘plane—table survey on 20 July
1971. At the time of map construction the steam was 360 m
long, with an average width of 4.3 m and depth of 1.3 m.
In 1972 the stream was lengthened approximately 300 m and
much of the original channel dredged to increase its
average width and depth to 5.8 and 1.7 m, respectively.

. The emerging ground water forms a pond of approxi-
mately one acre, with a surface level two or three feet
above stream level. This gradient permits the spring
water to pass over a falling water aerator upon entry into
the stream. Aeration increases the dissolved oxygen con-
centration and discharges hydrogen sulfide which may be
present. 2H:the stream's outlet a fish screen prohibits
undesired fish species entry into the stream from the
marsh.

The spring basin is funnel—shaped, with a marginal
strip of 10 to 12 m shelving off slowly and then dropping
suddenly to a maximum depth of 12.1 m. The water has a
greenish-blue color which is intensified in the central
portion of the spring pond by the deeper water. Chara sp.

grows in a thick mat along the shelf and down to a depth

12

Figure 2.--Map of study area.

13

14

Z

 

Detroit

LEGEND

"”‘ Aerator

Canada

(~C/ Stream, 1971
(7‘1”. Stream, 1972 addition

Scale 1 cm‘IVlS m
Monroe 0

__._____.__

 

 

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TOledo

 

/

Spring

 

 

 

 

15

of 4 or 5 m. Sediments on the shelf are thin and consist
of calareous tufa chips and a fine black mud. In the deep
basin the sediment is a black mud several meters thick.

The stream sediments are similar to those of the
spring, black mud several centimeters thick with minute
tufa fragments distributed through it. No stones or gravel
of any appreciable size or quantity are present except a
few large pieces of tufa artificially positioned in the
stream at two locations.

Stream macrophytes consist of only three species;

Chara sp., Potamogeton cripus and a few dispersed Vallis-

 

neria americana. Chara sp. invaded the channel soon after

 

completion and rapidly developed a thick bed covering much
of the stream bottom below the aerator. Its aggregations
diminished with increasing distance from the stream's
origin to only a few scattered plants at the stream's

termination. By the second year Charasxn populations

 

directly below the aerator had developed an extensive mat,
covering virtually the entire substrate and growing nearly
a meter into the water column. P; cripus invaded the

downstream areas of the original channel and now grows in

luxuriant beds.

BIOLOGICAL AND LIMNOLOGICAL

SAMPLING SITES

To insure well distributed biological and chemical
sampling, the original stream channel was partitioned into
three 120-m sampling sections and the average width and
depth for each section determined. Sections were numbered
beginning at the stream origin, with each subsequent section
receiving the sequential number. Within each section
three collecting sites were established for procuring water
samples for chemical analyses:

1. within 2.7 cm of the soil-water interface
(2.7 cm);

2. 3 to 7 cm from the soil-water interface
(3-7 cm);

3. a distance intermediate between substrate
and surface (Mid).

These sites were designated by the stream section in which
they were collected and their distance from the soil-water
interface. No chemical or biological samples were collec-
ted from the stream channel constructed in 1972.

The spring was divided into two collecting sections
for invertebrate sampling; the shallow shelf and deep
basin. Samples for chemical and physicalanalyses were
collected from immediately below the surface and at 3-m
intervals to a depth of 9 m.

16

METHODS

Limnological

 

Water analysis conducted in 1971 was directed
essentially at the constructed channel to promptly estab-
lish its qualifications as a trout stream. Samples for
analysis were secured from each stream section with a
Kemmerer sampler at a distance approximately midway between
substrate and surface. Samples for dissolved oxygen
analysis by the Azide modification of the Winkler method
(Amer. Publ. Health Assoc. et al., 1971) were collected at
time intervals normally from 0900 to 1600 but on 27 July
from 0530 to 1600. Samples for alkalinity were tested
according to Standard Methods (Amer Publ. Health Assoc.
et al., 1971). Temperature was measured with a maximum—
minimum thermometer and a standard vest-pocket thermometer.
On 2 July, water samples were procured and preserved with
mercuric ion (42 mg/l as HgClz) for analyses of Kjeldahl
nitrogen, sulfate, total phosphorus, enui pH by the Insti-
tute of Water Research, Water Quality Laboratory at
Michigan State University. On 30 August, a Beckman pH
meter became available which then permitted pH readings to
be made in the field. During two sampling dates the

current of water entering the stream was measured with a

17

18

Gurley current meter. Readings were taken as the water
passed through an l8-inch culvert that linked the stream
to the spring.

During 1972, analytical tests conducted in 1971
were continued with additional sampling sites in both the
stream and spring pond. Besides these tests, samples
were analyzed for total hardness (EDTA), total sulfide,
dissolved sulfide (Amer. Publ. Health Assoc. et al.,

1971) and Secchi disc readings were made. Total sulfide
was determined by the methylene blue visual color-matching
method after a pretreatment of the sample for low-level
sulfide analysis. Dissolved sulfide samples were analyzed
in a similar manner but were first passed through a

0.45-u millipore filter to remove suSpended metallic
sulfides. Un-ionized hydrogen sulfide was calculated from

dissolved sulfide values and pH values (Pomeroy, 1941).

Soil—Water Interface Sampler

 

To obtain water samples in proximity of the soil-
water interface, a sampler was designed which permitted
the capture of a 300-ml volume within 2.7 cm of the sub-
strate. Colby and Smith (1967) found the greatest
alteration of oxygen and sulfide concentrations to be
within 2.0 cm of the substrate.

The sampler (Figure 3) consists basically of a

collecting plate, a combination of millipore filters, a

 

19

Figure 3.--Sampling device employed to capture a volume of
water from close proximity of the soil-water
interface for chemical analysis.

 

Collecting plate
Millipore filter
Sample bottle
Plastic tubing
Clamp

Lowering line
Weight

20

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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21

sample bottle, and plastic tubing to link the sampler with
.the atmosphere. Water is thus drawn into the sampler by
means of hydrostatic pressure. Contamination of the pro-
cured sample with atmospheric oxygen is reduced since the
sample bottle is flushed by water rising in the tubing to
the surface. A clamp affixed to the tubing at the surface
reduces hydrostatic pressure thus preventing a violent
suction which may disturb the sampling area sediments and
increases the time required to fill the sampler to 10 or
15 minutes. To minimize the possibility of clogging the
0.45-u filter a second filter of higher porosity is
positioned before it.

The height of the collected sample above the soil-
water interface with this sampler is approximately related
to the total volume of water displaced and the radius of

the collecting plate (5 inches) in the equation:.

 

V
a:
nzb
where
a = radius of captured volume,
b = the distance from the center of the collect—

ing plate to its edge, and
V = total volume of water displaced.
The total volume of water displaced is dependent upon the
depth to which the sampler is lowered, for samples
collected from the stream under study this volume varied

from 370 to 390 ml. Current, depending upon its velocity,

22

will alter or negate the value for a. Its moderating
influence will promote the securing of a sample incorpora-
ting substances conforming to the actual molecular movement
along the soil-water interface.

The sampler was operated by carefully lowering
it into position to reduce agitation of surrounding sedi-
ments. The disturbed area was then allowed ten minutes
to return to equilibrium prior to initiating sample
collection. In addition to being used in the stream,
this sampler was also utilized to collect dissolved
sulfide samples from the spring pond.

While this sampler permitted the capture of rela—
tively large water samples reasonably close to the
soil-water interface, another sampler has been designed
by Colby and Smith (1968) which allows samples to be
taken within a few millimeters of the substrate. Addi-
tionally, the design of this sampler is such that the
deeper the sampler must be lowered to obtain a sample,
the greater the loss of proximity to the soil-water
interface. Some difficulty is also encountered in manipu-
lating the lowering line and tubing when the sampler is

being positioned and retrieved.

Biological

 

Macrophytes

 

To establish a value for macrophyte standing crop

within the stream, two plots of l m2 were collected twice

23

during each sampling period from each of the stream sec-
tions. Samples were obtained by randomly dropping a l-m2
frame into the stream and removing the circumscribed
macrophytes by hand where possible and by dredge where
the water was too deep. A net was attached to the down-
stream edge of the frame to reduce the loss of broken plant
fragments. Collections made in this manner, especially

in deep water, proved to be extremely time consuming and
resulted in very low sample replication. However, the
error introduced by low sample replication may not be
irremediable, since variable physical characteristics such
as substrate particle size, current velocity, available
light and water depth are remarkably uniform throughout the
stream. Even the spatial distribution of the macrophytes
is reasonably uniform, except for section 3 during 1972.

In stream section 3 during the 1972 collecting

period, the macrophytes, Potamogeton crispus and Chara sp.,

 

 

proliferated in well defined species specific beds. Ran-
domly positioned samples would have therefore required a
high number of replications to estimate the standing crop
adequately. Since time did not allow numerous sample
replications, procedures were modified for this section
by sampling 1m:2 from a bed of each species and visually
noting percentage of bottom area covered by respective

beds.

24

Collected plant material was placed in plastic
bags and returned to the laboratory where it was washed
in an enamel pan to remove invertebrates and detritus
material. Samples were then oven dried to a constant

weight t 0.5 g at 75 C.

Invertebrates

 

Invertebrate samples were obtained by securing ten
Eckman dredge samples from each of the three stream sec-
tions and the two established collecting areas of the
spring. During 1971, three collections were made, one each
during the months of August, September and October. The
succeeding year two collections were made, one in October
and the other in November. In addition, periodic collec-
tions were made with a stretched screen among the
projecting terrestrial vegetation growing along the bank.

The complete dredge grab was placed in a plastic
bag and brought to the laboratory. Material from the grabs
was concentrated by passage of the sample through a 0.5-mm
sieve. The retained material was placed in a white enamel
pan and the invertebrates sorted and preserved in 10%
formalin.

At a later date the invertebrates were classified
to the lowest taxon that the author was able to assign,
and counted. The keys of Eddy and Hodson (1961), Burks
(1953), Pennak (1953) and Usinger (1963) were employed for

the classification.

RESULTS

Limnological

 

The volume of water entering the spring during
1971 averaged 1.38 cubic feet per Second (cfs) for the two
measurements conducted (Table 1). Since virtually the
entire spring discharge was being directed through the
stream at this time, this value is also the spring dis—
charge volume. According to Meinzer's (1923) classification,
a discharge of this magnitude would classify the Erie
Shooting Club spring as a 3rd order spring, that is, a
spring with an average discharge between 1 and 10 cfs.
Although no measurements of discharge volume were made dur-
ing 1972, it was considerably higher than in 1971,
undoubtedly due to the increased precipitation.

Ground water emerges from the spring with a tempera-
ture of 10.6 C (Table 2). This temperature is moderated by
loss or gain of heat to establish an equilibrium with the
atmosphere. The greater the time interval and distance from
source, the greater the regulating influence of the atmos-
phere.

The spring pond probably realizes two states of
thermal distribution, a summer stratification and a winter

circulation. Stratification commences as pond surface

25

26

TABLE l.—-Dissolved Oxygen.flxn,.Surface Temperature, pH,
Methyl Orange Alkalinity, Phenolphthalein Alkalin-
ity, and Discharge Volume Values for Selected
Stations from the Constructed Stream for 1971.

 

 

Time Water Alkalinity Discharge
Date Sec. (EST) Temp. DO pH M.O. Phth. Volume
(C) (mg/l) (mg/l CaCO3) (cfs)
23 July 1 0900 15.0 6.3 233 0
1200 15.6 6.4 231 O
1600 16.1 6.7 231 0
2 0900 15 0 6.1 235 0
1200 15 6 6.4 230 0
1600 16.7 6.8 229 0
3 0900 15.0 6 O 234 0
1200 16.1 6 2 234 0
1600 16.7 6 6 230 O
27 July 1 0530 13.3 6.2 238 O
0900 13.9 6.2 239 O
1200 15.6 6.5 234 0
1600 16.1 6.7 233 O
2 0530 13.9 6.1 338 O
0900 14.4 6.3 335 0
1200 16.1 6.3 329 O
1600 16.7 6.6 330 0
3 0530 13.9 6.1 235 O
0900 14.4 6.2 237 0
1200 16.7 6.3 233 0
1600 16.7 6.6 230 O
2 Aug. 1 0900 16.1 6 4 233 0 1.41
1200 17.2 6.7 235 0
1600 18.3 7.2 230 0
2 0900 16.1 6.4 233 0
1200 17.2 6.7 230 0
1600 18.3 7 1 229 0
3 0900 16.1 6 3 235 O
1200 17.8 6 4 228 O
1600 18.9 6 9 230 O

27

Table l.--Continued.

 

 

 

Time Water Alkalinity Discharge
Date Sec. (EST) Temp. DO pH M.O. Phth. Volume
(C) (mg/l) (mg/l CaCO3) (cfs)
13 Aug. 1 0900 15.0 6.1 231 0 1.35
1200 16.1 6.5 227 O
1600 16.7 6.8 229 O
2 0900 15.0 6.3 233 O
1200 16.7 6.4 229 0
1600 16.7 6.9 228 0
3 0900 14.4 6.1 229 0
1200 16.7 6.3 233 0
1600 17.2 6.9 227 0
23 Aug. 1 0900 14.4 6.0 233 0
1200 15.0 6.2 230 O
1600 16.1 6.6 228 0
2 0900 15.0 5.9 231 0
1200 16.1 6.1 227 0
1600 16.1 6.6 228 0
3 0900 15.0 6.0 231 0
1200 16.7 6.1 231 0
1600 16.7 6.8 226 O
31 Aug. 1 0900 13.6 6.1 7.1 233 0
1200 13.9 6.3 7.2 230 O
1600 15.0 7.0 7.3 231 0
2 0900 13.9 6.1 7.2 236 O
1200 14.4 6.4 7 2 233 O
1600 15.6 6.9 7.3 231 0
3 0900 13.9 6.0 7.1 233 O
1200 14.4 6.1 7.2 230 0
1600 15.6 6.8 7.2 231 0

Table 1.--Continued.

 

28

 

 

Time Water Alkalinity Discharge
Date Sec. (EST) Temp._ DO pH M.O. Phth. Volume
' (C) (mg/l) (mg/l CaCO3) (cfs)
16 Sept. 1 0900 14.4 6.1 7.2 233 O
1200 15.6 6.5 7.2 229 0
1600 16.1 7.4 7.3 227 0
2 0900 15.0 6.1 7.2 237 0
1200 15.6 6.3 7.3 231 0
1600 16.1 7.4 7.3 230 0
3 0900 15.0 6.1 7.2 234 O
1200 16.1 6.3 7.3 227 0
1600 16.7 7.2 7.3 226 0
28 Sept. 1 0900 16.7 6.0 7.1 237 0
1200 17.8 6.3 7.1 234 0
1600 18.3 7.3 7.3 228 0
2 0900 17.2 5.9 7.2 239 0
1200 17.8 6.3 7.3 235 0
1600 18.3 7.2 7.3 235 0
3 0900 17.2 5.9 7.2 234 0
1200 17.8 6.4 7.2 231 0
1600 18.3 7.2 7.3 233 O

 

29

 

 

omoa o nmm ¢.n o o o m.o m.oa m
oooa o mmm m.n o o o m.H m.OH o
oaoa o wmm m.m o o o m.H o.oH m
omma o mmm m.s o o o m.H H.HH o sonuon .600 m
omwa o mmm m.s o o o m.o o.oa m
Omma o cam m.s o o o m.o o.oa o
omoa o mmm m.n o o .o m.o o.oa m
omma o mmm m.m o o o m.H m.ma o souuon .ummm mm
omma o mam m.o no.0 mH.o v.0 o 0.0H m
oana o mam m.o 00.0 H.o o o o.oa o
omma o mmm H.n o o o «.0 A.HH m
coma o Ham o.n o o o m.H m.mH o H.@ .umwm Hm
Aooomo H\msv Imoomo H\msc Ia\msv .Ia\msv .xH\msv .AH\msv on Age Age
mmmcoumm WMMHMHMMWM mm mmm we we on ”WNW“ gamma HMMWMm when

 

.tha Mom pcom mcflumm map ca mnumma mDOHHm> Eoum mm5Hm> mmmcpumm Hmuoa paw
.muflaflamxaa mmcmuo assums .SUHaHmedmcamamsnnmflocmsm.mm .xmmmc emanasm cmmouwsm cmNHcOHuco
.Amoc mpflmasm wm>aommfio .Amev moHMHSm Hmpoe .xoov awmsxo om>aommflo .mnsumanEme .Omflo Havommnu.m mamas

30

 

 

omma o mmm s.> o o o o.a >.n m
OHGH o mmm m.s o o o o.H 5.0 o
omoa o mmm v.s o o o A.H o.m m
omma 0 ANN m.» o o o m.H o.m o souuon .>oz om
oaoa o mmm a.e o o o m.o o.oH m
oaoa 0 0mm 4.» o o o o.H o.oH m
owed 0 0mm m.» o o o m.H o.oa m
osoa 0 «mm v.n o o o o.H v.m 0 Scenes .uoo Om
omoa 0 0mm v.s o o o m.H o.oa m
oaoa o mmm v.s o o o n.a o.oa o
omoa 0 «mm v.s o o o m.H 8.0H m
coma o Hmm m.s o o o m.a o.oH o souuon .uoo ma
Amoomo H\msv Amoomo H\msv mm Aa\msv Aa\msc Aa\msv AH\msv on Rev Ase
Mi m. e a new... M.

 

.emscflpcou--.m mange

31

temperatures exceed the ground water temperature, 10.6 C.
Stratification is arrested and circulation initiated when
cold weather again reduces pond surface temperatures below
ground water temperature. The spring pond thus stratifies
and circulates in accordance with ground water temperature,
10.6 C, instead of the maximum density temperature, 4 C.

A second stratification at 4 C is probably not
established in this spring pond. Such a stratification
would evolve when sufficient surface water has cooled
below 4 C to produce a non-circulating epilimnion. Iso-
lated from the warm ground water, cold atmospheric
conditions would continue to decrease surface temperatures
until an ice cover develops. Since this spring is reported
free of ice, it is the opinion of the author that the
spring pond is in a state of incessant circulation through-
out the winter months. The temperature and volume of the
spring discharge probably prevent the formation of a non-
circulating epilimnion.

Temperatures in the stream attained a recorded
high of 18.9 C on 2 August 1971 (Table l). Garside and
Tait (1958) reported the preferred temperature of rainbow
trout to be approximately 13 C. Stream temperatures are
therefore well within limits suitable for the rainbow trout
survival, and exceed the preferred temperatures by only a

few degrees during the warmest summer periods.

32

Devoid of dissolved oxygen as it issues from the
earth, the spring pond water is able to acquire concen-
trations of at least 1.8 mg/l (Table 2) by plant
photosynthesis and diffusion from the atmosphere. The
distribution of oxygen throughout the spring is dependent
upon the thermal distribution state of the pond waters
(Table 2.) During summer stratification oxygen is
recorded only at the surface and 3-m sampling sites. By
25 September the atmosphere has cooled oxygenated surface
waters sufficiently to circulate them with the unoxygena-
ted deep basin waters. As water temperatures become
uniformly distributed about 16 October, dissolved oxygen
is also homogeneous throughout the pond. Continued cool-
ing of surface water produces an oxygen gradient of
decreasing concentration with increasing depth.

In the stream dissolved oxygen attains concentra-
tions as high as 7.8 mg/l (Table 3). Even at the soil-water
interface dissolved oxygen remains persistently high (Table
4). During 1971, the stream oxygen concentration was
usually above 6.0 mg/l and recorded concentrations surpassed
7.0 mg/l on several occasions (Table 1). However, during
the 1972 data collecting period the diel fluctuation of
oxygen increased, consequently increasing extremes in
oxygen levels beyond 1971 values (Table 3). During 1971
oxygen fluctuations for the time interim of compiled data

averaged only 0.77 mg/l; they increased, however, to an

33

 

o.n o.n o.oa h.HH oooa
omma o mmm m.h m.© 0.3” NINA OONH
m.n o m.m v.m o.oH oomo m
a.» m.n o.oH n.HH oooa
omoa o «mm v.n m.o o.oa N.NH oomH
m.n o m.m o.m o.oH oomo m
m.> m.n o.oH A.HH oooa
ooofi o mmm o.n o.n o.oH m.mH oomH
a.» o m.m o.o o.oH oomo a .uoo ma
«.5 o.» o.oH m.mm oooa
oooa o mmm o.s o.o o.mH m.mm ooma
m.n o m.m H.HH m.ma oomo m
m.n H.» m.ma o.mm oooH
oooa o mmm a.» H.o N.ma «.mm ooma
m.> o H.m H.HH m.mH oomo m
m.n m.n m.ma o.mm oooH
omoa o omm o.n m.o o.HH «.mm ooma
m.s o o.m H.HH m.mH oomo H .600 H
Imoomo H\mec Amoomo H\mao ls\msv la\mao loo loo Ismmo
.nugm .o.z mm .msme .msme cofluomm mama
mmmcoumm muflcflamxam we on Hones Hem mafia

 

.tha Mom Emmuum Umuosupmaou may :H mmuflm
wHQEMm Aoflso now mwsHm> Iaaomv mmmaoumm Hmuoe one .muflcflamxomcamamcuamaocmnm.auflcflamxam
mmcmuo H>£umz .mm .Ava wpflmasm Um>aommfln ~AOQV Gmmwxo po>HOmmHo .musumummfime womMHDmll.m mqmdfi

 

34

 

m.5 m.o o.m o.m oooH
oooH o mmm m.5 H.o o.m m.m oomH
«.5 H.m o.m m.m oomo m
«.5 o.o o.m o.m oooH
oooH .o mmm m.5 H.o o.m m.m oomH
m.5 H.m o.m m.m oomo m
«.5 o.o o.m o.m oooH
oHoH o mmm m.5 H.o o.m m.m ooNH
m.5 o.m o.m m.m oomo H .>oz om
v.5 o.o 5.5 5.5 oooH
omoH . o mmm v.5 m.m 5.5 o.m oomH
m.5 o m.m 5.o o.o oomo m
m.5 o.o o.5 5.5 oooH
oHoH o omm v.5 o.m m.5 o.m oomH
v.5 o o.m 5.5 o.v oomo m
, m.5 5.o 5.5 5.5 oooH
omoH o mmm «.5 H.m m.5 o.m oomH
m.5 o m.m 5.5 o.o oooo H .uoo om
Hmoomo H\oeo Hmoomo onso HH\oeo Ionsv Hoe loo lemme
.nufim .O.E mm .man .mEmB COHuomm mama
mm .
mcoumm muHcHmeHH me on umumz HHa msHe

 

 

.pmscflucooll.m mHQMB

35

TABLE 4.--Dissolved Oxygen, Dissolved Sulfide and pH Values
for Sample Sites at the Soil-Water Interface in
the Constructed Stream for 1972.

 

 

Time . . Dissolved Dissolved
Date (EST) Section (Site) Oxygen Sulfide pH
1 Oct. 1000 1 (2.7 cm) 5.6 0 7.5
1400 1 (3—7 cm) 6.3 0 7.5
1000 2 (2.7 cm) 5.7 0 7.5
1400 2 (3—7 cm) 6.1 0 7.5
1000 3 (2.7 cm) 5.4 0 7.3
1400 3 (3-7 cm) 6.2 0 7.4
16 Oct. 1000 l (2.7 cm) 5.8 0 7.5
1400 1 (3-7 cm) 6.9 0 7.5
1000 2 (2.7 cm) 5.7 0 7.4
1400 2 (3-7 cm) 6.6 0 7.5
1000 3 (2.7 cm) 5.8 0 7.3
1400 3 (3-7 cm) 6.7 O 7.3
30 Oct. 1000 1 (2.7 cm) 4.2 0 7.3
1000 2 (2.7 cm) 4.3 0 7.5

1000 3 (2.7 cm) 4.0 O 7.4

 

36

average of 2.08 mg/l by 1972. This intensification of diel
fluctuation was undoubtedly due to increased macrophyte
production.

Thus at the present time dissolved oxygen concen-
trations appear to be at least satisfactory for the
survival and growth of rainbow trout. However, further
increases in the diel fluctuations may effectively reduce
conditions below those favorable for trout growth, devel-
opment and activity.

Values for pH were invariably slightly above
neutral (Tables 1, 2, and 3) except for 21 September 1972
in the spring below 6 m. The pH values of 6.8 in the
stratified non-oxygenated water may have resulted from
mineral acids derived from the association of ground water
with sulfide sources or from organic acids produced from
decaying vegetation. Values for pH also, as would be
expected, increased during daylight hours (Table 3). In
addition there appears to have been an increase in the
overall pH values of the system between 1971 and 1972.

In 1971, pH never equaled or exceeded 7.4 (Table 1) while
in 1972 readings of 7.4 and 7.5 (Table 3) were the most
frequently recorded values. This narrow rise in pH
values may have resulted from the combined effects of
increased precipitation and plant production. Increased
rainfall could have a diluting effect upon ground water

chemistry as enlarged volumes of surface water permeate

37

the recharge area and elevate pH values (Minckley, 1963).
Greater macrophyte production would also raise pH values
through increased utilization of available free C02.
The sulfate concentrations of the spring pond
surface waters and sections 1 and 3 of the stream from
samples collected on 22 July 1971 were 1520 mg/l, 2470
mg/l and 1250 mg/l respectively (shown in Appendix Table
A1). Sulfide, however, was detected only in the deep
basin of the spring pond under stratified conditions
(Table 2). Most of this sulfide is suSpended ferrous
sulfide with a lesser fraction as dissolved sulfide. IAt
a pH of 6.8 some of the dissolved sulfide present in solu-
tion is in equilibrium with ferrous sulfide dissociation.
On 21 September 1972, while the pond was still
stratified, secchi disc readings averaged 6.1 m (Table 2).
As circulation commenced transparency extended to the
spring bottom and remained in that state for the completion
of the study period. The change in transparency was
conceivably due to the disruption of conditions which had
favored sulfur oxidizing bacteria proliferation. Two
forms of these bacteria could presumably flourish in the
environmental conditions present in the waters of the
spring during stratification. The aerobic sulfur oxi—

dizing forms, Beggiatoa and Thiobacillus, are restricted

 

 

to waters charged with both oxygen and dissolving sulfide.

The photosynthetic anaerobic forms are dependent upon the

38

presence of light and the absence of oxygen. These
bacteria would mediate the oxidation of sulfide to sulfate
and thus reduce the concentrations of sulfide present in
solution. Circulation of the spring would oxygenate the
deep basin water, eliminating the dissolved sulfide, and
thus dissipate the zone favorable for sulfur bacteria,
reducing their numbers and increasing the transparency.
Dissolved sulfide was not detected in the stream
or at the soil—water interface, with the sampler used,
at any of the collecting sites (Tables 3 and 4). If dis-
solved sulfide is present at the soil—water interface its
concentrations are below detection with the methods employed
or restricted to only a few millimeters above the substrate.
At such concentrations it would be of exiguous consequence
to adult fish. If present in even small concentrations
it would be of some significance to the eggs and fry of
the trout, which are adversely affected by concentrations
of hydrogen sulfide as low as 0.02 mg/l (Smith and Oseid,
1970). This is of limited concern, however, since success-
ful natural reproduction will probably be impeded in this
stream by the particle size of the substrate material,
which is too fine to allow adequate movement of water
and oxygen through a redd, a factor which will seriously
limit natural reproduction (Phillips et al., 1966).
There may be several reasons why dissolved sulfide

is not present in detectable concentrations at the

39

soil-water interface. As a newly constructed channel
there may be insufficient amounts of deposited organic
matter undergoing microbial decomposition to produce

much dissolved sulfide. Additionally, dissolved oxygen
concentrations are high even at the soil-water interface,
thus rapidly oxidizing any sulfide which may be produced.
Finally, the current, although not swift, may be adequate
to distribute formed sulfide throughout the water column
quickly, assisting in its dispersion and oxidation.

The results of other chemical analyses indicate,
as would be expected from pH values, that no phenolphthalein
alkalinity is present, so that the alkalinity is entirely
equivalent to bicarbonate alkalinity. Alkalinity values

varied from 226 mg/l as CaCO to 235 mg/l in the stream

3
during 1971 and from 230 mg/l to 242 mg/l during 1972

(Tables 1 and 3). Total hardness (EDTA) measured only
during the 1972 collection period varied from 1580 mg/l

to 1710 mg/l as CaCO (Table 3).

3

Biological

 

Macrophytes

 

The values obtained for macrophyte standing crop
(Table 5) can only be presented as imperfect estimates of
actual values. Sampling techniques and lack of time
prevented adequate numbers of samples from being collected.
In addition, although every effort was made to prevent loss

of plant material during sampling, occasional bits of

40

TABLE 5.--Estimated Macrophyte Standing crop (g/mz, dry
weight) for the Constructed Trout stream at the
Erie Shooting Club for 1971 and 1972. (T = aver-
aged standing crop for entire stream, Tr. = trace,
less than 0.5 g/m .)

 

 

 

 

 

 

m
c
m
m o
5 -H
m H
'{J 3% 33
Year Stream 0 m u
Section c m E‘
o -H Q
0 «(J H O
m o m H
m m c o
o m m
m E -H 2
H m H
m D .H H
£1 0 m H
U D. > <2
1971 1 107.0 0 0 107.0
2 23 0 0 Tr 23.0
3 4 5 0 Tr 4.5
T 44.8 0 Tr. 44.8
1972 1 378.5 0 0 378.5
2 , 121.3 5.1 Tr. 126.9
3 62.3 105.4 Tr. 167.7

T 107.7 38.8 Tr. 209.7

 

41

plant tissue would be observed to drift around or over

the catch net. It was also impossible to completely
remove all plant material from the m2 plots, especially

in section 1 in 1972 when Cha£a_§p; growths were extremely
thick. ‘Thus the values obtained have probably underesti-
mated the actual values.

The two predominant species, Potamggeton crispus

 

and Chara sp., are both considered indicators of hard

 

water environments and often prone to grow too luxuriantly

(Fassett, 1966). Chara sp. is described as a valuable

 

food producer, especially for young trout (Fassett, 1966),
and in fact, the trout were often observed to strike at

the Chara sp. plants in what were conceivably attempts to

 

dislodge invertebrates from among the macrophyte.

From values obtained for standing crop it is
apparent that there has been a substantial increase in
macrophyte biomass from 1971 to 1972 (Table 5), a fact
also indicated by the increased fluctuations in daily
oxygen pulse. While the stream as an entirety does not
have an exceptionally high standing crop compared to other
environments (Tesar, 1971), stream section 1 has developed

a biomass of Chara sp. that may soon, if not already, be

 

considered a nuisance. If its biomass continues to
expand, this entire section of stream may become completely

obstructed with the plant.

42

While some plant production may be desirable to
increase dissolved oxygen concentrations, excessive plant
growths may have undesirable effects upon the environment.
Unusually large populations of benthic macrophytes may
greatly increase fluctuations of the daily oxygen pulse.
Not only would the lowered oxygen levels have a direct
effect upon the fish but would also enhance the possibility
of hydrogen sulfide formation and increase its toxicity
to the trout (Smith and Oseid, 1970). The macrophytes may
increase the potentiality of hydrogen sulfide formation
by reducing current velocities, increasing organic material
available for decomposition, and upon death form dense
mats of decaying matter which could reduce soil—water
interface oxygen concentrations. Once formed hydrogen
sulfide may persist for considerable time even in the
presence of very high dissolved oxygen concentrations
(Colby and Smith, 1967). For while the chemical oxida-
tion of sulfides is thermodynamically favored it proceeds
very slowly (Chen and Morris, 1971) under most circum-
stances. The presence of large populations of sulfide
oxidizing bacteria are necessary for the rapid trans—
formation of sulfides to higher oxidized states.

Some level of aquatic macrophyte control may be
necessary if plant biomass continues to increase or
severely reduces dissolved oxygen by increasing the daily

oxygen pulse. Control of the aquatic flora may be

43

accomplished by either chemical or mechanical means, both
of which have their advantages and disadvantages. Per-

sistent reinfection from the spring by Chara sp. and

 

other macrophytes from the surrounding marsh may make
aquatic plant regulation a continual necessity in this
environment.

Chemical control is the most frequently employed
method because of its minimum expenditure of time, effort,
and finances. Chemical treatment, however, provides only
temporary relief and for best results treatments must be
repeated on an annual basis. Care must also be taken to
avoid severe depletion of oxygen levels when using
herbicides. If dead plant material is not removed, its
decomposition could greatly reduce oxygen levels and
supply stored nutrients for support of new growths. Since
fish must filter more water to obtain the same levels of
oxygen, the toxic effects of chemical residues and
environmental toxicants will be increased. One means of
avoiding this difficulty is to treat only small sections
of the stream at a time, thus preventing the decomposition
of large amounts of plant tissue.

Mechanical aquatic plant control tends to be more
expensive and time consuming, however it has several
advantages. First, no foreign and possibly toxic sub-
stances are added to the environment. Secondly, the

removal of plant tissue from the water reduces nutrients

44

that would otherwise be available for further plant pro-

duction.

Invertebrates

 

A total of 17 different groups of invertebrates
were collected from the spring and stream in the Eckman
dredge samples (shown in Appendix Table A2). An addi-
tional six species, three of which were Coleoptera, were
gathered from the terrestrial vegetation which dipped into
the water along the stream banks (shown in Appendix
Table A3). The species inhabiting the spring were identi-
cal to those found in the stream with the exception that
the deep basin was populated exclusively with species of
the Oligochaeta, a fact undoubtedly due to the prolonged
periods of oxygen-free water.

The species of invertebrates present in both the
Spring and stream are almost entirely pond and stagnant
stream environmental forms (Pennak, 1953 and Usinger,
1963). In addition, at least 11 of the species are
described as being associated with at least moderate
amounts of macrophyte growths (Pennak, 1953). The flatworm,

Phagocata velata, collected from this environment is a

 

cold stenothermal, standing—water triclad. It is thus
specified as typical of cold water springs and spring brooks
and becomes active in ponds and ditches only during the

cold months (Pennak, 1953).

45

- Springs and adjacent sections of spring brooks
have been characterized (Minckley, 1963 and Pennak, 1953)
as typically having faunas limited in species numbers and
with two or three Species being numerically superior.
This diversity index of benthic invertebrates and many of
the species which characterize springs are similar to those
recorded for polluted waters. This similarity in Species
composition and diversity has been accounted for by Sloan
(1956) as being related to the low dissolved oxygen con-
tent prevalent in both environments. Of the 23 forms of
invertebrates collected from the system under study, five
were numerically dominant to all others. Representatives
from the class Oligochaeta, the family Chironomidae, the

gastropod Physa sp. and the crustaceans Hyalella azteca

 

 

and Asellus militaris constituted the principal inverte-

 

brates collected. Most other forms were present in only
small numbers.

When the 1971 and 1972 invertebrate collections
are compared the represented forms remain essentially
identical; however, several species increased notably in
numbers present. Oligochaeta species, H; azteca, and

A; militaris were all eminently more numerous in 1972.

 

Their increased numbers can conceivably be associated with
the enlarged macrophyte standing crop (Barber, 1970).

H; azteca and A;_militaris in particular are both very

 

closely associated with macrophytes for shelter and food

(Pennak, 1953).

SUMMARY

1. This study is designed to determine the
suitability of the Erie Shooting Club spring as a source
of water for a constructed trout stream and to evaluate
the constructed stream as a trout habitat. The principal
'concerns of this investigation are the existence and
concentrations of the dissolved gases, oxygen and hydrogen
sulfide.

2. The spring forms a pond of approximately one
acre, and has a maximum depth of 12.1 m. Its basin is
funnel-Shaped, with a marginal strip shelving off slowly

and then dropping sharply to its maximum depth. Chara sp.

 

grows in a thick mat along the marginal shelf. The
stream is presently approximately 660 m long with an
average depth and width of 5.8 and 1.7 m, respectively.

3. The chemistry of the water emerging at the
Spring is largely influenced by the geological deposits
in the recharge area. flflmaunderlying bedrock consists
.basically of limestones and dolomite reportedly interlaced
with subterranean channels which allows for movement of
groundwater through the bedrock. Springs are common in
the surrounding area; however, their numbers are dimin-

ishing due to a lowering of the piezometric level. There

46

47

was, however, a noticeable increase in spring discharge
volume from 1971 to 1972, presumably due to the 15.23
additional inches of precipitation received during the
latter year. 1

4. According to Meinzer's (1923) classification
the Erie Shooting Club spring is a 3rd order spring. Its
waters issue from the bedrock at a temperature of 10.6 C
and devoid of oxygen. The surface waters of the pond are
capable of acquiring concentrations of oxygen of at
-least 1.8 mg/l by plant photosynthesis and diffusion
from the atmosphere. The spring pond probably experiences
two states of thermal distribution, a summer stratifica-
tion and a winter circulation. Some sulfides are present
in the deep unoxygenated water of the spring pond during
stratification but none was detected in the surface
waters or throughout the pond during circulation.

5. After passing over the falling-water aerator
into the stream, the spring water has obtained an addi—
tional 4 to 6 mg/l of dissolved oxygen. The daily oxygen
pulse of the stream during 1971 was very narrow. It,
however, increased during 1972, undoubtedly due to the
enlarged macrophyte biomass. No dissolved sulfides were
discovered in the stream even attfluasoil-water interface
where they are most frequently generated.

6. Only three species of macrophytes presently

grow in the stream, with Potamogeton crispus and Chara Sp,

 

 

48.

being by far the predominant forms. Both of these macro-
phytes are considered indicators of hard water and often
prone to grow too luxuriantly. Estimated values for
standing crop reveal that there has been a substantial
increase in macrophyte biomass from 1971 to 1972. Control
of macrOphyte production may become desirable if aquatic
plant biomass continues to increase or if oxygen concen-
trations reach unfavorable levels during the night phase
of the daily oxygen pulse.

7. Of the 23 forms of invertebrates collected
from the spring and stream, almost all are described as
pond and stagnant stream types. In addition, at least
eleven species are associated with macrophyte growths.
The spring and stream have essentially the same species
of invertebrates except that the deep basin of the spring

is populated only with members of the class Oligochaeta.

LITERATURE CITED

49

LITERATURE CITED

American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard
methods for the examination of water and waste-
water. 13th ed. New York. 874 p.

Barber, W. E. 1970. Ecological factors influencing
macroinvertebrates in the Pine River. Ph.D.
thesis, Mich. State Univ. 77 p.

Basu, S. D. 1959. Active respiration of fish in relation
to ambient concentrations of oxygen and carbon
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50

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APPENDIX

53

 

54

TABLE Al.--Kje1dah1 Nitrogen, pH, Total Phosphorus, and
Sulfate Values for Spring and Stream Determined
by Institute of Water Research, Water Quality

Laboratory at Michigan State University.
(Samples preserved with 42 mg/l HgClz.)

 

 

C Spring Stream Stream
Analyses Surface Sec. 1 Sec. 3
Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/l) 0.94 0.61 0.67
pH 7.28 7.39 7.35
Total Phosphorus (mg/l) 0.18 0.14 0.13
Sulfate (mg/1) 1520.0 2470.0 1250.0

 

 

55

TABLE A2.--Benthic Invertebrates Collected from the Erie
Shooting Club Spring and Stream during 1971 and
1972.

 

August 1971
Invertebrate Stream Spring
Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Shelf Basin

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Insecta
Callibaetis sp. '3
Caenis SEE. ‘17
Ischnura sp;_ 1 ‘
Somatochlora Sp. - J
Corixidae l ,
Berosus sp. 1
Chironomidae 151 103 88 151
Palpomyia sp. 1 l
Oligochaeta 140 10 3 35 34
Gastropoda
Physa sp. 64 32 14 21
Amnicola sp. 4 l 6 2

 

Gyraulus sp.

 

Valvata tricarinata

 

 

 

 

Encrustacea
Hyalella azteca 8 119
Asellus militaris 1 1 114
Turbellaria
Phagocata velata 3
Hirudinea

Helobdella stagnalis

 

56

Table A2.--Continued.

 

 

September 1971
Invertebrate Stream Spring
Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Shelf Basin

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Insecta
Callibaetis Sp, 1
Caenis sp. 12 27 F
Ischnura sp. 2 10
Somatochlora sp. 2
Corixidae ’
Berosus sp.
Chironomidae 404 135 y 85 131
Palpomyia sp. 1 I 8
Oligochaeta 212 6 l 20 152
Gastropoda
Phy§a_§p;. 192 118 63 14
Amnicola sp. 16 13 6
Gyraulus sp. 5 2
Valvata tricarinata 1
Encrustacea
Hyalella azteca 12 2 4 101
Asellus militaris 6 2 150
Turbellaria
Phagocata velata 1 6
Hirudinea

Helobdella stagnalis

 

57

Table A2.--Continued.

 

 

October 1971
Invertebrate Stream Spring
Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Shelf Basin

 

Insecta

Callibaetis sp.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Caenis sp. 4
Ischnura #p. 2 3
Somatochlora sp. 1
Corixidae
Berosus SE; 1
Chironomidae 108 55 16 130
Palpomyia sp. 2 4 10
Oligochaeta 235 9 23 '4 94
Gastropoda
Physa sp. 111 80 l7 l4
Amnicola Sp. 10 21 7
Gyraulus sp. 5 2

 

Valvata tricarinata

 

Encrustacea

Hyalella azteca 13 2 2 91

 

Asellus militaris 109

 

Turbellaria

Phagocata velata 1

 

Hirudinea

Helobdella stagnalis 13

 

 

Table A2.--Continued.

 

58

 

Invertebrate

Sec.

October 1972

Stream
1 Sec. 2

Sec.

Spring
Shelf Basin

 

Insecta

Callibaetis Sp.

 

Caenis sp.

 

Ischnura sp.

 

Somatochlora sp.

 

Corixidae

Berosus sp.

 

Chironomidae

Palpomyia Sp.

 

Oligochaeta
Gastropoda

Physa Sp3

 

Amnicola sp.

 

Gyraulus sp.

 

Valvata tricarinata

 

Encrustacea

Hyalella azteca

 

Asellus militaris

 

Turbellaris

Phagocata velata

 

Hirudinea

Helobdella stagnalis

 

167

419

49

11

131

160

45

62

14

134
10

135

11

34

51

 

130

14 171

121

136

59

Table A2.--Continued.e

 

 

. (November 1972
Invertebrate Stream Spring

Sec. 1 Sec. 2 Sec. 3 Shelf Basin

 

Insecta

Callibaetis sp.

 

Caenis sp.

 

Ischnura sp.

 

Somatochlora sp.

 

Corixidae

 

Berosus sp.

 

 

Chironomidae 168 145 107 170
Palpomyia sp. 4 12 23 11
Oligochaeta 405 137 107 12 200
Gastropoda
Physa Sp3 ' 28 11 4

 

Amnicola sp.

 

Gyraulus sp. 1 1

 

Valvata tricarinata

 

 

 

 

Encrustacea

Hyalella azteca 83 60 131 126

Asellus militaris 12 36 65 146
Turbellaria

Phagocata velata 2 1 5
Hirudinea

Helobdella stagnalis

 

 

60

TABLE A3.-—Invertebrates Collected from Submerged Terres-

trial Vegetation Growing along the Stream Banks.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Class Family Genus Species
Encrustacea Asellidae Asellus militaris
Talitridae Hyalella azteca
Insecta Baetidae Callibaetis sp.
Coenagrionidae Ischnura sp.
Aeshnidae Aeshna sp.
Corixidae
Nepidae Ranatra sp.
Gerridae Gerris sp.
Hydrophilidae Tropisternus sp.
Berosus sp.
Dytiscidae Hydrovatus Sp.
Haliplidae Peltgdytes Sp.
Gastropoda Physidae Physa sp.
Amnicolidae Amnicola sp.

 

 

 

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