, V. ' o
“M': . o .
‘ '1‘
.

 

 

 

A COMPARATIVE STUDY 0F LEARMNG iN
BEG-ENNIIM ICE SKATING WITH AND
WiTHOUT USE OF LOOP-FILMS

Thesis for the Dogma a? M. A.
MECHESAN SETS E‘I‘EEEFERSETY

Joyce Marie Watson
1962

, ‘ ‘}.—§1:.L“‘

:{VtiESAS

 

 

 

 

 

Y.(\(-

BUREAU OF ED‘JQWTK‘TLAL Riun‘. {{CH
COL: E Li (L: L5. L3"?! H
MC: :5,:.‘ 5‘13": U..\'.V:, I: IY
FA \T IAN HAG NAGHIGAN

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEARNING IN BEGINNING
ICE SKATING WITH AND WITHOUT

USE OF LOOP-FILMS

BY

Joyce Marie watson

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Health, Phys al Education, and Recreation

/ / / ~ 1 ,
Approved .71! JMA - r! fig...“ L376 L

I

1962

ABSTRACT

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEARNING IN BEGINNING
ICE-SKATING WITH AND WITHOUT
USE OF LOOP-FILMS

by Joyce Marie Watson

Statement 9f the Problem

The purpose of this study was to determine the effective-
ness of the use of loop-films in aiding learning among a
large group of students in a typical ice-skating class

»situation.

W
Forty-six female subjects were chosen from two

beginning ice-skating classes at Michigan State University.

A pre-test was given for the purpose of equating the

students. They were judged on a standard progression

rating scale by a panel of three experienced ice-skaters

having a high degree of knowledge in the field of ice-

skating. As a result of the pre-test, the rating agreed on

by two out of three judges was used for grouping the students

into non-skater and beginner categories.

Joyce Marie Watson

The selection of teaching methods to be used in the
two classes was determined at random by the instructor before
classes were in session. The control group was taught by the
instructor’s traditional method of teaching ice-skating
while the experimental class was taught in the same manner
with additional aid of loop—films.

The experiment lasted for a period of ten weeks with
two one-hour sessions per week on the ice. The two classes
were instructed using identical lesson plans and instructional
time was held constant. At the time and place of learning
the four skills two different teaching methods were
applied.

Tests A, B. X and Y were given to all students in
both the control and experimental classes. Tests A and
B were administered twice during the ten week period to
measure early learning, which was improvement made
during the initial instruction period beginning from the
first day of instruction up until the mid-term test.
late learning was the improvement made between the end
of the early learning phase and the end of the term. and
over—all learning was the total improvement made during

the entire term. Tests x and Y measured advanced skill

Joyce Marie Watson
learning and were administered once at the end of the
term.
The arithmetic average of the ratings given by the
same panel of three judges was used to collect mean
scores on all four tests administered to both groups.
All data were statistically treated using analysis of

variance.

anclugign

Subject to the limitations of the study, the following
seems justified: The use of loop-films in teaching of ice-
skating, is most beneficial during the early learning

period.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LEARNING IN BEGINNING
ICE SKATING WITH AND WITHOUT

USE OF LOOP-FILMS

BY

Joyce Marie Watson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation

1962

DEDICATION

To my Mom, Dad and Grandmother whose sincere under-

standing has guided me in making graduate study a reality.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express her sincere gratitude
to her thesis adviser. Dr. Roy x. Niemeyer for his
guidance. kindness and sincere enthusiasm in the pre-
paration of this thesis.

Acknowledgments of sincere thanks are also due to
the judges Jack Jest. Ronald Pfenning and Milo Burnhem
for their valuable assistance in the administration of

the test items involved in the study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the Problem . . . . . . .
Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . .
Explanations of Terms . . . . . . . .

\OCDO‘U'ih

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . 13

Motion Pictures . . . . . . . . . . 13
Motor Learning . . . . . . . . . . 18
Teaching Methods. . . . . . . . . . 19
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

III 0 “TfiowLOGY O O O I C O O O O O O O 24

Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . 24
Selection of the Sample for Study . . . . 24
Methods of Instruction. . . . . . . _. 25
Experimental Procedure. . . . . . . . 28
Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . 31

IV 0 “SULTS O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 34

Results of Test A1 and A2. . . . . . . 35
Results of Test Bl and 32. . . . . . . 39
Comparison of Results on Tests A and B . . 42
Results of Advanced Skill Tests x and Y . . 43
Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . . 47
Discussion of Tests. . . . . . . . . 47

V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 50
smary O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 50
Conclusions . .. . . . . . . . . . 51
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 52

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O 5 3

APPENDmSe O O O I O 0 O O O O O O O O O 56

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
I. ’Test Schedule in Reference to Learning . . . . 32

II. Comparison of Early Learning Between Experimental
and Control Group on Test A1. . . . . . . 35

III. Difference Between Test A1 and A2 for Comparison
ovaate Learning Between Experimental and
Control Group. . . . . . . . . . . . 37

IV. Comparison of Over-All Learning Between Experi-
mental and Control Group on Test A2 . . . . 38
V. Comparison of Early Learning Between Experimental
and Control Group on Test 81' . . . . . . 39

VI. Difference Between Test B1 and 32 for Comparison
of Late Learning Between Experimental and
Control Group. . . . . . . . . . . . 41

VII. Comparison of Over—All Learning Between Experi-
mental and Control Group on Test 32 . . . . 42

VIII. Comparison of Advanced Skill Learning Between
Experimental and Control Group on Test x. . . 45

Ix. Comparison of Advanced Skill Learning Between
Experimental and Control Group on Test Y. . . 46

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure ~ g Page

1. Mean Scores on Experimental Factors Test A1
and A2--Forward Inside Edge Roll . . . . . 36

2. Mean Scores on Experimental Factors Test 31
and B2--Forward Outside Edge Roll. . . . . 40

'3. Mean Scores on Experimental Factors Test x
(Mohawk Turn) Test Y (Three-Turn). . . . . 44

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The teaching of various physical education skills to
large groups of students tends. to lead to prom in methods
and techniques among physical education instructors.
Therefore. an attempt has been made to teach a college
co-educational figure skating class with the aid of loop-
films as a means to bring about more efficient learning of
skills in the shortest tune possible. The use of audio-
visual aids, as a supplementary teaching device in physical
education is by no means a new technique. but has received
increasing attention in recent years.

In an article written by Friedrich, he pointed out
that audio-visual aids are being used more extensively
and effectively for education purposes. He feels that
the actual experience of learning by doing will be the
basic learning process in physical education but along with
actual learning experiences, audio-visual materials when

properly used will increase learning and speed up the

2
learning process.1 Furthermore, Friedrich concluded that,
”audio-visual aids will more effectively portray certain
factors vital to the learning experiences, provide clearer
concepts, fuller understanding, improve attention, encourage,
develop interest and motivate the learner."2

Many research studies have indicated positive value
when films have been used in teaChing certain physical
education skills. The purpose of these investigations
was to determine the effectiveness of films on learning
in relation to various types of physical education teach-
ing situations. Claus reported that, "the teaching of com-
plex skills involving movement of the whole body has been a
problem in teaching methods among coaches and gymnasts."3
In the field of ice-skating, it is evident that some
skaters have successfully executed a complex skill on the

first trial. Others may spend months working up to a

 

1Friedrich, John A. "Teaching Games and Skills Through

Sight and Sound," Journal of HealthI Physical Education and
Recreatign. Vol. 23. No. 6. June, 1952. p. 12.

21b; ., p. 12.

3Claus, Marshal R. "A Comparative Study of the Part
Method vs. the Whole Method in the Learning of a Fly- Away
from the Horizontal Bar,” Thesis for the degree of MA."
Michigan State University, 1961. p. l.

specific skill through some selected progression of skills
and still have difficulty in performing these skills at
the time and place of learning. Due to the aforementioned
observations, it is therefore necessary to give individual
instruction to aid the students in learning skills more
efficiently.

Southward stated.

"Beginning figure skating classes are a
challenge for both the student and the instructor.
A challenge to the beginner to become aware of
total body balance, to sense the feel for con-
trolling skating edges and challenge to in-
structor to convey these feelings. Before the
basic fundamental figure skating skill can be
mastered, body balance and skating edges must
be thoroughly understood and mastered. There-
fore, the skating instructor is challenged to
present the often time timid and discouraged
beginner the least painful and most effective
way to learn the fundamentals. The manner
and method used in teaching each skill depend
upon the natural ability of the student, the
size of the class and the size of the skating
area."4

There is relatively little research data available
pertaining to the best methods of learning complex skills.
However. it has been found in research that there is

great value in the use of motion pictures as an aid at the

 

4Southward, Barbara. ”First Lessons in Figure Skating,"
1 .- ;"._h P! ‘1 ,'. '._ C: .011 '1d -;,__;'_ .ne v01.-

31._ January, 1960. pp. 31. 32 and as.

time and place of learning. Nelson, pointed out that
pointed out that studies on the effect of slowbmotion
lOOp-films have been constructed of competitive-athletic-
type skills and researchers have found improved performances
occurring when films of various kinds were used.5

This investigation was undertaken to determine a means
of teaching two basic skills and two advanced skills
involved in a beginning ice-skating class which may make
for more efficient learning of the skills in the short-

est time possible.

W

This experiment was designed to determine the effective-
ness of the use of loop—films in aiding learning among a
large group of students in a typical ice-skating class
situation.

W:

1. To determine if a difference existed in speed and

effectiveness of learning between a group of

students taught with the aid of loop-films and

 

5
nelson, Dale 0. "Effect of Slodeotion Loop-films on
the Learning of Golf,” The R h a . Vol. 29.

a second group taught without the aid of loop-
films.

2. To determine which method was more effective in
early learning on the two basic skills.

3. To determine which method was more effective in
late learning on the two basic skills.

4. To determine which method was more effective in
over-all learning on the two basic skills.

5. To determine which method was more effective in

advanced skill learning.

Sc 0 he 8 u

This study involved two beginning co-educational figure
skating classes at Michigan State University. The classes
were open to all college students to enroll in for a period
of ten weeks.

The members of the class had no knowledge that they
were being used as subjects in a research study. Therefore.
standard’methods of instructions and learning conditions
were maintained throughout the term so that the students
would think that the instructor ordinarily taught the

course in this manner. The only difference in the two

methods of teaching was the use of loop-films in the
experimental class as an additional aid at the time and

place of learning a particular skill.

P 8 ud

The purpose of this study was to determine if a
difference existed in speed and effectiveness of
learning between a group of students taught with the
aid of loop-films and a second group taught without the
aid of loop-films.

There have been relatively few studies concerned with
the problem of teaching ice-skating involved the method-
ology of teaching ice-skating skills to individuals from
a professional standpoint rather than teaching large
groups of students from a non-professional standpoint.

Traditional teaching methods in the field of ice-
skating emphasized first, the mastery of school figures such
as forward outside figure eights and threes before progress-
ing to free style and dance. This approach eventually led
to the best learning situation over a longer period of
time.

The problem that confronts the instructor in the univer-
sity situation is one of teaching many skills and techniques

‘within a ten week period with classes meeting for nineteen.

one-hour sessions. One purpose of instruction in ice-
skating, as in many other physical education activities.

is to enable the student to develop sufficient skill to
enjoy participating in ice-skating after completion of the
course. Therefore, the ultimate goal is not to emphasize
perfection of technique alone, but to stimulate an interest
in figure skating by providing opportunities for an early
sense of accomplishment.

The present study was undertaken to determine if the use
of loop-films would aid the students accomplishment at the
time and place of learning the four skills. The purpose of
these loop-films, as stated above, were used as supplementary
aids during practice sessions. These sessions consisted of
repetitive practice on a particular skill. It was hoped
that with the use of loop-films during practice sessions
the capacity to provide individual help to all students
would be increased. Needless to say, one teacher cannot.
try as he may, provide maximal assistance to all students
without the aid of a supplementary teaching device, such
as a loop-film.

There were no studies of methodologies to be found
pertaining to teaching methods for a college co-education-

al figure skating class, or any large group of students.

Limitations of the Study

1.

Lack of a standardized test to determine skating
ability. Therefore, tests were prepared by the
instructor and data were collected on the subject-
ive judgment of a jury.

Time of learning was restricted to one school term.
Therefore, four tests designed to measure skating
ability in four skills were administered through-
out the school term.

Both groups met on different days but at the same
hour.

The students in both classes were not restricted
as to additional practice when class was not in
session.

Individual differences in the initial ability of
the students in the two classes.

The sample population for this study was drawn
from the members of the student body at

Michigan State University. It cannot be said that
the same result would have been achieved with a

different sample.

Explanatiog 9f Terms

1. mug—l6 mm slow-motion pictures were made of the
instructor performing the skating skills. These action shots
of each skill were cut by the writer into four short
lengths. The ends of each length were spliced together

to form a short loop-film which could be viewed over and
over again.

2. £3;ly_;§a;giggrimprovement made during the initial
instruction period, beginning from the first day of
instruction up until the mid-term test.

3. §a§g_;§§£§;ggrimprovement made between the end of the
early learning phase and the end of the term.

4. ngg;§;;_lg§;giggrrefers to the total improvement made
during the entire term.

5. §§h§9l_§igggg§rare the basic edges, turns and changes of
edge of which free skating is composed. The figures are
two-lobed or three-lobed eights skated alternately on the
right and left foot to a center or starting point. Each
circle should be retraced a number of times on each foot.
6. Egggrthe figure skating blade is hollow ground and
therefore has two edges on each blade. The edges are re-
ferred to as inside and outside edges, coinciding with the

inside and outside of the foot. Skating on an edge will take

10

the skater in a circle.

7. Egggggg_ggggigg_eightris a start from a point on the ice,
called the “center“ or ”starting point" tracing one complete
circle on the right outside edge of the skating foot in a
forward direction around to the self same starting point.
From there stroke off onto a left outside edge and make a
continuous forward circle back to the same point, so that
the figure as a whole, once executed, will be a smoothly
curved eight laid out on the ice for one to see. The mark
that has been skated in the ice surface is called the
tracing or print.

8. :gfig;;§_gg§1igg_thrggris a turn from the outside forward
edge of a skate onto the inside back edge of the same skate
in the direction of travel. The turn occurs at the exact
top of the circle, so that for one-half of the figure you
travel forward on your right forward outer edge and for the
second half you will be traveling backward (but still in the
same clockwise direction) on the right back inner edge. From
this right back inner edge, step onto the left forward outer
edge as you close the first circle and duplicate the turn on
the left foot to form the figure eight.

9. zrgg_§;ylgrconsists of long edges, dance steps, jumps.

spins and turns skated over the whole surface of the ice in

l

11

rhythm to music.

10. §kg§igg_§gg§rthe skate taking the weight on the ice.
ll. m-corresponds to the side of the body with the

skate taking the weight.

12. Prgg skagg-the skate off the ice.
l3. gggg_§£mrcorresponds to the side of the body with the

skate off the ice.
14- Ellis—EELLLE?
l. nggagd inside edge roll-is skated on an inside

edge with the free arm forward and free skate and leg
extended behind the body after the push-off. After push-
off, rotate the free leg forward and close pass the skating
foot, also bringing free arm back and then glide in this
position.

2. zQgua£g_ggtgigg_gggg_ggllris skated on an
outside edge with skating arm forward. The free arm is
behind with the free leg extended straight out behind
after the push-off. Slowly rotate the free arm and leg
forward to complete the roll for the glide.

15- Mai—Ile-
l. ngngghggkris a turn from a forward inside edge

‘
O

on one foot to a back inside edge on another foot. The

purpose of this turn is to bring the skater from a forward

12

skating position into a back skating position.

2. Three-turn-is a turn from a forward outside edge to
a back inside edge on the same foot. The purpose of this
turn is to bring the skater from a forward skating

position into a back skating position.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW or RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter is discussed a review of related
literature concerning the use of motion pictures as an aid
in teaching, teaching methods and motor learning. As
stated in Chapter I. there are no studies of methodologies
to be found in teaching methods for a college co-educational
figure skating class or any large group of students. There-
fore, only a brief summary of very closely related studies
and findings will be given here.

EOELOE Pictures. Brown and Messersmith used two
tumbling classes taught with and without the using of moving
pictures. The total instruction time was held constant and
instructional units were identical. The experimental class
viewed pictures of experienced tumblers and later viewed
pictures of themselves performing these selected stunts
during their class period. As a result of the study, Brown
and.Messersmith stated,

“The experimental class made a little more

progress than did the control class as measured by
the scores on the final battery of tests, but the

l4
superiority was not statistically significant.
There is a great need for more studies dealing
with the use of motion pictures and the learn-
ing of motor skills.“1
nelson used forty-seven adult men and women who had
never swung a golf club, gave a pre-test and matched them
into two groups to study the effect of slow motion loop-
films on the learning of golf. He pointed out, that this
study showed no statistical significance, but also what
happens in golf instruction may be entirely different from
what happens in the learning of other athletic skills. How-
ever, it did help in pointing out the intricacies of complex
gross motor movement. Both of the groups made gains in
learning as was evident by the scoring techniques. The
films seemed to favor the learning of golf in the later
stages of instruction but not in the early stages. Further
breakdown of Nelson's study indicated greater learning in

the early stages for the lower levels and greater learning

in the later stages for the upper levels.2

 

1Brown, Howard 8., and Messersmith, Lloyd. "An
Experiment in Teaching Tumbling With and Without Motion

Pictures." The Research ghartggly. Vol. 19. No. 4.
December, 1948. pp. 304¥307.

2nelson, Dale 0. "Effect of Slow.Motion Loop-

films on the Learning of Golf,“ ghg_hg§g§;gh_ghgghgghy.
Vol. 29. March, 1958. p. 45.

15
Lockhart pointed out that in any learning problem
there is a need to acquire an intellectual concept or
clear picture of just what is expected. In this study
the film did assist in this concept for the movie
groups grasped the skill quicker than the non-movie
group. The evidence from this study indicated that the
motion picture was of most value not in the first stages.
but after the third week when there had been some practice
in the skill. She stated.
"Since the film contained precisely the

material which was to be learned, and since the

film could be shown at exactly the time it

seemed needed, it probably did assist in

providing the desired intellectual concept of

the bowling skill."3

«lHuelster suggested that the use of motion pictures
was a good device in analyzing performance. She felt that
by showing good mechanics of movement and then testing it
on good and poor performances as it is seen, is excellent
drill in keen observation. Most films picture the skills

used in one game or one sport together, but she felt it

was even more helpful for purposes of analysis to show

 

3Lockhart, Aileen. "The Value of the Motion Picture
as an Instructional Device in Learning a Motor Skill," Thg

hgggh;§h_ghg§hg£;y, .Vol. 15. May, 1944. pp. 181-187.

16

similar skills of different sports being filmed one after

another. However, motion pictures of the students them-

selves in action is revealing, too, for self analysis.4
Hupprich stated,

"Frequently it is desirable to demonstrate
some motor skill such as the tennis serve at a
slow rate of speed. The slow motion picture can
depict correct action better than the instructor
who attempts to introduce slow motion into her
activity. It has been clearly shown in studies of
manual work in industry that the skilled workman
adopts an entirely different style when he slows down
his activity for the sake of demonstration to a
beginner. Slow demonstrations in most activities
can best be given by means of slow'motion pictures.
They should come into greater use than at present.
There is no doubt that the slow motion picture is
the ideal medium for presenting a motor activity such
as thestennis serve as an integrated rhythmic move-
ment." ,

Ruffa stated,

"Results of this experiment indicated con-
clusively the positive value of using films to
teach certain athletic skills. The film employed
was constructed particularly for the use in this
experiment. It was of great help in presenting the
desired material and it is evident that the use of

 

Huelster, Laura J. "Learning to Analyze Performance,

Jghghal of Healhh, Physica; Education and Recrgahhgh. Vol.

10. No. 2. February, 1939. pp. 84, 121-122.

SHupprich, Florence. "The Use of Visual Aids in

Teaching Tennis,” Jgurhal of Hg§;§h, Physiggl Educhhigh and

hgggghhigh, Vol. 12. No. 2. February, 1941. pp. 93-95.

17

films would more than likely be of great benefit
in many other track events, as well as other athletic
sports."6 '

Glassow pointed out that the physical educator is in
step with the academic profession in the belief that motion
pictures are valuable teaching aids. Due to the review of
films, publications, and listings by physical education

committees there was an indication that the physical educa-

tor had accepted the instructional value of films.7

Priebe and Burton expressed positive value in the
use of loop-films as is stated by the following conclusions.

“(1) The use of sl w motion pictures in coaching
the high jump eliminated, to a large extent, the ini-
tial period of trial and error. (2) The use of
slow motion pictures in coaching the high jump
made for faster progress and better achievement.

(3) Illustrations of good form in slow motion
pictures seem definitely superior to verbal dir-
ections and physical demonstrations of good form,
particularly during the initial period of learn-
ing. (4) The use of 31 w motion pictures in
coaching the high jump was of definite assistance in
aiding performers to change from a familiar form of
skill to a new, superior, but unfamiliar form. (5)

 

6Ruffa, Edward J. "An Experimental Study of Motion
Pictures as Used in the Teaching of Certain Athletic Skills.“
Unpublished Master's Thesis, Leland Stanford University,
April, 1936.

7Glassow, Ruth. "Motion Pictures as Teaching Aids."

Journal of Hehlth, Physical Education and Recrgahhon. Vol. 13,
No. 8. October, 1942. p. 463.

18

The use of slow motion pictures enable the coach

to handle effectively a large number of boys. The

average amount of instructional time for the indi-

vidual was significantly cut down. (6) The use of

slow'motion pictures in coaching the high jump

contributed definitely to the interest and the

attention of the boys. There was marked interest

in analyzing individual errors and in improving

pictured defects. (7) The general conclusions

derived from this experiment seem to be in agree—

ment with those derived from investigations of the

use of motion pictures in other forms of learning."8

\fMoho; Learhing. Nelson, points out a view expressed by
Ragsdale, most laws and principles of the learning of motor
activities were based on experiments which involved only
verbal and symbolic material. He casted doubt on the
validity of commonly accepted principles of learning as true
in the acquisition of the physical skills. He felt that slow
motion pictures can do a better job of pointing out the
things that are taking place and the relationship of parts
to the whole in a clearer way than when the motion is at.
normal speed. Therefore, he indicated that slow motion

films should be of some value during the learning process.9

Bruce stated, "Perhaps the greatest contributions of

 

8 Priebe, Roy and Burton, William. “The SlOW'Motion
Picture as a Coaching Device," §chogl Revigw; Vol. 47.
January-December, 1939. pp. 192-198.

Nelson, Dale 0., "Effect of Slow’Motion Loop-
films on the Learning of Golf."

19
this study has been to indicate that there are probably
different types of motor learning, and that motor
learning of "sport type“ skills is dependent to a considerable
extent upon physical fitness expressed in terms of strength,
speed, agility and power."10

Seashore, in his study, found no over-all positive
dependence or interrelatedness of fine and gross motor
abilities in his experimentation. It would seem, there-
fore, that theories of learning for complex muscle acitivi-
ties should be based on experimentations using large muscle
activities, preferably under conditions resembling typical
learning situations.11

Teaching Mghhggs. House stated.

"The teacher should realize he is teaching an
individual and not merely an activity; that methods.
techniques, procedures and courses of study are
only to be used as aids to the greater task. There—
fore, he should be concerned with two groups of
objectives-his own and those of the pupil. The
concept that the best education for the individual
is the education that best meets his immediate
needs must have its influence on methodology.

To feel that one is teaching something that is

 

10 Bruce, D.K. “Studies in Motor Learning of Gross B

Bodily Motor Skills," Thg Regeagch ghagtggly. Vol. 17.
December, 1946. pp. 242-253. ‘

11 Seashore, Harold G. "Some Relationships of Fine

and Gross Motor Abilities," The Researgh ghagterly. Vol.
139 OCtOber. 1942. Pa 2590

20

vital and alive to teacher and pupil alike gives
one stimulating and enobling inspiration."12

Kretchmar conducted a survey of research in the teach-
ing of sports and from his finding stated.

“In general, the impression built up through
study of these materials is the research has barely
begun on the heart of learning and teaching prob-
lems. This is not only true with respect to the
visual factors, but with relations to other factors
as well."13

Knapp and Hagman felt there was a definite need in
motor learning for experimentation in real teaching situa-
tions. They reported,

"Much of the research on learning consists of
experimentation don under closely controlled labora-
tory circumstances. Because of the complex factors
inherent in both the learning organisms and the en—
vironment. very often the experimental results are
manifestations purely of the precise situation.

Some caution, therefore, must be exercised in
directly translating laboratory findings to class—
room problems. Fundamental need exists for more

 

12 House, H. H. "The Problems of Methods and Techniques
in Teaching," Journal of HealthI Physical Educgtign gnd
hgghghhhgh. ‘Vol. 12 No. 1. January, 1941. pp. 24, 25
and 31.

3 Kretchmar, Robert. "A Survey of Research in the

Teaching of Sports." Thg Research ghagterly. Vol. 20.
No. 3. October, 1949. pp. 238-247.

21

profound research on learning in relation to vary-
ing types of physical education teaching situations."14

Friedrich stated.

"The main value of audio-visual aids in physical
education is that a large group can be contacted and
instructed through their use. This is an import-
ant consideration because large groups are the rule
in physical education classes. Therefore, mass
instruction is not the most effective method of
teaching, but until smaller classes can be arranged,
teaching large groups will be necessary and with
the proper use of audio-visual aids this can be
handled. The use of mass instructional aids re-
quires preparation and follow-up and can only be
supplementary to instruction and education. There
is definite need for more complete and more intelli-
gent use of audio-visual aids in the field of physi-
cal education. Through research studies, it was shown
that the use of motivation and participation questions
tends to increase learning at least 6 percent. This
is true in the physical education field because more
can be learned and learned faster, by seeing a
physical education skill performed than by seeing it
explained: and more still can be learned by combining
the two, seeing and hearing."15

Murin. Hayes and Harby did a study on the comparison

of two teaching methods to investigate the practical

 

l4Knapp. Clyde and Hagman, Patricia. "Teaching Methods
for Physical Education." New‘York: McGraw-Hill Company
Inc. 1953. p. 32.

15Friedrich, John A. "Teaching Games and Skills Through

Sight and Sound," Jgurnal 9f HealthI Phygiga; Egugatign hnd
hgggghhhgh. 'Vol. 23. No. 6. June, 1952. p. 12.

22
implications of the findings that film demonstrations are at
least as effective as a live instructor's demonstrations. The
study was designed so that an inexperienced person who could
not perform the skills was almost entirely dependent upon
film deomonstration, while an experienced person taught
using conventional teaching methods without use of films.

As a result of the findings from this study the author
recommended that in the case of a shortage of trained instruc—
tors, perceptual-motor skills can be taught effectively by
inexperienced instructors using projection of film loops
which provide demonstrations of the skill.16
“/Harby conducted a further investigation to evaluate
the best methods of instruction with the practical require?
ments of perceptual—motor training. He concluded that.
"(1) A motion picture demonstration is as effect-
ive as a live instructor's demonstration. (2) Demon-
strations interspersed with practice may be slightly
superior to massed demonstrations. (3) Interspersed

movie demonstrations and practice is somewhat more
effective than free choice of the learner to view the

16 Murin, J.A., Hayes, w., and Harby, 5.9. "The
Daylight Projection of Film Loops as the Teaching Medium
in PerceptualaMotor Skill Training," The Instructional
Film Research Program. Pennsylvania State College.

May, 1952. p. 8.

23

films at his own prerogative. (4) Coaching during
practice is of significant value."17

A study undertaken by Harby to emphasize and encourage
"mental practice" during film-showings pointed out that the
combination of "mental practice" and "physical practice" are
probably more effective than either ”mental practice" or

”physical practice" alone.18

W
i] The related literature in the foregoing chapter
indicates that the value of the motion picture, as an aid
in learning, has been pointed out by a number of people
in a variety of studies. Most of the research has
indicated that the use of films enhances the learner at
various stages of the learning process. Although most of
the studies lack statistical significance. there seems to be
a trend toward better learning through the use of motion
pictures. Therefore, there is a definite need for more
profound research of learning in relation to various types

of teaching situations.

 

17 Harby, S.F. "Evaluation of a Procedure for Using Day—
light Projection of Film Loops in Teaching Skills," Instruction-
al Film Research Program. Pensylvania State College. May.

1952. p. 8.

18 Harby, S.F. “Comparison of Mental Practice and
Physical Practice in The Learning of Physical Skills.“
Instructional Film Research Program, Pennsylvania State
College, June, 1952. p. 10

CHAPTER III

METHODOLGY

Statement 9f hhe Problem

The experiment was designed to determine the effective-
ness of the use of loop-films. used as supplementary aids, in
teaching ice-skating among a large group of university

students.

8' 0 th Sam 1 f 8 ud

For the purpose of this study the instructor chose
two beginning co-education ice-skating classes at
Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. The
students elected the ice-skating class in which they were
enrolled. The classes were offered to all freshmen,
sophomore, junior and senior students as a one credit
elective course in physical education.

The two classes were fairly equal in size with hhhg
boys and SLIEEXTBLBE girls in the Monday and Wednesday,
ten to eleven-thirty class and g;gygh boys and hhhghyrfiiyg

girls in the Tuesday and Thursday, ten to eleven-thirty class.

25
Both sections of the class were taught by the experi-
menter.

As many students as possible were to be used in the
study. However, due to individual differences and a small
enrollment of male students it was necessary to use only
female students for the purpose of collecting data. There-
fore, as a result of the pre-test, used for the purpose
of equating the students to be matched for canparison in
both classes, SEE non-skaters and thirteen beginners from
each of the two classes were used as subjects. The students
ranked as non-skaters had no knowledge of how to Skate.

The students ranked as beginners were able to skate forward

and backward.

Mghhgd 9f Inshguction

The primary objective of this study was to determine
the effect of loop-films on the rate and ability to learn
ice-skating skills. Therefore, the instructor selected two.
basic skills and two advanced skills from the ten week
unit plan outline. In order to facilitate the accomplish-
ment of this objective, one of the classes was taught by
the instructor's traditional; method of teaching ice-
skating while the other class was taught in the same manner

with additional aid of loop-films. The selection of teaching

26
method to be used in the two classes was determined at
random by the instructor before classes were in session.

From this point on the Monday and wednesday ten
o'clock ice-skating class, taught by the traditional,
method, will be referred to as the control group. The
Tuesday and Thursday ten o'clock ice-skating class.
taught with the aid of loop-films.‘will be referred to as
the experimental group.

Both ice-skating classes consisted of two hours of
class instruction each week on the ice. The two classes
were instructed using identical lesson plans and instruction-
al time was held constant.1 At the time and place of learn-
ing the four skills, two different teaching methods were
applied.

The teaching methods with reference to the four skills.
for both the control and experimental groups are described
below:

Cghtggl Gggup.

1. Students received lecture and demonstration of the

skill by the instructor.

 

1 A copy of the ice-skating lesson plans may be found
in Appendix A.

27
As a group the students practiced the skill while
the instructor frequently explained and demon-
strated.
Students were given a practice session during
which time as many students as possible received
coaching from the instructor.
Students continually received interspersed, live

demonstrations followed by a practice session.

Experimenhal Group.

1.

The‘

contained

evaluated.

A loop-film depicting the particular skill to be
learned was shown. Lecture by the instructor was
provided along with the film.

Students were given a practice session, along with
coaching, during which time those having difficulty
in performance were referred to the film by the
instructor. However, any student at any time was
free to analyze and evaluate his performance in
comparison to that depicted in the film.

Students continually received interspersed movie
demonstrations followed by a practice session.
film was planned by the instructor and therefore

the fundamentals of the skill to be learned and

28

Expggimgntal Procedure

19.9.2.8.

Pge-tegt. Both classes/participating in this
study were given a pre-test to determine the initial
ability in order to equate the groups. The pre-test
was constructed by the instructor and based on a progression
rating scale.2

All students were given a subjective rating by three
independent judges who ranked each student on the scale.
The pre-test scale was as follows:

1. an-skgters-had no skating ability and
therefore could not manuever on skates.

2. Beginngrs-able to skate forward and back-
ward, but with no control of edges.

3. ghtgrmediates-able to skate forward and
backward with control of forward edges.

4. Advanced-able to do all of the above, control
back edges and execute turns from a forward skating position
to a back skating position.

Four Skillg Tests. For the purpose of measuring

skating ability it was. therefore, necessary for the

 

2 A copy of the pre-test may be found in Appendix

29

instructor to construct a means of evaluating the students'
proficiency in the four skills to be administered on a
progression rating scale.3
From this point on the four skills will be referred

to as:

Bgshg Skills

Test A-forward inside edge roll.

Test B-forward outside edge roll.

Agvgnged Skhlls

Test X-mohawk turn.

Test Y-three turn.

The point values on the scale for tests A, B, X and

Y began at 1 (poor), 2 (fair), 3 (average), 4 (good), 5
(very good). All of the tests consisted of five steps on
the progression scale and each step was rated on a point
basis of 1 to 5. The highest possible score that could be
given by a single judge for each test was a total of 25
points. Appendix C denotes the progression steps and method
of rating for each of the four tests to be administered.

Judging of Tests. A panel of three experienced

ice-skaters. each having a high degree of knowledge in the

 

3 Copies of the four skills test may be found in
Appendix C.

30
field of ice-skating, administered all tests to both the
control and experimental groups.

The pre-test, given on the second day of class, was for
the purpose of ranking the students in both the control
and experimental groups. After the initial testing
period, the rating agreed on by two out of three judges
was used for grouping the members of the control group
to be matched with those of the experimental group with
reference to sex and ranking on the rating scale.

Tests A, B, x and Y were given to all students in
both the control and experimental class. The reason for
this was so that the judges would be unaware of which
students were being used as subject for the study.

On all of the above four skills to be learned it is
valid to state that all the students used as subjects began
at zero level. That is, they had no prior skills in these
test items.

Tests A and B were administered twice during the ten
week period to measure early learning, late learning and
over-all learning. Test X and Y were administered once at
the end of the term. The latter two tests were advanced
skills, taught during the latter part of the ten week period.

and were used to compare the degree of advanced skill learning

31
between the two groups. Appendix A denotes the days devoted
to testing.

The student was allowed to skate each skill across the
rink. Therefore, she performed as many repetitions as
possible of each skill.

The arithmetic average of the ratings given by the
panel of judges was used to collect individual scores. This

method was used on tests A, B, x and Y.

t c A

Analysis of variance was applied to find the differences
within the groups and between the groups. When comparing
learning within groups and between groups, non-skaters
were always compared to non-skaters and beginners to
beginners. Due to the difference in the.degree of difficulty
in all four tests and the difference in the amount of time
spent learning each skill the skills are incomparable to
each other.

On page 32 is a table showing the procedure used for
testing between and within groups for the four tests to be

administered.

32

TABLE I

TEST SCHEDULE IN REFERENCE TO LEARNING

BASIC SKILL INSTRUCTION ADVANCED SKILL INSTRUCTION AND
AND PRACTICE PRACTICE PLUS BASIC SKILL REVIEW
Test A1 Test A2 Test X
Pre-test A Test B1 Test B2 Test Y
0 Early Learning Late Learning

Advanced Skill
Learning

Over-all Learning Test A and B

Pre-test-equated two groups in the control and experimental
class

Basic Skills-Test A--inside edge roll
Test B--outside edge roll

Advanced Skills-Test x--mohawk turn
' Test Y--three-turn

These tests were set-up in the following manner to find
the learning differences

Procedures for Measuring Learning Within Grgups:
1. Test A1 and B1--early learning measures

2. Difference between A1 and A2, and B1 and BZ—late learn-
ing measures

3. Tests A2 and B2--over-all learning measures

4. Tests x and Y--advanced skill over-all learning measures

33

TABLE I (Continued)

Prgcgdures for Measuring Learning Between Grgups:

C Control group E Experimental group
1. C-Al and E-A1-~early learning measures

2. C-Bl and E-B --early learning measures

1
3. Differences between (C-A1 to C-AZ) and (E-A1 to E-A2)--
late learning measures.
4. Differences between (C—B1 to C-Bz) and (E-B1 to E—Bz)--

late learning measures.
5. C—Az and E—A2-—over-all learning measures
6. C—B2 and E-Bz—-over-all learning measures
7. c-x and E-X--advanced skill learning measures

8. C-Y and E-Y--advanced skill learning measures

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect—
iveness of the use of loop-films in aiding learning among a
large group of students in ice—skating. Four skill tests
were designed and administered by the instructor to both
the experimental and control groups.1

In this chapter will be discussed the data collected
from the experimental group, taught with the aid of loop-
films and the control groups, taught without aid of loop-
films. Data were accumulated for a total of forty—six
’subjects. Of this total, twenty were non-skaters and
twenty-six were beginners.

Improvement was measured within groups, and a
comparison of this improvement was made between the two
groups. Gain within groups was measured by the difference

between tests.

 

1 The raw scores between and within groups on the four
tests administered may be found in Appendix D.

35
Results of Test A] and A2
Figure 1 indicates mean scores while Tables II, III.
and IV show the statistical results, obtained by analysis of
variance, which compare final performance during the

various learning stages.

TABLE II

COMPARISON OF EARLY LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUP ON TEST A1 (FORWARD INSIDE EDGE ROLL)*

 

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups--Experimental vs. Control

 

Group 22.96 1 22.96 1.89
Error 533.09 44 12.19
Total 556.05 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control Non-Skaters

 

fl

Group 32.03 1 32.03 2.34
Error 245.90 18 13.66
Total 277.93 19

 

Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group 1.77 l 1.77 .16
Error 259.83 24 10.83

 

Total 261.60 25

*No significance in early learning between groups
or within groups on Test A1.

Heme omen weemrH eumznom
Ilmm was ad umwa .IMOuUmm amusmammmmxm no nmuoom new: 1a mysmem

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Honusoo
«JO. m amusmfiummxm
nuwumxm msouw muepmxm msonw mumumxm macaw

nnmssamem Isoz Havoa mneccamem Isoz- Aruba- muescwmem Isoz Hmuoa .
/ 1.. J. l/ / / .o
a V : g H z
m /I L/ / m KM I _ H / ./ / ”M
m _/ / / .- . / / / ....
m y m w L, L- m y y -.
.. / a ../ H H / / / H...
m / ‘ ./. L. -l / / f -T.
.. / / / .. .. / / /
w / / / .r. I / / ./ 1:
m fl ” fl Ar 4. / / / :2
m // Al/ _ i i // . .dn
m. / ./ fl -. -- 2 2 v.
e m 1V [W H H Um
1r r -LH
IV 11 ikw
re .T - -aM
mcecummn Haslne>o 1- .msesumea mama N4 use H<.Ll measured haumu .toN

 

 

 

md Dues semsuem moseueuman He uses

37

TABLE III

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEST A1 AND A2 (FORWARD INSIDE EDGE
ROLL) FOR COMPARISON OF LATE LEARNING BETWEEN
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUP,*

 

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups--Experimenta1 vs. Control

 

 

 

 

 

Group .97 l .97 .13
Error 336.96 44 7.66
Total 337.93 45
Within Groups--Experimental NOn—Skaters
vs. Control NOn-Skaters
Group 11.55 1 11.55 1.52
Error 136.38 18 7.58
Total 147.93 19
Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners
Group 2.78 l 2.78 .36
Error 186.15 24 7.76
188.93 25

Total

 

*No significance in late learning between groups or

within groups between Test A1 and A2.

38

TABLE IV

COMPARISON OF OVER-ALL LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUP ON TEST A2
(FORWARD INSIDE EDGE ROLL).*

 

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups--Experimental vs. Control

 

 

Group 13.97 1 13.97 1.33
ErrOT 461.16 44 10.48
Total 475.13 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control Non-Skaters

 

Group 5.52 l 5.52 .86
Error 111.72 18 6.43
Total 121.24 19

 

Within Groups--Experimenta1 Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group 9. l 9. .68
Error 318.86 24 13.29
Total 327.86 25

 

*No significance in over-all learning between groups
or within groups on Test A2.

39
Results of Test B1 and B;
The following Figure 2 indicates mean scores while
Tables V, VI and VII show the statistical results, obtained
by analysis of variance, which compare final performance

during the various learning stages.

TABLE V

COMPARISON OF EARLY LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUP ON TEST B1 (FORWARD
OUTSIDE EDGE ROLL).*

 

 

 

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups-~Experimental vs. Control

 

Group 43.82 1 43.82 3.74
Error 480.07 44 10.91
Total 523.89 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental Non-Skaters
vs. Control NOn—Skaters

Group 4.90 l 4.90 .58
Error 151.93 18 8.44
Total 156.83 19

 

Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group 23.07 1 23.07 1.84
Error 300.04 24 12.50
Total 323.11 25

 

*No significance in early learning between groups or
within groups on Test B1.

Z]

Houusoo
amusmfienmmxm
nueumxm . moose
Icoz Hence

m
H
(D
C
C
-H
O‘
3

MEAN SCORE ON FINAL PERFORMANCE

/

 

~v

 

 

 

l///////////////

‘/‘///‘/l

A

|//////////

///////7

‘v

 

 

 

 

 

 

12‘”

mcesumoq HHMIHTPO
«m puma

mm can an Dame

1;.

41

AV

 

mueumxm msouo

mneccammm Icoz HmuOB

..Haoa Doom moemuso cum3uom

 

mumscemmm

 

w

7

. / /
I. /

W

 

 

k

_IIL IIL

 

 

 

 

 

 

mcesummq Tuna mm
one am smosuem oucenomweo

Ir

l'l

l

 

.mHOQOMM Hmucwfiaummwm so menoom are: .N Tasman

mneumxm msouo
1:02 Hmuoa

 

2

 

 

 

l////////////

7‘

l/////////

l

 

 

 

 

w///‘///////I

 

 

L

mcesumeq even
an name

I I A
' l t

s
I

CDFKOIDQ‘MNHO

0‘

1. OH
.1HH

1' 0H

 

41

TABLE VI

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEST B1 AND 82 (FORWARD
OUTSIDE EDGE ROLL) FOR COMPARISON OF
LATE LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUPS.

 

 

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups——Experimental vs. Control

 

Group 32.72 1 32.72 3.53
Error 408.26 44 9.28
Total 440.98 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control NOn-Skaters

 

Group 2.25 1 2.25 .19

Error 217.18 18 12.07
Total 219.43 19

Within Groups-~Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group 39.63 1 39.63 5.23*
Error 181.92 24 7.58
Total 221.55 25

 

*The f—Ratio of 5.23 within the experimental and
control beginner group was significant at the 5 per cent
level indicating more proficient learning in the
control beginner group.

42

TABLE VII

COMPARISON OF OVER-ALL LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUP ON TEST 32 (FORWARD OUTSIDE EDGE ROLL).*

m

 

I

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

fi—‘fiv

Between Groups--Experimental vs. Contrelj

Group .81 l .81 .056
Error 630.97 44“;\ 14.34
Total 631.78 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control Non-Skaters

 

v

Group .51 l .51 .053
Error 161.18 18 8.99
Total 161.69 19

 

Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group .32 1 .32 .018
Error 415.00 24 17.29
Total 415.32 25

 

*No significance in over-all learning between groups
or within groups on Test 32'

42.A
Comparison of Results on Tests A and B

Early Learning. A statistical analysis indicated no
significant difference in learning, at the 5 per cent level,
on Test A1 and B1 between and within groups. However, in
reference to the raw scores found in Figures 1 and 2, the
experimental group appeared to learn better in the early
learning period. It is very interesting to note on Test Al
that the experimental non-skaters reached the same level
of learning as the experimental beginners while the learning
among the control non-skaters was less as compared with
control beginners. On Test B1 there was also very little
improvement difference between control non-skaters and
control beginners while a great deal of learning, not
significant, occurred between experimental non-skaters
and experimental beginners.

Late Learning. A statistical analysis on Test B
showed in significant improvement within the control
beginner group. In reference to the raw scores found in
Figure l and Figure 2, indicates that it took the
non-film group a longer period of time to learn the
basic skills. It is evident from the results, shown on
Test B, that most of the learning occurred in the control

group during the late learning period.

43
Over-all Learning. It is evident from the previous
observations that the experimental group, on Test A1 and Bl,
was more proficient in learning during the early learning
period but the control group was more proficient in the
late learning period. Consequently, the over—all learning
on Test A2 and 32 resulted in equal learning between and

within groups.

Results gf Advanced Skill Tests X and Y

The following Figure 3 indicates mean scores while
Tables VIII and IX show the statistical results, obtained by
analysis of variance, wnich compare final performance on
advanced skill learning.

The f-Ratio of 7.83 between the experimental and
control group indicated a significant difference at the
1 per cent level with the experimental group being far
superior in learning. \

The f-Ratio of 5.59 within the experimental and control
beginner group was significant at the 5 per cent level
indicating that the experimental beginner group was superior
in learning. It is also interesting to note by looking at
the raw scores in Figure 3 (althOugh not statistiCally

significant) that the experimental non-skaters learned better

than both the control non—skaters and beginners.

 

 

‘ Houpcou Lusalmmnneuaw Dmme .CDDB xzmnoz
asucmaeuemxm sax wmmm .mnouumm Hmucmfieummxm CO menoum new: .m wnsmem

4 .
4 mnmumxm msouo mueumxm moouo
mnwccemmm Icoz Hmuoe mumcsammm Icoz Hmuos
. 1 I

 

 

///{

l I
V 1

l I I
I r I I I:
OO‘QFKOU’A'U‘

i ,} -
mcv Flo

PERFORMANCE

.emH

 

r 1
//////////////7f

 

//////////////I

l//

 

 

.reH
.-mH
-lea
..RH

 

////////////7/7

 

 

 

///////////////J

 

 

 

 

 

MEAN SCORE ON FINAL

 

 

 

 

V/‘/ /‘///////1110

 

 

 

 

V//////////////

 

 

 

{I -.o~
a same -. x

 

 

[-4
U)
r

t4

OZHZM¢HQ AAHKw QHDZ¢>Q¢

45

TABLE VIII

COMPARISON OF ADVANCED SKILL LEARNING BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUP ON TEST X (MOHAWK TURN).*

Sum of Squares df Mean Square f-Ratio

 

Between Groups--Experimental vs. Control

Group 55.66 1 55.66 3.14
Error 779.94 44 17.73
Total 835.60 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control Non-Skaters

 

Group ' 13.12 1 13.12 .77
Error 307.87 18 17.10
Total 320.99 19

 

Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

 

Group 45.52 1 45.52 2.66

Error 411.12 24 17.13
Total 456.64 25

 

*There was no statistical significance in learning
between groups or within groups.

46

TABLE IX

COMPARISON OF ADVANCED SKILL LEARNING BETWEEN'EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUP ON TEST Y (THREE-TURN).

 

 

m 1

Sum of Squares df Mean Squares f-Ratio

 

Between Groups--Experimental vs. Control

Group 167.96 1 167.96 7.83
Error 943.89 44 21.45
Total 1111.85 45

 

Within Groups--Experimental NOn-Skaters
vs. Control NOn-Skaters

Group 63.73 1 63.73 2.53
Error 453.23 18 25.18
Total 516.96 19

Within Groups--Experimental Beginners
vs. Control Beginners

Group 104.89 1 104.89 5.59
Error 450.32 24 18.76
Total 555.13 25

 

47
Summary of Findings

1. There was no statistical Significance on the
two basic skills between the film and non-film group
during the early and over-all learning period.

2. There was a statistical significance on only
one of the basic skills during the late learning period
indicating that it took longer for the non-film beginner
group to grasp this particular skill.

3. There was a statistical significance between
the film and non-film group on one of the advanced skills
indicating that the immediate learning of basic skills
by the film group aided the students in grasping the

advanced skills.

D‘ u 810 T s

As indicated from the summary of findings it is
evident from the statistical significance shown during the
late learning period on Test B, which was a more difficult
skill than A, that it took a longer period of time from the
non-film group to learn the more complex basic skill. In
the learning of advanced skills significant difference was
evident on the more difficult skill which indicates that the
film group was far superior in learning the more complex

skill.

48
Due to the limitations of this study, the subjects

were tested once on the advanced skills making this

learning period equal in time to the early learning

period, in which basic skills were taught and, therefore.

this testing period was also an early learning measure in

effect. Consequently, it is apparent that films may be of

greatest aid during the early learning period.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to determine the
effectiveness of the use of loop-films in aiding learn-
ing among a large group of student in ice—skating. There-
fore the experiment was designed to determine if there was
a difference in learning between a group of students taught.
with the aid of loop-films and a second group taught without
the aid of loop-films.

Forty-six female subjects were choSen from two
beginning ice-skating classes at Michigan State University.
A pre-test was given for the purpoSe of equating the students.
As a result of the pre-test, the rating agreed on by two
out of three judges was used fOr grouping the students
into non-skater and beginner categories.

The selection of teaching methods to be used inlthe
two classes was determined at random by the instructor
before classes were in session. The control group was

taught by the instructor's traditional method of teaching

51
ice-skating while the experimental class was taught in
the same manner but with additional aid of loop-films.

The experiment lasted for a period of ten weeks with
two one-hour sessions per week on the ice. The tWO Classes
were instructed Using identical lesson plans and instruction-
al time was held constant. At the time and place of
learning the four skills, two different teaching methods were
applied.

Tests A, B, X and Y were given to all students in
both the control and experimental classes. The arithmetic
average of the ratings given by the panel of three judges
was used to collect mean scores on all four tests administer-
ed to both groups. All data were statistically treated

using analysis of variance.

Conclusion

Subject to the limitations of the study the following
seems justified:
The use of loop-films, in teaching of ice-skating, is

more beneficial during the early training period.

Recgmmendatigns

1. It is recommended that further studies. per-

taining to the learning of other motor skills, be

52
administered within a typical learning situation as was
the purpose of this study.

2. It is further recommended, if other motor tests are
administered in ice-skating that a more objective measure of
learning be used.

3. It is recommended that more tests on each skill
be administered throughout the entire learning period.

4. It is further recommended that more films be
made of other skills to be taught and applied during

the learning period.

BI BLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PeriodiCals

” Brown, Howard S., and Lloyd Messersmith. "An Experiment in
Teaching Tumbling With and Without Motion Pictures,"

The Research Qggrteriy,l9:304-307, December, 1948.

Bruce, D. K. "Studies In Motor Learning of Gross Bodily

Motor Skills," The Research Quarterly, 17:242—253,
December, 1946.

»’Friedrich. John A. "Teaching Games and Skills Through

Sight and Sound," Journal of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation, 23:12, June, 1952.

JGlassow, Ruth. "Motion Pictures As Teaching Aids," Journal

9f Health, Physical Education and Recreatign," 13:463.

October, 1942.

Harby, S. F. "Evaluation of a Procedure for Using Daylight
Projection of Film Loops in Teaching Skills," published
mimeograph report, Instructional Film-Research Program,
Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, May, 1952.

Harby, S. F. "Comparison of Mental Practice and Physical
Practice in the Learning of Physical Skills," published
mimeograph report, Instructional Film Research Program,
Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, June, 1952.

.House, H. H. "The Problems of Methods and Techniques in

Teaching," Journal of Health, Physical Education and

Recreation, 12:24, 25 and 31, January, 1941.

Huelster, Laura J. "Learning to Analyze Performance," Journal

of Health, Physical Educatiog and Recreatign, 10:121, 122,
February, 1939.

JHupprich, Florence. "The Use of Visual Aids in Teaching

Tennis,” Journal of Health, Physical Education and
Rgcreation, 12:93-95, February, 1941.

55

Kretchmar, Robert. "A Survey of Research in the Teaching of

Sports,“ The Research Quarterly, 20:238-247, October,
1949.

:Lockhart, Aileen. "The Value of the Motion Picture as an
Instructional Device in Learning a Motor Skill," The

Reseagch Quarterly, 15:181-187. May, 1944.

Murin, J. A., Hayes, W. and S. F. Harby. “The Daylight
Projection of Film Loops as the Teaching Medium in
PerceptualeMotor Skill Training," published mimeograph
report, Instructional Film Research Program,
Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, May, 1952.

Nelson, Dale, 0. "Effect of Slow.Motion Loop-films on the

Learning of Golf,“ The Research anhterly, 19:304-307,
December, 1948.

Priebe, Roy and William Burton. "The Slow Motion Picture as
a Coaching Device," School Revigw, 47:192-198.
January-December, 1939.

Seashore, Harold G. "Some Relationships of Fine and Gross

Motor Abilities,” The Research Qggrtegly, 13:259.
October, 1942. ’

Southward, Barbara. "First Lessons in Figure Skating,"

Jgurnal of Health, Physical Edugation ghd Recreatioh,
31:31,32 and 68, January, 1960. '

Unpublished Materials

Claus, Marshal R. "A Comparative Study of the Part Method
vs. the Whole Method in the Learning of the Fly-
Away from the Horizontal Bar," Unpublished Master's
Thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan, 1961.

APPE NDIXES

APPENDIX A

LESSON PLANS

First week

First Day--Introduction £9 class--Grading, fees.
equipment, proper fit of skates and definition
of skating terms.

Second Day--Pre-test--initial ability test to equate
students for the purpose of comparison.

Secgnd week.

Third Day--How to fall forward and backward.

pggh1§_gggliingr-with heels together and toes
out, bend knees allowing the feet to slide

diagonally out then straighten knees, pull toes
together and glide on inside edges.

fighy;§;gppihgedweight even with feet beneath you
make Changing of stroke beside and Close to skating
foot.

Eush_gfifir-push from inside edge of the whole blade
onto inside edge of other skate.

Stroke and stop-~quick strokes across the ice with
a strong push-off and come to a stop:

a. snow—plgw stop--bend knees, turn toes in
and push heels apart to scrape inside
edges on the ice.

b. t-sgop--put weight on one foot and place
the arch of free foot behind heel of
skating foot scraping ice with flat of
free bladeZ'

Fgggard Crossovers--skate in a circle by crossing
one foot alternately over the other shifting weight
to skating foot. ‘

57

Fourth Day--Review: all techniques taught the previous
day.

Teach: inside edge roll--push-Off onto inside edge,
free arm forward then rotate free arm back and free
arm back and free leg forward.*
Twenty-minute practice session with interspers-
ed demonstrations.

Third week

Fifth Day--Grand March reviewing inside edges and
forward crossovers.

Review: all stops in previous lesson.
Teach: Christie Stop--swing whole body to one side,
bend both knees and slide to stop on both

blades.*
Practice inside edge roll--fifteen minute practice

session, interspersed demonstrations.

Sixth Day--Review: push-off, stroking and stopping.
inside edge roll and crossovers. '
Teach: Outside edge roll--have students practice*
leaning against fence to feel the outside edge.
Twenty-minute practice session with inter—
spersed demonstrations.

£911.31; W___e ek

Seventh Day--Review: inside edge rolls and stops.
Introduce speed skating-~by skating deep
inside edges and fast crossovers.

Practice outside edge roll--fifteen minute practice
with interspersed demonstrations.*

Eighth Day--Review: inside and outside edge rolls.

Teach: Backward sculling--point toes in and push
heels out against the inside edges and then
straighten knees to bring feet together and
glide on the flat of the blade

* Denotes days the film was used on the skill or skills above
to be practiced during this period.

59

Backward Crossovers: skate around backwards in a circle
by crossing one foot alternately over the other
shifting weight to skating foot.

Back Inside Edge: push-off onto a back inside edge
with skating arm and free leg forward and glide
in this position.

Back Outside Edges: push-off onto a back outside edge
with free arm and leg forward

Practice Sessions: Students will be grouped according
to their ability in learning back edges.

Figth'Wgek

Ninth Day-~Review for midterm
Ten minute practice session on both inside and outside
edges. Practice backward skating for the rest of the
class period.

Tenth Day
Testing Day for inside and outside edges. Tests Aland B1

SLEEh Week

Eleventh Day
Teach: Mohawk Turn--turning from a forward inside

edge on one foot to a back inside edge on the

other foot.
Twenty-minute practice session with .
interspersed-demonstrations.

Introduce the Dutch Waltz--a dance consisting of

forward outside edge rolls and inside

edges.

Twelfth Day--Review all skills taught.

Speed skating-~backwards and forwards.

Dutch Waltz--swing rolls and progressive.
Practice Mohawk Turn-~fifteen minute practice
session with interspersed demonstrations.

Seventh Week

Thirteenth Day--Review: mohawk turn, Dutch Waltz and
speed skating.
Teach: Three-turn--turning from a forward outside edge
onto a back inside edge of the same skate.

6O

Twenty-minute practice session with
interspersed demonstrations.

Fourteenth Day--Review: all the techniques taught.
‘ Practice Three Turn--fifteen minute practice session
with interspersed demonstrations.

Eighhh Week

Fifteenth Day--Review: inside and outside edge roll.
Ten Minute practice session on both inside and outside
edges.
Practice the Dutch Waltz, and Skating to music using
all the skills and techniques learned in the previous
lessons.

Sixteenth Day--Review: mohaWk and three-turn
Ten Minute practice session on both mohawk and three-
turn.

Hinth.flfifih

Seventeenth Day

Testing Day for inside and outside edge roll. Tests A

and B2. 2

Eighteenth Day
Testing day for mohawk and three turn. Test X and Y

Tenth Week

Speed Skating to music

Dutch Waltz

Skating to all types of music applying all skills and
techniques learned during the term.

APPENDIX B
PRE-TEST

JudgeV Name

 

NON-SKATER ' CHEQK_I REMARKS

BEGINNERS

Forward Stroking
Backward Stroking

 

 

INTERMEDIATE

Forward Crossovers
Push-off onto forward outer and inner
edges and balance

 

 

ADVANCED

Backward Crossovers

Back Outer and Inner Edges
Mohawk Turn
Three-turn

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NON-SKATERSr—No skating ability.
BEGINNERS-eSkate forward and back.
INTERMEDIATES--Control of forward edges.

ADVANCED--Control of back edges and can execute turns from
forward to back position.

APPENDIX C

 

Judge TEST A. Name
FORWARD INSIDE EDGE ROLL
l. Push-off with inside edge onto an inside
edge.

2. Hold inside edge with free arm forward
and free leg straight behind.

3. Rotate free leg forward and free arm
back.

4. Balance and blide on one foot.

5. Bring skates Close together and push-off
onto other foot.

l--poor
2-—fair
3--average
4--good

5--very good

63

TEST B
Judge Name
FORWARD OUTSIDE EDGE ROLL

 

l. Push-off with inside edge onto outside edge

2. Hold outside edge with skating arm forward,
free arm back and leg straight behind.

3. Rotate free arm and leg forward bringing
skating arm back.

4. 'Balance and glide on one foot.

5. Bring skates close together and push-off
onto other foot.

 

RATING:
l--poor
2-4fair
3-—average
4--good

5—-very good

64

TEST X
Judge Name
MOHAWK TURN

 

1. Proper position--forward inside edge with
free arm forward.

2. Shoulder rotation.

3. Place heel of free foot to arch of skating _
foot.

4. Reverse arms and shift weight onto back
inside edge of free foot.

5. Check rotation with skating arm forward

and free arm and leg back before stepping
down upon free foot.

RATING:
1--poor
2--fair
3——average
4--good

5--very good

Judge ‘ Name

65
TEST Y

 

THREE-TURN

 

1. Proper position--forward outside edge with
skating arm forward.

2. Glide onto forward outside edge with
skating knee bent and free leg behind.

3. Start arm rotation bringing free foot Close
to skating foot.

4. Lift up from skating knee onto ball of
skating foot and reverse arms in order to
pivot onto back inside edge.

5. Check rotation with skating arm forward, free
leg and arm back before stepping down upon
free foot. ‘

RATING:
1--poor
2--fair
3--average
4--good

5--very good

APPENDIX D

TEST A--RAW SCORES-~FORWARD INSIDE EDGE ROLL
.================aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa=================zz

NON-SKATERS—-EXPERIMENTAL NON-SKATERS--CONTROLV

 

Subject Subject

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NUmber Test A1 Test A2 NUmber Test A1 Test A2
6 18.3 20 5 14.3 13.6
8 17.6 18.6 9 16.3 14
12 11.6 16 12 l3 17
13 13 16 18 5.6 11.6
18 12.3 15 22 8.3 15
21 16 16 26 10.3 15.3
29 15.6 16 31 6.3 12.3
33 13.3 17.3 33 15.6 17.6
42 11.6 14.6 35 6.9 14.3
39 8 14 47 15 22.3
Total (10) 137.3 163.5 Total (10) 111.6 153.0
m —7— a #1 m...— ,
BEGINNERS--EXPERIMENTAL BEGINNERS—-CONTROL
Subject Subject
NUmber Test A1 Test A2 NUmber Test A1 Test A2
4 15 15 3 ll 20
5 13.3 15.6 7 10 12
7 15 20 8 14.3 13.3
10 16.6 23.6 13 20 17.3
17 19.3 22 15 13 15.6
20 9.6 12.3 17 21.3 23.3
22 13.6 19.3 28 11.6 12.6
27 10.3 17.6 38 12.3 16.6
28 15 17.6 39 8.3 10.6
30 16.3 20.6 42 12 17
31 14.3 18.6 43 15.3 23
34 10.3 15.6 45 14 19.3
40 12.3 15.3 46 11 16.6
Total (13) 180.9 233.1 Total (13) 174.1 217.8

 

67
APPENDIX D (Continued)

TEST B--RAW SCORES--FORWARD OUTSIDE EDGE ROLL
=================================================================
NON-SKATERS--EXPERIMENTAL NON-SKATERS--CONTROL

 

 

 

Subject Subject

Number Test Bl Test B2 NUmber Test 31 Test 3;

6 16 17.3 5 7 12
s 8.3 18.6 9 10.6 13.6
12 5.6 14.6 12 8.6 12.6
13 6.3 14.3 18 10.6 13.3
18 6 11.3 22 8.6 11.6
21 14.3 11.6 26 10' 13.3
29 13.3 15.3 31 9 12.3

33 12.6 15.6 33 13 21
42 12.3 15 35 8 13.3

39 10.3 14.6 47 10 22
Total (10) 95.1 145.0

 

Total (10) 105.0 148.2

 

_-———. _. _..__—_..—_.———_—_' _.__ -W .—--—--————.-___—-_....——_-———

BEGINNERS--EXPERIMENTAL

 

 

 

 

Subject Subject
NUmber Test Bl Test 32 NUmber Test 31 Test 32
4 13 17 3 12.3 21
5 6.6 12.3 7 10 12.6
7 12.3 16 8 11.3 12
10 18.3 24 13 14 21
17 22.5, 23.3 15 9.6 16.3
20 7.6 14.3 17 13.6 23.6
22 12.6 16.6 28 7.6 12.6
27 13.6 15 38 8 13.3
28 15 17.6 39 6.6 10
30 14 17.6 42 11.6 15.3
31 14 18.6 43 13.3 16
34 13.3 13.6 45 '12 24
40 10.3 12 46 8.3 17.3
Total (13)138.22 215.0

 

Tgtgl (132 173.2 217.9"

68

APPENDIX D (Continued)

TEST Y--RAW SCORES--THREE-TURN
TEST X--RAW SCORES--MOHAWK TURN
====a=======================================================

NON-SKATERS--EXPERIMENTAL NON-SKATERS--CONTROL

 

 

 

Subject Subject
Number Test X Test Y Number Test X Test Y
6 21.6 18.3 5 12.6 11.6
8 18 20.6 9 12.6 11.6
12 12 17 12 15 5
13 18.6 21.3 18 9.3 5
18 9.3 12.3 22 6.6 8.6
21 17.6 14 26 22.6 24.3
29 14.6 13 31 11.6 10.3
33 14.3 16.3 33 16.6 20
42 13.3 14.3 35 12.6 11
39 10 10 47 13.6 14
Total (10) 149.3 157.1 Total (10) 133.1 121.4

 

================================================================
BEGINNERS--EXPERIMENTAL BEGINNERS--CONTROL

 

 

 

Subject Shbject
Number Test X Test Y Number Test X Test Y
4 17 16.6 3 19.6 20
5 19.6 18.3 7 8.6 14
7 20.6 20.3 8 15.6 15
10 v 18 20.3 13 21.6 21
17 ‘ 15 20 15 17.3 12.6
20 19.6 20.6 17 20 17.6
22 15.6 16.3 28 16.6 8.3
27 13 14.3 38 14.3 12
28 21.3 19.3 39 9 7.8
30 24.3 22 42 17 19.3
31 13.3 17.6 43 14.6 17.6
34 18.3 15.6 45 16.3 5.3
40 14.6 10 46 5.3 9
Total (131' 230.2 231.2 Total (13) 195.8 179.0

 

 

mmum”.1:le(”Imam")!!!will:r