A HISTORY OF DISPUTE!) WVEREIG
FALKLAND ESLAND‘S DEFEND!

THESIS FOR THE DfiQREE 0F 1

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERS

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ABSTRACT

A HISTORY OF'DISPUTED SOVEREIGNTY IN THE
FALKLAND ISLANDS DEPENDENCIES

by Harlan W} Ubllnitz

The Antarctic has long been the scene of conflict
between Argentine, Great Britain and Chile over the
sovereignty of areas within.the boundaries of the Falkland
Islands Dependencies. The Argentines contest the British
occupation or the Falkland Islands and other portions of
the Falkland Islands Dependencies. Chile also claims
territory which lies within the limits of the Dependencies.
the Argentines and Chileans base their claims on discovery}
and the inheritance of territory from Spanish colonial
holdings in the South Atlantic. The British maintain that
discovery and constant occupation give them the right of
sovereignty over the area comprising the Fslkland Islands
Dependencies.

The various claims ef’trgentina, Chile and Great
Britain are examined and reviewed in this paper. Primary
sources pertaining to voyages and discoveries in the Antarctic
are examined with respect to the claims situation. The
assertion of continuous occupation;on the part or the British is
also investigated vie;primery'and secondary source material.

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The dispute is traced from the original conflict betweens
England and Spain, to the present day situation in the
Antarctic. Geographic and political description is
included to supply general information and background
material necessary to the understanding of conditions in
the Falkland Islands Dependencies. The application of
international law, plus the influence of treatiesrand
conventions is included to provide legal reference for
possible solutions to the claims dispute.

The history of disputed sovereignty in the Falkland
Islands Dependencies has served to emphasize the need for
international cOOperation to settle claims disputes.

Until the advent of The Twelve Nation Treaty, the Falkland
Islands Dependencies had been the scene of hostile actions
on the part of Argentina, Chile, and Great Britain. Without
the couperation evidenced by The Twelve Nation Treaty, this
hostility could have grown into a full scale international
conflict.

This study of disputed claims in the Falkland Islands
Dependencies has served to point out that Chile and Argentina
have the basis for a legitimate claim to portions of the
Falkland Islands Dependencies. The British occupy the
Dependencies and have exercised control over the area for
a considerable period of time, resultingEin.internationali;»
recognitiengotétheir sovereignty over the Falkland Islands.
Occupation has become the key to recognition in the eyes
of‘international laws Fer this reason Argentina and Chile

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have attempted to establish bases in the portions of the
Falkland Islands Dependencies not continually occupied by
the British. These attempts by Argentina and Chile to
establish sovereignty over portions of the Dependencies
point to the possible plan on the part of Argentina and
Chile to press their claims until a favorable situation
arises in which they could extract territorial concessions
from the British.

The Twelve Nation Treaty has, for the moment,
established a program for cooperation in the Antarctic.
The treaty has maintained the status quo in the Antarctic
and may serve to preserve the peace in the Falkland Islands

Dependencies.

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A HISTORY’OF DISPUTED SOVEREIGNTY IN THE
FALKLAND ISLANDS DEPENDENCIES

by

Harlan W. Wbllnltz

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Science and Arts

Michigan State University of Agriculture and

Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the defree of

Master of Arts

Department of History

1961

I 4

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54

 

 

 

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude
to Professor Harold B. Fields for his
patience, help, and guidance during
_the preparation of this thesis.

11.

Table of Contents

Introduction .........................................l
Geographic Description ...............................8
Discovery and Emploration ...........................25
The Argentine-British Controversy‘...................h6
Chilean Claims ......................................75
Conclusion ..........................................78

matated Bibliography 00......0.0.0.000000000000000083

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The Falkland'lslands Archipelago ..................92

Argentine and Chilean Bases in the Antarctic ......93

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Introduction

The question of sovereignty in the Antarctic has long
posed a problem to' the governments of Argentina, Great Britain,
and‘Chile. 38310 to this question of sovereignty in the
Antarctic is the dispute over the possession of the Falkland
Islands. The disputed claims to. the Falkland. Islands entedete
the more recent problems. of Antarctic sovereignty‘ by more
than one hundred years. Thus e. dispute, which originally
included only a smell and obscure-island group, has been
expanded to included e host of islands and an entire continent.
mth Great Britain and Argentina claim the Falkland Islands,
both these governments and Chile also claim various islands
and portions or the. Antarctic antinent‘. The u-itish
Government «ritually included the Falkland Islands, the
South saetima Islands, Mth Georgia Island, and the Graham
Land Peninsula in an administrative. organisation termed the
Falkland Islands Dependencieu:L

Br1tish policy has been to hold the Falkland Islands
Dependencies intact despite Argentinesnd Chilean efforts
to establish bases within the limits of British territorial
claims. Argentine and Chilean policy has been directed

 

3‘6. E. Carrington em. Falkland Islands and the Antarctic",
1 (mm-mg”, 1950), pp. 290-291.-

toward forcing the British to a compromise through the

1 Hence, there has

constant pressure of counter claims.
been an increasing tendancy in recent years, for the Chilean
and Argentine Governments to protest the British occupation
or the Falklands, and to attempt to establish permanent
bases somewhere-within the Falkland Islands Dependencies~
tonhelp substantiate-their own territorial claims. The
British have countered these moves by the forceful removal
or one Argentine base, and by protesting the existence or
others.2 Since the British do not continuously occupy_the
entire extent of the Falkland Islands Dependencies, Argentina
and Chile continue to establish bases, and press their claims.
The British Government has given little recognition, outside
of occasienel protests, terthese rival claims and has, with
one exception, refrained from using force to halt Chilean
and Argentine policy in the Dependencies.3-

To date, neither Great Britain, Chile, nor Argentina
can agree on a positive solution to the problem of
sovereignty in the Antarctic. The British propose settle-
ment through the International Court at the Hague, while
Chile and Argentina choose to solve the pituation via an

 

1E. H; Hunter Christie The Antarctic Problem (London
1951), p. 290. ’ ’ ’

2New' ork Times, February 20, 1953, p. 6.
3New York Times, February 21, 1953, p. h.

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appeal to the security Council of the United Nations.1

thus the conflict has remainednan obstaclerto the peaceful
relations of the governments involved.

My purpose in writing this account is to examine the
various aspects of the Argentine, Chilean, and British
claims to the Falkland Islands Dependencies and the Antarctic.
through.geographic and historical description I will attempt
te picture the national interests of the disputing nations
in this region and outline their reasons for claiming these
Antarctic areas. Some-consideration will also-be given
regarding the various.possible solutions which.nay, in time,
serve to provide an ansuer to the question or national
rights in the Antarctic.

An important aspect to consider, before examining the
claims situation, is an evaluation or the Antarctic in terms
or natural resources, meteorological influences and strategic
importance. . '

The Antarctic possesses.no great wealth or natural
resources. -Trees do not exist on any or the Antarctic
islands, nor on the Antarctic continent...Aevariety or hardy
grass which grows on the Falkland Islands is valuable-tezthe
support of an extensive sheep and'cattle raising industry.

thaling is elsercarried an te-a limited extent in

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W7 hbrnm 22. 1953. Do 18.

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the Antarctic Ocean, but is not an important source of
revenue to Argentina, Great Britain, or Chile.1
At the present time, there are no known mineral
deposits in the Antarctic which would instify commercial
exploitation. Apart from the possibility that coal exists
an Alexander I Island, only copper has been found in
quantity. Traces of lowbgrade silver and gold bearing
ares, manganese, aid molybdanite have been discovered on
the Graham Land Peninsula. He uranium er any other radio-
active mineral has as yet been round in the Antarctic.2
Due to the vast extent or the Antarctic continent, there
is a possibility'that.important minerals may exist in commercial
quentities, if a means could be discovered to penetrate
the extensive Antarctic ice-cap teipermit prospecting.3
Strategically, both Argentinarand‘Chilerhave~an:interest
in insuring free access to the Drake Strait’at the southern
tip of South America. The closing or this passage by some"
unfriendly power situated in the Antarctic, eould cut off
Chile's path to the Atlantic Gcean and Argentina's route to
the Pacific. This could result in a blow'to the economies

 

1Russel Owen, "what is it werthr-,‘:g§ ggtarctic gpean,
(mach, 1951), p: 2“}2.

2"Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey”, cienc Mont
My, 199+, pp. 52-5“.

3&3»: Owen, mint is it worth", w,
(my 1951), Do 28.

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of both these nations, isolated in the extreme: south, and
cut off from each other. by the Andes Mountains.

the possibilitx'exiata that the Interctic:may deveIOp
into an airlines route connecting Latin Americe, metralia,
Nev Zoelend and Southeast Asia. the tremendous population
north in Southeast'isin, and the rising birth rate in
Latin America lend credence to this possibility. Both
New Zealand and Australia have the potential for-supporting
larger populations and expanded economies, which could eon-
trihnte to a larger volume of transportation and trade}

he strategic value of the Eelkland Islands Dependencies
has been impressed en the mitish pecple end government in
tic world urn. Less“ then four months after the outhroa of
firm m 1. British control of them-eke Essays and the
South Atlantic was threatened by a German scum operating
oft thorouth Chilean coast. The commander of the German
equadru, admiral Von Spee, destroyed. e British fleet under
mum craddeck at the httle of Mel. creddock'a defeat
enabled You Spec to begin promotions for e Mild-up e:
Germs: naval strength in the South Atlantic. Von Spee's
first move was to. recruit a mipleed or young Germans living
in southern Chile, and then ta load a vessel. 'Iith digging tools

and cement for the construction of defensive positions in

 

1 _
”Falkland Islands Dependencies survey" 1 co enth
my. 199+, pp. 52-53. ’ ’

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the Falkland Islands. By this means Vbn Spec hoped to block
the Drake Passage, and British access to the Pacific by that
route. unfortunately for Van Spec, two British battle
cruisers, the Inflexible and the gnvincible had recently
arrived in the Falklands to take on coal. The ensuing
battle was one-sided. Van Spec, outmatehed in speed and
armament, was defeated.1

the British position in the South Atlantic was threat-
ened once more, during the Second Hhrld war. In 1939, a
naval action nee fought off the mouth or the Rio de la Plata,
between the British cruisers star, “3;, and gghilleg, and
the German surface raider §g§£_§pgg,2 the battle resulted
in the destruction of the Grar ee, by scuttling, in the
Plate Estuary. Although other German raiders were active
in the South ltlantic, they were hindered in their operations
by a British squadron based at Port Stanley tn the Falkland
Islands. These happenings during two world wars have
illustrated the strategic value of the Falkland Islands to
the British Government, and represents a portion of the
British desire for the retention of the islands.

Another example or the strategic importance of the
Antarctic area is its geographical position in respect to

 

lflew Iork 1139s, February 20, 191+8, p. lr3.

23; H; Hunter Christie, The Antarctic Problem, (London,
1951), 9. Me . -

 

 

 

 

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(7)

the oceans that link Australia, New Zealand, South America
and Africa. Also of general interest is the fact that
various types of modern warships are too large to permit
their passage through the Panama Canal, and hence must sail
south of Cape Horn through the Drake Passage to have access
to both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.1

Since many of the violent storms that lash the coasts
of Argentina and Chile originate in the Antarctic, these
countries are extremely interested in maintaining Antarctic
bases for meteorological research.2 Argentina places a
great deal of emphasis on meteorological investigation, and
has maintained a base for weather observation on Laurie Island
in the South Orkneys since l90h. The meteorolOgical observa-
tions made at Laurie Island are of considerable importance
in providing weather forecasts for Argentina. It has been
found that there is a definite relationship between climatic
conditions in the AntarCtic in any one year, and conditions
in South America during the succeeding seasons.3

In summing up the interests or Great Britain, Argentina,
and Chile, one must not forget the feelings of national pride,

which sometimes manifests itself in the desire of nations to

 

lNew'zbrk Times, December 11, 1955, Section IV, p. 7.

211115391 Oven "What is it Worth" me Antarctic Ocean
(tendon, 1951),. pi 21w. ’ "’

3New' k es, December 21, 19%7, p. 3%.

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redress old wrongs. This feeling of pride has become intense
in Argentina, and Chile, and to a large extent hinders the
possibilities of compromise on problems in the Antarctic.

Section I
Geographic Description

The area to be covered in this section is the Falkland
Islands Dependencies, which includes that part of the Antarctic
Centinent lying directly to the south of South America,
between the meridians of longitude twenty degrees and eighty
degrees west of Greenwich, and the Falkland Islands Archi-
pelago. The portion of the Antarctic Continent most important
to Argentina, Chile, and Great Britain is the Graham Land
Peninsula, which projects some eight hundred miles north
into the Antarctic Ocean.1

The Falkland Islands are situated in the South Atlantic
Ocean between fifty-one and fifty-three degrees south and
fifty-seven and sixty-two degrees west. In other words,

they may be said to lie about 250 miles to the east and
somewhat to the north of Cape Horn.2 The Falkland Islands

 

Iggograghiegl gpurnal, vol. CXXI, Part E, (December,
1955), P0 s

2§§itish Islands in the southern Hemisphere 1%u5-1251,
Colonia 79356 s a es y s S a onary 0 ice, London,

1951) ’ pp 0

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Archipelago comprises two large islands and about 200 smaller
islands, ranging in size from a few acres to 82 square miles.

the Falkland Islands form a land surface of h,618 square
miles. East Falkland with its adjacent islands forms 2,580
square miles of this total, while west Falkland contributes
the balance of 2,038 square miles. Mount Adam, the highest
point on west Falkland is 2,315 feet in elevation. Mount
Fiborne, the tallest peak on East Falkland, reaches a height
of‘2,2h5’feet.1

the terrain of the main islands is hilly, consisting
of swamp land with frequent rocky outcrOps. Frequent rain
and snow*have reduced the soil, chiefly peat, to a water-
logged state, making travel difficult in the winter season.2
there are-no trees, except where they have been cultivated
by man. The climate of the Falkland Islands is cool, the
mean annual temperature being #3 degrees Fahrenheit. Rain
is:frequent, and the islands are usually enclosed in fog.
cola spells occur throughout the year and these, coupled
with winds which reach gale force one day out of every five,

make for uncomfortable livingconditions.3

 

 

lauan c. Beltran, g; Zarpazo Ingles a Las Islas Nalvinag,
(Buenos Aires, 193%), p. .

ZgEitish Islands in the Southern Hemisghere 1%uggigzg,
Colonia ce, 3 :a es y s a onary ce, Lon on,

1951), p. 79.

3gGeoSraphical Review, Vol. XIV, N0. 3, (331?: 192”)!
PP. " 0

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(10)

the city of Port Stanley, situated on East Falkland, has
a population of 1,320, constituting more than half the total
population of the entire archipelago which contains 2,268
persons. the people of the Falkland Islands are generally of
Scotch-Irish descent, although the population does contain
some Scandinavians, Germans, and Latin Americanstl
Port Stanley is the seat of the Governor or the Falkland
Islands Dependencies, Ibo administers the colony for the
cream. the constitution, established in l9¥5 to conform
with the Royal Instructions of the 28th of February, 1920,
provided for the formation of an Incentive council. the
Council was composed of three ex-officie members, the Colonial
secretary, the Financial secretary, the Senior Medical Officer,
and "such other persons as might from time to time be appointed".2
the three ex-efficio members rare increased in 19h6 with the
appointment of an Ezecutive Engineer, an Agricultural Officer,
and a Collector of Customs. the Constitution also provided for
an appointed Legislative council composed of three members, who
more to be residents of the Falkland Islands. Objections were
raised as to the sise of the Legislative council, resulting

in the appointment of two additional.members in 19k7. the

 

1The South American Handbook, Trade and Travel Publications,
(London, , p. .

23:11:13? Islands in the Southern Hemisghere gag-1221,
Colonia ce, His Majesty s S at onary O f ce, London,

1951), p. 82.

 

 

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(11)

Constitution of l9k5 received criticism on the grounds
that it lacked the elements of pOpular representation.

In l9h8, proposals were submitted for a revision of
the 19%! constitution, and a new'Legislative Council.
the new Legislative Council came into being on March k,
19%9. It was composed of the Governor, acting as the
President of the Council; and three appointed members, the
Colonial Secretary, the Senior Medical Officer, and the
Agricultural Officer. Popular representation was provided
by four elected members, one each.froa.East and Host
lhlkland, and two from the teen of’Port Stanley“.1

the Falkland Islands are one of the most isolated
areas in the world, although this situation is beginning
to change with the advent of modern transportation. At
present, the zgtzroz, a vessel of 850 tons gross displacement
owned by the Falkland Islands Company, provides contact
with the outside world. This ship makes the voyage from
Port Stanley to.Eontevideo, Oruguay, on an average of once
every five weeks. the zitsroz;is equipped to carry 27
passengers on coastwise Journeys, but frequently is forced
to transport additional passengers due to the long interval

between voyages. A larger ship, the Lagggig, of 26259 tons

 

line South American Handbook, trade and travel Publications,
(London, J ‘ , p. .

A
F“!

 

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(12)

displacement had assisted the Fitzroy, but was disposed
of in l9h8 for economic reasons.1

Internal communications, according to reports, are
little better than external communications. The Eitgggz
carries out inter-island voyages when not making trips
to Montevideo. At one time there were three small ships
plying between the islands. Since then all three ships
have been wrecked, and as a result inter-island transporta-
tion has suffered. Inland transportation is poor. The
terrain is rugged and offers considerable problems for
road building, making the cost of highway construction
and maintenance prohibitive. Also there is not a
sufficiently large volume of traffic to warrant a large
expenditure for road building. The most practical solution
uunld seem to be the clearing of tracks between the sheep
firming settlements, for the use of Jeep-type vehicles.
lover-tho-less, the horse is still one of the principal
means of inland transportation.

the overall transportation picture was changed in 1947
with the purchase of a motor fishing vessel, the Philomel,
thich provides ambulance accommodations for inter-island,
and mainland emergency trips. A step towards better com-

munications was initiated in l9h8 with the establishment

 

lBritish gslands in the mthern fiemig‘ here 1%n5.1251,
Coloni ce, 8 1a es y s S at onary ice, Lon on,

1951), p. 820

 

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If an experimental inter-island air service. The flights
were begun with two duster aircraft, one an ambulance model,
purchased form Royal Air Puree world War II disposals. Thee
air service has recently added two float planes, a.Norseman
aircraft'which will seat eight passengers, and an duster
aircraft for medical and postal‘use.1

the air service has been supplemented by radio telephones
to alleviate isolation and to assist in providing medical
care.2 The radio telephones have been installed at every
sheep station on the main island as well as on the smaller
more isolated islands. the radio telephenes operate on two
frequencies, one for communication between the settlements,
and the other for direct contact with Port stanley.

the Colony maintains its own wireless telegraph cone
munication with London, Bergen, Montevideo, and Buenes.Aires.
The present telegraph station was completed in 19h8, and
is staffed by six local Operators. There is also a sub-
station at Fox Bay which serves the needs of west Falkland.3
the Post office Department and Telegraph Service has been
merged into one department. Incoming and outgoing telegraphic

 

o1.itish sland in the outhern emishe a... - ,
Colonia a ce, H 3 Ma es y s a onary 0 cc, Lon-on,
1951), De 830

2mm, p. 85.

3Ibid, p. 8h.

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(1“)

messages have increased from an average of 2RD telegrams
per month in 19399 to 960 telegrams per month in l9h9.
There has also been a corresponding increase in postal
traffic, resulting in the construction of a new'np-to—datc
post office.
Health conditions in the Falkland Islands are below
standard. The incidence of tuberculosis is high, as is
the death rate from appendicitis. the common cold
circulates generally, as well as a local form of gastro-
enteritis. The isolation of the Falkland Islands contributes
to the effect of such epidemic diseases as mumps, measles,
and rubella, introduced from the mainland. the inhabitants
of the Falklands have poor teeth and are plagued wiuh
rheumatic afflictions. There are no insect pests, except
the bluebottle fly, introduced in the 19th century by a:
refrigerator ship which visited the islands to collect
mutton.1
£.!Ilkland Islands development pregram has outlined
a system for_the installation of water-borne sanitation
throughout Port Stanley.- The local government also admits
the need for a better water supply.
The-Falklands alse suffer from a lack of certain types

of food stuffs. Green vegetables are not widely grown,

 

1British Islands in the Southern gemisghere 1%h5-1251,
Chlonia ce, H 3 Ma es y s Stat onary 0 ca, Lon on,

1951) , p. 85.

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(15)

and though fish is available in abundance there is no regular
supply. Mutton is the only meat consumed, and is eaten three
times a day by a large portion of the population. Other
staples are potatoes, cake and tea. Milk and butter are
plentiful although not widelyconsumed.1
the medical services provided by the Colony are based
at King Edward VII Memorial Hospital, which was completed
in 1915. It consists of a wooden building containing
seventeen beds, with accomodations so limited that it is
not always possible to segregate tuberculous cases. A new'
hospital wing is in the process of construction, with
modern medical, surgical, and maternity wards. When’the
new addition is completed, the old hospital is to be adapted
for bed-ridden incurables, and for tuberculosis patients.
Unusual cases requiring special treatment are sent to the
British Hospital in Montevideo, Hruguay.2
Port Stanley is the educational center of the Falklands,
‘with compulsory education for those form the ages of five to
fourteen. In areas outside of Port Stanley, children five
‘years of age living within one mile of a school are required
to attend, as well as those seven years of age living

within two miles of a school. Facilities for a complete

 

15§1t13h Islands in the Southern Hemisphere l?#§-l?§l,
Colonia ce, 3 Ma es y s s at onary ce, Lon on,
1951) , Po 850

2Ibid, p. 87.

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high school education are available at the British School
in Montevideo, Druguayxl

Employment opportunities in the-Falkland Islands are
limited. The major employers in Port Stanley are the
Government and the Falkland Islands Company. Outside of
Port Stanley there is employment on the many sheep stations
that are located throughout the islands. Special wages are
paid as piece rates during the shearing season. These are
set at an annual meeting of the Labor Federation and the
local branch of the Sheep Owners Association. Extra money'
can be earned by peat-cutting in the summer and by fence
building, and other contract work during the winter season.
the hard life on the islands sheep farms has drawn many or
the laborers to New’ZBaland and Australia, there sheep
farming conditions are not quite as rigorous. The Government
has set up a scheme designed to check emigration, by giving
the worker a share in the profit of the sheep station.2

The economy of the Falkland Islands is based princi-
pally on sheep farming. The total number of sheep in the
islands during 1950 was 611,000 for an average of one

sheep to every four acres. In 1957, k,§75,156 pounds of

 

1ggograghical JOurnal, Vol. CXXI, Part #, (December,
1955), po 0

‘ 2British Islands in the Southern Hemisphere 1%hfi-1251,
ColoniaI UTTIce,‘HI§ Majesty's Stationary 0 ce, Lon on,
1951), P0 910

 

 

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wool were eXported, at a value of 1,230,132 pounds sterling.1

A certain number of sheep skins are also exported with a
sale price of 19,000 pounds sterling.

The Falkland Islands are divided into 2% sheep farms,2
varying from a small island suoh as East Point, with
3,h00 acres of land and 2,500 sheep, to the-Falkland Islands
Company's vast holding on East Falkland, with a.million acres-
and 215,000 sheep. The larger farms are olned by corporations,
and are farmed for the most part, by resident managers.
Constant efforts are being made to improve the existing breeds
of sheep, to enable the herds to produce finer wool and
larger amounts of mutton. Romney and corriedale rams from
New'Zealand and Patagonia.have been used to improve the
sheep herds in the past, and greater improvements are
promised.3

The sheep raising industry has been faced with a labor
shortage, due to the trend of the native population to drift
away from the Falklands to the wider economic horizons of
lustrelia.and New'zealand.

 

lghg Shuth American Handbook, Trade and Travel Publications,
(London , , p . .

2The South American Handbook, Trade and Travel Publications,
(London, , p. .

3British Islands in the Southern Hemisphere 1%35-1251,
Colonia ce, H 3 Na es y s S a onary ce, Lon on,

1951), p0 910

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The Falkland Islands Company has tried to help solve
this problem by the importation of selected labor, and the
expansion of the home economy. The Colonial Development
Cbrporation has begun the construction of a freezing plant
at Ajax Bay on East Falkland, designed to process up to
50,000 mutton and 1,500 beef carcases for the British
market.1 A small scale sealing industry has been started,
with both the sea-lion and elephant seal being hunted and
processed. The results of this drive towards a more
diversified economy have been encouraging. In l9k6 the
Colony had a budget deficit of 2h,000 pounds sterling,
which was reduced to 1%,000 pounds sterling in l9k8. Further
improvements in the economy were evidenced in 19H9 by a
budget surplus of 6,000 pounds sterling.2

The ordinary revenue of the Colony has evidenced a
gain from 111,000 pounds sterling in l9h5, to 161,000 pounds
sterling in 1950. The principal sources of revenue were;
the income-tax which contributed 51,000 pounds sterling,
the export duty which contributed 39,000 pounds sterling,
and the import duty which added 17,000 pounds sterling to the
total.3

 

lBritish Islands in the Southern Hemisghere 1%u§-12§1,
Colonia ce, 5 Na es y s a onary 0 ce, Lon on,

1951), p. 92.

ZIhe South American Handbook, Trade and Travel Publications,
(London, , p. .

3British Islands in the Southern Hemisphere 1%H5-1251,
Coloni ce, 8 ha es y s a ionary ce, Lon on,

1951) y p0 950

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(19)

South Georgia Island at latitude 5h and one half
degrees south, and longitude 36 degrees to 38 degrees west,
has an area of approximately 1,000 square miles, and a
populationoof 1,500 persons. Outside of the Falkland Islands,
it is the only constantly inhabited non-military and non-
scientific settlement in the Falkland Islands Dependencies.
The major portion of the population consists of laborers who
are engaged in whaling. The population declines in winter
when the work is limited to repairing whaling equipment and
the maintenance of ships. The climate of South Georgia is
slightly more rigorous than that of the Falkland Islands.
Consequently the mountains are snowbcapped the year around,
with numerous glaciers reaching down the valleys to the sea.1

The Resident Magistrate, Police, Customs Officials,
telegraphic personnel, and other administrative officers
are stationed at King Edward's Point, Grytviken Harbour.
There is also a radio station at King Edward's Point which
is in regular communication with Port Stanley in the Falkland
Islands.2

There are three land-based whaling factories on South
Georgia Island, whose Norwegian and Swedish employees

compose a part of the islandSS population. The economy of

 

1

Geographical Journal, vol, CXXI, Part h,(December, 1955),
p. . .

2The South American Handbook, Trade and Travel Publications,

(London, I955}, p. 568.

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South Georgia and the rest of the Falkland Islands Dependencies,

with the exception of the Falkland Islands, depends on the

numbers of whales and seals which inhabit the area.

weather conditions are important to the whaling industry,

and for this reason the whaling concerns.are taxed to support

a meteorology and hydrography survey conducted in the

Antarctic. The survey draws its scientific staff from the

British Air Ministry by courtesy of the Heteorolegical Office,

and its daily messages are received over a.wide area of the

Antarctic.1 Before the establishment of this weather force

casting service, the whaling fleets had to depend on the

union of South Africa for weather information. The whaling

fleets have only recently returned to a solvent.financial

status. Two companies were forced to suspend operations with

the decline of whale oil prices in 1931, and only one was

left in production at the out-break of werld war II. Hith

the end of the war, and the world wide shortage of fats,

whaling again‘came into a profitable period, and by l9h6-19h7

production was on the increase.2
Meat meal and fertilizer are some of the by-products of

the industry. .A.prob1em has been created in that the whales

are tending to feed further and further away from South Georgia.

Col :Britis? Islands in the Southern figmisghere lghfi-lgfil,

on a ce, 3 me as y s S onary 0 ca London

1951), P0 960. . , ’
Znid, p. 97.

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(21)

The quality of production has been effected because, withuthe
elder, slower types of catcher-boat used, decomposition sets
in before the whale can be brought to the flensing plant.
Elephant seal are also taken on the beaches near Grytviken.
The average catch for the past four years has been about
5,500 seals with a production of 11,000 barrels of oil.

South Georgia's principal means of communication with
the outside world is the meteorological survey ship, gggg,

sco , which makes at least two visits to the island each

year.~ The only other means of communication is by special
charter of the Falkland Islands Company's ship Fitgggl, or
by occasional whaling craft from Montevideo, aruguay.1
a supplementary form of communication is the Government
‘wireless statien at Grytwiken Harbour. the station accepts
messages to and from Bergen, Buenos sires, Montevideo, and
London via Port Stanley.2

Recent deve10pments on Seuth Georgia Island include
the construction, in l9h9, of new'quarters for the Government
officials at Grytviken.. s.new'pewer house was huilt.in
19H8, and a.new’meteoro10gical station completed in 19h9.

Two automatic navigational lights have been installed on

 

1Britis¥ Islands in the Southern gemisghere 1%h5-12§;,
Coloni ce, 3 Na as y s a onary ce, Lon on,

1951) 7 Po 960
21bid, p0 97o

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the east coast of South Georgia as a service to the whaling
fleets who make the island their home base. One of the
whaling concern has installed a process for the production
of cattle food from a whaling by-product known as, 'gluewater".
Another company has experimented with the manufacture of whale
meat extract; the results were encouraging, but markets for
the product were few and the project was abandoned.1

The finances of the Falkland Islands Dependencies, are
separate from those of the Falkland Islands. Revenue for the
Dependencies has been increased by a sliding-scale export
duty'on whale oil, which replaces the former flat rate of
Is. Gd. per barrel. Thus the total ordinary revenue was raised
from 13,000 pounds sterling in l9h5, to llh,000 pounds sterling
in l9h9. The increase in revenue has put the Dependencies on
a sound financial basis, with a reserve of 100,000 pounds*
sterling, and a valuable asset in the geographical survey
ship John Eiscoe.2

The Falkland Islands Dependencies also includes the Graham
Land Peninsula. Graham Land lies with its northern tip on the

63rd degree of south latitude, and is the only part of the

 

liar-Lush Islands in the southern Hemis ere 1 1+ .1
Colonia! ETTIce, HI: Meiesty's §tationary Oggice, ELondon,

1951), p. 98

2Forrest Me When The Falkland Islands To-da ,
(Stirling,s Scotland, 19W, p.

of

 

 

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(23)

lntarctic Continent not entirely included within the
Antarctic Circle.1
The whole length of the Graham Land Peninsula is
composed of a high ice-covered plateau between six.and_
eight thousand feet in elevation, becoming lower at the
northern end, where the land is cut by several deep valleys.
an the eastern.shore of Graham Land, south of the Antarctic
Circle, lies the permanently frozen portion of the Weddell Sea.
The part of the weddell Sea outside of the Antarctic Circle
is usually navigable in the summer, and provides the main route
of approach to the Antarctic Continent.2 The pack.ica of the
Ballinghausen Sea.breaks up in the warmer months an allows
ships to travel as far as Alexander I Land. During the-warm
months of the Antarctic summer, the islands off the coast of
Grahan.Land swarm with numerous forms of animal.and marine
life.3
Three groups of small.islands and reefs lie off the
west coast of the Graham Land Peninsula. Adelaide Island,
is located the farthest to.the south, near the Biscoe Islands,
and can be reached by sea only when the pack ice breaks up

 

‘? .10tto Nordenskjold, The Geo ra h of the Polar e ions,
imerican Geographical Society, {New Tori, I923}, p. 282.
39:660gzaphicgl Review, Vol. m, No. 3, (July, 1921+),
p. .

3Russel Owen "wilkes Finds a Continent", The Antarctic
Ocean, (London, 1551), p. 9%.

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during the summer months. Two of the larger islands of the
Palmer Archipelago, are Brabant Island, and Anvers Island.
The South Shetland Islands, farthest to the north, are rugged
in appearance and have a climate slightly less rigorous than
that of the Palmer Archipelago.1

The South Orkney Islands, to the northeast of the
Graham Land Peninsula, are rugged in regard to landscape
and are similar to the South Shetlands in appearance. The
climate of the South Orkneys is somewhat more extreme than
that of the South Shetlands. The South Orkneys as well as
the South Shetlands are uninhabited, and are frequented
only by Whalers and meteorological expeditions.2

The South Sandwich Islands, on the eastern boundary of
the Falkland Islands Dependencies, are volcanic in origin
and desolate in appearance. They are uninhabited except
for varieties of marine life, which are plentiful on the
islands during the brief period of warmer weather during

the Antarctic summer months.3

This concludes the section on the geographic description

 

h 1William Barclay, The Land of Magellan, (London, 1926),
p. 0

2Great Britaina Fbreign Office, Peace Handbooks, The

Falkland Islands an Kergulenen Island, No. 138, (London,
, p. .
3Fbrrest Mc when The Falkland Islands To-da ,
(Stirling, Scotland, 19W, p. , "p'.""87. '

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(25)

of the Antarctic. Additional information on the areas‘
covered in this section, will be found in the following
discussion on the discovery and exploration of the Antarctic

and the Falkland Islands Dependencies.
Section II
Discovery and Exploration

The first hint of penetration to the southern ocean
is mentioned in Polynesian mythology. ‘About 650 A. D.,_
Hui-te-rangiora sailed south in quest of’Neu Zealand,
strayed further south and may have been one of the first
human beings to see the icebergs of the southern sea.1

The next mention of the Antarctic, the Falkland Islands
and South Georgia, possibly, is in a letter from Amerigo
vespucci to Piero Soderini, dated September 150%. The letter
concerns an expedition which sailed from Lisbon, Portugal,
in May of 1501, to the southern seas with vespucci as cosmo-
grapher. The fleet of three ships was blown south by storms,
when, as vespucci records in/his letter to Soderini, "the
southern pole stood quite 52 degrees above our horizon",

they sighted an unknoun land and ran along it for twentyleagues.2

 

1 t
Russel Quin "The Ocean of Myth", The Antarctic Ocean
(London, 1951), p: 6. . "

152v. r. Boyson, me Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),
p. o

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This was probably the first recorded glimpse of the islands now
known as the Falkland Islands, although various sources pro-
pound other theories as to what lands were sighted. Vernhagen
states that it was South Georgia, while Humboldt and Groussac

believe that it was the coast of Patagonia.1

Another'explanation
which takes into account an additional letter of‘vespucci's,
concerning the expedition in 1501, makes no mention of a new
land in the South Atlantic. Instead, it relates an account
of the discovery of Southern Patagonia.2 Some authorities,-
believe this letter to be s.forgery. Other sources hold.that
its major details are in agreement with the previous letter
uhich describes the discovery of Patagoniag but that vespussi
left out the details of the discovery of land in the South
Atlantic from the second letter. This is said to have been
done to protect Portuguese discoveries from the Treaty of
Tbrdesillas, signed in lh9h, which would regard any Portuguese
discovery that far south as trespassing on the preordained
preperty of Spain.3 At any rate, the discovery of the
Falkland Islands or Southhfieongia by the Portuguese in

1501 is without positive proof, but it cannot be discounted

as a possibility. Indeed, the majority of sources agree

.____ 4.. 4_

In. I; Hunter Christie, :he ‘gtarctic Problem, (London,
1951, y PP o 30.3]- 0

230se£cre, ral atc tt e e
(Madrid, 1951), p. .

3V. F. Boyson, Ige Eglgland Islands, (Oxford, 192%), p. 15.

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that the Falkland Islands or South Georgia have the best
possibility of being the lands described by Vespucci.

The next recorded voyage to the Antarctic was by the
Egpgig, commanded by Binot Paulmier de Gonneville. The ship
sailed from Honfleur, FranCe, in June, 1503. Off the coast
of Brazil the Egpgi; was driven from its course by a storm,
and eventually landed on the Brazilian coast.1 The account
of the voyage created interest on the part of European powers,
in the discovery of lands in the southern seas. Soon after,
many expeditions were set sail from the ports of London,
Plymouth, Honfleur, Hansen, and St. Malo to seek new lands to
the scuth. These voyages brought back the news of the dis-
covery of a group of islands to the east of Patagonia.

Either Vespucci's account, or the later voyages partic-
ularly those from St. Male, served to call the cartographers'
attention to the existence or a group of islands off the
Patagonian coast. They appear on waldseemuller's great
map of 150? as Insule 7 Delle Pulzelle, and again on the
manuscript map of Glareanus, published in 1510.2 Ptolomaeus

places them on his map edited in 1513, and Schoner's Globe
of 1520 shows a group of five islands in mid-ocean off the

 

1

16 F. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192M),
p.

2Jose Acre, The Malvinas (Our Snatched Little Isles},
(Nadrid, 1951), P. 11'".

.5

 

 

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coast of Brazil. These maps do not offer complete proof
of the location of the Falklands, because in almost every
case, the islands are placed higher than their actual lat-
itude. This has caused a good deal of dispute as to their
identification, however, the majority of authorities agree
that they could very possibly be the Falklands.l

Some proof of this possibility may be seen in the
charts drawn for lagellan's expedition by Diego Bibero.
These charts show a well defined group of islands off the
coast cf Patagonia at latitude h9 degrees south.2

Other sources hold the belief that the Falkland Islands
were discovered by Magellan. This school of thought is
based on Alonso de Santa Cruz's work, E1 Islario general
de Todas las Islas del Mundo, published in 1908 by a Pro-
fessor Wieser, who found the manuscript in the Imperial
Library at Vienna.3 One of the chapters of the,"Islario",
deals with the lands or islands to the south of the Strait
of Magellan. *The volume goes on torstate.that the informa-
tion it contains is derived from reports given by four

expeditions that navigated the Strait.

 

1Julius Goebel Jr., The Struggle for the Falkland
Islands A Study in Legal and Diplomatic History (New
Haven,-l§27), p. 9-10. ’

2 l-
V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%), p. 17.

3Jose Acre, The Nalvinas (Our Snatched Little Isles),
(Madrid, 1951), p. I5.

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The first of these expeditions, under the command of
Ferdinand Nagellan, set out in search of the Molucca, or
spice islands. hagellan left Spain in September of 1519, and
sailed south along the coast of Brazil and Patagonia toward
Cape Horn where the continent ended in a maze of islands.
Magellan looked for a pass throughlthe islands, but the
intense cold of the approaching winter persuaded him to spend
the rest of the season in a port which he names St. Julian.
There he remained from April until September, when the
weather improved and he was able to continue his Journey.1

The manuscript continues as follows; "the explorers
approached and discovered several islands which lie eighteen
leagues to the east of San Julian and which they called.
Islas de Sanson y de Patos." The report of.the eXpedition,
according to the manuscript, indicates that the Isles de
Sanson y de Patos, or Sanson and Ducks Islands were situated
at 51 degrees latitude south. The latter were so named by
the expedition because of the-many birds of this type that
they found on the islands.2

The so called wolfenbfittel.map drawn between the years

1527 and 1530, and unsigned, places seven islands off the

 

13. H. Hunter Cristie, The Antarctic Problem, (London,
1951), p. 3%. . .

2Jose Acre, The Malvinas §0ur Snatched Little:;sles),
(Madrid, 1951), p. 160

.h‘

 

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coast of Patagonia, and names them I de Sanson.. In the year
1535, Simon de Alcazaba's expedition discovered several
islands in mid-ocean to the south of the #5 parallel, but
did not attempt to make an exact geographic location of them.1
Another expedition which ventured into the southern
ocean was that of Alonso de Camargo, in the year'l5h0.
Overtaken by a storm that sank the vessel on which he sailed,
Camargo was forced to transfer to another ship, and take that
damaged vessel to a port in Peru for repairs. One of the expe-
dition’s.remaining ships, whose name is unknown, traced its
course as far as the Strait of Magellan. While in the vicinity
of the Strait, the ship lost its anchor and was forced to put
out to sea in en easterly direction on January 31, l5hl. On
February k, eight or nine islands were sighted; in accordance
with islands noted on their nautical chart. Goebel, and many
other authors have called this unknown ship the Incognito.
Goebel maintains, on the basis of the intensity of the'wtnds,
and the direction of the currents, that the islands visited by
the Incognita were the Falkland Islands, and not Tierra del

Fuego, as is claimed by other sources.2

 

171V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192”),
p0 0

2Julius Goebel Jr., The Struggle for the Falkland

IslandsI A Study in Legal and Diplomatic History, (New

 

 

 

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Sebastian Cabot's Mapa Mundi shows seven islands off
the coast of Patagonia Just north of Baya de San Inlian,
named Y de Sansone, which may have been the Falklands.
This chart was not published until 1544, although a Spanish
State Paper of 1498 contains a reference to it. It seems
evident that by 1550 this group of islands off the Patagonian
coast was known to Spanish, Portuguese, and English navigators.
Diego Guiterez's map of America, edited in 1562, identifies
the islands as the Insules de Sanson. Mercator, in his
Eappggonde of 1569 places a group of islands at #9 degrees
south latitude off the coast of Patagonia, but fails to
name the archipelago..

Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, led an expedition from
Lima, Peru, which in 1579 reached the Strait of Magellan.
On February 12, 1580 Gamboa took possession, "of the entire
Strait and the archipelagos in both the South and the North
Seas", in the name of Philip II of Spain.2 In 158% Gamboa
returned to found the settlement of Nombre de Jesus on the
Patagonian coast, and to take up the duties of Governor
and Captain General. At this time he again took possession,
"actually and effectively of all the mainlands and the islands

 

1V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192u), p. 23.

2Jose Acre, The Malvinas (Our Snatched Little Isles),
(Madrid, 1951), p. 52.

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adjacent thereto, of the waters of the Strait of the
Mother of God, before known as the Strait of Magellan,
of the kingdons, mountains, valleys, plains, etc., in the
name of his Catholic Majesty, King Philip.II.'1
Plancius, the Dutch cosmographer, in his Orbis Terrarum
of 1592, and on his chart of 159H calls the Falklands, the
I. de Acenca.2
One of the first British navigators to venture into
the Antarctic Ocean was Sir Francis Drake in the year 1578.
Drake sailed from Plymouth, England on November 15, 1577,
and after some attacks on Spanish shipping, reached the
South American coast and entered the Straits of Magellan
on August 17, 1578. Drake's major contribution to the
real. or Antarctic exploration was that he discovered the
existence or the Drake Passage, giving the cartographers
a new concept of the extent of the fabled Antarctic Continent.3
Another British expedition under the command of
Thomas Cavendish visited the south seas in 1591. John Davis,
one of Cavendish's captains, was separated from the main
fleet during a storm off the coast of Patagonia, and sighted
unknoun islands at about 50 leagues to the northeast of the
Strait of Magellan, on the lhth of August, 1592. Davis did

 

lJose Acre, The Nalvinas (Our Snatched Little Isles),
(Vadrid, 1951), p. 3%.

2VI F. Bovson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford,l92h), p. 19.

3E. w. Hunter Christie, The Antarctic Problem, (London,
1951), p0 37.

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not attempt to make any exact geographic location of the
islands he sighted except to note their distance from the
Patagonian coast.1 After sailing past the islands, he
returned to course, and on August 19, 1592 entered the
Strait of Magellan, reaching Cape Froward two days later.
This feat has caused some authorities to doubt that the
islands sighted by Davis, were the Falklands. Acre points
out that it would have taken Davis a much longer period
of time to sail from the Falkland Islands through the
Strait to Cape Froward, than is indicated, if the islands
sighted by him were the Falklands. Acre maintains that
Davis may have invented the discovery to help atone for
the fact that he did not rejoin the expedition after the
storm that drove him to the islands, but rather returned

hue to England 02

In contrast, British sources hold that
Davis, was the first to discover the Falkland Islands.

A few years later, in 1593, Richard Hawkins led a
British expedition to the southern ocean. According to
Hawkins, his expedition was off the coast of Patagonia
when it was driven by westerly winds towards a land which

was unknown to him. He named this uncharted land

1A. H. Markham, The Voyages and'WOrks of John Davis,
(London, 1880), 107-108.

2Jose Acre, The Falvinas {Ourfignatched Littlefilgles),
(Madrid, 1951), p. #1.

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Hawkins' Raiden-Land, making notes on various landforms
particular to that newly discovered territory.l Some
authors have declared that the physical description is
similar to the geographic features of the Falkland Islands.
Hawkins' description is as follows: "The wind continued
favorable up to a latitude of #9 degrees 30 minutes, when
it changed into a westerly wind. we were then according-
to our computations, about 50 leagues from the shore. On
February 2, around two o'clock in the morning we saw towards
the southwest a land which we had not expected to find so
soon. 'we approached it, unable to conjecture as to what
land it could possibly be, since we were at.approximately
#8 degrees and no nautical chart indicates land at that
latitude...we sailed I believe, about 60 leagues along

the coast...The land is flat and has a fine appearance:

it is inhabited; we saw many bonfires, but were unable to
speat to the inhabitants...; it has large fresh water
rivers; because of its appearance and its temperate climate
it reminds one of England...The western tip of the land,
the first part sighted by us, lay towards the west...A flat
island, about two leagues in length, is to be found about
twelve to fourteen leagues to the east of this spot...;

three to four leagues further on, always in an easterly

 

221V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, l92h),
p. o

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direction, is to be found an Opening similar to that of a
broad river, or an arm of the sea...and about eight to ten
leagues from this bay, about three leagues from the shore
rises a huge rock which we at first took to be a fully
decked ship.“1

A great deal of ink has been spilled by various authors
who have tried to prove or dis-prove the similarities be-
tween Hawkins' Maiden-Land and the Falkland Islands.
Hunter Christie and others agree that Hawkins was at the
right latitude, and that the large ship-like rock identifies
with a noted landmark of the Falklands called the Eddystone
Rock.2 Other geographic similarities such as the broad
river which may have been Falklhnd"Sound, and the fact that
Hawkins was sailing in the right direction from the South
American coast to sight the Falkland Islands, prompts some
writers to credit Hawkins with their discovery. However,
there are those who dispute the connection of Hawkins
narrative with the discovery of the Falkland Islands.
Among these are Goebel, Boyson, Acre, and Chambers.

Chambers is of the Opinion that Hawkins' discovery
more clearly identifies with Cape Tres Puntas, on the

1Julius Goebel Jr., The Stru vie for the Falkland
Islands. A Study in Legal and Dip§omatic History, (New
Haven,‘1927), p. 39: ,

2

2% V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, l92k),
p. .

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Patagonian coast.l He points out that Hawkins could not
have seen any fires on the islands, because they were
uninhabited at that time. Neither could Hawkins have
correctly called the Falklandrlslandsza flatrtemperateo
land, or sailed along 60 leagues of coast without circling
the archipelago. Chambers goes on to say that the broad
river or arm of the sea, was the Desire River at #7 degrees
5 minutes south latitude, on the Patagonian coast. As to
the large ship-like rock which in descriptiOn resembles
the Eddystone Rock of the Falklands, its location contradicts
the direction from which Hawkins states he sailed. The rock
itself has changed through the eroding action of wind and
wave, until, at the present time it is much smaller than it
was once said to be. For this reason it is difficult to
assess its appearance as Hawkins would have seen it, and
his reaction to its size.2

0n the let of January, 1600, Sebald de Iesrt sailed
northwards up the Patagonian coast. He had, with his ship
the 93122;, formed a part of a Dutch expedition in search
of new trade routes to the Pacific Ocean, and due to the

poor condition of his ship had decided to part with the

 

 

1Jose Acre, The Malvinas {Our figatched Little Isles),
(Madrid, 1951), p. ”'30 ‘

2B. M. Chambers, "Can Hawkin's Maiden Land be Identified
as the Falkland Islands", The_§eographical Journal, (April,
1901), p. 23.

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expedition, and sail back to the netharlands. aid the anthrax
January, three days after having left the Straits ef Magellan,
he found himself to the windward of three small islands,
not yet marked on the Dutch charts. The islands lay at 60
leagues from the mainland, at 50 degrees #0 minutes south
latitude.1

The newly discovered land consisted of three islands
that stretched from the northeast to the southeast. The land
was named the Islands of Sebald de weert, which are now'known
as the-Jason Islands, part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies.
The three islands of the Jason group sighted by de-Ubert were
probably'SteepleuJason, Flat Jason, and Great Jason Island.
Levinus Hulsius in the second volume of his fihifggrtgg of
1599, Shows a map of South America reaching to 60 degrees
south latitude. At 51 degrees south latitude he places
five islands which he calls I. de Accencain, which leads some
experts to identify the Islands of Sebald dc Heart with
Hawkins' Holden-Land.2

On January 18, 1616 two Dutch captains, William cornelison
Schouten er the gait: and Jacques 1e Marie of the Barn, sighted
and confirmed the existence of the Islands of Behold do leert-

 

1Gil Octavio Hunilla, Malvinas nflicto s anal
2.1229. (Seville. 19%), p‘r—W .

p. 262V. F. Boyson, :he Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),

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at 50 degrees south latitude.1 The islands were also sighted
by William Dampier of the gatchelor's Delight who writes as
follows: “January 28th, (168%), we made the Isles of
Gibald de Heert in 51 degrees 25 minutes South Latitude, and
57 degrees 28 minutes longitude, west from.the Lizard of
England the—variation 33 degrees 10 minutes. I persuaded
Captain Choke to anchor nere those islands, being sensible
of Danger in our Passage thro' the Straights of Magellan,
considering, especially, that men aboard the privateers
are not so strictly at command as in other vessels. we
came to an Anchor within two Cables' Length of the shore
of the furthermost of those three islands, where we found
fall rocky Ground, and the Islands barren, and destitute of
trees, but some Dildo-bushes growing near the sea-side...As
we found neither safe anchoring, nor fresh water at those
Isles, we made the best of our way towards the Straights of
Magellan.'2 Thus is recorded one of the first land falls
notr the Falkland Islands.

Another visit by an English ship was made in 1690 by
captain Strong of the flelfare, who named the islands
Falklands' laiden Land.3 This name was later shortened

 

IJese Acre, e alvinas Our etched ittle Isles ,
(Madrid, 1951), p. 55. "“1

272V. F; Boyson, Ige Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),
p. o

3E; H; Hunter Christie, The Antarctic Problem, (London,
1951), p. 600

 

 

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(39)

to the Falkland Islands, which has remained the English
name for the archipelago to this day.

During the hr of the Spanish Succession, (1701-17110,
bench vessels made numerous voyages to the south seas.
Dahlgreen, the Director of the Royal Library of Stockholm,
began in 1909 the publication of a work on these voyages.

Be asserts that from 1695 to 1W9, the peeple of Saint-Male
made 175 voyages along the Pacific coast of South America,
and to the islands. of the Antarctic.1

(he of the first of these French voyagers ms Beauchesne,
who in 1698 crossed the Strait of Magellan and sailed along
the Pacific coast of South America as far as Guayaquil. On
his return trip, nemohesne rounded Cape Horn and on
January 20, 1701 drapped anchor off the shores of East
Falkland. Another henchmen, Poiree, sailed south from
Saint-Halo m February 13‘, 1708, and reached the Falklands
on July 16th of that year.2 Numerous other French ships, on
voyages of commerce and exploration, visited the Falkland

 

1Jose Acre, Ea galvinas (Our gatched Little Igles},
(Hadrid, 1951), p. o

2Dom. Pernety, The Histor of a V0 a e to the Malouine
{or Falkland) Islands, Made E ¥E§3 and $565 finder the
Cowman o M e Bo a v . e Order 0 Farm a Settlement
There- and of Two Vogages to the Streights of Magellan,

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(#0)

Islands until the Spanish occupation in 1767.

Lord Anson, in the report of his voyage around the
world in 17MO, called the British Admiralty's attention
to the strategic value of the Falkland Islands.1
Bougainville's establishment of a Culony at French Bay in
East Falkland, on January 31, 176%, served to intensify
British interest. This resulted in the dispatching or a
British expedition.ander Commander Byron, who took possession
of the Falklands, in the name sf His majesty George III,
on January 23, 1765. The British later established a
permanent Colony at Port spam on west Falkland, in 1766.2
These attempts at colonisation set the stage for a later
conflict over the possession of the islands. A more
complete consideration of these various incidents will be
covered in the section on settlement and claims.

The Island ofSouth Georgia.was first landed upon by
lnthony de la Roche, an English.merchant, in 1675. South
Georgis.was not visited again.until 1756, when the Spanish
Herchsntmanpfiggg, sighted the island. South Georgia Island
was later landed on.and claimed for the British.Crown by
Captain James Cook, In 1775. The South Sandwich Islands
were also discovered and named by cost in 1775.3

 

1:. w. Hunter Christie go Qtarctic Problem (London
1951), P. 61s ’ ’ ’

2
Camila Barcia Trelles El Problems de las Islas Melvinas
(Madrid, .1953), p. 38. ’ ' ’

3William Barclay, :he Land of flagellan, (London, 1926), p. 173.

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In 175°, a Chinese merchant succeeded in removing
the coarse outer hairs from the“ skin of the fur seal,
leaving only the beautiful under-fur. This opened up the
commercial market and resulted in the beginning of an
enormous demand for seal skins.1 Consequently the for
seal us hunted to extinction in the Falkland Islands and
south Georgia. the elimination of the fur seal from the
islands of the north, turned the attention of the sealers
toward new seeling grounds to the south. In 1819, while
"searching. for new hunting grounds, Captain mith or the
Iris Ellie-3, discovered the South aetland Islands and
claimed then for Greet hum? During the sealing season
e! 1821, saith also discovered Deception Island or: the
coast of the Graham Land Peninsula and thus formed the
basis of a later British claim. On December 7, I322,
mptein George Powell of the sealer m, sighted the
South Grime? Islands and took possession of then for
Great Britain} m example of the intensity of sealing
spa-sums say be seen via the umber of seal skins taken
during the season or 1801 when 122,000 skins were secured

.-

 

Inassell mm, Inna Discovered Antarctica”, M
Eterctic Ocean, (London, 19511. p. 1.1+.

2 ‘ ' '
Admiral Lord Hountevens m |gtarctic Challgged
(New York, 1956), p. 15. ’ . ’ - . ’

3mm Britain Foreign Office, Poace Handbooks, 22
d Island and lie men sland, No. 138, (London,
, p. e

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from the beaches at South Georgia. It is“ «tinted that
during the first 25 yurs or the 19th century, 1,200,000
seal suns Vere taken.1

The Graham Land Peninsula is saidto have been
discovered by award Brandield, en uglish ml; «ricer,
on January 30, 1820. American authorities contest Wield's
discovery,2 and maintain that E'snsfield used altered charts
to substantiate his claim. he united States insists that
Graha‘l Land Was discovered by Nathaniel: Painter .1 November
17, 1820, and that Wish It}: mites-s subsequently
suppressed Palmer's discovery.3 he dispute has caused a
good deal of cannula: bylinting th‘apininlullum
tend mBritishninirelty outta, wasPalIerLand on
charts produced by the barium We Office.”

Otha important cmtrflntima to mtarctic exploration
were-ads bymddeusmnellinshmen,amssi‘anml
officer, who surveyed south Georgia, the South much
Islands, and various other islands off the Antarctic coast.
me of his major contributions In the discovery orthe

 

1!. H. Hunter Christie, me elntarctic Problem, (London,
1951), p. 65. '

- Zhlter Sullivan est for a Continen , (New York a
London, 1957), p. 25-56

31hr York Times February 2, 1938, p. 21.

hmason em 'Iho Discovered Antarctica", W
m, (London, 19h), 1301"

 

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islands of! the coast of the Graham Land Peninsula, the
largest of which he named Alexander I Land. Bellingshausen's
voyages were made during the years 1819, 1820, and 1821 as
part or a Russian Antarctic expedition}

Numerous Antarctic explorers, such as James weddell,
and Jehn Bisooe charted and explored the Antarctic regions
during the-1830's. From 1837 to l8h3, three scientific
expeditions were fitted out for research in the Antarctic.
France, the United States, and Great Britain sponsored
these expeditions which attempted to penetrate the pack ice
and soil es.close to the South Pole as possible.2

Ibo-first interest in whaling, in Antarctic waters,
came as the result of the extermination of whales in northern
waters. Tha‘whales of the Arctic Ocean had been hunted
commercially since the Middle Ages.3 In later years, as
whales.were taken in larger numbers to provide oil, and
whalebone for womens.fashions, they became increasingly
scarce in the North Atlantic.

the scarcity of whales in the northern waters caused
interest to be taken.in the possibilities of whaling in

 

lE.‘H; Hunter'Christie ghe Antarctic Problem (London
1951), p. 106. ’ 4—” ’

2Halter'SHllivan, finest for a Continent, (New'YOrk &
London, 1957), p. 27.

3B. V. Hunter Christie fie Antarctic Problem (London
1951), p. 1H7. ’ ”’ ’

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the Antarctic.1 The whaling industry, in danger of passing
out of existence through the extermination of the easily
captured northern whale, dispatched expeditions to
investigate the Opportunities for whaling in the Antarctic.
One of these expeditions under the-command of Captain Edward
Dallmann, set out in July of 1873 in the steam whaler Gronlan .
Thus the Gronland became the first prepeller driven vessel to
cross the Antarctic Ocean.2
These investigations served to prove one point, that

the southern species of whale could not he caught by the
methods then in use. sail powered vessele;-snall boats,
end-hand harpoone could not cope with.the wary, fast swimming
whales of the southern.eeae. lhen.steanzpowered ships were
used to hunt whales in the antarctic, it was found that
though the ships were fast enough.to pursue the fin-hack or
southern whale, they were not able, even with the use of
small boats, to approach near enough tolpermit the-use of
the hand prepelled harpoon.3

' The problem of whaling in the-lbtarctic was solved in
1892, when a fleet of four steal driven ships, equipped‘with
harpoons fired from deck guns, began'whafling Operations in

 

lama-ad Lord mountains. MW.
(Rev York, 1955), p. Se

glalter Sullivan, ggggg £2; a gggtinent, (New Ibrk &
mm, 1957), p. 70

3Admiral Lord Mountevans, gge ‘gtarctic Challenged,
(New York, 1956), De 5e

 

 

 

 

 

 

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0+5)

the southern seas. This method allowed the whaler to
approach its prey, and fire a harpoon from a distance,
thus Opening the era of whaling in the Antarctic. Since
1892, whaling has become the major economic enterprise of
the antarctic, south of the Falkland Islands. The future
of the whaling industry is not bright due to the decreasing
number of whales in the Antarctic. In an effort to cmserve
the species, the hunting of whales has been limited by
international agreement.1
After 1900, interest in the Antarctic increased to
such a point that expeditions frequently crossed each
others' path. Such was. the case with the expedition led
by Scott and the group headed by, mmdnn- Both these
expeditions had landed in the Antarctic to make an attempt
at reaching the South Pole. Amundsen was the first to
reach this goal, doing so on December 1‘1», 1912.2 hther
than cover the other nmerous expeditions to the Antarctic,
which indeed would take man;t volumes in itself, I will
close the section at this point. I shall return to the
more recent expeditions ml: when they apply to the claims
situation, as covered in the next section.

 

1!. H. Hunter Christie, 11;; Emotic Problem, (London,
1951), p. 211. .

2Walter Sullivan, Mt for a~ Cmtinent, (New York &
London, .1957), p. 59.

 

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(“6)

Secticn III

A History of Claims in the Falkland Islands Dependencies

Part 1
The Argentine-British Controversy

the basis of the Argentine claim in the antarctic
assumes Argentine sovereignty over the area lying between
25 degrees and 7h degrees west longitude, and extending
free the South Pole to 60 degrees south latitude.1 This
sector includes the Grehen.Lend Peninsula and various islands
lying off its shore, the South.8het1and Islands, Santh
Georgia Island, the South Orkney Islands, the South
Sandwich Islands, and the Falkland Islands»2 .

argentine claims to sovereignty in the South Atlantic
stem from the early Spanish explorers, who were among the
first to establish definite rights to territory in the
Eastern Hemisphere. The Argentine Government contends that
any prior claim by Spain to territory within the area of the
Viceroyalty of La Plats was passed on to Argentina with its'
independence in 1816.3

 

1Leopoldo'Bamos Gimenes, s 1 vines 1a tartida
Argentina, gtlns memorial, .( os es, , p. .

20amiloBarcia trelles, 5; Problems de las Islas Melvinag,
(Madrid, 19H3), p. 18.

3Jnan G. Beltran, I; Zagpaso Ingles a Les Islas galvinag,
(Buenos Aires, 193%), p. 3.

 

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(#7)

Thus Argentina traces her claim to the Falkland Islands
from the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1h94, when Spain was given
the right to all lands west of the h6th meridian.1

The meridian passes between the Falkland Islands
and South Georgia Island, leaving South Georgia Island and
the South Orkneys out of Spanish Jurisdiction.

Unfortunately for Argentina, Papal Bulls, explorations,
and discovery are not always recognized as proof of sovereignty.
Grotius, Griphiander, and other authorities in the field of
international law maintain that discovery does not
guarantee ownership rights, but rather that possession and
subsequent occupation are the main supports relating to
sovereignty.2

the basis for the Argentine claim, however, is broad
enough to include proof of occupation as well as that of
Papal Bulls and Spanish explorations.

Presentation of the complete series of events leading
up to the Argentine administration of the Falkland Islands,
dictates a review of the facts concerning the first actual

attempt at the colonization of the Falklands.

 

1Camila Barcia Trelles, El Problema de las Islas Malvinag,
(Madrid, 19h3), p. 23.

2Alfred Ross, A Text-book of International Law, (London,
19h7), P. 21.

 

 

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The first colony on the Falkland Islands was established
by the French explorer Bougainville, in January of 1761+.1
Bougainville was not the first Frenchman to visit the
Falklands. The islands had been landed upon many times
by French sailors exploring the South Atlantic. The
majority of these voyages originated from the French port
of Saint-Halo, and it was from the seamen of Saint-Halo
that Bougainville obtained the navigational information
and geographical description necessary for his voyage.2

This was not Bougainville's first colonizing venture.
He had been closely connected with the French colony in
Canada, and after the loss of that colony, desired to
re-estahlish France in the western Hemisphere with a
lettlement in the Falklands.3

On April 5, 176%, Antoine Louis de Bougainville, took
formal possession of the Falklands, in the name of Louis XV

of France, named the islands Les Malouines, and founded the

 

lDon. Pernety, The Bistor- of a Vb a;e to the Malouine

or Falkland Islands Me . BMMH-er ue
ouu:Oe o , .e hug; nv e n lurer 0 arm a -: ement
W~=a e ;' c ., not.

 

an .ccoun o‘ e ‘a :zoo ans Trans a co ‘rom Dom Perne 's

ElstoricaIJournal written in French, (London, 1771:, p. 17%.
”12?. F; Boyson, 13o Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),

P. e

3Ibid, p. 1+2.

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(”9)

town of Port Louis on East Falkland Island.1 It was at
this spot that he planned to build a settlement with supplies
from the expedition's two ships, the Egglg and the fighigz,
Permanent residents for the colony consisted of two
Aoadian families totaling ten individuals.2 The colonists
were also provided with livestock consisting of ten heifers,
two bulls, eight hogs, two boars, a few sheep, a goat, two
horses, and a mare.3

The Spanish Government, on hearing of the French
colonisation, protested on the contention that the Falklands
belonged to Spain as geographical dependencies of the Sauth
American Continent.
. Spain was not the only nation that was to protest the
establishment of the French colony. On January 15, 1765,
Captain John Byron of the ENS Dolphin landed in the Falklads
and claimed the islands for George III of England, in complete

 

 

1Thomas Falkner, % Description of Patagonia, and the
edjoining Parts of Sou Amer ca Con a ngganfiggcounto?
e 0 Produce, Animals. vales Mountains vers, Lakes,
and etc.fi ofitHOSel Countries; The Religion, Government,

fiolic¥t Customs, Dress, Arms and Language c the Ind an
In an s and Some Par culars Relatln to Falkland's
Islands, (London, I775), p. 93.

2Dom. Pernety, The Histor of a vo a; e to the Malouine
or Falkland Islands Mace ' 11am Under t- -e
fouuan- o M. -e Bou;a v 1e . Order 0 Form a Settlement

ere: an. o . vo a es 0 e Strei‘hts 0? Ma eIlan
Litfi an Account of tEe Pata onians: Translated érom Dom.
Pernetz'sfiistOrical Jm n§§ written In French, lLonHon,
,p.

31bid, p. 2h8.

 

 

 

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(50)

ignorance of the fact that they had been claimed by France
during the previous year.1 Byron named the harbor, at
which he first landed, Port Egmont in honor of the First
Lord of the Admiralty JOhn Percival, second Earl of Egmont,
who had sponsored the voyage. He surveyed the islands,
without finding the French colony, and then sailed for
England.2

Byron's report to the ldmiralty, following the voyage,
contained a good deal of praise in favor of the establish-
ment of a colony in the-Ealklands. Byron's comments
prolpted the admiralty to dispatch a Captain Machride to
explore the islands thoroughly; Hacbride had spent one
year surveying the island group, when in December of 1766
he discovered the French coIony.3 Hacbride landed and
inquired of the Governor, M. de Nerville, by what authority
the settlement had been established. The Governor replied,
that he was there on orders of the King of France, Louis XV;
Bougainville's commission for the settlement of the islands
was shown to the British. Macbride repeated his order for

 

k71V. F. Boyson, L——L———° Falkland “and” ”Inn" 1921*”
Po 9

2L. B. Mackinnon ‘ e c ount of the Falkland Islands
From a Six Months esidence an , London, 1835),
p. 55.
3Julius Goebel Jr., The Str 1e for the Falkland
Islands 9A Stud in Legal and Dipfiomatic History, (New
1 275 §

Haven, , p. 23 .

 

 

 

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(51)

the French to evacuate the islands, and then departed for
Port Bgmont.1

Spain'oontinned her protest of the French occupation,
and in the fall.ef 1766 the trench.hinieter, the Due de
Choiceul, requested that Bougainville Journey to Madrid
to discuss-the question of sovereignty. The Spanish
Government remained firm in demanding the uithdresel of
the French colony, but offered an lune-nit: for the expenses
involved in the establishment of the bench settles-mm.2
In agreement ees reeched,end on October-k, 1766, papers
sere.signed transfering the colony to Spain. the French
received 618,108 livres, as an indemnity for the islands and
the facilities of Port Louis.3 m colony was fonany
delivered to the neely appointed'apsnish Governor,
itlipe Ruisupuente-en lpril.l, 1767.

secording teva royal order, the governorship of the
Illklends was under the Jurisdiction of the-captain-eenerel
of Buenes sires; netseen 1766 and 1770 correspondence
sensed betseen !renc1seo'Bneareli, the Governor of Eneaos
tires and Julien.s:ria¢e, the upenish Hinieter of Marine

 

lamina Goebel nu, -._« 9 -;;1r . _
_. as l ..» in 434; :a- 9 ~~oma c.;‘s o -, ‘ee
.m’ e ’ p. e.

ZOctevio Gil nunills, Malvinag % Conflicto gale.
apanol 2! 1220, (sevilla, , p. .
uo3v. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192k),
p. x. ' ' ‘ ' _

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(52)

concerning rumors of an English settlement in the Falkland
Islands or on the coast of tierra del Fuego. These letters
contained instructions, that if an English colony was
discovered the members of said settlement were to be expelled
by the rerces of the Governor of Buenos Aires.1

Approximately one year after Jenn Byron claimed the
Falkland Islands in 1765, a settlement was established on
Saunders Island of! the coast of west Falkland. The original
name that Byron had given to the harbor, Port Egmont, was
retained as the name of the British settlement on Saunders
Island.

Captain Macbride returned to Great Britain and was
replaced by Captain Hunt as commander at Port figment.2
lhlipe Ruiz Fuente.renained in charge of the recently
acquired Spanish colony on last Falkland Island, now’renamed
Paerto de la Soledad. m lovenher 28, 1769, a sznnish ship
from Puerto de la abledad, the Fall , chanced to meet
the»g§!§£,of Port Egmont while both were on surveying
expeditions.3 Protests were exchanged, and Ruiz Puente

reported the incident to the governor at Buenos Aires.

 

1J'ulius Goebel Jr., The Stru 1e for the Falkland
Islandsi A Study in Legal and DIpiomaEIc fiIstorz, (New
Even, ’ p. O
2
Jose Torre Revello, La Promesa Secrets Y El Convenio

An lo-Es anol Sobre Las NaIvinas De i77I, (Buenos Afres,
I§§§S, 9. 2h.

573V. F. Boyson, The Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),
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(53)

Bucareli, as captain-general of Buenos Aires, decided to
enforce the royal order to expel the British settlers at
Port Bgmont. On May 17, 1770 a force of l,h00 men and five
ships under the command of Captain Juan Ignacio Madariaga
set out for Port Bgnont.l

The British settlement was defended by a small
detachment of 2M marines, and a few sailors from the
colony‘s ship the zgvoritg. Fortifications consisted of
a single blockhouse, which had been used as a storage place
for supplies.2

Hadariaga sent a.letter to the British commanders,
captains Farmer and Maltby, on June 9, 1770, warning them
to learn Port ngmont.3 This warning was ignored, and
consequently HIdariaga bombarded the blockhouse and landed
troops. The British fired a few shots and then hoisted
a flag of truce. no hits had been scored on the blockhouse,
nor had any of the British shells found their mark.
Articles of capitulation were signed the same day, ordering
the English colonists from the island.

 

1Gordon Ireland, Boundaries Possessions and Conflicts
in gggth gearica,(HarvaFd USIversity Press, T$385, p. 235.

2Bernard Penrose, An Account of the Last edition to
Port EEmont in Falkland's Islands In the Year 1&22 Together
w t e Transactibns of the Com an o the Pen a lo
ggring Theirfigtay There, (London, I;825, p. 13.

3Samuel JOhnson, Thou hts on the Late Transactions
Respecting_Falkland's islands, (London, 17715, p. 21.

 

 

 

 

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(51+)

The colonists left Port Egmont in mid July of 1770,
arriving in Portsmouth on September 22. Captain Farmer
and captain Maltby immediately dispatched reports of the
expulsion by Spain to the British Admiralty.1 The British
reaction.was such that thezapanihhdamhassador,lPrinceimasserano,
was prompted to.state that Bucareli had evidently acted
without any particular instructions from his Catholic Majesty.

The British government considered the incident at
Port Bgmont serious enough to.bring about the possibility
of war with Spain.? The Spanish.Government had no desire
for war, their finances were in poor condition, resulting
in a deterioration of Spain'scarmed forces. The British
were-well aware of this fact, and proceeded to put
pressure~on Spain for the return of Port Egmont. James
Harris, the British charge d'affaires, at Madrid wrote;
their army is.in.a poor state, ”and their revenues were
never in a worse condition."3

Spain was not in any position to seek.a war with the
English, her armed forces were weak and the support of
trance was lost with the resignation of the Due de Choiseul
as Minister. Faced with the possibility of damage to her

 

613v. r. Boyson, The gaLkland Islands, (Oxford, 1921+),
p. e

28amnel Johnson, Thou hts on the Late Transactions
Respectin 1klands IsIaan, lionaon, I771}, p. 35.
' '3James Harris, First Earl of Malmesbury, Diaries and
Correspondence, (London, lBhk), p. 58.

 

 

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(55)

colonial empire through a war with Britain, Spain decided
to return.Port Egmont to the English.

The Spanish proclamation restoring Port Egmont to
Great Britain is as follows: "His Catholic Majesty does
disavow'the said violent enterprise...and engages te give
immediate orders that Things shall be restored in the
Great Malouine, at the Port called Bgmont, precisely to
the state in which they‘ware before the 10th of June, 1770...
The Prince de Masarane declares, at the same time, in the
name Of the King his master, that the engagement of his
said catholic Majesty to restore to his British Majesty
the possession of the Port and.!brt called Ignont cannot,
nor ought, in any wise to affect the question of prior
right of sovereignty of the Malouine Islands, otherwise
called remand Islands."1

The order for the restoration of Port‘ngmont was signed
on Ibbruary 7, 1771. Chntroversy'in various political circles
in Britain prompted statements both pro and con concerning
the return of Port Egmont. Some maintained that the
restoration of Port Egmont and not the entire Falkland
Island group constituted incomplete restitution. "hr was
considered as being a convenient method to guarantee complete

satisfaction. Samuel Jehnson, convinced that the Falklands

 

681v. F. Boyson, The Elkland Islands, (Oxford, 192M),
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(56)

consisted of a singular island at the end of the earth,
had this to say, "It is an island thrown aside for
human use, stormy in winter, barren in summer, an island
which not the southern savages have dignified with
habitation; where a garrison must be kept in a state that
contemplates with envy the exiles of Biberia of which the
expense will be perpetual and the use only occasional."1
At this time rumors circulated in Spain and Britain '
concerning a secret verbal agreement regarding the restitu-'
tion of Port Egmont. Harris, the British'representative
at Madrid, writes in a report dated February'lh, I771:
FTheyikeep the declaration as secret as possible, they
also report that we have given a verbal assurance to-
evacuate Falklands' Island in the space of two months?"2
Goebel supports the possibility that a secret promise
may have entered into the negotiations for the restitution
of Port Bgmont.3 However, as yet, no author has been able

to prove the positive existence of such a promise, or

 

lalmnel thnson ou hts on the Late Transactions

     

 

2James Harris, r t arl of esbur Diaries and
es onden e, (Lon on, , Vo . II, p. .
3Julius Goebel Jr., The Stru:;1e for th- _ulkland
“sland, L ~tud in ;;a1 an- . . omat c : stor , New

-ven, ' , p. 300.

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(56)

consisted of a singular island at the end of the earth,
had this to say, ”It is an island thrown aside for
human use, stormy in winter, barren in summer, an island
which not the southern savages have dignified with
habitation; where a garrison must be kept in a state that
contemplates with envy the exiles of Siberia of which the
expense will be perpetualand the use only occasional..."1
At this time rulers circulated in Spain and Britain
concerning a secret verbal agreement regarding the restitu-‘
ticn of Port figment. Harris, the British representative
at Madrid, writes in a report dated Ftbruary 1%, 1771:
Fiber keep the declaration as secret as possible, they
also report that we have given.a verbal assurance to
evacuate Falklands' Island in the space of two monthst'z
Goebel supports the possibility that a secret promise
may have entered into the negotiatiens for the restitution
of Port Egmont.3 However, as yet, no author has been able

to prove the positive existence of such a promise, or

 

te Transactions.

 
 

2James Harris, r t arl of cab Diari s and
as ondence, (Lon on, , Vo . II, p. .
3Ju11ns Goebel Jr., the Struzzle for the '.lk1aad
_sland; i ‘tud in V:;a1 an- . - omat c : :tor , New

'2 ’ p. 3.0.

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(57)

definitely evaluate the obligations involved.
On September 16, 1771, British subjects again occupied

1 The colony received little support from the

Port Egmont.

British Government, interest falling to such a low ebb,

that in March of 1772 forces in the Falklands were reduced

to one sloop with.a compliment of 50 men, and 25'marines.
Interest revived sufficiently in 1773 for the fitting

out of anscientiric expedition to survey the Falklands.

The expedition consisted of the ship Endeavour which carried

the dismantled parts of a small vessel named the Penguin,

and the zgggginSs commander, Samuel Clayton. The

'Iggeazour reached Port Egmont in February or 1773, the

gegggig_being launched in April or that year, to enable

the expedition to explore the shoal waters of the Falklands.2
the adventures of the gggggig,in the Falkland Islands

were recorded by the ship's surgem, Bernard Penrose.

Penrose also included a description of the condition of

the British settlement in 1773. MacbrideSs blockhouse was

still the most commanding structure in the settlement.

Most of the other shelters were constructed or drift wood,

and roofed with turf bound on rafters made from the ribs

 

1Leopoldo Ramos Gimenez, Las Islas? alvinas 1a
égtartica Argentina, Atlas DocumenEaI, (Buenos Fires, 19%8),
P. e

2v. r. Boyson, me Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192»), p. 75.

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(58)

of whales. The Governors residence was little better,
waterproofed with tarred canvas and having a ships funnel
for a chimney.1 '

Further economy measures, or the presence of some
previous agreement to evacuate, caused the British Govern-
ment to discontinue the colony on the southern shore of
Saunders Island in the Falkland Islands Archipelago.

an the 23rd of April, 177%, the Endeavour arrived at
Port Egmont with orders to evacuate the settlement.2
Before taking leave of the Falkland Islands on May 20, 177%,
the British commanding officer, Lieutenant 8.‘U. Clayton
left a lead plate on the settlement's blockhouse. The plate
was inscribed as follows: ”The Falkland Islands, with this
fort, the storehouses, wharfs, harbors, bays, and creeks
thereunto belonging are the sale right and property of
His Most Sacred Kajesty George the Third, King 'of Great
Britain, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.

In witness whereof this plate is set up, and his Britannic

«Majesty's colors left flying as a mark of possession."3

._.—h A

1Bernard Penrose, 3: Account of the Last a..edition‘to

 

ort (wont in Falklands s ans e Year I To-et er
‘ e Transac ons 0' e Com-an' o e Pen;u - _aa oi
u n: e r a ere, onoon, 3 , p. .

Zgltlsh and Eeigg stag Pger! 18334831“ vol. 22,
(Londm, ’ ppe 1393- 39 e

3Bernard Penrose, In Account of t
t

;he Last Expedition to

Port E mont in Falklands' slands in fine Year 1222 Toget er

Egg? Ego Transacfiions o: gée Company 0 the Penéu S allop
g e r Stay ere, London, I , p. - e

 

 

 

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(59)

The voluntary abandoning of the colony at Port Egmont
by the British in 177%, constitutes a segment of ‘
contestability under the lrgentine claim. The argument is
that the abandonment of Port Egmont was in accord with a
secret agreement between Spain.and England and that the.
failure of the British Government to make any reservations
regarding its sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in 1771,
was a legal recognition of Spain‘ssovereignty in that area.1
This last point presents a problem as to its interpretation
and the application of international law.

The British viewpoint, based on the English law of
prOperty, holds that the restoration of Port Egmont in no
way affected the question of sovereignty, except to restore
the situation as it was prior to Madariaga's forceful removal
of the British.

International Law as applied to abandonment holds that
when a possession is abandoned it returns to its original
state. The proof of abandonment is difficult to evaluate,
as sources differ on the qualifications constituting abandon-
aent. In this respect, Jhering holds that the right of
possession is relinquished once an area is abandoned; '
while Savigan maintains that possession is not surrendered

by an act of abandonment, as long as the possibility remains

 

1Alfredol. Palacios, Lag Islas Halvinas, (Buenos Aires,
193%), pp. 105-111.

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of regaining the abandoned object.1 Canflict on this point
abounds in International Law, the result of which has been
that nations have respected occupation as being the strongest
guarantee of possession. Consequently the application of
International.Law'has had little effect on the status of
sovereignty in the Falkland Islands.

Shortly after the British evacuation of Port Egmont
an expedition was dispatched from the Spanish colony at
Puerte de la Soledad, to survey Port Egmont. The commander
of the survey party, Juan Pascual.calle1as, removed Clayton's
inscription, and placed it in the government archives at
Buenos Aires.2

In 1777 the Governor of Puerto de la Soledad, Eamon Carasa
received directions that all traces of the English colony at
Port Bgmont should be destroyed.. Spain also continuedeto
protest the use of the Falklands as whaling and sealing
grounds by foreign.ships. , '

the Spanish.sett1ement at Pusrto de 1a,Soledad continued
to prosper, and in 1785 boasted of 3% buildings and a
pepulation of about 100 individuals.3. Sheepherding and_'
fishing were the primary occupationsein the colony at this

time.

 

lJnlius Goebel Jr., The Struggle for the ggikiand
Islandst A Study in Legal an D p oma c s orz, New

V611, , p. .

p 782v. r. Boyson, zhe Falkland Islands, (Oxford, 192%),

3Ibid, p. 79.

 

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the last Spanish Goternor of the Falkland Islands was
JUan crisostomo Martinez who abandoned his post at Puerto de
la Soledad in June of 1806. He had received information that
the British had occupied Buenos Hires. Buenos tires had been
taken by an English force under Beresford in 1806, but had
been regained by the colonial militia commanded by Jacques
de Liniers'in August ““1806. Martinez never returned to'
his post, and it does not appear that a Spanish Governor
was appointed to take his place, although the colony still
continued to exist at Pnerto de la Bibledade:l

the mpoleonic conquest of Spain alloyed the govemnent
in Nev ”sin a measure of independence. On January 8, 1811,
the governing m at menos tires decided to discontinue
the colony at Puerto de la Soledad, bacause of the expense
involved in maintaining the settlement.2 the islands lay
abandoned, visited only by sealing and whaling ships, until
the government at Buenos tires chose to renew occupation
In 1820. he newly independent nation of Argentina as
anxious to secure all of the territory previously controlled
hy the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plate, and on November 6,
1820, dispatched Colonel Daniel Jevitt of the frigate

1Jn11us Goebel Jr., The gtruigle for the gglkland
fislands! l #1 in Legal an 2 p oma c s orz, New
van, , De 0 .

2:0hn'w; White, Argentina, (New YOrk, 19h2), p. 276.

‘P"

r

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1..

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‘5

(62)

geroina to take formal possession of the Falkland Islands.1

Jewitt surveyed the islands, and discovered as many
as 50 vessels using the'uaters of the rhlkland*lslands
for sealing and whaling. He then gave notice that the
Inns of lrgentina forbade all fishing and hunting in the
islands, and added that offenders would be sent to Bnenos
tires for trial.2 a British expedition.oalmanded by Janos
'Ubddell IIS also in the Phlklands at this time. 'Hbddell
reports that Jeuitt told hia.of his governments' orders to
take possession of the Ialkland Islands.3 In a note dated
lovenber 9, 1920, Jelitt infer-ed the nations of the world
of the new regulations to he applied by Argentina in the
lhlkland Islands.

In 1823 the Government of Argentina selected Pablo
tregusti as governor of the Falkland Islands. In the same
year, the govern-ant at Enenos Aires granted a parcel of
land, and the use of the‘islandts fisheries to Jorge-Pacheco
and Louis vernet.k

an Jlnuary 28, 1828, Vbrnet reeeived an additional
grant of the island of Staatenland plus all the lands off

 

 

lBritish and Foreign State Papers 1832-1833, vol. 20,
Zlhid, p. #19.

3James'wedde11 A vo
yage Towards The South Pole (London
1825), p. 10h. ’ ' ' "" ' ""' ' '”" ’

”gritfish and Foreigfi State Papers 1832-1833, vol. 20,
(London, , pp. - .

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(63)

the western shore of East Falkland except those-previously
granted to Pacheco. The grant was to be free of taxes for
20 years and to enjoy the right of exclusive fishing in
the waters surrounding the Falklands. These concessions
were distributed on the condition that a colony should he
established within threeyears.1 the Argentine Governnent
also reserved an area.of ten square leagues on the Bay of
San Carlos for its! own use. i

On June 10, 1828, vernet was appointed military'and
political governor, charged to uphold the law, and to
enforce the fishery regulations.

Vernet's first attempt to enforce the fishery regular
tions-occurred on July 39, 1831, when he seised the-schooner
gaggiet, of atonington Connecticut, under Captain.611bort
R. Davison,2 and two other united States vessels, the
schooner ggpggiggbof lew'xork under Captain Stephen Conger,
and the schooner greakwater, Captain carew'commanding.
the greakwatgr later escaped, leaving Captain Cares in the
custody of V’ernet.3 The erior, was allowed to give
security for her reappearance, and proceeded to a new’

sealing ground.

 

  
 
 

1William R. Manning, Di lomatic Corres ondence of
the‘flnited States Inter-amer can

 

 

31bid, p. 101-102.

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The United States Minister to Argentina, Jehn M. Forbes,
had died shortly before the outbreak of the sealing troubles,
leaving the Consul as Uhited States representative in
Argentina.1 Consul George W; Slacum wrote to Temas Manuel
de Anchorena, Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs,
concerning the seizure of the American sealing vessels. In
this correspondence, Slacum denied the right of the Buenos
Aires Government to regulate the hunting of seals. He also
advanced the right of the United States to the fisheries of
the Falkland Islands.2

In December 1831, the United States 3100p of war

exin ton, under Commander Silas Duncan arrived at Buenos
'Aires on the premise of protecting Imerican citizens in
the Falkland Islands.3 Duncan demanded the surrender of
Vernet, to be tried as a pirate, but gave the Buenos Aires
Government the alternative of punishing vernet for his
alleged acts of piracy. Commander Duncan and the Lexington
then proceeded to the Falkland Islands, landing there on
December 31, 1831.“ V

1

 

 

Julius Goebel Jr., The Stru 1e for the Falkland
sland tud in e a1 and Diplomatic History, Ifiew
aven , ,' ’ p O O

21bid, pp. 72-79.

3British and Fbreign State Papers 18 2-18 , V01. 20,
(London , , p e e

I...

 

 

'William R. Manning 1 lomatic orres ondence of th
United States Inter-amer can * a s - , Vb . ,

3 ng on, 32 7 pp. 72-790

’.

 

 

 

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the Aaerican force destroyed the artillery defenses
ef Puerto de la Soledad, burned the powder magazine, and
took six Argentines as prisoners to Montevideo.1 the
prisoners were later released, but the incident resulted
in a chain of protests and bad feeling between the repre-
sentatives of the United States and Argentina.

commander Duncenls charge of piracy against vernet
has been challenged by various sources, conteeporary and
modern. Goebel, Beyson, Acre, and others, have cone to
the conclusion that Vernet possessed a reliable reputation
among those uhe had visited in the Falklands prier to
Duncan's expedition. Louis Yernet, a naturalised south
American, French by birth, was appointed Governor of the
Falklands by the Argentine Government on June 10, 1828.
t.contenporary of Vernet's, G. r. ibitington speaks well
of vernet'e hospitality and character.2 lhitington
upholds the fact that vernet see the official representative
of the Buenos Aires Government. Another report is given.by
L. B. Mackinnon, who had negotiated Iith vernet to obtain
grants of land and fishing privileges on East Falkland and
Staatenland Island. Mackinnen attests to the reliability

of vernet, and gives a sympathetic account of vernet's

 

lwllliam R. Manning D1 lomatic Corres ondence of the
United States Inter-amer can égfalrs ISEI-IEEU, V01. 1,

ZthHIngton, l§§273 PD. -

2G. T. Whitington The Falkland Islands Com iled ham
a Ten Years Investigat on of {Be §EBJecE, lLonaon, I855},

p. II.

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treatment at the hands or Cowmander Duncan.1 ritsroy also
speaks well or Vernet, referring to him as a cultured well
educated person without the traits usually associated with
a pirate or brigand.? Commander Duncan's charges of piracy
carried the day with the United States Government, however,
and from that time forward Argentine protests were looked
upon with s disdainful eye.

On December 20, 1832, the British warships 9;;2, and
I:gg_arrivsd at the ruins of Port Egmont, where Commander
I. J. Onslow put up a notice of possession. On January 2,
1833, Onslow sailed to Puerto Soledad, where he met the
Argentine schooner figgandi, under the command of Jose Maria
do Pinedo. Onslow informed Pinedo that he had come to take
possession of the islands in the name of His Britannic
Mniosty, and requested Pinedo to lower the Argentine flag
and.to leave the islands.3 Pinedo refused, whereupon
Onslow lowered the Argentine flag and presented it to
Pinedo aboard the fiarandi.”

 

' 1B. B; Mackinnon gone Account of the Falkland Islands
From a Six Months Residence 3 an , London, ),

P. o
2R. Fitzroy, Narrative of the Surve in V0 a es of
H,M,8, Adventurer and fiEagIe, liondon, T§3§i, vol. 5, p. 266.
3ggitish and ForeiEn State Papers 18 2-18 , Vbl. 20,
(Londm, , PP. ' / e
"th I; Whitington The Falkland Islands Com iled From
a Ten Years;Invest1gat on of the §u§3ec§, (London, I856),

p. 16.

 

 

 

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(67)

On January 2h, 1833, shortly after Pinedo's arrival
in Buenos tires, the Argentine Government protested the
British action concerning the Falkland Islands. Numerous
notes were exchanged, in which the British upheld their
possession of the Falklands by right of discovery and prior
settlement. Formal protests were renewed in 183% and lBhl,
by Manuel Mereno, Argentine Minister to London, but to no
avail.1

In view of the legality of the situation, M. F. Lindley,
international Jurist, has this to say: "In 1832 Great
Britain again took possession of the islands, in spite of
the vigorous protests of the Argentine Republic. But it
cannot be said that the notice left on the fort, which,
moreover, appears to have been.destreyed in 1781, was
sufficient evidence, over the whole intervening period,sof
her intention to retake the islands, and it would appear
that any rights she may have had in l77h had been abandoned
before 1832."2

whatever the legal situation, the British Government
stationed a representative in the Falklands to warn all
foreign vessels to desist from fishing, sealing or whaling.
Shortly after seizure of the Falklands in 1833, pamphlets

 

1

British and Forei n State Pa ers 18h2-18h , V01. 31,
(London, 1358!, pp. Ioog-IUUE.

2M. F. Lindley, The Ac uisition and Government of Back-
ward Territory in_;pternationZI Law, ZLonEon, I523}, p. 51.

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(68)

and speeches began to be published on the use of the
newly acquired territory. same advocated a penal settle-
ment, while others such as the-as Cochrane, Tenth.larl.of
Dundonald, spoke for the establishment of‘a commercial
colony-and naval station.1

In 1838 the British Representative, a Lieutenant smith
appropriated vernet's property in the name of the crown.
the property consisted of 800 oxen, 10 stone houses, 60
hunting horses, #00 tame bullocks, and 1000 seal skins.2
Vernet later filed a claim for compensation en the preperty
which he valued at 1k,296 pounds sterling. -Be received no
payment and eventually gave up all hope of ever regaining
the value of his lost property.

The English left little doubt of their intentions,
when on April 11, 18h3, the British Parliament established
an Act, ”to.enable Her Majesty to provide for the-Government
of Her settlements on the Coast of Africa and in the Falkland
Islands.'3

 

1o. r. Hhitingten e Falkland 131m: comiled pron
en Ye - vestiat on o as fin §zc Lon-on, a". ,
De 'e

2Letters From M: ¥guis vernet to the Right Hen, Lgrd
§§anlez ec. o a e or a CO on es Concern n H s aims
on e 5 Government and the We Iect o? the CoIon of
the FEIEIana :szanEs, (London, 1853), p. IE.

3British and rarefia State Pang: 181+2-;8I+3, vol. 31,
(London, 9 PP. - e '

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(69)

The Argentines made an effort to regain the islands
by requesting that the united States invoke the Monroe
Doctrine. The United States was evasive and stated that
the Monroe Doctrine could not be applied until the Argentine
Government could provide proof that the Falkland Islands
had been a possession of Argentina prior to the British
occupation. The Argentine claim failed to impress the
United States Government and for this and other reasons
1 vernet‘s seisure
ef smerican ships was probably a contributing facter in

the United States decision not to offer an opinion on the

the Monroe Doctrine was not applied.

Fllkland Islands'question. 'Ihe failure of the united States
to take a stand in favor of the Argentine claim has prompted
speculation concerning a possiblefagreement between the
united States and Great Britain on the application of the
Honroe Doctrine in the case of the Falklands.2 No documented
evidence is known that would support this point, which due
to the long period of British control, may be discounted
as having any serious bearing on a settlement of the
dispute at the present time.

- In 1839, General Carlos I. de tlvear, Argentine Minister
to the united States, presented a claim for Vernet's losses,

 

. 1%. Falkland Islands Dispute Between the United States
and Argentina" :he Hispanic IEE£1EEE Historical fieview3
(number, 192;), V0 e ’ 0e 9 p. o

2Gaston Nerval, Autops: of the Monroe Qgctrine (New
fork, 193M), pp. 155-1 7. ’ '

 

 

 

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(70)

sustained through the actions of Commander Duncan in 1831.
Secretary of State Daniel webstcr answered on December #,
l8h1, that as the right of the Argentine Government to the
Falkland Islands was contested by another-power, under a
claim antecedent to the acts of Duncan, the United States
ought not to give a final reply*until that controversy had
been settled.1 the Argentine claim sue renewed in 188%,
and again refused by the United States. President Grover
Cleveland, in his first annual message of December 8, 1885,
stated Duncan‘s action as, "breaking up a piratical colony",
and declared that the American Government considered the
Argentine claim as.wholly groundless.2

Argentina continued to regard British possession of
the Falkland Islands as unlawful and continued te-make
periodic protests. After 191# these protests were resumed
on an annual basis.

Argentina's attempt to establish a claim to Grahan.Land
began in 190%, with the installation of a weather station
on Laurie Island in the south Orkney group. The fact that
this weather station has been continuously occupied since
190” constitutes Argentina's claim to Laurie Island. In
1928, a dispute developed between the British and Argentines

 

~ 1Hilliam R. Manning Dialomatic corres-ondence of the
United ‘ates Inter-american A ‘a rs 3 - 3-0, V0 . ‘,
as ng on, ' 9 DP. 3 '— 2'.

2Gordon Ireland, Boundaries, Possessions, and Conflict;
in South America, (Harvar Uh vers ty Press, 193 , p. 2 9.

 

 

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(71)

over the application of the Letters Patent of March 28, 1917,
which defined the territorial limits of the lhlkland Islands
Dependencies.l Great Britain protested the Argentine
occupation of Laurie Island as a violation of the territorial
limits of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. The British
Government declined to take any action and Argentina
continued the maintenance of the weather station on Laurie
Island.2 Argentina repeated her periodic claims, but took no
action in establishing additional bases in the Antarctic
until after 19Ro.

'In 19h2 the Argentine ship 1 de Mazg, left a bronze
tablet on Deception Island, off the coast of Graham Land,
announcing that possession had been taken of all lands south
of latitude 60 degrees south and lying between longitudes
25 degrees west, and 68 degrees west.3

Argentine activity continued in l9h7, with the establish-
ment of a base on Gamma Island, off the west coast of
Graham Land.ll The»usual exchange of notes began, the
British protesting, and the Argentines defending their claim.
In l9h8, the Argentine Gowernment set up a base on Deception

 

fl

1Newfork zines, December 21, 19h7, p. 3h.
ZC.H.N. waldock,"Disputed Sovereignty in the Falkland

Islands", gge British Year Book of International Law,
(OIIOM’ 1 ’ p. e ' ' '

3New York Times, January 13, 1952‘, p. h.

khew'Ybrk Times, April 3, l9h7, p. 3..

 

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(72)

Island. the island has an important location in that
it provides ready access to the entire west coast of the
Graham Land Peninsula. This, plus the fact that Deception
Island possesses the only good harbor in the area, as well
as a landing strip for aircraft, makes the island an ideal
strategic base.1

The claims situation became tense in I9h8, when an
Argentine naval squadron cansisting of three cruisers, six
destroyers, and a number of smaller craft, held maneuvers
in the Antarctic Ocean. The British Government became
alarmed by this activity, and ordered the cruiser gigeria
to begin an, ”inspection voyage”, in that area.2 The
expected meeting between the Argentina and British'ships1
never materialized as the Argentine naval unit sailed
northward towards Puerto Belgrane before the arrival of
the English.cruiser.3

Continued activity, in the form of scientific eXpeditions
and the establishment of weather stations, went on without
incident until February 3, 1952. At this time, an Argentine
shore party fired a machine gun over the heads of a British
scientific expedition landing from the survey ship 192.“.

iscoe, at HOpe Bay, Graham Land.“ The British party was

 

W. rum-nary 23. 19%. p. 8.
are: gar]: 1332;, February 16, 19%, p. 13.
3New ork imes, February 25, l9h8, p. %.
I"We ork Times, February 3, 1952, p. I.

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(73)

later allowed to land and the Argentine Government apologized,
stating that the commander of the shore party had acted in
error.1

Events progressed smoothly until February 20, 1953,
-when a British force landed at Deception Island. the
British arrested two Argentines found at the base, and then
proceeded to dismantle both it and an unused Chilean
weather station.2 the Argentine Government protested the
action, which the British countered by charging the Argentines
with trespassing.3

There have been various minor incidents since 1953.
one of which was the banning by Argentina of a United Nations
publication listing the Falkland Island Dependencies as a
British possession.1+ The British in return have continued
to protest the establishment of Argentine bases within the
Falkland Island Dependencies. In 1957, before the limita-
tions on territorial expansion, Argentina possessed eight
bases scattered-along both coasts of the Graham Land
Peninsula and the shores of the Weddell Sea.5

 

1New'1ork Times, February 5, 1952, p. 16.
Zhew’lbrk Iimes, Fobruary 20, 1953, P. 6.
31!" or]: me , February 21», 1953, p. 3.
“new Ibrl: 'i'imes, June 2, 1956, p. 3.

5United States Naval nstitute Proceedings, V01. No.
83, No. 3, March, I957, pp. 358-309.

 

 

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(7%)

Tensions have eased since the incidents of 19%8 and
1953. The International Geophysical rear of 1957-1958,
with its varied scientific research projects, set I
precedent for coOperation between nations in the Antarctic.
The spirit of cooperation was carried on after the endv
of the Geophysical Year with the signing of The Twelve
Nation Treaty governing exploration and claims in the
Antarctic. The treaty became effective in December of
1959, subject to ratification by the signatory nations.
These twelve nations were, the United States, Argentina,
Australia, Belgium, Great Britain, Chile, France, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics.1

The Twelve Nation Treaty provides for the demilitariza-
tion of the Antarctic, the promotion of scientific investiga-
tion, the peaceful settlement of disputes, and prescribes
a ban on nuclear explosions and the dumping of radioactive
wastes.2 The treaty applies to, "the area south of 60
degrees South Latitude, including all ice shelves."3

The Twelve Nation Treaty has also made an important

contribution towards the peaceful settlement of the claims

 

1New’IOrk Times, May H, 1958, p. l.

gfiew zprk zines, August 11, 1960, p. 1.

3Howard J’. Taubenfeld, "A Treaty for Antarctica",

gnterfiational Conciliation, (January, 1961), No. 531,
P e

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('75)

situation in the Antarctic. This contribution is embodied
in a resolution freezing the status of territorial claims,
thereby establishing a means of easing tensions and improving
international relations in the Antarctic.1

'The status quo established by the treaty has served
to eliminate the acquisition of any additional territory in
the Antarctic. ‘The Argentine Government has gone along with
the general status one and has ceased activity'in the
Antarctic aside-from participation in international scientific
exploration.

Part 2
Chilean Antarctic Claims

me Chilean slain lends some confusim in that it
overlaps both the Argentine claim.snd the-area.occnpied
by the Falkland Island Dependencies.2

According to Chilean Decree No. l7h7, issued by
President Aguirre Gerda on November 6th, 19%0: Unll
lands, islands, islets, reefs of rocks, glaciers already“
known or to be discovered, and their respective territorial
waters in the sector between longitudes 53 degrees and

 

1Current History, (February 1960), Vbl. 38, pp. llS-ll6.
20.H.M. Waldock, “Disputed Sovereignty 1n the Falkland
'Islands”, The British Year Book of International ng,
(Oxford, 1 , p. 332.

 

 

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(76)

90 degrees west, constitutes the Chilean Antarctic or
Chilean Antarctic territory."1
Chile dates her sovereignty in the Antarctic from a

grant given to Sancho de la Hos by Charles I of Spain,
consisting of all territories situated to the south of the
Straits of Magellan. Chile, unlike Argentina, has no long
record of activity or occupation of territory in the
Antarctic. Consequently the Chilean Government has been
at a disadvantage in backing its claims position in areas
previously claimed by other nations.

The Chileans showed little interest in the Antarctic
until that expressed by the Presidential Decree of 19h0.
Prior to l9k0 Chilean activity was confined to scattered
whaling and sealing Operations, most of which ended before
1911+.2 Shortly after worm wu- II the ideas expressed by
President Aguirre Cerda were implemented by the occupation
of territory in the Antarctic.' The first Chilean base was
established on February 20, l9h7, at Discovery Bay on
Greenwich Island, off the coast of Graham Land. Since 19H7,
five additional bases have been established by the Chilean

 

l
E.‘H; Hunter Christie, The Antarctic Problem (London
1951), p. 30%. ’ ’

20.11.14. waldock, ”Disputed sovereignty in the Falkland

Islands", 3&3 British Tear Egg! of International Lag,
‘mard’ 1 ’ p. O

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(77)

Government, all within the area of the Ihlkland Island
Dependencies.1

Shortly after 19%? the Chileans and Argentines made
an effort to settle their conflicting Antarctic claims.

The attempt failed to provide any solution to the claims
dispute, but did result in Joint naval Operations and

protests against the British occupation of the Falkland

Island Dependencies.2 Cooperation between Chile and

Argentina never progressed beyond this stage until the sign-
ing of The Twelve Nation Treaty. Actually there has been a
good deal of friction between Chile and Argentina over
conflicting Antarctic claims. This was expressed in 1953,

when Chilean national pride was aroused by an Argentine

atlas showing islands claimed by Chile as Argentine territory.3
The Twelve Nation Treaty has all but eliminated the possibility
of a united action by the Chileans and Argentines to

promote their respective claims to portions of the Falkland
Islands Dependencies.

The Chilean claim has been.mentioned because of the
possibility of cooperation between Chile and Argentina in
dislodging the British from the Antarctic. However, the
legal status of the Chilean claim is very much in doubt

 

1g¥ited States Naval Institute Proceedings, v01. 83,
N0. 3,.31‘6 , ’ pp. - .

2Eew'York Times, February 20, l9h8, p. #3.
3Hew Yerk Times, December 22, 1953, p. 17.

 

 

 

 

 

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(78)

due to her failure to occupy Antarctic territory until a
rather recent date.1 For this reason the Chilean claim
has been reviewed briefly as an outgrowth of the original
claim as presented by the Argentine Government.

Section IV
Conclusion

Argentina's claim to the rhlkland Islands and portions
of the Falkland Islands Dependencies is based on three main
points; geographica1.proximity, inheritance from Spain, and
illegal occupation by Great Britain. Prior to the existence
of The Twelve Nation Treaty, Argentina laid claim to the
continental shelf which runs from the southern tip of
South America to the north most part of Graham Land.2
The united States and Mexico have also claimed Jurisdiction
over the undersea extension of their mainland, up to and
beyond the three-mile international limit. Recently Iceland
has entered into a fisheries dispute with Great Britain over
fishing rights on the Icelandic continental shelf.3 No

international protocol has as yet been decided upon, by

 

1c.H.M. waldoek, "Disputed Sovereignty in the Falkland

Islands”, The British Tear Book of International Lag,
(word, 1 ’ pe 3 0

a3. H; Hunter Christie :hg_£ntarctic Problem
(London, 1951), p. 265. ’ ’

3Timg, September 15, 1958, vel. 72, pp. 23-2%.

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(79)

either the united nations, or the International Court,
governing the extent and Jurisdiction of continental
shelves. The fisheries dispute as contested by Iceland
may prompt a decision by some international lew'laking
body, but more likely the situation will be settled by
a mutual agreement between Great Britain and Iceland.

The struggle over rights te-a nation's continental
shelf is indeed interesting, but the fact remains that
sovereignty today is recognised only by continuous occupation
and administration of the area in question. Evidently the
Argentine Government realised this, and therefore went
ahead with the establishment of bases continually occupied
by Argentine personnel. The Argentine claim to the Falkland
Islands does not involve any recent Argentine occupation
and is maintained largely as~a bargaining point, should
a settlement ever arise over other areas of the rulkland
Island Dependencies. Chile followed the Argentine example
and established bases in unoccupied areas, maintained by
permanent occupation forces.1

Most of the claims in the Antarctic are based on the,
"Sector Principle“, therefore a paragraph will be inserted
to explain this concept, in regards to international law.
The nations involved in the Antarctic claims issue rely
on the "Sector Principle" to supplement their arguments

 

1New YOrk Times, July 18, 1956, p. 12.

 

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(80)

for Antarctic sovereignty. Both Argentina's and Chile's
claims to the Antarctic Continent were first formulated
in this manner.1

Sector boundaries in the Antarctic have been determined
theoretically by projecting the meridians bordering the
claimant state in a southward direction, to the Pole.
The area that falls within the triangle or sector between
the meridians and the Pole, constitutes claimed territory.
The ”Sector Principle“ has been used as a convenient tool
to promote claims on the Antarctic Continent, but it has
yet to find legal support under the application ef inter-
national law.2

The law of nations as applied to the acquisition of
sovereignty over newly found lands in temperate regions,
holds that there must be real and effective occupation,
and that unilateral claims, the raising of flags or mere
discovery are not sufficient to give complete title to
disputed territory.3 ‘While it is recognized that the law
of nations as applied to territory in the temperate regions
must be modified, due to the rigors of climate in the'
Antarctic, it is generally accepted that sovereignty in

 

lc.H.n. weldock, “Disputed sovereignty in the Falkland
Islands", The British Year Book of International aw,
(Oxford, 1 , p. .

21bid, p. 3h6.

3New'Ybrk Times, February 29, 19h8, p. 12.

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(81)

the Antarctic may be acquired only after requirementSfiof
occupation and control have been satisfied. Most experts
in the field of international law appear to agree that

the "Sector Principle“, is not a valid means of determining
sovereignty.1

The British in their efforts to maintain the
integrity of the Falkland Island Dependencies have protested
the establishment of Chilean and Argentine bases within
the Dependencies.2 These protests have been without effect,
due largely to the fact that the bases in question were
established in areas not continuously occupied by the
British.

At the signing of The Twelve Nation Treaty the claims
dispute between Britain, Argentina and Chile was a stale-
mate. All the powers involved were, and still are reluctant
to use force as a means to gain a settlement. Neither
Great Britain, nor Argentina, nor Chile has been able to
agree on a possible solution. the Twelve Nation Treaty
has prevented additional friction by calling a halt to

the expansion of territorial claims in the Antarctic.3

 

1New York Times, October 23, 1939, p. 3.
2New York Times, my 7, 1955, p. h.
3Bowerd J. Thubenfeld, 9A Treaty for Antarctica",

International Conciliation, (January, 1961), No. 531,
P. e

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(82)

The treaty, which provides for negotiation and cooperation
between the signatory powers, may evolve into a program
for the internationalization of the Antarctic.1

In view of the negligible economic importance of the
Antarctic area, it would seem that some form of’interna»
tionalization would fit best in an all inclusive scheme
for safeguarding the strategic value of that southernmost
continent. The establishment of The Twelve Nation Treaty
has served to Open the way for further negotiation. The
copperation demonstrated thus far podnts to the pessibility
of some kind of unilateral action which may create a lasting
peace for the Antarctic. If and when this occurs, it will
bring a timely end to the Antarctic claims dispute.

A“

1New'Y'ork Times, August 11, 1959, p. l.

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(33)

Annotated Bibliography

PRIMARY’SUURCEB

Printed Documents

itish and Forei State Pa ers 18 2-18 , V01. 20, (London,

Pp. ppo ' 0
This yolume provided a good deal of valuable information on
the British claim to the Falkland Islands, and on the
conflict between England and Spain for the possession of the
Falklands. 0f the various volumes of British and Foreign State
gapers, volume 20 contributed a majori y o e researc ma er a1
or Section III, Part 1.

Efiitish and Fareigg §tate Papers 1833-183h, V01. 22, (London,
DP. 3 - 3

This collection of documents did not contain as much pertinent
information as volume 20, but did contribute valuable information
on the exit of the British from the Falkland Islands in 177M.

British and Foreign State Pagers 18h2-18H3, V01. 31, (London,
pp. 3- , pp. 2 - 2 .

This issue of British and F0rie n State Pa ers contained

important references to the off§cial recognition by Great

Britain of the Falkland Islands as a colony, and the Argentine

protest to the action.

itish and Forei n State Pa ers 18 -1860, V01. 50, (London,

p. e
This item concerned colonial policy outside of the realm of
the claims dispute.

Manning Hilliam R., hio lomatic Corre condence of the United
tates Inter-american I a rs 3 - on o . ‘ em

9
pp. - - pp. "°- pp. - 58 pp. 161-188 pp.
210-256. ’ ’

A good deal of information with a multitude of documents covering
the American, British, and Argentine actions during the early
years of the Falkland Islands dispute. This volume supplied
much of the research material for Section III, Part 1.

 

 

Manning, Uilliam R., violomatic Corresoondence of the united
‘ at ter-:__ ic a :rs 3 - 3'” o . VII, Washington,
. . ’pp. 3-, PP. - ’ppe 2 -2 20

This volume contains only a few document related to the
Falkland Islands claim dispute. It is one of the least
valuable of the manuscript sources.

Letters From g? Louis V0rnet to the Right Hon. Lord Stanleg
Sec, 0 S a e or e Co on esL oncern ng sic a ms on e

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(8%)

 

P
Louis Vernet requests that the British Government pay
him compensation for his losses regarding the Argentine
colony in the Falkland Islands. Many details about the
Argentine establishment in the Falklands are outlined in this
volume.

Printed First Accounts by Authors
Falkner, Thomas, A Description of Pataronia, and the

Adjoining Parts 0? §outh America Conta ing an Account
o t e So Produce An a 3 Va es Noun a ns R vers,
:EEes; an? etc. of those Countries; The fieII%Ion,
vernmenE PoIIc Ufistoms Dress ms an an ua e
dian Inhabit E a rtIEEI I éfn

o e In an s an Some ars Re a

 

 

 

 

1o 3 Is an s Lon on , pp.

mifiteresting accoun concerning the early explorations
of Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. The chief value
is a rather brief description of Bougainville's colony
at Port Louis on East Falkland Island.

Fitzroy, R., Narrative of the Surveging ‘Eozases of Hfiig,
venturer an a e, Lon on, pp. .

A ourna o e geographical explorations carried out by

the British Government. Valuable for references to Vernet

and the Argentine colony.

Harris, James, First Earl of Malmesbury’ niaries and
Egrrespondencg (London, lth) pp. #3-32.

escr ption of the political relations existing
between Great Britain and Spain during the early years of
the Falkland Islands dispute.

 

Johnson. Samuel, -¢~e; ,. t ._-.1; ti ‘8
'- e_ct »: Li- u‘IIIEIITFF chow
~:sson presen s some g--I arguments for non-intervention

in the Antarctic, although in a brief emotional style.
of the Falkland Islands From

       
 
  
 
 

hackinnon L. B. Same Account
a Six Months 'esid

   

        

y contemporary authors.
Mackinnon deals with events from the establishing of the
French colony in the Falklands, to the advent of the British.

Penrose Bernard, An Account of the Last Exoedition to Port

mont in Falkland s 3 am- e ear I ';o e er “ .
e ansac ans 0 e Com-an' o' -e Pen; ‘ a o- u~ n;
er av ere, on-on, 3 , 3 pp.

IN

 

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(85)

Enother account with a heavy contribution to Section III
through Penrose's narrative of the exit of the British from
the Falkland Islands .

Pernety Dom. ghe Hist01-
Falkland Islan s a e .
o . e Bou a nv e

of a v0 a-e to the Malouine or

   
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' e : ere-
an o o a es 0 e reilhts of Ma eIIan With an
IEcount o? the gate onians: TransIafEd from fiom. Fernet 's
HistoricaI EournaI aritten IE French (London, I771}, 555 pp.
A lengthy and detailed description 0% Bougainville's voyage
to the Falkland Islands. Well written with a good deal of
detail. A vital research contribution to this paper.

Ibddell, James Vb a e towards The outh Pol , (London,
1825), pp. 96-12 .

A geographic description of an early voyage to the Antarctic,
valuable for its brief mention.of‘weddell's impression of
Vernet.

Ihitington, G. 1., upe Falkland slands Com-iled From a Ten
ears Investiation o e Sn ec , London, W'n , =3 pp.

go-o co ec on o‘ ma er a concerning the Spanish Argentina
and English occupation of the Falkland Islands. 60 description
of the English colony, and interesting references to vernet.

SECONDARY'HORKS

Acre Jose, Ige Melvinag {Our gnatched Little Isles}, (Madrid,
1951‘ 175 pp.

This hook is an excellent source of material on the Falkland
Islands. It gives rather thorough description of the many

early voyages to the South Atlantic. The volume is written

in an emotional style with evident intense feeling against
British policy concerning the Falklands. Since Acre is of
Argentine birth the slant of his writing is evident. However

the account appears to be generally accurate and well documented.

Barclay, William, e d of Ma ellan, (Londona 1926), 2ho pp.
s

A general geograph o escr p on o e Falklan and Patagonia.
Beltran Juan 0. W. (Buenos
Lires, 193k), 10 pp.

A general geographic description of the Falkland Islands, with
a good chronology of the Argentine occupation and a collection
of the correspondence of vernet.

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Boyson, V. F. The Falkland Islands (Oxford, l92h), hlh pp.
A.very complete‘history of the FaIE and Islands. well done

and relatively impartial with additional attention to political
and geographic influences. A truly important source.

Cadg, John F., Foreign ggtervention in the gio de la glata
8 -18 0’ (LCD on, ’ pp. " e p. , p. 3, p0 ,
p. .

A good source for background information on the political

aspects of the Falkland Islands dispute.

earrington, C. 8., ”The Falkland Islands and the Interctic",

e British Overseas, (Cambridge, 1950), pp. 287-291.

e p u on e general picture-concerning the Falkland Islands,
with good geographic references. . .

Oblonial Office, His Majesty‘s Stationary Office, British
Islands in the Southern.nemisphere lfifiz-lgfil, (London, I551),
pp. 79-9 0

An excellent geographic description of the Falkland Island< .
Dependencies with a good account of conditions in the islands.
This book constituted the principal source for the section
describing the geography of the Falkland Island Dependencies.

Gimenes, Leopoldo Ramos, Las Islas Melvinas E la Antarctica

ArgentinanAtlas Qgcumenta , Buenos res, , pp. .
is volume covers the early explorations of the Antarctic,

with interesting maps, and some mention of recent expeditions.

Goebel Julius, Jr. The Struggle for the Falkland ISlandsI ;
egudz Legal and hip oma c s orz, es’ ven, ,

pp. .
An excellent all around source, especially for the legal
aspects of discovery and occupation. The book also contains
a good history of the Falkland Islands, as well as a copious
amount of background material on the political motives of the
nations concerned with events in the Falkland Islands. The

book.is well docunented and contains many references to
international law..

Great Britain, Fareign Office, Peace Handbooks, The gglkland
Islands and KerEulenen Island, No. 138 (London , pp.
l.br e geograp c accoun of the Falkland Islands and the

south Atlantic Ocean. -

gggter Christie, B. it, The-Antarctic Problem, (London, 1951),
PD.
1 very good source covering almost every aspect of the
Falkland Islands dispute, as well as a description of all
Antarctic.territory. The volume appears to be a bit slanted

’C

I.

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towards the British point of view regarding English
sovereignty in the Antarctic, but remains one of the
more valuable secondary sources consulted.

Ireland, Gordan, Boundaries Possessions and Conflicts

in South America, (Harvard afiiversity Press, I938), pp.

in excellent source which lends itself to use with British
E25 Fbreign State Papers, for comparison and study. A
very goo accoun s g ven of the Argentine-British dispute
over the Falkland Islands, with some valuable points on
international law.

Lindley, M. F., The to uisition and Government of Backward
gerritorz in International Law, lfiondon, I953), p. 5, pp.
This volume contained some brief but rather pointed informa-
tion on international las regarding the Falkland Islands.

Markham, A. 3., The o as and Wbrks of Jenn Davis, (London,
1880), pp. lok-l . *. .
Brief mention of the Falkland Islands.

no man Forrest. WW. tannins.
Scotland, 1952), 8 pp.

A short present day account of the Falkland Islands.
lunilla, Octavio Gil Malvinas can icto 1o- 0 ,

2% lggo, (Seville, 1 , pp.

eresting source concerning the early voyages of discovery
in the Antarctic, with background on the troubles between
Britain and Spain over the early'settlenents in the Falklands.

Hountevans, Admiral Lord, The Antarctic Challene e , (New'rbrk,
1956) pp. 1-22. .
can s a brief history of the Antarctic.

Nerval, Gaston, nut of the Monroe ctrine, (New'IOrk,
193%), pp. 156-165.
This volume contained general information on the application
of the Monroe Doctrine to the Falkland.Islands dispute.

Nordenskjold 'Otto The Geo aphy of the Polar e ions
(New'YOrk l 28), pp. 282-25%. ’
A detailed account of the Arctic regions, and a brief
geographic discussion of the Antarctic.

Owen, Russell, The 5%tarctic Ocean (London, 1951), 2M3 pp.
a lengthy volume on e s cry and geography of the
Antarctic. The book was valuable for picking up general

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detail, but lacked specifc information concerning the
Falkland Islands dispute.

Palacios Alfredo L., as Islas Nalvinas, (Buenos Aires,
193%) 137 pp.

An informative book although slanted toward the Argentine
viewpoint concerning the history of the Falkland Islands.

Revello, Jose Ibrre, Biblicgrafia De Las isles Halvinas
Obras Ma as Documen os Buenos res, , 3 pp.

I valuable EIEIIograpEy 0 sources concerning the Falkland
Islands and the Antarctic. This collection of references
includes volumes on geography, voyages of discovery, and

historical description.

Boss Alfred ext-book of terns ional v, (London,
19".7’ 9 pp 0 " O

1 general discussien of discoveries and explorations relative
to sovereignty under international law.

Sullivan Halter, Quest for a Continent, (NeV'Iork a London,
1957) , 265 pp.

In excellent history of the Antarctic and the claims of the
united States, Argentina, Great Britain and Chile to that area.

Trade and travel Publications, :ge fienth imerican gandboek,
A useful volume for geographical and historical data.

Trade and Travel Publications, Ihe gouth American Handboog,
(London 1960) p. #97.

Not as detailed as the 1955 edition but valuable in bringing
some of the statistical data up to date.

Erelles, Camila Darcie, El Problema 2e Lag Islas Malvinag,
(Hadrid, 19h3), 11% pp.

A histori of the Falkland Islands dispute reported in a
relative y impartial manner.

Illdock, c. B. M.{1'Disputed Sovereignty in the Falkland
i

{giandg lthe Bri sh Iear Bock of Lnternational Law,
or app. -3 3.
lle ’

An exce nt source with complete coverage of the points of
international law regarding the Falkland Islands dispute.

One of the most complete references consulted in the field
at international law. .

Whit; #:333 w;, Argentina, (New Ibrk, 19n2); p. 189, p. 257,

DP. - 0

:his geek contained some general information on the Falkland
s an s.

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PERIODICALS

Sairggt ¥istorz, Vbl. 38, (February 1960) pp. 115-116.
8 ar c e contained a brief mention of he plan to
internationalize the Antarctic.

geographical Journal, (April, 1901), pp. 21-29.
An n eres ng scussion of the question, ”Can Hawkin's
Maiden Land be identified as the Falkland Islands".

Geographical gpggnal (December 1955), pp. #059916. ‘ ‘
A.re ew’ geograp ical conditions in the Falkland Islands.

fioirghical £21123: Vol. 11v, (July, 1929), pp. 399-903.
por source for geographic details concerning the '
Falkland Islands, and the Antarctic. .

anic Am ric stor c R vi , (November, 1929), pp.

1 history of the dispute between the United States and
Argentina.concerning the American action against the Argentine
colony in the Falkland Islands.

te nationa C c liati , No. 531, (January, 1961), pp.

A generally excellent account of the current situation
concerning the Falkland Islands and the Antarctic. This
article is particularly valuable for a complete discussion
of The Twelve Nation Treaty, and an interpretation of its'
impact on the Antarctic.

Egg:59:§61%m%£, December 23, 1919' p. 12. October 18 1928,
p. O c o r 26’ 1928’ p. 1+0, Kmt 2 , 1929’ p. 110’
April 18, 1929, p. 20., may 12, 1929 . ., February 13,

1929 p. 29., February 16, 1929 p. 16., October 3, 1931,

p. 37. March 11, 1933, p. 9., fibbruary 23, 1935, p. 5.,

June 23, 193:1 p. 11., February 25, 1933. p. 11., February

2, 193 p. ., July 25, 1939, p. 1., August 6, 1939, p.

13., October 9 1939 . 7., October 23 1939, p. 3.,

January 91 1936, p. 17. February 12, 1936 p. 16. may 22,
1990, p. 7. June 27, 1990, p. 27., August 1, 1 , p. 5‘.
Agfigst 12, 1990, p. 2. Hovember 7, 1990, p. 9. November

1 , p. 9. December 21, 1990 p. 1., January 5, 1991, p. 17.,
March 15, 1991, p. 7., March 2%, 1991 p. 10., June 9, 1996,
p. 6., July 6 1996, p. 3. July 8, 1996, p. 2., July 19

1996, p. 3., fiecember 29, 1996, p. 22., December 30, 1996,

p. 50, January 22, 1%7, p. 10. Fabruary 16, 19"?7, p. 230
March 2, 1997, p. 9., April 3, 1997, p. 3., December 21, 1997,

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p. 39. May 25 1997 Sec. II 29., June 8,1997 Sec.
11, p.’12., Juiy 13,’1%%7, p.’1R., August 27, 1997,’p. 8.,
August 28,1997, p. 9., January 3, 1997, p. 10.,,+ January

5 1997 p. 39., April 29,1997, p. 9., January9 1998
p: 12.,’January 29, 1998, p. 12., February8 ,1998, p. 36.,
Februar ,,l998 p. 13., February 17, 1998, p. 5., February
18,2191" , 1p: 1., Febm 1p 9kg, p. 10, Fabmrgzo

.93., FebruagK823,18., Februari29 , p. 2.,
Februarg 25,1 . 9. Febm 6 19 8, p. 10., February
27, 199 , p. 2., February 29,1 , p. 12.8 March 9, 1998,

p. l4’130, MarCh 5, 1% 9MB p. é, MEFCh 7,191}, Do 17.6 "are?! 9,
p. 12.,8 March 19,18, p. 11. March 29, 199 , p.9 99,6

ipr1i 26,1% July 26, 19 93, p. 7., Au st 5, 1%

p. 19., Septeméer 1, 18, p. 7., lovember 9, lgfiu, p. 26.,

December 25, 19 98 p. 9. ., January 19, 1999, p. ., September

5, 1950, p. 19., November 16,1950 p. 18., March 191951,

p. 13. ’Apr11 1,1951, p. 9.’ May 10,1951, p. 15. fiebruer

3, 1952, p. 1. ’Februery 9, i 52, p. ’6., April5 ,1952, p. .,

November 27, 152 ., February 20,1,953 p. 6., February

21, 1953, p.9 ,9ebruary9 29 , 1953, p. 3. April 7, :1953, p.

23, December 22, 1953, p. 17. December 16

March 30, 1955,’ p. 7. April 19 1955, p. 9.19Mey 7 1955,

p. 19., August9 195 p. 3., actober 71955, p. 7.,

November& 19 55, p. 56., December 11, 1955, Sec. IV, p. 7.,

March 22, 1956, p. 5. March 27, 1956, mg 13., 6June 2 1956,

p. 3., November” W, m9 p. 21. 8, 6, p. 12.

May9 , 1958, p. 1., August 11, 1959, p. 1.,1August 11,1960,

p. 2.

Needless to say, the New York Times was a principal source

for contemporary research and materifl

gcience ¥onthlz;, (July, 1959), pp. 52-53.
s ar e e contained material pertainent to the possible

air transportation routes of the future, and their relation-
ship to the Antarctic.

%3 Vol. 72, (September 15 1958), pp. 23-29.

rief account of the dispute between Great Britain and
Iceland concerning fishing rights off the Icelandic
continental shelf.

United states Naval figitute Prwegings, Vol. 83, No. 3,
.81‘0 ,ppe

An important source for recent information on the location
and number of scientific stations and bases in the Antarctic.

 

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