ABSTRACT ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR IN URBAN AREAS: A BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH by Jon Anthony Reeves The purpose of this research was to compile an exten- sive bibliography of articles and books dealing with the phenomena of adolescent behavior in the urban areas of the United States. In addition to the listing of references, this volume contains concise annotations for roughly 300 of the items. These annotations contain statements on the problem, methods, and findings of the individual reference. While this undertaking can forward no claim to being the definitive listing of publications concerning adolescents its does survey and discuss a considerable portion of the literature in this area. In addition to the bibliographies and discussions a section is presented which contains excerpts from communi- cations between the writer and some thirty recognized students of adolescence. These experts were querried on their position concerning the existence and validity of the adolescent culture in the United States. This section provides an illuminating summary of many points of profes- sional interest in the area of adolescence and adolescent cultures. This section also contains an outline of proposed areas of research which should prove to be of great impor- tance for the fuller understanding of the phenomena of adolescence. ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR IN URBAN AREAS: A BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH BY Jon Anthony Reeves A THESIS Submitted to the College of Social Science Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Sociology and AnthrOpology 1963 Approved:L763%24::g:ééigvczéz:€/ ,_¥/ r. ”a" i .' (:7 pt; 1“" (WW/(,3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This bibliographic review was Sponsored by the Special Study Committee on h-H Clubwork in Non-Farm Areas. The author is indebted to the members of this committee and is especially grateful for the c00peration offered by Russel G. Mawby and his staff. Acknowledgement is also due the following people who assisted the author in various stages of the investigation; Judith Cutler, Diane Moore, and Carol Killebrew. To Dr. David Gottlieb, a debt of gratitude is owed for the opportunity to undertake this review. He taught me the sound of a curious dynamo. To my wife, who lived to see it finished, many thanks for her faith and patience. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . .A; The Adolescent as Consumer. . . . . . . . The Adolescent and Social Institutions. . The Adolescent and His Peers. . . . . . . Adolescent Preparation for Adulthood. . . The Adolescent and the World He Lives In. Adolescent Deviant Behavior . . . . . . . SOME COMMENTS ON ADOLESCENT SUBCULTURES. . . . ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES . e e . e . e . . . . CHAPTER I. II. r B. C. D. (5 3‘6 III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. F. V. The Adolescent as Consumer. . . . . . . . The Adolescent and Social Institutions. . The Adolescent and His Peers. . . . . . . Adolescent Preparation for Adulthood. . . The Adolescent and the World He Lives In. Adolescent Deviant Behavior . . . . . . . GENERALBIBLIOGRAPHY............. 111 vIIII-IIII‘ Ei‘l‘Ell‘ CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Youth is a universal phenomena. Regardless of whether the society be primitive or highly complex, an attempt is made to assign certain roles and behavior limits along an age and sex dimension. As the youngster moves from one stage of biological growth to another adult expectations as to what is proper and "good" will change. What is tolerated at age five, for example, may not be considered acceptable when the same behavior is performed by a fifteen year old. Along similar lines, we can see how our evaluation of ob- served behavior is very much influenced by the sex of the actor. What we are willing to accept as ”normal" for girls is not the same in many instances for the boys. When adult expectations are fulfilled by youth, con- flict is kept at a minimum and there is little concern for the future of the society. When, however, attitudinal and value expectiens of the adult governing body are not in harmony with the system of beliefs held by youth there may be serious consequences for the functioning of the society. Recently we have seen sufficient evidence to suggest that there is a real lack of harmony between the values held by youth and those held by adults. There seems to be a growing feeling that we are no longer in contact with our 1 2 young and a general recognition that we are unable to under- stand why they behave the way they do. Numerous explana- tions have of course been presented. Some suggest that our entire society is undergoing a moral devaluation and youth are merely reflecting this downfall. Others prefer the more individual psycheanalytical interpretation. Still others, taking a universal outlook, propose that our youth are re- acting to a world filled with uncertainty. The multitude of possible explanations is clearly expressed by the Jets, a fictional youth gang appearing in West to , who point out that for every profession concerned at least one inter- pretation of why adolescents behave the way they do can be advanced. This failure of clarity and the presentation of some definitive answers may in part be attributed to two factors; First, investigators, for the most part, have taken a rigid- ly discipline-oriented approach in their study of adolescent behavior. There seems to be little familiarity and concern with the work carried out by those in one of the other be- haviorial sciences. On the contrary, there is often the failure to make some assessment of the work done by one's own colleagues. Secondly, and this factor cannot be de- tached from the first, few attempts have been made at a systematic compilation and review of our current stage of knowledge in this important area. The purposes of this bibliographic review are to pro- vide an over-view of the major lines of research on adoles- cent behavior, to summarise their major findings, and to 3 . point up their implications for further research. An addi- tional goal will be to provide those who work with youth some understanding of the variables which play an important part in why adolescents act the way they do. It is intended that this document servo several purposes: First, that it serve as a benchmark giving some indication of what we now know about adolescent behavior; secondly, that it be a source book for both those who seek to study youth and those who work with young people; finally, that it be the basis for pointing out areas that may be deserving of further em- pirical research. Although the attached bibliography covers a good portion of the considerable body of published materials, the review stresses mainly two kinds of research: those dealing with the behavior of adolescents in American urban areas; and those dealing with adolescent behavior as a cultural, social, or psychological phenomena. Bibliographic research is ordinarily cumulative, resting heavily on bibliographic work of the past. This report is no exception: a major initial source of references was J.M. Seidman's book Igg_Agglggggg§5 B ok Road s published by Holt Rinehart and Winston. Two other initial sources (which have proved consistently valuable) were figgiglggiggl A4222“! t9 and W- In addition to the above noted initial sources a number of professional Journals were examined for relevant material. The following list includes only those journals which proved to be of greatest value in the collection of titles. These 1; twenty-seven journals account for over two-thirds of the reference noted in the Annotated and General Bibliographies. Those most valuable are starred (*). '"American Journal of Sociology *American Sociological Review I"California Journal of Educational Research *Child Development Dissertation Abstracts *Education Educational and Psychological Measurement Genetic Psychology Monographs *High School Journal Journal of Abnormal and Social Measurement Journal of Applied Psychology *Journal of Educational Psychology *Journal of Educational Research *Journal of Educational Sociology Journal of Experimental Education Journal of Genetic Psychology Journal of Human Relations Journal of Social Casework Marriage and Family Living Review of Educational Research Rural Sociology (comparative studies) School and Community *School and Society School Review Social Forces Sociology and Social Research l"Sociometry. Although this report may ideally advance the claim to be a very extensive search through published materials,it obviously cannot cover that considerable body of work which has not appeared in print. An appreciable amount of research on adolescent behavior has been undertaken by manufacturers, advertising firms, and market research agencies. While some of this work may be irrelevant or of indifferent quality, it is likely that some portion would be of great value in a better understanding of how changes occur in adolescent consumption patterns. Existing literature in the area of adolescence ranges 5 from highly speculative discussion to narrowly empirical investigations, from the newspaper commentary on adolescent behavior to refined scientific investigations in specific areas. There have been psychological, sociological, physio- logical, and philosophical investigations into the phenomena of adolescence. Considering the purposesof'this report and the volume of existing literature, it has been necessary to limit the scope of the survey. It was decided to limit the selection to empirical studies of adolescent behavior. This removed from considera- tion speculative and popular media discussions. Full dis- cussions of delinquent behavior data have been avoided since there already are numerous publications available to the interested reader. (See for example, als o t ' - 193g Aggdgmy of Political and 529131 §gigngg, Vol. 261, January, i9h9 and Vol. 322, March, 1959: also 0. Holes, R. Lippitt, and S. Withey, A fielogtive govigw 32 Regegggh and Theory on Delinguency. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, September, 1959). The research findings discussed in the following sec- tions have been classified into six groups. The first sec- tion concerns the adolescent as consumer and includes re- search involving the adolescent and mass media, clothing, grooming, recreation, and the use of leisure time. The next section deals with adolescent behavior within the context of social institutions such as the family and school. Following this is a section on the adolescent and his peers. The emphasis hero is on dating, prestige evaluation, and social 6 interaction as well as the development of peer relationships. The fourth section discusses research on occupational and educational expectations and the development of the self- imago -- the adolescent's preparation for adulthood. Ado— lescent values, attitudes and sentiments about the world in which he lives are discussed in the fifth section, while the final section briefly is concerned with the adolescent and deviant behavior. The bibliographical references (i.e., B3, C12, etc.) in the discussion direct the reader to the annotated bib- liography where a short summary of the research, including statement of the problem, methods employed, and conclusions, will be found for each selection discussed. In addition to the discussion of the literature and annotated bibliography, this document includes a non-annotated bibliography consist- ing of references not cited in the review of literature. The remaining section deals with the existence and validity of the notion of ”adolescent subculture”. CHAPTER II DISCUSSION OF THE LITERATURE A. The Adolescent as Consumer There are of course a number of ways in which the adolescent plays the role of consumer. He is a consumer of learning in our educational institutions; ho is a consumer of food, clothing, and the mass media within the structure of our economic institutions; he is a consumer of recreation and athletic activities within the dimensions of his own leisure time. His impact on merchandising and advertising has been so great that credit card carrying adolescents seem to be the order of the day. (A.7) Young people in our society are a potent economic source, and many manufacturers look to this age group for economic survival. While the published reports of the motivational and marketing researcher are difficult to come by, there is every reason to believe that large sums of money have been spent in order to determine efficient strategy in attacking the young people market. Manufac- turers recognise (and here they seem to be ahead of educators, parents, and youth workers) that adolescents are very much influenced by their peers and the social system in which they function. Through knowledge of current adolescent values and preferences and how these vary by socio- 7 8 economic background, residence, community, education and so forth, the manufacturer is better able to make the decision as to what products should be introduced, who should introduce them, and what diffusion processed should be employed. He knows that while rock and roll is popular in the rural regions, it may already be passe in large metropolitan areas and hence, it is"best to launch the campaign in Allentown, New Jersey, and not Chicago. Simi- larly, he recognizes that adolescents outgrow certain popular heroes and, therefore, it is important to know just who should sing the song, wear the dress, eat the cereal,‘ or author the book. The middle-aged, middle class American housewife may prefer a Como or Crosby but the adolescents' tastes run towards something less dependable such as a Paul Anka or Bobby Darin, and, perhaps when under adult pressures, a Pat Boone. It would be pointless at this time to deal with the part played by these manufacturers in keeping the adolescent sub-culture alive. Obviously the adolescent does not always got what he needs and wants, and therefore adults, be they manufacturers or not, certainly help in setting the current adolescent normative system. For our purposes, for the moment at any rate, it is suffictmt to point out that representatives of the business world are very much concerned with the adolescent as a consumer. Leaving the sphere of economics and moving into the area of recreation, leisure time, and mass media we find an emphasis in the research on descriptive studies of preferences 9 for mass media (A.lB, A.l7, A.l9, A.21, A.25) and recrea— tion and leisure time activities (A.l, A.lz, A.l6, A.lB, A.22, A.26, A.27). A second line of investigation involves the impact of mass media on the behavior of adolescents (A.3, A.6, A.9, A.lO, A.30). An interest is also seen in the area of clothing and grooming attitudes and practices (A.2, A.8, A.2h, A.28). Regarding the adolescent's preference for media and content, there is evidence to support the notion that educational and other "serious" content is preferred much less than entertainment or "light" content. Lyness (A.l7) notes a preference among girls for love, glamor, and private life content, while the boys have a strong preference for violence and adventure. Patel (A.21) finds the same pre- ference for "light" material reflected in the newspaper reading interests of a group of high school students. Among British adolescents, this preference is noted by McKellar and Harris (A.l9) with regard to selection of radio programs. This 1952 study, conducted with luOO British adolescents and children also revealed a three to one ratio in preference for radio over movies. The area of papular music is widely recognised as an important area of adolescent interest, or at least the number of disc jockeys and popular music programs would lead one to feel that music does play an important role. Johnstone and Katz (A.lB), in an investigation of the role of dating behavior and peer group relationships in the formation of preferences in popular music, have found that preferences 10 varied according to the neighborhood in which a girl lived and her popularity with her peers. While they were unable to establish a direct peer group influence in preferences, they did note that the peer group does influence the listen- ing habits to the extent that a given disc jockey was consistently preferred, thus limiting the music to which the group members listened. The relationship between the type of media preferred and the specific content interest of the adolescent has been studied by Sterner (A.25). Regarding adventure, humor and love as major interests of adolescents, she investigates the media preferences of 372 high school students and concludes that it is a preference for psecific interest rather than a preference for a given media that attracts most adolescents. In addition, she was unable to establish a relationshipp between the interest or media preference of the group And their age, sex, intelligence, or socio-oconomic status. This study offers a valuable source of information in the 102 item annotated bibliography dealing with studies on adolescent interest in various media. Adolescence is commonly regarded as the age of irre- sponsibility, a time of freedom from adult cares, a time remembered by many adults as "the best years of our lives" --a time of relative leisure. The investigation of the development and variety of leisure pursuits has taken on increasing importance in recent years. The development of commercialized recreation, and voluntary social organiza- tions as well as the attention given leisure activities in 11 the mass media attest to the increase in leisure time within the population as a whole. Sociologists have been interested in the social implications of increased leisure and various organizations serving differing age groups have investigated leisure activities in connection with program planning and implementation. Generally, the investigations of adolescent leisure pursuits have been of a descriptive nature, seeking to set down the various interests and activities of this group. Within the adolescent group, comparisons have been made between age groups (A.31) and social classes (A.20, A.31). In 1929 Lynd and Lynd (A.16) illustrated the changes in leisure pursuits. In an industrial community of approximately 35,000 inhabitants, they found increasing formalization and standardization of leisure activities. New problems were arising in connection with the acceptance of new inventions such as the radio and the automobile. They also note a widening of the differences in leisure activities between the working and middle classes. More recently, Sullenger, investigating the leisure interests of grade school boys, has found that sports and creative activities have a strong appeal in the 11-16 year age group (A.26). A 1955 survey reveals, for the 1h-16 year age group, a strong preference for swimming, hunting, working on cars, and team sports (A.31). In at least one urban area (A.22), a strong need was felt by adolescents for organized and formalized recreational facilities. By the time the adolescent reaches college his interests have changed. This 12 is partly due to a general increase in available funds. Young adults as well as adolescents emphasize group activities, but the older adolescent and the young adult are better able to afford many of the activities which involve relatively large expenditures (A.ll). Interests among college students have also expanded to include leisure activities involving work with people, service work, and preparation for professional careers (A.27). The results of several studies indicate a strong desire among adoles- cents for leadership and direction in these organized leisure activities (A.22, A.26, A.3l). In considering group membership in voluntary organiza- tions and social class differences in leisure activities, a number of interesting points have been made. Mac Donald, McGuire, and Havighurst (A.20) note systematic differences between four social classes in a sample of 2&1 students. They found that fmmily participation and reading interests increases as socio-oconomic level increased. They also note a significant number of lower class children partici- pating in middle class activities. Keislar, on the other hand, indicates that the distinctive characteristic of members of adolescent clubs where membership is by invitation, was comparable grade-point average rather than intelligence or father's occupation (reflecting socio-economic status) (A,lh). In 1955 an extensive examination of adolescent group membership was published by the Boy Scouts of America (A.31). This study, conducted by the Survey Research Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, investigated a representative sample of 13 10h5 scout age boys (in-16) and collected information con- cerning principle leisure activities, amount of leisure, needs and concerns of adolescents, importance of group memberships, characteristics of non—joiners, and types of groups most attractive to boys. Among the significant findings reported, we see: (1) among adolescents, leisure activities and organizational membership are infrequently mentioned as sources of either satisfaction or concern; (2) half of the sample works part time and most of them have had experienceswith a variety of leisure pursuits; (3) of the boys questioned, three out of ten belonged to no clubs or organizations. Lack of time or other external pressures are the most often mentioned reasons for non-membership. 0f the boys who did belong to organizations, the largest proportion were in national activity organizations; (h) those boys who do belong to organized groups were generally from higher status group and engaged in a greater variety of leisure pursuits than did the non-members. Considering the heterogeneity of the adolescent population, it is doubt- ful if any organization, regardless of the scope of its program, can hope to appeal to even a majority of the adolescents in a given area. From the amount of discussion on the impact of tele- vision and radio on the behavior of adolescents found in the popular press, one would expect to find the professional literature revealing support for unfavorable evaluations of the mass media. Contrary to this expectation, the studies examined indicated that the schoolwwork of adolescents is lb dot appreciably affected by television (A.3, A.30), There is an indication that television viewing does affect the amount of time spent in other leisure activities (A.6), but there is no indication that television can be considered as a primary source of adjustment and behavior problems (A.30). In at least one case (A.9), evidence is found to support the notion that certain radio programs designed for adolescents attract a sizable audience and have a greater influence on behavior than primary groups and other sources of advice. Riley and Flowerman (A.23) note that adoles- cents who aro integrated in a peer group have different activities, interests, and reactions to a given communica— tion than adult-oriented adolescents. The adolescent is often seen as a slave to fad and fashion, and vulnerable to the slightest variation in clothing and grooming trends. In effect, this may be regarded as an integral part of the adolescent girl's desire for approval, for a consistent and satisfying self-image (A.28). While a considerable amount of conformity can be found in the clothing and grooming practices (A.2h) of adolescent girls, a certain amount of differing opinion on the proper practices can be seen between girls of different social classes and between girls and their mothers. For most girls, however, the motivating desires in clothing and grooming are the desire for approval, the desire for sexual attractiveness, and the internal feelings of poise, self- confidence and happiness (A.29). 15 B. The Adolescent and Social Institutions In past years a heavy research emphasis has been placed on the study of adolescent behavior within our social institutions. Two major institutions which have received most attention are the family and the school. The family is especially important in the childhood development of the adolescent since it is the first agency in the social structure which the child contacts and it has the respon- sibility of the initial socialization and preparation of the child for future contact with the external world. By the time the child reaches high school, he has entered the period of his life and development which has been character- ized as transitional or interstitial (8.28), the period of rapidly increasing physical and mental maturity between childhood and adulthood -- adolescence. While research on the development of the child can profitably focus on the physiological, psychological and sociological implications of various child-roaring practices, the relationship between the adolescent and the family, in terms of the research examined for this report, appears to emphasize the attitudes, conflicts and relationships which characteristically arise between adolescents and their parents. Several studies examine the relationship between the adolescent's personality development and social accept- ability in comparison with the particular family environment (B.h, B.l9, B.51, B.52, B.83, 8.97), but the major interest seems to be the description of various aspects of the parent- 16 child relationship and the examination of attitudes held by the parents and the child (8.7, 8.8, 8.11, 8.16, 8.26, 8.30. B.h3. B.h5, 8.57, 8.6a, 8.80, 8.92, and others). The reaction of adults to adolescents is often one of insisting on the immaturity of the adolescent while demanding that the adolescent behave in a mature manner (B.33). This situation together with the lack of status offered to the adolescent by the adult world and the increasing length of time during which the adolescent is unable to be productive in our society has led, in the opinion of some, to an increase in the importance of the school as a training ground and developmental arena for the adolescent years (b.3b, 8.90). The growing interest in the status system of the adolescent is reflected in such of the research reported in this section, as is the interest ih the relationship of social class position to behavior in the school setting (b.1, 8.5, 8.9, 8.13, 8.20, 8.22, 8.23, 8.25, 8.35, 8.39, 8.ho, B.h6, 8.53, 8.93. 8.95. 8.98, B.100). The educator reveals an interest in predicting the success of students and developing more efficient methods of teaching (b.17, 8.29, B.U7, 8.56, 8.62, 8.77. 8.79, 8.86, B.91, 8.96, and others). Other areas of investigation involve the teacher's knowledge of her pupils (b.3, 8.12, 8.63, 8.65, 8.70, 8.7“, B.99), the study of leadership (B.5b, B.58, B.68, B.89, B.101), ethnocentrism and prejudice (B.59, B.60, B.66, 8.85), and the withdrawal of students from school (8.10, 8.21). In the investigation of the relationship between family 17 environment and personality formation and social acceptability, one notion seems to run through all the examined research. Hollingshead (B.hl) finds that the influence of the social class culture permeates the behavior of the adolescent in his relation to the school, the church, the family, and the peer group. While social class undoubtedly plays an important role in the value system and personal relations of theadolescent, the type of family relationship enjoyed by the adolescent has repeatedly been shown to influence his personality and social acceptability. Landis (8.51, 8.52), Gavan (8.19), Peck (8.83). and Warnath (8.9?) all note that the adolescent who comes from a democratic family, as opposed to an authoritarian family, has a better chance to adjust favorably to his life situation. Gavan, investi- gating problem and non-problem children reports that socially well-adjusted children are a product of good home entiron- ments. Peck shows that adolescents who come from warm, democratic homes reveal more positive personality traits than those who come from disapproving authoritarian homes. Analysis of 1&2 interviews leads Warnath to conclude that adolescents coming from affectionate, democratic type families are better able to adjust to the social structure of the adolescent peer group. Going beyond the democratic- authoritarian dichotomy, Landis (8.52), in an analysis of data from questionnaires applied to 5500 high school seniors, finds not only that adolescents from democratic families are better adjusted and have fewer problems, but also that only children reveal more problems than children from larger 18 families. The only children also had fewer friends, were more introspective, and were more active outside the home. With regard to affection seeking, Bartlett and Horrocks (8.“) find that children from broken homes reflect a greater need for affection in their approval-seeking behavior toward the opposite sex. In the area of the attitudes of parents and adoles- cents toward each other, we note first the study by Butler (8.15, B.15) concerning mothers' attitudes towards the social development of their adolescent children. The mothers' attitudes in reaction to the early adolescent stage of development reflected confusion over the lack of well defined cultural roles for themselves in this period. They were generally unprepared for their children's new attitudes toward the family, the home and the neighborhood and they had little comprehension of the rebellious attitudes of their children. By the period of late adolescence, the children had developed sufficiently to allow a move by the parents toward the acceptance of the child as an adult and the child's demonstration of his ability in the economic sphere made for increased consideration of the child's preferences. Mothers at this stage also reported greater satififaction in marital relations and a greater awareness of self in the part of the mother. Some aspects of adolescents' attitudes toward their parents are reported by Johannis and Rollins (B.hh) in their investigation of 1U00 tenth grade students. They found that 80% of the students rated their parents' marriages as happy, 19 82% were happy with their home life; there was no difference between boys and girls in the way parent's marriages were rated; and the students had more positive attitudes toward their mothers than their fathers. Among adolescents who do not live with their parents, however, Johnson (8.h5) finds significantly more positive feelings towards parents, father, and family in general than among adolescents who live with their parents. In the specific relationship between the adolescent boy and his father, Payne and Mussen (8.82) find that boys who identify strongly with their fathers feel that their parental relationships in general were warm and rewarding. These boys also felt that their fathers were warm, friendly and more rewarding than their mothers and the boys them- selves were rated as more calm and friendly than these boys who did not identify strongly with their fathers. Cava and Raush (8.18) report similar results. The idea that conformity in adult life is a general- ization of conformity behavior learned in childhood is supported by Mussen and Kagan (8.76) in a study which revealed that a group of college students who were rated as conformists regarded their parents as harsh, punitive, rejecting, and restrictive. Liccione (8.57) proposed that during the pubertal period, the relationship between daughter and mother would exhibit more conflict than that between the girls and their fathers in the same period. He found that, at all ages, there was a greater amount of both conflict and non-conflict interaction 20 between the girls and their mothers. This is explained in terms of the greater interaction of mothers and daughters during this period. This factor of greater interaction between girls and their mothers may help to explain the find- ing of Ellis (8.31) that, among 500 college girls, the analysis of questionnaire responses indicated that the girls felt more love for their mothers and sisters than they did for their fathers and brothers. Following Hollingshead's notion that the social class culture influences the behavior and adjustment of the adolescent, Nye (8.80), in a study of lh72 high school students in Michigan, finds that socio-economic level does influence parent-child adjustments although not with the same degree of influence at all levels. One of the central ideas in the notion of an adolescent subculture is a value and behavior system among adolescents' which sonsistently deviates from the values and behavior of the adult culture. In disputing the existence of an adolescent subculture, Elkin and Westley (8.30) maintain that, in order to speak of a subculture, one must establish the widespread and dominant presence of the phenomena. In their study of no middle-class, white, adolescents living in a relatively homogeneous suburb of Montreal, they were unable to find many sharp conflicts between the children and the parents. In addition, they found little discontinuity in the socialization process and no youth culture pattern which prevailed over the family guidance pattern. On the basis of the findings from this relatively small and 21 selective sample, then, they question the validity and the existence of an adolescent subculture. Other, less significant, results indicating a similarity of attitudes and interests between adolescents and parents are presented by Borg (8.7) and Johannis (B.h3). Berg has investigated the similarities between the attitudes of parents, students, and teachers with respect to their judgement of suitable behavior in a variety of school situations. These seven situations include: the classroom playing on a school team, class trips, behavior between classes, and behavior on a public vehicle. While they were able to establish significant agreement between the three groups on the appropriate behavior in these situations, there was disagreement between the students and the parents on the methods by which these standards might be obtained. Johannis (B.h3) found a great deal of family partici— pation in several selected social activities when he investigated a sample of 1027 high school sophomores in Tampa, Florida. In fact, in eight of the ten activities selected, it was found that over 78% of the families partici- pated as a group. In an excellent article on the problem of parent-youth conflict, Davis (8.25) contends that the conflict found in western society arises from the interaction of certain universals in the parent-child relationship and certain cultural variables. These universals include: the difference in age between the parent and the child, the factor of decreasing socialization with increasing age, and 22 the physiological, psychological, and sociological differ- ences between the age groups. These universals interact with the following variables: the rate of social change, the complexity of the social structure, the degree of integration in the culture, and the force of vertical mobility One of the important functions of the adolescent period is to develop increasing independence from the family. It is possible that one measure of increasing independence may be found in the individuals' attachment to and attitude toward his neighborhood. In a study of #20 adolescents, Bernard (8.8) notes the influence of age and socio-economic level in the child's emancipation from the home neighborhood. She finds that the greatest relative decline in attachment to the neighborhood comes at age 17 for the middle-class child and at age 15 for the lower-class child. It was also found that the lower-class child was more attached to his neighborhood than was the middle-class child. In a comparison of American and Swiss children between the ages of six and sixteen, it has been shown that the American child develops independence from the family at an earlier age than the Swiss children. Americans also develop independence of thought at an earlier ago (8.11). One possible explanation to the rapid evolution of independent attitudes on the part of the adolescent may be seen in the influence of the attitudes and support of the peer group. A study by Kinch and Bowerman (B.h9) has shown that increasing age leads to increased activity and contact 23 with the peer group. As the peer group contact expands, there will be a shift from a family orientation to a peer orientation if the family is unable to maintain a satisfac- tory adjustment. An illustration of the cross pressures between the peer group and the parents can be seen in the study of the observation of the Kosher meat laws between Jewish adoles- cents and their parents (8.92). In both conflict situations (peers observant - parents non-observant and vice versa), it was found generally that the attitude of the peer group influenced the adolescent's choice to a greater degree than did the parents's attitudes. The influence of social class position is soon also in the area of attitudes of prejudice toward Jews and Negroes (8.6“). This longitudinal study of adolescent attitudes concludes that prejudice among lower-class boys is often based on the acceptance of a cultural stereotype of the ethnic group and is not related to specific personality needs or family environments while the middle-class adoles- cent's prejudice is likely to reflect his personality needs and experiences in the family environment. A growing problem in recent years has been the increase in high school age marriage. One possible explanation for this rise has been investigated by Burchinal (8.1%) He hypothesized that: (1) early marriage is directly related to dissatisfaction with parental relations; (2) early marriage is directly related to the amount of heterosexual involvement of the girls; (3) early marriage is a result of 2b role deprivation and is desired for its expected satisfac- tions anticipated in a change of roles. Analysis of the comparison of 60 married'and 60 unmarried high school girls, matched for grade, age, father's occupation, parents' educa- tional level, religion, and size of family, failed to support either the first or the third hypothesis but did find that these girls who were married had had more heterosexual involve- ment than the girls who had not married prior to graduation. The inconsistent attitudes and policies of school authorities in dealing with this problem is noted in a survey study by Landis (8.103). In the school situation, one of the areas af interest to the educator, psychologist, and sociologist is the area of achievement and prediction of success in educational pursuits. The following studies attempt little more than an illustration of the type of research which has been conducted. It is felt that this area of research, while undoubtedly of great significance, is of minor importance for this report. One point of perennial interest is the comparative success of public and private high school boys in the college situation. An article summarizing the results of several investigations in this area has found that: (1) with I.Q. held constant, the public school boys tend to outperform the private school boy and his grades may be more easily predicted, (2) the two groups reflect different social values and childhood experiences in Thematic Apperk ception Tests (8.62). It has also been shown that perfor- mance on the Rorschach Test is a fair indication of how a 25 student will perform in certain areas (8.98). In connection with the psychological approach to per- formance, the differences between the academic performances of children with above-average intelligence has been associated with personality characteristics. Those gifted children with high grades tend to come from superior home environments and are rated high on such favorable personality traits as dependability, originality, and self-reliance, while the gifted children with poor performance generally come from less favorable home environments and manifest less favorable personality traits (8.56). This relationship does not seem to hold true in the area of creative writing, however. Neals (8.77) has shown that, among seventh grade students, those who had higher intelligence and came from better homes were not as creative in their writing experiences as were those from poor home environments. Other findings from various areas of interest include: 1. Establishment of a negative correlation between intelligence and performance on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (8.17). 2. A relationship between delinquency proneness and school achievement which indicates that, in an area of high delinquency, those boys who are not dolin- quent have better performance in reading and mathe- matics (8.h8). 3. Among superior readers, the majority could read before the first grade. Few credit teachers or school with much influence in the development of 26 their reading skills (8.47). h. Support for the hypothesis that interest in science in general is correlated with performance in high school chemistry courses (8.29). 5. Support for the use of the Miller Analogies Test as a predictor of achievement in the junior college situation (8.86). 6. Support for the use of tests, previous grades, and performance in the predication of success in such topics as high school algebra (8.67) and high school shop training (8.88). 7. .Study habits, at least in the subject of general science at the ninth grade level, are not any more responsible for performance than are intelligence, reading ability, or aptitude (8.79). Of somewhat more interest to this report are the studies which are concerned with the evaluation of the extent of the teachers' knowledge of the criendship patterns and popularity ' of their students. In the school situation, where so much of the teacher's time is spent in contact with the adoles- cent, it would normally be expected that the individual teacher would have acquired relatively complete information on her pupils and be able to judge which of them were more acceptable to their peers. Contrary to this expectation, a study by Baker (3.3) presents us with some interesting observations. This analysis was made on the questionnaire response of 27 teachers and 250 students from varying high schools who were asked for information on the extent of the 27 teachers' knowledge of behavior and background differences among their students. It was found that, while there was a great variation between teachers in the amount of accurate knowledge held, most of the teachers knew less than one- fourth of the facts regarded as necessary by school coun- selors in the educational guidance of individual students. In this particular study, and most likely in similar situations, the quantity of teachers' knowledge was related to such factors as: the size of the class, the amount of extra-class association between teacher and student, and the amount of time the teacher devoted to conferences with her students. The teachers did not fare much better in their evaluations of students in terms of the number of friends possessed by the individual students. In a study conducted as North Texas State College (8.12), Bonney found that teachers were not very accurate in their estimations of the number of friends a given adolescent would have. This was true even in the cases where the teacher was evaluating students who were fairly well known by her. It is possible here that the criteria used by the teacher in her estimation was not equivalent to the criteria utilized by the adoles- cents in the determination of the members of their peer groups who would be acceptable friends. Parallel to these findings, the study by Marshall (8.70) offers somewhat different results in an examination of the accuracy of adult ledders' judgments of the social accept- ability of 263 girls in 22 h-H clubs. In general, it was 28 found that the accuracy of the adult judgments increased as the popularity of the individual girl increased. The adults were better able to rate the acceptability of the older girls than the younger girls. Accuracy in judgment also depended on the number of girls in the group, the larger groups revealing less accuracy in the adults‘ judg- ments. Contrary to the teachers' knowledge of her pupils, Witryol (8.99) notes that there is a considerable agreement, which increases with the age of the student, between student attitudes on what they feel the teachers would consider as socially appropriate behavior and teachers' statements of what they hold as socially acceptable behavior. Among the students, the girls seem to be better than the boys at estimating the teacher's attitudes. ' Two studies report on the value of using sociometric techniques in the classroom (8.63, 8.7“). These techniques enable the teacher to gain important information on the acceptability of their students and offer them aids in planning the activities of the group. In one instance (8.7“), the investigators found that the students would have organized the room differently if they had been allowad to do so. Their organization would have seen the development of groups .and leaders in the clasroom and the exclusion of the undesirable peers from group activities. A more extensive investigation of a stratified tenth grade class is presented by Cook (8.22). This study, covering two years, notes an increase of 100% in the number of "best friend" choices made 29 by the students as a result of increased interaction in the group. Three-fourths of these choices were made within the tenth grade class. In spite of the increased interaction, or perhaps because of it, the upper-class children tended to be ovorchosen as friends while the lower-class children tended to be underchosen. An area of major importance in the school situation is the reaction of the school to the social class membership of the students. Recalling Hollingshead's notion of the class values of the various social strata which form a pattern which influences the behavior and attitudes of the adolescent, and noting that the majority of teachers are of middle-class background and training, the reaction of' the school to the adolescent becomes increasingly important. Havighurst (8.39) points out that the values of the school and the adolescent peer culture which permeates the school environment are predominantly middle-class values. Likewise, the "character-building" organizations such as the Boy Scouts, Hi-Y, and “-8 opeaato on middle-class values and appeal to the middle-class adolescent. Weckler (8.98) associates the character reputation of the adolescent with his social class position, noting that the reputation of the individual depends to a great extent on his conformity to the school culture which is predominantly middle-class. Langworthy (8.53) discusses the relationship of the community status system to the system of the school and finds that, in the areas of ethnic choice and preference, the status system of the school reflects that of the community, In 30 addition to the similarity between the community and the school in terms of class status and values, an age ranking of status was operative. In a descriptive study of the attitudes of 60 teachers in the Chicago school system, Becker (8.5) finds that there are class differences in the teachers' reactions in the areas of teaching procedures, discipline, and moral acceptability. These teachers felt that the lower-class adolescent is more difficult to discipline and teach and often displays behavior which is morally unacceptable to the teacher. More specific disparities are cited in two studies which compare the rewards and behavior of the middle and lower class adolescent (8.1, 8.23). These studies maintain that: (1) mdddlo-class students receive a dispropor- tionate share of the high grades in class work; (2) middle- class students fill most of the elective offices in the class and the school; (3) middle-class students engage in mere school and extra-curricular activities; (E) middle- class students go to church more often, continue their educations more often, and win the American Legion Award more often than do lowereclass adolescents. 30‘08018198 *3. O‘Justment difficulties and the lack of understanding with which mmst lower-class or ”socially under- privileged” youth are met in the school, at least one author has recommended that a separate educational program be organized for these individuals (8.13). Such a program would not only help the lower-class adolescent to adjust to the world around him, but it would also benefit the more 31 acceptable student by removing*from.the school situation a major source of conflict and educational mediocrity. One approach to the class differences_in adolescent behavior is to consider the adolescent a member of a social class which socializes its Junior members along certain lines to achieve the desired end-products. The results of this differential socialization lead to behavior which varies when various social strata are compared. Thus, a lower- and a middloeclass adolescent boy may react differently to the school situation but these reactions are essentially reactions to different situations rather than different reactions to the same situation. The lower-class boy may be well socialized in torms_of lower-class standards, but may appear to be totally unseoializod when seen through middle-class eyes in a middle-class setting (8.25) With the adolescent spending a great part of his time in the school situation the question arises as to the source of adolescent status in the school environment. ,The school would naturally like to feel that academic achievement and competence play an important role in the peer group status structuro,_for education of the young is the avowed_goal of the school. Several recent studiosindicate that the role of academic performance in the_adolescent status system can only be understood in terms of the values of the adoles- cent groups ia a given school environment. ,Gordon (8.35), in an investigation of the behavior of adolescents in relation to their position in the general social structure of the school, finds that the individual adolescent is 32 likely to seek roles in the school environment which would afford him prestige in the informal peer group structure. Specifically, Gordon states that successful participation in student activities is more indicative of the general status efLan individual than is success in academic pursuits. Grades, however, any, in a given environment, earn the adolescent a certain amount of prestige. This finding is noted by'Ryen and Davie (3.93) in their investigation of 326 students in a suburban high school. They were able to establish a significant positive relationship between grades and social acceptance. Two-thirds of the students tested, however, were teking college preparatory courses and it would be expected that such a group would reflect greater interest in the academic areas. An excellent examination of the status systems ef,a. series of high schools has been reported by Coleman (8.20). In this study of the status systems of ten midwest high schools of varying composition, the author utilised school grade records, 1.0. test results, and questionnaires con- cerning how the student would most like to be remembered in his school. ’Tho results_indicato that, in all the_schoo1s investigated, the majority of students would rather be re- memborod as a star athlete, a leader in activities, or a popular person than as a brilliant student, These results varied slightly according to the commodition of the school but the general tendency was present in all cases.) The explanation offered for thiszhonomena centers on the values of the adolescents themselves. In the cases investigated, 33 the adolescent group awarded status and prestige to success in non-academic areas. The emphasis placed by the school and the adult population on inter-scholastic athletics and extracurricular activities is seen as a potent influence in the determination of adolescent values. Coleman also notes that in the schools in which the adolescents stress non- academic achievement, those who are regarded as the intellec- tuals or "brains" are actually not the most captblo students} The most able are more likely to expend their efforts in areas whiohoffer them the most status and prestige among their peers, leaving’tho area of academic excellence to those who are unable or unwilling to compete for the highest prestige and status positions. An earlier study by dedulph (8.9) also notes the. importance of athletics in the world of the adolescent. In an investigation of #61 high school boys, it was found that those who were more active in athletics also revealed a greater degree of personal and social adjustment than did the boys who were inactive in athletics. In an attempt to isolate the factors which influence an individual's participation in the social life of the school, Jones (8856) compared two groups of students on ten ' points including: Behavior Ratings, Intelligence, Reputation, Physical Abilities, Socio-oconomic Status, Attitudes. and Self-Concept. While she was able to establish significant differences in the areas of Behavior Ratings, Reputation, and Socio-economic Status, they were not felt to be conclt- sivo in determining'who would be most active in the social 3h life of the school. Two points of view on the presence of cliques and sororities in the high school situation are presented in studies Bmho and 8.95. On the one hand, Heaton (3‘50) feels that the presence of cliques and sororities reflects a lack of planning on the part of the school for the needs of the students. The unsatisfactory group life of the school results in the formation of cliques and sororities. On the other hand, Spaulding and 301111 (8.95) feel that {membership in cliques facilitates adjust-nut to the high school situation. They found that those girls who entered the high school situation with no clique affiliations established them.shortly after entering high shhool. The emphasis here lies in the clique as a device for social adjustment rather than as-a reaction to unsatisfactory group life in the school. in early study by Reals (3.89) finds only slight differ- ences in the hone backgrounds of leaders and non-leaders in the high sehool. a later study by Lathan (3.55) investi- gating the relationship'between physical maturity and leader- ship, finds‘that, in three areas of leadership (elective, appointive, and athletic) only the area of athletic leader— ship consistently preferred physically nature boys. In the other two areas, no relationship could be found betwoen maturity and selection. studies conducted in 1952 by.Lundberg and Dickson (3.59. 8.60) reveal interesting findings on the relations between ethnic groups in a'high school population. lxamination 35 of a sample of l5hb students in different ethnic groups revealed that all the ethnic groups became progressively {more ethnecentric as their choices progressed from desired leaders through work-partners and dates to_friends. While a preference was shown for ethnic group’nenbers in all areas,_ outsiders were accepted as leaders more often than as friends. The authors conclude that prejudice is not restricted to the Iajority group. In these situations, tho expressed ethno- centrisn is related nore to specific relationships than to prejudice in general. The change in ethnic reaction in high school between the tenth and the twelfth grades has been investigated by Holeil (3.66). In this longitudinal study of 50 high school students, it was found that the number of negative responses to ethnic and racial stereotypes more than doubled between the tenth and the twelfth grades. Those who were found to _ be the most prejudiced in the tenth grade were also the ones who were the.most prejudiced in the twelfth grade. Investigations into the problem of school withdrawal are illustrated by two items of research (3.10, 3.21). In‘ the first study, Bledsoe notes three main factors associated with school withdrawals_ low intelligence, dissatisfaction with the school program, and economic reasons. no also finds that the level of the parents' education and occupation influence the adolescent's level of aspiration. Cook (3.21) in a comparison of withdrawals and non-withdrawals, finds that those who drop out of school are older than their class- mates, and educationally retarded. They were found to have 36 lower levels of intelligence and to achieve considerably less in school than did those who remained in school. Iany of those who withdraw prior to graduation have poor family relationships and are likely to have made poor adjustments to the school situation. 37 c. The Adolescent and his Peers In terns of the research examined for this review, the amount of work done on various aspects of adolescent peer relationships is second in importance to the body of work on the adolescent in social institutions. Here we differen- tiate between research directly related to peer relation- ships and institutional settings. In this case, we are not so much concerned with where the investigation was conducted (be it classroom, family, church, etc.) as we are with the nature of the research. Our concern here is with the structure of adolescent friendship patterns and peer influences. Granting that the adolescent is involved in several of the institutions of the community such as the school, the fanily, the church, and the authority structure, it is i-portant to reneaber that he, or she, quite often relates to these institutions as a member of a formal or informal group of his age mates. This group can take the forn.of a social club, a gang, or an apparently nonstructured group of friends. In his family contacts, his behavior can hardly be understood solely in tonne of the family environ-ant but must be tempered by an understanding of the influence of the attitudes and norms of his peers. .Likewise, his leisure pursuits and interests are influenced by his association with his age—mates or peers. Research into this area has ranged fro-.disoussions of . the structure and function of the adolescent peer group (C.b, 0.8, 03.3, cm, 0.5!») through investigations of dating .38 behavior and the development of sex appropriate roles (0.12, c.1h, 0.23, c.2b, c.3o, c.35, c.h6, c.56, 0.58, and others) to_extensive work on poor acceptance, popularity, and status (3.29, c.1, c.2,_c.3. c.9, 0.15, 0.20. c.26. c.32. c.b°. 0.h7, 0.51, 3.62, and others). Discussionsof the functions of the peer group in the life of the adolescent characteristically note tht role ef‘ the peer group as an aide in the adolescent's emancipation fbr his family (0.1%, 0.10. 0.1.8, 0.5“). The support gained by the adolescent fro. the peer group encourages his in his struggle against parental authority and adult control. Phelps and Herrooks (0.38) have shown in an intensive study of 200 adolescent boys and girls that the most important overall reason for the fornation of informal groups among adolescents is the desire to achieve freedom from adult control. Outside of its specific support in the struggle with adult authority the peer group *is seen as an insulator against the frustrations and anxieties in the shift from adelescenso to adulthood (0.”, 0.b8). It acts to support the adolescent by offering him a source of status (c.b) and a training ground where he can experiment with personal relations, gain heterosexual.exporience, and develop social contacts which will he of future use to hin. Several writers note the influence of the peer group in the later formation of personality characteristics (0.“, 0.8, 0.52, 0.60). Oeidler and Ravits (0.52), investigating a Jewish peer group, reveal that the values and norms of the group were so 39 internalized by the subjects that the peer group took on the function of a primary group and replaced the respective fanilies. They support this conclusion on the basis of the number of cur-group narriages, non-conformist ideas, and the trend away fron business occupations and toward professional and service occupations. This study illustrates hew_the peer group may, with intense solidarity and long duration,_ influence the personality of its nenbers. 3ossard (0.8) notes that the experience of involvenent in a peer group is a basic influence in the shaping of the adult personality but that contact with a peer group or groups depends on length of manbership and the individuals' need for peer group activities. . _ Cameron (0.10), in a study of 200 early adolescents, has characterised the “inggroup' as being concerned with acceptance by their peers, approval fron the opposite sex, and social activities. The desired image involved a com- hination of physical and social.naturity,_friendliness, good looks, and high popularity. In spite of this character- isation, one would expect the peer group values and behavior to vary with the social class and age of the nembers. Variation in the nanifest behavior of adolescent groups see-s to appear in many areas. The behavior of the adoles- cent street gang is in direct opposition to the bchavior of an organised supervised youth group. The social class differences in the factors influencing the formation of informal groups is discussed in the study by Phelps and Rorrocks (0.h8) nentioned earlier. They found that informal .l' llllll.lli 1&0 groups were formed by the lower class adolescents in reaction to the predominantly middle-class orientation of the school. In this case the informal groups offered the lower class students status and a for. of recognition which they were unable to attain in the middle-class school situation. The nid-dle-class adolescents formed informal groups for a variety of reasons including; pressure toward social. conformity, opportunities for unchaperoned activities, and a desire to escape: the noral code of hens and school. from a different point of view, but still conparablo, Pope (0.159) finds that early adolescents in the upper social classes place a higher value on confer-ing to adult standards and conventional codes of conduct while those in the lower socio-oeononic classes enphasise self assertion and aggression. Despite the variations in peer group behavior, Tyron (0.55) feels that the adolescent peer groups reflect the fern and purposes of their adult counterparts. She sees a definite sinilarity of general characteristics between the adult peer groups and the adolescent groups. Uhyte (0.59). writing in l9'tl, notes the characteristic relation- ships of small groups as reflected in the clique behavior of a group of Italian slu young non in Boston. no observes that the- clique has (1) a hierarchical structure as the basis of group organisation, (2) _nutual obligations as the basis of all group relationships, (3) behavior doternined by the status position of the net-her, and ('6) _a leader who represents and directs the group's activities. One exanple of the influence of the peer group in the bl setting of adolescent norms has been offered by leinan (0.5“). In an examination of 322 adolescents between the ages of 11 and 2h (this age span is indicative of the lack of agreement among investigators as to just how old an Qadolescent' is) with regard to their attitudes toward feninism, he finds that there is a significant lessening of the importance of family norms as the influence of the norms of the peer group increases with age. Dating behavior and sex role bchavicr are two areas of adolescent peer relations which have received appreciable attention in the literature. The work on dating is mainly descriptive of dating practices, attitudes towards dating, and selection of dating partners. Who makes a good dater what are accepted activities, when do adolescents start dating, what is the attitude towards going steady are the types of questions :which have generally been asked in connection with dating. The investigation of sex roles has been concerned with the devolopent of appropriate behavior patterns and the problems of adjustment to contradictory situations. Heterosexual activity and experience is an important part of the period of adolescence. This is the period when the individual is becoming more aware of the opposite sex, is experimenting with interpersonal relations, and is rapidly gaining'physical maturity. Dating patterns and behavior also reveal significant norms and values operating within and between adolescents and adults. The influence of the peer group in the development of #2 dating behavior is seen in the choice of dating partners and preferred activities. The peer group is also inportant in the development of interest in dating. Grist (0.1”).. reporting on the dating bchavior of high school students, notes that the dating of the investigated students was generally controlled by their parents but activities and date partners were approved by peers. Grist also finds that early dating is usually a result of group expectations and that, in fact, many students date solely because they wish to be accepted by their group and not because they are particularly interested in dating as such. The selection of dating partners is not a random process. Not all adolescents are judged equally in terms of their acceptability as dates. Adolescents from.difforont social strata behave differently and have different criteria for the selection of acceptable dates. In general, these criteria are similar to those used in the evaluation of peers in general and friends in particular. These characteristics will be discussed later in connection with peer group status, prestige, and acceptance. . In 1937, Holler (0.55) recognised the presence of what he calls the ”rating and dating complex” in the dating behavior of college students. .He notes that there is a definite class system or gradient of dating desirability among college students. The rating complex is not unique to a given school, but can be found among all college students. Between schools a great deal of variation in the component parts of the rating complex can be seen, but regard- “3 less of the foam taken, the system.is clearly recognised and adjusted to by the students. 11:. general characteristics usually found in the rating for boys_includesa fraternity standing, activities, money, clothes, and access to a car. The rating of girls generally involved the factors of popularity as a date, clothes, and dancing well. Variations in rating and dating patterns are also to be found among different student cliques or interest groups. Obviously the criteria used by the "beatnik” of deviant will be different from that endorsed by the "collegiate” or “rah-rah" typo. Similarly, high school students will reflect different views based on their own position within the activity structure of the school. hdmbership on the varsity football or basketball toan may, for example, greatly alter the appeal of a boy even though he does not possess a car or fraternity menbership. Along the same lines, a girl who is a cheer leader in her high school may find her dating currency up even though she possesses certain charecteristics which are considered non-acceptable by her peers. Each of these examples points out the need for research which not only studies chokindividual but M also takes account of the total institution in which the individual 1. being observed. The influence of class position on dating patterns is discussed in a study by Hill (0.23). In an investigation of 229 high school students from several socioeeccncmic levels in Ilorida, he found that the majority of students dated within their own social and school classes. Students |.|||l1lll’ll nu in the upper social classes had more dating partners while the lower classes tend to date outside of their social and school class. Christensen (0.12) supports the idea of distinct dating patterns for boys and girls. Why adolescents date and what their attitudes are towards dating has received some attention from investigators. It has been noted (c.u6) that girls, as mightehe anticipated, generally are much less liberal than_bcys in their attitudes towards dating and related practices. Boys seem to be more interested in having a good time on dates while girls often emphasise the learning aspect of dating. The necessity of mate selection and the preparation for marriage are important factors to consider in the evaluation of dating behavior (0.39). ‘In considering’dating as a type of preparation for .narriage, one would reasonably expect attitudes toward ' narriago roles to increase in accuracy from the pre-dating to the post-marriage stage. Hobart (0.2“) however, has shown that unrealistic, romantic ideas follow a cyclical pattern with adolescents being most unrealistic at the beginning of their courtships and nest realistic at the end. Those close to marriage appeared to hold the most unrealistic attitudes toward marriage roles. as attributes this situation to the operation of a youth subculture in which unrealistic and romantic attitudes are associated with going- steady and engagement. In the area of sex activity the male is usually seen as the aggressor (0.12), but the prevalence of sexual activity is often associated with socio-econonic class levels, with “5 the lower classes being considered as the most lax and the middle and upper classes having more restrictive codes. It is important to note here that a number of studies dealing with the aspect of social class or behavior leave much to be desired in terms of methodological sophistication. Too often the investigator has failed to move beyond a three variable analysis once a relationship has been found to exist between social class and some dependent variable. There is some evidence to indicate that perhaps we have been making too much of social class and too little of other ' salient factors in our analysis of human behavior. With regard to male aggression, Kanin (0.30) has investigated alcohol, place of occurrence, and family environment as relevant factors in the explanation of aggression.‘ He finds that the length of involvement in the relationship, and the season of the year (spring and summer) are more important factors in determining the reasons for male aggression. Uhyte, writing in l9h3,_indicated the existence of very strict and complicated sex codes_in slum areasw(0.58). Rather than_an absence_of¢sexmores, wegsoo the classification of women into several categories, each of which has_an acceptable form of sexual behavior and accessibility which is sanctioned and furthered by the_moros of the group. Research in the area of sex roles has emphasised the psychological aspect of sexual maturation and the develop-_‘ ment of sex role conflict. The main interest in the develop- ment of sex roles is found in the writings on personality development and the psychology of adolescent development. #6 The papers by Jones discussed in section D illustrate some of the social implications of maturity. It is commonly noted in the popular literature that the female matures at an earlier age than the male. Hildroth (0.22) notes, in addition, that girls also mature earlier than boys in social interests associated with physical maturation. In an examination of 87 boys and 105 girls in the ten to fourteen year age group, variation in social interests are found which account for apparent social incompatibility of like-ago boys and girls in junior high school. Sex appropriate behavior has been shown to increase significantly among girls between the ages of fifteen and seventeen while boys have shown no comparable increase. Ihile variation in behavior exist at all age levels, girls appear to be more stable from year to year than boys (0.61). Variations in maturity play an important role in the social development adn prestige ratings of adolescents. Jones (0.28), reporting behavior, concludes that in an urban American culture, girls seem to have a greater problem than boys in adjusting to changing social require- ments. While the development of male sex roles in early adolescence appears fairly consistent, girls' roles shift from an emphasis on quiet, ladyelike behavicr_to active, aggressive and talkative behavior by age fifteen. Early- maturing girls seem to be at a disadvantage in their poor relationships due to interests in boys which are so far ahead of their agshmates. The late—maturing girls, with a longer period of development and adjustment to new impulses “7 and interests, are more favorably received by their peers. Among boys the opposite relation prevails with the early- maturing boy in a more favorable position with regard to peer acceptance. Komarovsky (0.35. 0.36) points out a significant area of sex role conflict among college girls. This is the conflict between the traditional feminine role of homemaker and the modern role of potential career girl. Conflicting pressures from male friends and family result in uncertainty and insecurity whihh seems to be centered in academic per- formance, social life, and vocational plans. .In an approximate replication of Komarovsky's study, Hallin (0.56) also finds conflict arising from conflicting expectations of family and friends but holds that, while the problem of contradictory role expectations is widespread, the majority of college girls either do nottako it seriously or are easily able to resolve the problem. A considerable amount of the research on adolescents has been concerned with popularity, status, social accept- ability, and friendship patterns. Only a cursory examin- ation of newspaper articles and books by popular authors is needed in order to be impressed with the apparent pre- occupation of the adolescent with the maintenance_of_a socially acceptable pattern of behavior. Considering the function of the adolescent period as a training ground for interpersonal relationships and a period of experimentation with various self-images, the adolescent's concern with acceptance and popularity seems not unnatural. #8 The research on social acceptance, status and prestige factors in the years of adolescence have been concerned with the description of these factors in terms of social class, age, sex, and personality trait differences. Anastasi and Miller (0.1) investigated a group of 100 male and female high school students who were matched in sex ratio, age, and grade level, but were sharply differentiated by scholastic achievement and socio-economic level. They note distinct differences in the prestige factors listed for the pro-college group (high in socio-economic status and scholastic achieve- ment). Factors listed by gil,the students as important fell into the stereotype of the friendly, popular, welledressod, conformist to group ideals. The pro-college group, in addition to the above, listed important traits including serious-minded, talkative, creative, and enthusiastic._ The non-college group emphasised traits including athletic, good listener, good fellow, good sense of humor, neat appearance, and ”grown up.” Sex and age differences in personality characteristics associated with social acceptability have been investigated by Kuhlen and Leo (0.37). They found that there was a progression in acceptability characteristics from the sixth to the twelfth grades. As the grade level increased, characteristics reflecting increased interest in heteroserual activities increased in importance. By the twelfth grade, girls were less aggressive in heterosexual social activities and boys had increased in activity, social aggression, and extrovorsion. In addition to the general characteristics of 199. popularity, being friendly, enthusiastic, and the initiator of activities, boys reflected an interest in the opposite sex, and the most acceptable girls were sociable and had a good sense of humor. Another approach to acceptability in adelescenso is illustrated by Bretsch (0.9). On the basis of sociometric tests, be divided 696 high school students into three levels of social acceptance -- high, middle and low. These same students also rated themselves on level performance in! eight social skills and, in addition, checked a frequency list of “9 different social activities. 0n the basis of these measures, Bretsch found that the more acceptable stu- dents participated in a slightly, but significantly, greater number of social activities. He also found that the high acceptable group felt themselves to be more adopt in the social skills than the low group. In the list of activities, 39 out of the #9 listed revealed significant sex differences, and over half showed significant differences between the well- acceptod and the pocrly—accepted_groups. _This type of study emphasises the behavioral manifestations of acceptability rather than_the personal characteristics of acceptable individuals. In an attempt to link stated adolescent interests to social acceptability, Harks (0.41) found that accepted girls expressed more interests thatcan be considered sociable, heterosexual, and disapproved by adults, and had consider- ably fewer intellectual-cultural interests, while the accepted boys had few mechanical and constructional interests. iith regard to social acceptability and personality 50 characteristics, one author states that while socially acceptable children possess a large number of desirable traits in common, it is impossible to classify popular and unpopular children on the basis of their personality traits. It is the total personality configuration rather than specific traits which operate to determine an individual's accept- ability (0.7). Hardlow and Green (0.63) also indicate some difficulty in determining what personality characteristics are significantly related to peer status. While they do find some significant characteristics, they note that sociometric research involving the correlates of peer status must recognise that poor status is situational or specific in character. On the other hand, it is quite possible that the specific traits common to socially acceptable adolescents are sufficient to distinguish and classify accepted and rejected individuals. Gronlund and Anderson (0.16), in an investigation of acceptability and personality characteristics, have found that strong, positive personality characteristics are associated with social acceptability among junior high school students. for both boys and girls the socially accepted revealed traits indluding: good-looking, tidy, friendly, likeable, enthusiastic, cheerful, quiet (not restless), interest in dating, good sense of humor, initia- tive, and talkative. The socially neglected students were usually overlooked rather than disliked. They scored neither high nor low on the tested traits. The socially rejected, on the other hand, were rated low on the mentioned traits, but were aggressive enough to draw attention to them- 51 selves and thus be rejected. lost investigations of social acceptability have been conducted in a school setting with the subjects being drawn from selected classes and given some type of sociometric test to determine their status among their schoolmates. Gronlund and Whitney (0.17), in an investigation of 3&0 junior high school students in an Illinois city, have expanded their investigation to cover the adolescent's acceptance in the classroom, the school, and the neighbor- hood. Their contention that scores on sociometric tests conducted in the classroom may be a reliable index of the individual's general social acceptability among his peers is supported by the finding that those individuals who were favorably accepted in the classroom were also favorably .acceptod in the school as a whole and in their neighbor- hoods, while these who were unpopular with their classmates were also generally unaccepted by their peers in the neighborhood situation. An earlier study by different authors (0.50) had also noted that the measure of peer status they utilised was a stable measure of adolescent peer accept- ance. To state that a given adolescent is accepted by his peers is not to imply that this adolescent is accorded any great prestige in the peer group. An individual may be accepted by a great many of his peers and yet fail to exert any significant influence or attain any significant status in his group. In a study done in 1953, Keislar (0.31) indicates a distinction between social acceptance and prestige 52 among adolescents. Bis findings indicate that social accept- ance, in the group studied, was closely associated with popularity in the peer group, while prestige was linked with scholastic success and effort and other similar vari- ables. In a later study, Keislar (0.32) also investigates the peer group ratings of students with above average intelligence, some of whom got high grades and others low grades. In this study he reveals that the students who got the higher marks were rated higher on such items as liking school work, putting studies first, and persistence. Girls with high marks were regarded as being less popular but more influential with boys, while the boys who received high marks were rated as being more considerate than those of equal intelligence who received low marks. One area of adolescent prestige influence was investi- gated in 1959 by Keislar (0.33). He was interested in determining whether an adolescent boy's prestige, established in an area of importance to adolescents in general, would generalise far enough to influence the personal preferences of his peers. A group of 60 adolescent boys with Otis I.Q. scores over 100 were given a preference test following a test of information in which some of the boys had done exceptionally well and thereby gained prestige. Analysis revealed that the prestige of the boys who scored well on the information test generalised far enough to influence their peers' responses to the preference test. This was determined by the number of times answers on the preferencd test were changed to correspond to controlled wrong answers 53 on the papers of the high prestige boys. In the development of friendship ties, the adolescent who is judged by his peers to manifest socially acceptable personality traits is in an excellent position to form acquaintances with a variety of other adolescents. The degree of his acquaintanceship then, influences the poten- tial number of friends or choices as a friend obtainable by him (0.51). In some cases, it can be shown that an experience in social living such as a camp experience can positively affect the number of friendship choices obtained by a given adolescent on a sociometric test (0.15). The investigation of peer relations has also covered the description of friendship characteristics including the influence of age, sex, I.Q., and sarious physical character- istics. As early as 1926 Hellman (c.57) investigated friend- ship pairs with respect to their shmilarity or dissimilarity in characteristics such as chronological age, mental age, I.Q., scholarship success, extroversion, height, and physical maturation. Among her findings she notes that pairs of girls were most similar in scholarship and least similar in height, while the boys were most similar in height, I.Q., and chronological age and least similar in extroversion, scholarship, and mental age. In a more recent study con- cerning the friendship_chodces of adolescents of differing intelligence levels (0.5), it has been shown that children of above average intelligence were preferred as friends over_ the slow learners by average and some below average students. A second early study (0.“?) conducted at a summer camp 5h fer boys offers support for the notion that children most often choose as friends peers of similar mental and moral development. Results of a study investigating the influence of social class position on choice of friends was reported by Neugarton (0.“5). Her investigation of two groups of children, one with a median age of 11 years a months and the other with a median age of 16 years 3 months, utilized a modified florone Sociometric That and an adaptation of Hartshorne and May's Guess-who Tbst. The results of this study indicate that there is a definite relationship between social class and choice of friends. The younger group revealed that social class position influenced both reputation and friendship status, the lower status children having fewer friend choices and lower reputations. In _ this age group, the children's judgments about each other followed extremely stereotyped lines. The older group also reflected the influence of class position in their selection of friends, but their rejection of individuals as friends did not follow any definite class pattern. The lower class child in the high school situation was found to be less conspicuous than he was in the grade school, thereby losing many of his distinguishing lower class features which had been apparent in the younger stereotype. Quito frequently in both the speculative and empirical research, one sees reference to the operation and existence of an adolescent subculture or subcultures (3.29, 3.30, 0.2“, 0.5h, and others) with distinct attitudes, norms, 55 status systems, and behavior patterns that arise within the adolescent group and serve to distinguish the adolescent period from the period of childhood and adulthood. While there has been much talk of adolescent subcultures, it is difficult to find research directed to the specific investigation of the existence and content of these sub- cultures outside of the work done by Coleman (8.20), likin (8.30), Cohen (General ##8), Gordon (3.35). and Tyron (0. 5b). The implications of the existence of an empirically demonstrable adolescent subculture er subcultures in the investigation of adolescent behavior in urban areas have prompted us to devote a separate section to a discussion of professional attitudes toward the existence and validity of an adolescent subculture in the united States. 56 D. Adolescent Preparation for Adulthood Among the steps which are to be taken in the period of adolescence, few are more important to the individual's future than occupational and educational decisions. ‘flhose decisions are not made in isolation, but are rather the product of a complex of interacting variables. Such factors as the adolescent's self-concept, his experience in the school situation, his home environment, his secio-economic background, and his inter-personal relationships all contribute to his attitudes, interests, aspirations, and expectations in educational and vocational matters. In the studies reported in this section, the emphasis falls in three areas of investigation: the role of self- cencept in the development of the adolescent, the adoles- oent's attitudes and interests in educational and vocational matters, and analysis of the factors involved in varying levels of aspiration. In the previous section, reference was made to the role of variations in maturity and the development of inter- personal relations and prestige ratings, .Ihe work by Jones reported in this section (0.18, B.l9, D.20, n.21) deals with relative maturity and behavigr; motivations, and self- conceptions. All of the studios involved adolescents who were determined, by examination, to be either physically advanced or physically retarded for their age. (In an earlier investigation (D.18), Jones and Bayley found that th. physically advanced (early maturers) boys were more acceptable 57 as leaders, were accepted as more mature by adults, and had little need to strive for prestige among their peers. The' physically retarded boys (late maturers), on the other hand, revealed more status striving behavior and behavior classified as immature. The late naturers often sought prestige in areas where they would not be in competition with the early maturers. Later investigations involving the motivations and self- conceptions of early and late maturers (B.l9, D.20, D.21) have established that the late naturers were motivated by aggression and social acceptance to a much greater degree than were the early maturers. In the investigation of self-conception in relation to physical maturity, it was found that these boys who were late maturors were characterised by feelings of insecurity, inadequacy, rejec- tiong negative attitudes towards their families, and negative self-conceptions. The early maturing boys, on the other hand, had more positive self-concepts and were found to be more independent, self-confident, and capable of playing an adult role in interpersonal relationships. Among the girls, it has been felt that the late maturer would have an adjustment advantage over the early maturer since she has had a longer period to adjust to the new feelings and physical changes involved in the female development.‘ Inves- tigation of the self-conceptions of this group, then, anticipated that the late maturers among the girls would exhibit better over-all adjustment and fewer negative self- concepts than the early maturers. A 1958 study (D.21) 58 revealed, however, that the early maturing girls were somewhat better adjusted and tended to score more favorably than the late maturing girls on total adjustment. The late maturing girls were also found to hane more negative self- concepts than their early maturing peers. The development of the individual's self-image is perhaps best understood in terms of the Interactienist Hypothesis of Self-Conception. In this hypothesis the develop- ment of the self-image_arises from.tho interaction of the individual's concept of his behavior, the response of others to his behavior, and the individual's perception of others to,a given behavior. In 1956, a testing of l95subjects' (D.25) led Hiyamoto and Dornbusch to the conclusion that, while the response or attitude of others is related to self- conoeption, the individual's perception of the response of others is a more important factor. ltwas also concluded that an individual's self-conception was more closely related to his estimate of the generalised attitude toward him than to the perceived response of any particular group. We have noted in the previous section that one of the functions of the adolescent peer group is to support the adolescent and offer him a source of status and security which he may find lacking in the adult world. ‘Te some (n.3b), this lack of status for the adolescent in the united States is reflected in the lack of well-defined self-concept among adolescents. The lack of adult support and status then results in a variety of diverse statuses offered the adolescent by his peer group, and may account for the great 59 insecurity found in adelescenso. The adolescent does not know exactly who he is or who he wants to become. In addition to the lack of a pervasive self-concept, the development of the adolescent is often characterised in terms of the conflict of generations. This conflict arises out of the emerging naturity of the adolescent in inter- action with the adult generation which seems to resist the development of a distinct personal identity and the assump- tion of adult roles on the part of the adelescont. In spite of the conflict between the adult and the adolescent worlds, the adolescent often patterns, or attempts to pattern, his personality and behavior after a model he constructs from contact with the adult world. This ”ideal self” seems to develop from a childhood identification with a parent figure to a composite of the parental figure and attractive, successful young adults by the period of late adolescence (B.lh). Havighurst and Riegor (D.13) indicate that there are a very small number of adults outside the family who are usually visible to the adolescent. These adults may be a strong influence in the development of the adolescent's ”ideal self” and, directly or indirectly, may influence the educational and occupational aspirations of the adolescent. It is one thing to say that the adolescent constructs a composite ”ideal self“ model, but it is quite a different thing to state that this ”ideal self” is consistent and stable over a period of time. As the adolescent develops and broadens his experiential base, his solfuconcopt and his "ideal self” pattern is subject to some variation. In 60 a study of the stability of the self-concept in adolescence, Engol (D.ll) investigated a group of 172 eighth- and tenth- grade students over a period of two years using the same hinstruments in a test-retest program. In general, she found that the self-concepts remained relatively stable regardless of whether they were positive or negative at the first' testing. She also found that those subjects who revealed negative self-concepts at the first testing were loss’stable than the subjects whose self-concept was positive. Those students whose negative self-concepts were consistent ever the two year period were also characterised by significantly more maladjustment than those who were consistently positive in their self-concept. Self-concept has also been investigated in its relation- ship with creativity and achievement. In 1959, Rivlin (n.29). investigating the self-attitudes and sociability of adeles- cents, applied 1“ criteria of creativity to a group of 126 tenth and eleventh graders in the New York City high schools. After establishing a creative and non-creative group, he compared the two groups with reggrd‘to their self-attitudes and sociability. This comparison revealed that the creative group was more sociable and had more confidence in their interpersonal relationships than was the non-creative group. The factors of sociability and higher level of parents' education were found to be associated with creativity, but the overall self-attitudes of the creative and the non- creative students did not differ significantly. The results of a study which examined the relationship 61 between self-concept and achievement (D.31) in a number of reading improvement classes in Texas lend support to the idea that achievement, or lack of achievement, is the func- tion of the needs of the individual's self-concept. Self-concept is directly related to vocational interests in a study done by Bordin in 19h3 (D.3). Bordin assumed that an individual's response to the Strong Vocational In- terest Test reflects an aeeeptance of a particular self: image in terms of occupational stereotypes. The results support his hypotheses that the degree of interest revealed by the test will vary positively with the individualds acceptance of the stereotype as self-descriptive. In addi- tion, the results led the invostigator‘to predict that the relationship between the expressed interest and the specific occupation will vary with the status of the occupation, the relationship between father and son, and the length of time the occupation has been in the family. During the high school years, the presence of a few adolescents who ”know where they are going” in terms of vocational direction is often contrasted with the much larger number who appear unable to stabilise and direct their voca- tional interests. While it may well be‘that the adult ideal is most closely reflected in the stable, directed adolescent, a study by Schmidt and Rethney (n.32) has indicated that, during the high school years, consistency in vocational choice is the exception while variability is the rule. If the general pattern of adolescent development is considered, it isdnet difficult to accept the variability of vocational ill lllllllliil‘l. 62 interests as a natural manifestation of the developmental process. This variability in occupational choice is somewhat challenged by the finding of Esell and Tate (D.12) who rea port that, in a sample of 1572 high school boys and girls, only 10% of the boys and 1%.of the girls were doubtful as to their future occupation. They also find that most of the questioned students had plans to attend college and that 20% of the boys and 5% of the girls chose occupations similar to those of their parents. As with the creative students men- tioned earlier, there was a direct relationship between the educational level of the parents and‘the vocational choices of the students. Among gifted children'(D.37). Strang finds much less indecision in vocational choice than she does among average children. In this case, the gifted child is deter- minded by an 1.0. over 120. (Contrary to possible expecta- tion, she also finds that the gifted child is not much less concerned with scholastic success than the average student.) Among girls, the conflict between marriage and career that has engendered a great deal of speculation in past years is apparently being resolved by a growing desire among young women to continue their educations and work for a period before getting married (D.38). In interpreting the findings of a national study of adolescent girls, Stratton finds that 9b% of the 2000 girls questioned expected to marry eventually, but only 3% expressed a desire to become housewives. The girls anticipate employment in steady, interesting jobs and prefer such occupations as secretary, Elli! {lllll'Ik/I‘IIIII . 63 nurse, teacher and social worker, that is, occupational roles which are traditionally filled by women. Among the factors that have been investigated as to their relationship with educational and occupational in- terests and aspirations, none has received more attention than the factor of social class. This emphasis is not too surprising when we recognise that “social class" has been a payoff variable for several decades of sociological in-- vestigation. An investigation of the job attitudes of adolescents from families in two occupational strata, white collar and blue collar, revealed to Dyer (D.7) that the white collar families were more satisfied with the father's occupation than was the case with the blue collar families. Regard- less ef this, neither the parents nor the children from “either group showed any groat desire for the children to follow the father's occupation. Since both of the occu- pational levels investigated held rather low prestige value, the influence of the father's job on the children's choice of occupation must be tempered by the prestige status of the occupation. The relationship between adolescent interest behavior and socio-economic status was investigated by Pierce in 1959 (D.28). Using the Home Index Test and the Kudor Preference Test in a random sample of 370 adolescents in a city of h0,000, Pierce finds a definite relationship between interest behavior and socio-eccnomic status. The low status group preferred mechanical, domestic, service, and clerical tasks, li'l‘llll II I Ill-l I Ii I... 6h while the high status students preferred complex social activities and jobs with high prestige and responsibility. Both groups show a tendency to reject the choice of the other group. One interesting aspect of the influence of parents on their children is found in the ability of many parents to accurately predict the interest patterns revealed by their children on the Kudor Preference Test (D.15). Parental influence is also revealed in the attitudes of the adolescent toward labor and celloctivism. In these areas, the adoles- cent ‘s attitudes have been found to conform to observed adult patterns (0.5). A study reported in 195“ (0.50) found evidence to support the following hypotheses involving social factors in the work attitudes and interests of a group of Michigan boys. 1. Social stratification is significantly related to the differential socialisation of youth in the home, the school, and the community. 2. The value orientations of the social strata are more important in forming work attitudes than the school, work experience, or type ot community. 3. Actual work experience produces changes in behavior, and these changes are then reflected in work attitudes. h. The school is not successful in removing class-centered attitude differences concerning work which can be soon in adolescents from different strata. The problem of social class and aspirations has been approached in a number of other studies. Notable among these is the study conducted by Sewell, Haller, and Straus (B.33). Establishing a general hypothesis that, with the factor of 65 intelligence controlled, the levels of aspiration of adoles- cents of both sexes are associated with the social status of their families, the authors surveyed a one-sixth random sample of all non-farm seniors in public and private high schools in Wisconsin in [9&7-19h8. The data from this sur- vey was applied to the testing of four null hypotheses which derived from the general hypotheses. These null hypotheses 'OI‘. 8 1 and 2. Among females (males), there is no significant association between level of occupational aspiration and social status when measured intelligence is controlled 3 and h. Among females (males), there is no significant association between level of education aspiration and social status when measured intelligence is controlled With the rejection of all four of the null hypotheses, the authors find support for the notion that the values associated with varying class positions are an hmportant influence on the development of educational and occupational aspirations. Going further into this relationship, Roson (D.30) hypothesised that achievement motivation (psychological) and value orientation (cultural) vary between the social classes. This hypothesis is based on the proposition that social mobility can be explained in terms of the differing motives and values of the social classes. A testing of 120 male ad- olescents revealed that achievement motivation, but not value orientations, were related to high grades; and also, that value orientations, but not achievement motivation, were re- lated to educational aspirations. Considering the motives and values of the various classes, it is quite possible that 66 the middle class children are more likely to be taught both the motives and the values which lead to achievement. Stephenson, on the other hand, found that the students he examined exhibted a relatively high common agreement in‘ the area of aspirations. Regardless of the social class position, most of the students seemed to hold certain goals in common. Those aspirations may be understood as culturally determined. In the area of expectations, however, these as- pirations are strongly influenced by the adolescent's posi- tion in the class structure. What the adolescent holds as expectations are influenced by the opportunities and life chances available in his social class position (D.35). In connection with theddsparitios between aspirations and ex- pectations, it is quite possible to see-how the inability to fulfill ono's aspirations due to social and economic condi- tions can increase the adolescent's anxiety in establishing realistic educational and vocational goals (D.36). Wilson (0.39) raised another point in his discussion of the residential segregation of social classes and the aspira- tions of adolescent boys. The author showed that the values of the membership group (peer group) influences the develop- ment of aspirations. He goes on to note that the concentra- tion of social classes in specific areas of a city means that the values of the particular class are also concentrated in that area. This configuration of values effects the value structure of the school and thereby influences the values of the peer group and the individual adolescent. for Wilson, the raluesgreflected by the school influence not only educa- 67 tional aspirations, but also occupational aspirations, academic achievement, and political preferences. Many investigations of social class differences in levels of aspiration concentrate solely on the absolute differences between the classes and ignore the differences within the classes. In a study reported in 1956, Empey (B.10) investigates both the inter- and intra-class dif- ferences. He hypothesizes that: (1) the absolute occupa- tional status aspirations of male high school seniors from the middle and upper classes are significantly higher than those of seniors from the lower classes; (2) the relative occupational status aspirations of lower class seniors will indicate that they prefer and anticipate significantly higher occupational status than their fathers; (3) lower class seniors will be more inclined than middle or upper to reduce their occupational aspirations significantly when faced with the necessity of choosing Between their preferred and antici- pated occupations. The results of the analysis supported the first two hypotheses, but rejected the third; and in so doing, raise the possibility that lower class adolescents may not limit their occupational aspirations to these activities typically associated with the lower class. It was also implied,as was mentioned earlier, that lower class adolescents may have aspirations as high as adolescents from the middle classes. Within the lower classes some adolescents attempt to ”bettdr” themselves while some do not. Some plan to attend college and seek occupations of high status while others are 68 content to fill some niche within their social class. In an investigation of 2b upperllowor class boys, including 12 who were and 12 who were not planning to attend college, Kahl (0.22) concludes that those who were aspiring to higher educational and occupational status came from families who were unsatisfied with their position and who encouraged their sons to seek higher educational and vocational pppertunities. In other words, the aspiring boys came from families which reflected middle class values to a greater degree than the families of the boys who were not interested in improving their occupational status. This is also reflected in a study conducted in England (D.16) where it was found that the up- wardly mobile lower class boys had stronger middle class values than many of the middle class boys themselves. In addition and similarly, the English middle class boys had higher aspirations than did the lower class boys. In addition to the descriptive and exploratory studies concerned with expectations and aspirations, there have been a number of experimental studies on the psychological factors in aspiration. Only one of these studies is illustrated here. Chapman and Volkman (D.6), investigating the effect of knowledge on level of aspiration, experimented with two groups, one of which was given practical knowledgonof the task they were to perform, while the other was only told how various other groups had performed. They note that the group which only had knowledge of the performance of other groups had a significant rise in level of aspiration while the group with the practical knowledge revealed no similar change in 69 aspiration. A warning note concerning laboratory experiments in aspiration levels was sounded by Ausubol, Schiff, and Zeleny (v.2) in their study of the usefulness of laboratory measures of aspiration as compared to "real life” (subjec- tive individual response) measures. Their examination of academic grade reports, and a series of tests and scales available for 50 adolesoents revealed little or no significant relationship between the ”real life” and the laboratory measures of vocational and academic aspirations. They attribute this finding to the greater degree of ego- involvement of the adolescent in the ”real life” measure as opposed to the typical experimental situation. 70 E. The Adolescent and the World Ho Lives In Generally speaking, all studies which concern adoles- cents are involved, in one way or another, with describing the world of the adolescent. Investigations of the leisure time activities and intorsts offer us information in one area of the world of adolescence while studies of the poor relations and the maintenance of teenage status reveal other aspects of importance. In the previous sections of this review, many of the values and attitudes which are part of the world of the adolescent have been explicity or implicity noted and will not be recapitulated in the present section. What is offered in this section is a sampling of various types of attitudinal dtudios which range from reports of general attitudes to investigations into specific areas of interest. Included are studies dealing with general aspects of attitudes and values (8.1, 3.12, 3.17), moral attitudes (E.h, 2.7, 3.28, 3.30), adolescent problems and values (E.12, E.l6, 3.2H,.E.27). minority group attitudes (8.3. 8.8, 3.19, 3.25), and other areas (1.2, 8.5. 2.10, n.1u, 2.20, 3.21, 2.22, 3.23, 3.31). The methodology of these studies ranges from the large samples and involved techniques of the survey research team to the more restricted sise and problem of the individual researcher. Within our society, which, as a whole, is characterised by certain value orientations, there are numerous groups which operate within the social system and are character- ised by value systems which may differ in some respects 71 from that of society as a whole. Aborle (E.1) has noted that each individual participates in a number of these subsystems and that these various subsystems must be integrated with each other to facilitate interaction between the systems. In terms of the adult and the adolescent world the emphasis in studying the value systems involved should be more in terms of the content of the shared values involved in the interaction of the two systems than the number and content of the value discrepancies between the two. This assumes that it is possible to establish that differences‘ are to found in the values endorsed by adolescents and adults. This particular problem will be discussed in the section devoted to the existence of the adolescent subculture. The existence of variant values in our society is' understandable in terms of the diversity and complexity of our social structure. 'We have seen that values differ between social classes, age groups, ethnic groups, and occupational groups, but variance in the value orientations and problem solving behavior in those groups may be little more than‘the expression of the possible solutions for a group to a given problem (3.12). The role of the community in the formation of individual attitudes wasinvestigated by Newcomb and reported in 1952. In a study of hhe political and economic attitudes of the girls of Bennington College, he found that the trend of attitude change ran from freshman conservatism to senior non-conservatism. In connection with this, it was noted that full assimilation into the college community demanded the 72 assumption of liberal attitudes. Thus the community reflected rather strong characteristic attitudes towards certain issues. Within the college community there were those assumed the appropriate attitudes and those who manifested what would appear to be ”deviant” behavior by associating with groups which did not hold attitudes similar to those of the larger community. The explanation offered for the exceptions to the typical adjustment pattern lies in the interaction between the response of the individual to the total community and the effect of membership in one or more reference groups which may or may not be found in the immediate community (E.l7). The relationship between sooio-ocenomic status and the value systems of “lower and middle class adolescents has been investigated by Rothman (E.24). In this study, in- volving a relatively small sample of 56 ninth grade students, Rethman was generally unable to establish significant differences between social class membership and operative value systems. Among the seven areas investigated, the only differentiation which could be found was in the areas of Purpose, Actions, and Aspirations. As early as 1936, Symonds described sex differences in the problems and interests of 78h boys and 857 girls in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and New York City. At this time, boys showed great interest in safety, health, money, civic affairs, recreations, and study; while girls were more interested in personal attractiveness, etiquette, and getting along with other people. Boys ranked money as more of a 73 problem than did the girls, who emphasised personal attractiveness and etiquette as problem areas. The results of this study may reveal more about research orientation of the time than they do about the attitudes of the adolescents involved (3.27). In l9h2, Mooney (E.l6) constructed a check list of problem items designed to facilitate the enumeration and description of the problems which adolescents felt to be important. In an application of this check list to 603 high schoal students in North Carolina, it was found that adolescents problems could be divided by grade level (ago) and sex in many of the cases. Freshmen were more concerned with problems of health, while sophomores werefimore involved in problems of social and recreational activities. The junimm favored problems concerning school work, while the seniors were concerned with vocational and higher educational problems. By sex, the girls revealed more problems involving home and family and interpersonal relations, while the hoys favored problems involving school work and plans for the- future. A lator study incorporating the Mooney Problems Check List attempted to describe the problems of adolescents who were accepted by their peers as compared to those who were unaccepted (3.13). It was found that the unaccepted adeles- cents had more problems than the accepted. The problems faced by the accepted group centered around social activities, educational and occupational future, while the unaccepted checked problems which related to concern over social skills, 7b dislike of school, family problems, unhappiness, and lack of status. Another early study (1.31) discussed the attitudes and behavior of 603 adolescents representing six different class grades. The results of this study led the author to conclude that the school played little part in the formation or altera- tion of attitudes and behavior related to non-academic acti- vities. The author notes that moral sentiments (i.o. attitudes toward lying, stealing, swearing, etc.) appear to develop outside of the school situation and that the school does little to bring about changes in these sentiments. While the ability of the school to successfully teach ethics and control conduct may still be debated, little argument will be found concerning the role of the school as an institution within which the adolescent peer group must function. In view of the attitudes reflected in the mass media in recent years that adolescents arebecoming more aware of the realities of the world about them, the results of a study by Boyer (3.2) may be surprising. In an investigation of 569 adolescents in the Milwaukee area, he remarks on the surprising lack of awareness of the adolescent in the area of critical problems facing world. .lxcluding the danger of war, most of the adolescents were willing to adjust to the world as they found it. In addition to their unawareness of the realities of the world, these students found it difficult to appreciate the values of an education outside of the value attributed to it as a means of vocational preparation. _ The relationship between teenagers' and adults' attitudes 75 toward adolescents has been shown to contain some interesting discontinuities. The question of status in the adolescent world has been partially answered by the role of the peer group in supplying the adolescent with the status which the adult world fails to deliver. It may well be that the atti— tudes hald by adults toward adolescents prevents them from recognising attitudes in adolescents which might lead to a shift in adult attitudes. Such attitudes as the satisfaction adolescents find in the successful completion of developmental tasks, the recognition that freedom should be accompanied by responsibility, and the willingness to assume responsibility (E.26) deserve further attention. Awareness of such attitudes could possibly load to a shift in the adult attitude, noted by Hess and Geidhlatt (8.10) that adolescents over-value themselves and under-value adults. Such a shift of attitude might also alter the adolescent attitude that adults tend to under-value teenagers. The following four studies leave the area of general attitudes and values and illustrate the results of concentra- tion on a specific area of interest. Rose (E.23) investigated the attitudes of adolescents toward problems of mental health. From an original sample of 1000 students in three Minneapolis high schools, he drew a random sample of 100 girls and boys who received questionnaires concerning various problems of mental health. An analysis of the results led him to the conclusion that the girls in the sample had, both quantitatively and qualitatively, more know- ledge and revealed better attitudes towards problems of mental (illllIlllllvlll'll'l 76 health than did the boys. While no evidence was offered to support it, this finding was explained in terms of the more studious attitudes and better performance of the girls. In an investigation of the attitudes of 160 adolescents toward the police and other legal authorities, Chapman (3.5) found that delinquents were more hostile toward the poliee and other legal authorities than were non-delinquents. In spite of those differences, he was unable to establish statis- tically significant differences between the two groups. Ramsey and Nelson (3.20) anticipated a change in adoles- eents' attitudes toward the family based on the increase in the divorce rate and the changing role of the family between the years 1939 and 1952. Their 1952 replication of a study originally done in 1939 used the same questionnaire and con- trolled fer the same variables, but outside of the finding that the girls in 1952 felt less obligation to their family of origin, the authors were unable to establish any signifi- cant change in the adolescents' attitude toward his, or her, family. Utilising survey research methods, Rommers and Drucker (3.21) examined a sample of 1132 high sehoel students to establish toenagors' attitudes and behavior in the area of child management. The results of their survey indicated that the attitudes and knowledge improved in the high school popu- lation as age, maturation, and educational influences increased. At all levels, however, the girls revealed more accurate knew- lodge than the boys. Concerning the moral beliefs of sixteen-year-eld adoles- ,111 . III III] II I) I'll-III 1" I'll. l 77 cents, Taba (3.28) characterised them as lacking a well- developod ability to apply moral beliefs to their everyday experiences and conflicts. She notes a tendency among adel- escents to respond to conflict or choice situations by the use of familiar stereotypes and attempts at compromise solu- tions. In specific areas of moral belief we see that the concept of friendliness involves being popular, having many friends, and being amiable and accomodating to all people. The concept of honesty is best understood in terms of property rights and telling the truth, but loyalty beliefs appear con- fused especially in situations where several loyalties con- flict. While adolescents' standards of responsibility are well developed and taken seriously, much doubt and fear is soon in the area of moral courage, especially where a given opinion or action may incur the displeasure of adults or threaten one's popularity with his peers. A distinct but related area of interest is found in the way adolescents react to each other in a_situatien where a moral norm has beenvviolatod. Turner (3.30), utilising a projective questionnaire on a sample of 120 college students, approached this problem through the formation of.a role- playing typology, and has shown that in a situation in which a close friend has violated a norm (in this casek a hypo- thetical violation of a sex and an honesty norm), the sub- ject's response will vary with his evaluation of the_friond- ship relation and his view of the violated norm. Three personality types are riflocted in the observed combinations of response behavior: (1) individuals who feel themselves 78 personally involved in the erres of their friends; (2) indi- viduals who feel a high sense of social responsibility; and (3) moralistic individuals who feel a great personal loyalty to their friends.T In the middle class one finds a great concern over the expression of aggression between children. Contrary to the attitude of the lower classes, physical aggression between children is not considered as appropriate behavior. It has been shown in an examination of 119 boys and girls in grades two, five, eight, and eleven, that in a situation where one child is physically aggressive toward another, most children at all ages will tend to turn to an authority figure (parent or other adult) for a judgment on the justice of the aggres- sion. The other children, however, tend to show more con- cern over possible extenuating and mitigating factors in the particular situation (3.7). Among Negro adolescents, the moral beliefs and ideale self have been shown to be generally comparable to those of white adolescents (3.”). Middle class Negroes tend to choose ”successful” adults for their ideal, while lower class Negroes tend toward the more glamorous adults. In the ideal- solf, the middle class Negro is characterised by emphasis on moral and intellectual qualities, while the lower class emphasises personal glory. Judging from a white middle class point of view, the middle class Negro has a higher degree of moral development than the lower class Negro adolescent. The views of minority group youth toward themselves seem 79 to reflect the common stereotype of the Negro and the Jew. Cahnman (3.30) has noted that Jewish adolescents view them- selves as clannish, competitive, defensive, inhibited, and insecure, while the Negro adolescents view themselves as having weak points such as drinking, fighting, carelessness, lack of foresight and community spirit, and an absence of political organisation. A further view of the racial and ethnic group differ- ences in social attitudes and adjustment is offered by Pierce, Reid, and King (3.19). 'Their investigation of three groups of adolescents (Negroes, Latin Americans and Anglo-Americans) revealed only one significant difference between these racial groups, that being the Negroes greater negative orientation to society as a whole. While the Latin Americans showed more feelings of social inadequacy, no significant difference could be established between Negro and Anglo-American in this area. It has also been shown that the differential attitudes held by adolescent groups are more dependent on the age and race of the adolescents than they are on the particular_rosidontia1 configuration in which the adolescents live (3.25). The development of ethnic and racial prejudice among children and adolescents has long been of interest to socio— legists and psychologists. As an illustration of one type of social psychological approach, we see the study done by lronkol-Brunswick in 19b8. In this study she relates home environment to the formation of prejudicial attitudes. From an original sample of 1500 boys and girls, 120 subjects were selected who were either extremely prejudiced or unprejudicial. 80 Examination of the family background revealed that the pro- judicod adolescents came from families which were extremely status conscious and harsh in disciplinary measures. The loss prejudiced adolescents, on the other hand, were charac- terised by families who were less status conscious, more loving, and less strict in their discipline. In this section, little attentinn has been given to the numerous opinion poll attitude surveys which have become popular in recent years. Since this is a valuable source of information enxadolescent attitudes, the reader is refereed to Ihe Ageriggn Teenager by_H. H. Rommers and D. H. Radler (General Bibliography, #215. This book contains the results of the first forty-five polls on the Purdue Opinion Panel. The reader is also referred to subsequent polls conducted by this group, especially Poll ’55 entitled Toenggggg' attitudes W. publish-d in May. 1959. 81 F. Adolescent Deviant Behavior The mention of deviant behavior among adolescents immod- iately brings to mind the question of adolescent delinquency. After all, what could be more deviant, in terms of society as a whole, than behavior patterns which violate the values and laws of the society? Delinquency is a major problem in our culture and extensive research has been conducted by psychologists and sociologists in an effort to understand and control the fictors involved_in the development and per- petuation of delinquent behavior. Again, we note, as was stated in the introduction to this review, it was not a goal to re-discuss materials already given adequate coverage in other places. Certainly material pertaining to juvenile delinquency has been given visibility and attention by others in a variety of places. The students_citod here (3.6, 3.8, 1.13, 1.15, 1.16, F.18, 3.21, v.22, 1.1h), attempt little more than to illustrate some of the areas of interest within which research has been conducted. Deviant behavior is expressed in various ways other than directly through delinquency. The behavior of the child who has gailod to adjust to his surroundings may accurately be described as deviant behavior. Likewise, the development of neurotic and psychotic symptoms may be labeled as deviant_ behavior. In fact, depending on one's frame of reference, there are relatively few behaviors which, in one way or another, cannot be referred to as deviant. For example, the behavior of the delinquent seems normal enough to him while 82 the socially approved behavior of the ”average” adolescent appears "square” or deviant from his values. Writing in the 1930‘s, Benedict (3.1) and Levy (3.9) both recognise the role played by the culture in the develop- ment of maladjustments and personality problems. Benedict, on a more general level, commented that personality upheavals and maladjustment may develop as the result of the failure of the society in general to provide the youth in the period of transition from childhood to adulthood with direct, tangible support and a well-defined status. Many primitive socitits which provide their youth with such support manifest little of the behavior problems which seem to prevail in our society. In our society, with no well-defined and supported period of transition, the adolescent may easily develop anxiety which may be expressed in personality fixation and maladjustment. For Levy, the sources of conflict in childhood arise from the conscious training of the child by the social group in the name of discipline and the unconscious emotional stresses in family relations, sexual adjustments and religious development placed on the child by the culture. In light of the fact that the form of those stresses is culturally determined, Levy concludes that problem children are, in part, a product of our social organisation. In 19h0, Furfey (3.5) comments on the shift from an individual approach to a group approach, from a psychological to a sociological approach, in the study of the adolescent. The adolescent is studied more and more as a member.of a 83 group, a culture group, and the explanation for the behavior of the group is found less in temms of individual behavior than in terms of behavior patterns transmitted by a subculture. As early as 1937, the influence of the parent-child relationship on the future development of the child was recognised (3.23). The well-adjusted child is much more likely to have had a good rolationshipwith his parents than the delinquent, the problem child, the pro-psychotic, and the schizophrenic. In the treatment of the problem child, success is seldom attained without a shift in the attitudes of the parents. In an analysis of the case histories of 25 male and female adolescents who were hospital- ised for two years at the Monninger memorial Clinic, Miller (3.12) noted that many of the patients were in the hospital as a direct result of the interaction with their parents. With these patients it was necessary to strictly control contact with the family until such a time as the adolescent could handle the interaction. — m- - If the attitudes of the parents are a strong influence on the development of the child, one would expect the atti- tudes of the parents of poblom children toward their children to differ from the attitudes of the parents of well adjusted children toward_theso children. Contrary to this expectation, Lexton (3.10) finds, on examination of_twenty pairs of parents, that there is no significant difference between the attitude scores of parents whose children had excellent adjustment ratings and parents whose children had poor adjustment ratings. There was, however, a greater 8h variation of attitudes between parents of poorly adjusted_ children than among the parents of well adjusted children. In previous sections, mention has been made of the role of physical development in the peer relations of adolescents. The degree to which such physical factors as differences in body size, sexually inappropriate physique, facial appearance, body odors and deformity contribute to the development of deviant behavior and adjustment problems can only be assessed in their relation to the particular psychological configuration of the individual (3.20). In some cases, the particular physical condition may not hvon be related to the adjustment problem faced by the individual. It is up to the person working with the individual to ascertain the extent to which the physical condition is associated with the problem. In at least one study (3.17). the problem of maladjust- ment in the area of poor relationships has been associated t/” with discrepancies between the individual's definition of his social class level (an internal measure) and his peers? definition of his social class level (an external measure). The well-adjusted adolescent revealed close agreement betweon the internal and external measures of social class position. The later effects of behavior problems in childhood are apparent in the matital behavior of former problem children (3.19). In a comparison of a group of average individuals and a group of people who had received psychiatric treatment, it was found that the treated group‘has significantly more divorces and contained more individuals who had been problem 85 children than did the average group. Among disturbed children, the pattern of sociometric ’" choice is comparable to patterns observed among normal children. In a comparison of groups of normal and disturbed children, Davids and Paronti (3.2) noted that social popularity is associated with good emotional adjust- ment, presence of positive and absence of negative personality traits. Among the disturbed children who exhibited varying degrees maladjustment, those who were disliked by their peers were more emotionally disturbed than were these who were ignored by their peers. The most acceptable of the disturbed children reflected the least amount of emotional disturbance. An interesting study supporting the hypothesis that . successful adjustment to the demands of the adult world is\f dependent upon the successful adjustment of the individual to the informal group life of the adolescent was reported by Domerath (3.3). In this study, the case histories of 10 male and 10 female college-ago patients who had been hospital- ised for rschisephronia were examined and related to the typical experience of the average, normal adolescent. It was found that, among the twenty patients, none had engaged in the intimate, informal group life of their peers to any significant extent. while the experiences of the patients prior to their breakdown did not seem to differ greatly from the experiences of average students, it was found that, in many ways, they were everanxious to conform to adult standards of academic excellence and moral perfection. Those tendencies undoubtedly contributed to their alienation from the peer 86 group activities and made it increasingly difficult for them to adjust to the status demands of the adolescent group. Turning to studies illustrating research in the area of delinquency, we see first a re-omphasis on the psych:- 1egical_rather than the cultural approach in Kobrin's research (3.8). For this author, the available statistics on delinquency indicate the presence of a duality of conduct norms rather than a dominant conventional or delinquent culture operating in urban areas of high delinquency. In this view, the determining factor in the assumption of delinquent behavior lies in the personality processes of the individual in the context of conflicting value systems rather than the cultural transmission of_a dominant value system. The critical point in this view, as recognised by Vold (3.21), is determing why an individual identifies with one of the conflicting systems rather than the other. The problem of determining why some adolescents become delinquents while others do not undoubtedly involves many complex factors. The possibility that a favorable self- imago may act as an insulator against delinquency is pro- posed by Reckless, Dinits, and Murray (3.16). In‘a high delinquency area in Columbus, Ohio, they investigated this possibility and discovered that the adolescents who were not involved in delinquent behavior and who were evaluated by their teachers as "good" boys were characterised by consistently favorable self-images. All of these ”good“ boys also revealed a family relationship which was stable, well controlled, and supporting. Since these boys came 87 from a high delinquency area it is all the more significant that they were able to withstand the social pressures which lead to deviant behavior. The self image concept proposed by these authors suggests that a given a change in self perception it would be possible to bring about changes in overt behavior. In a social area analysisef delinquency in the San Diego area done by Polk (3.16), the basis for comparison of P/ I I group behavior was economic status, family status, and ethnic status within the various census tracts. Analysis revealed that the highest rates of delinquency were to be found in those areas which combined low family status, low economic status and hggh ethnic status. The implication hero is that it is the combination of those three factors rather than the presence of any one of them that influences the rate of delinquency in a given area.‘l A major area of interest in the invostigationrof dolin- quent behavior has involved examination and analysis of the available statistics on delinquency to establish how many of what sex have been engaged in delinquent behaviorwv One illustration of this type of research is the study done of the sex differentials among adolescents who have been _ referred to the counts(3.6). An snalysis of over 18,000 juvenile court cases revealed that, in comparison with the boys, female cases were more likely to be non-white, most of the female cases involved_running away from home, females were more likely than boys to have been from broken homes and, female cases which were not dismissed were more likely 88 to result in commitment than in the case of males. Much of the research on delinquent behavior has stressed the prevalence of delinquency in the lower classes. Until recently, however, little attention has been paid to the v/# possibility that the class differentials in delinquent behavior may be due more to differentials in arrest and convictinn than to any absolute differences in the amount of delinquent behavior expressed among the social classes. Olson, Nye, and Short (1.13) offered evidence that, when official delinquency reports are compared to subjective reports of actual delinquent behavior committed, there was no difference between the delinquent behavior of boys and girls at any given class level. The results also indicated that there was no significant relationship between status and delinquency when status was held constant by two independent measures. The emphasis on the home and socio-economic environment in the understanding of delinquent behavior was further noted V/; in the findings of wattenberg and Balistrieri as they relate gang membership to delinquent behavior. Among a group of 5878 boys, all of whom had police records, they found that the offenders who were gang members tended to come from lower economic strata and overly permissive families. These offenders who were not gang members came from more restrictive family environments. It was also found that secio-economic factors were the best predictors of repeating offenses en_ the part of gang members, while repeating offenses among the non-gang boys were best predicted by indices of family relationships. CHAPTER III SOME COMMENTS ON ADOLESCENT SUBCULTURES Perhaps the most vital task faced by any society, once it has established an efficient system of social control, is the training of the young for responsible adulthood. The reason seems quite apparent; if a society is to flourish and maintain itself over time, it must continuously supply the human resources which are essential to the functioning of that society. Training of the young is not a unique task for any one nation or people. On the contrary, it is too often a dilemma faced by every nation; be it large or small in geographical area; developed or in an emergent stage of development, as is currently the case with a number of nations. While the goal of child socialization is a universal one, the means by which this training is accomplished varies from one society to the next. The nation whose social structure incorporates the caste system and leaves little room for occupational mobility will in most cases restrict its educational program to an elite group of young people. For the nation which seeks to determine what occupational roles are to be filled and who will fill them, a different type of educational program will be employed. In a small ‘primitive culture whose economy is based on the cultivation of a few agricultural products, training will be limited and decidedly non-technical in content. In a society such 89 90 as ours, however, the problem is multiplied and takes on a variety of unique dimensions. First, ours is a highly industrialised society with a complex division of labor. Secondly, we pride ourselves on the fact that ours is his- torically an open class system with each individual having the potential for rising above the occupational position of his father. Third, we have a public school system which is not only open to all youth, but in fact a school system which makes attendance up to a certain age compulsory regardless of which and parental preferences -- or whether the society will ultimately benefit from this attendance. Finally, we allow the individual to make his own occupational decisions. If he chooses to be a doctor, a lawyer, an executive or private eye, he can attain his occupational goal by ful- filling certain requirements, nono of which are directly related to our current labor supply, or the needs of our society. In other word, even though our nation is in serious need of physicists, we do not “draft” or force our youth into this occupational category. Each of these factors are related to the emergence, development, and impact of the adolescent culture in our society. The industrial complexity of the United States and the fact that we require a multitude of occupational specialists has brought about a dramatic shift in the nature of child training, where that training takes place, and who does the training. Prior to the industrial revolution -- as is still the case in less complex societies -- training for adulthood was primarily the responsibility of the family. A father 91 could teach his son a trade, and this training could take place within the boundaries of the family. Not only would the immediate family supply occupational training but it would also play the paramount role in the kinds of values, norms, and attitudes which would be transmitted to the child. In addition, growing up in a community where people were in relatively close personal interaction reinforced the attach- ment to both family and community. Next, the homogeneity of population kept at a minimum the potential conflicts that might have arisen between youth and adult members of the community. Finally, and here speculation overcomes empirical evidence, the less one needed to know for economic survival meant more time for greater involvement in and identifi- cation with other phases of community life. Whether or not this was the ideal time for the raising of children, this period of American life came to an abrupt end with industrialisation and the founding of the factory system. With industrialisation came the mass influx of migrants, great population shifts, the rapid growth of urban centers, the development of mass production machinery, and a growing demand for highly specialised individuals. It was the latter factor, the need for skilled and carefully trained persons, which led to the eventual importance of the family as a primary source of child socialization. No longer could parents give their children the occupa- tional skills which were required by a highly technical society. Rapid changes and innovations in science, commerce, medicine, agriculture, and other fields led to the centrali-- 92 sation of training. New machines were being develOped in almost every occupational area, machines which were too great and complex to be owned by private citizens, machines which were to be housed in educational training centers. The youngster who sought to be a doctor would have to attend a medical school where specialists would train him in the use of this equipment. The same would hold true for those who applied to other professions. The many changes taking place in our society put an end to the traditional practice whereby the father would hand down occupational skills to an apprentice son. With every decade more and more of the occupational roles in our society require a higher level of training. In the days to come, fewer and fewer laborers and semi- skilled workers will be needed; and the demand for special- ists and supervisors will be greater. Thus we will not only have shifted the training center to an agency outside of the family, but we will be keeping the child in the educational program for a longer period of time. Already there are indications that the home is becoming little more than a dormitory for the adolescent and young adult; a place to change clothes, eat meals, and make contacts for the next day's activities. This setting apart of the young in schools for extended periods of time has had a dramatic effect on the child of high school age. We should recognize that activity is not restricted to formalised teaching but includes also an ever mounting 93 involvement in any one of a number of extra-curricular pro- grams and events. Not unlike other social institutions in our society, the school no longer serves a single function. On the contrary, we find that the high school does much more than “transmit knowledge and prepare for responsible adult- hood.” The school provides a number of other functions: It keeps young people out of the labor market; it provides entertainment for the community through athletic events, dances, and plays; it aids in the formation and maintenance of cliques; it acts as a communication center where the adolescent can gain cues as to current fads in music, clothing, and hot-rod components; it is also an ideal market place for manufacturers and merchants. Within the social system of the high school, the adolescent is forced into his own age peer group and is, in a sense, isolated from the total societal complex. It is with the members of his peer group that the adolescent main- tains his closest and most personal relationships. Over time and through continued interaction, this peer group begins to take on the characteristics of a small private society. It becomes a society with its own subculture. It is a subculture which is not lacking in ritual, symbols, fashions, languages, and a rather unique value system. While there is general agreement among most students of adolescent behavior that adolescent subcultures do in fact exist, there are some who are less inclined to accept this proposition. Several years ago, Elkin and Westley reporting on their 91. study in a suburban Canadian community, stated that the notion of ”adolescent culture has a somewhat mythical character."1 The authors take exception with those social scientists and laymen who characterize the adolescent period as one of ”storm and stress” and participation in a ”youth culture.” Denial of the youth culture hypothesis is based on evidence collected in "Suburban Town” which, according to the authors, indicated that ”adolescents in their peer groups are not com- pulsively independent and rejecting of adult values; they are not concerned solely with immediate pleasurable gratifica- tions.“ In what appears to be a direct contradiction to the Eikin and Westley thesis are the findings presented by James S. Coleman in his large scale study of adolescent society.2 Coleman makes the following statement: With his fellows, he (the adolescent) comes to constitute a small society, one that has most of its important interactions within itself, and maintains only a few threads of connection with the outside adult society. Although differences in interpretation are not new to the behavioral sciences, it is of interest to note that both 1See Fredick Elkin and William Westley, ”The Myth of Adolescent Culture," American Sociological Review, Vol. 20 (1955) also by the same authors, "The Protec- tion Environment and Adolescent Socializatigg,” Social Forces, Vol. 359 (1957). 2James 5. Coleman, The Adolescent Society, The Free Press of Glencoe, New York. (1961) 95 authors use the same criteria for either accepting or rejec- ting "youth culture." Elkin and Westley find few signifi- cant differences between the actions of youth and the expect- ations of adults and therefore fail to accept the subculture notion. Coleman, on the other hand, observes distinct differences in the expressed values of adolescents and their parents and hence supports the youth culture idea. Because of the interest in adolescent behavior and a desire to better understand the social structural framework within which adolescents operate, the author of this survey decided to ”poll” a number of social scientists who have studied adolescent behavior in order to tap their thinking on the question of adolescent culture. A non-random group of some twenty social scientists received the following letter: Dear We are presently engaged in compiling an extensive review of empirical research pertaining to the adolescent culture in urban areas of the United States. This study is being con- ducted under government contract. In connection with this project, we are very interested in your views on the questions outlined below. References are made in the literature both affirming and denying the existence of an adolescent culture. Coleman, in his article ”The Adolescent Subculture and Academic Achieve- ment,” (Aié’ LXV, Jan, 1960: 337-3b7) says in affirmation: ”Industrial society has spawned a peculiar phenomenon, most evident in America but emerging also in other Western societies: adolescent subcultures, with values and activities quite distinct from those of the adult society -- subcultures whose members have most of their important associations within and few with adult society. Industrialization, and the rapidity of change itself, has taken out of the hands of the parent the task of training his child, made the parent's skills obsoles- cent, and put him out of touch with the times -- unable to understand, much less inculate, the standards of a social order which has changed since he was young. 96 "By extending the period of training necessary for a child and by encompassing nearly the whole population, industrial society has made of high school a social system of adolescents. It includes, in the United States, almost all adolescents and more and more of the activities of the adolescent himself.” On the other hand, Elkin and Westley, in reporting the results of a study done of he adolescent subjects in Montreal, state: '. . .youth culture is distinguished in both the sociological literature and the mass media by its affirmation of independence, its rejection of adult standards of judgment, its compulsive conformity to peer group patterns, its romanticism, and a participa- tion in 'irresponsible' pleasurable activities. The data from Suburban Town and other empirical studies suggests that the characterization of adolescent culture advanced in the sociological literature needs to be questioned. The empirical data do not deny that there are psychological tensions and distinctive interests among these middle-class groups studied -- that the current model of adolescent culture repre- sents an erroneous conception. And, if so, the theories which employ such a culture to analyze they social structure, are without adequate foundation.“ ("The Myth of Adolescent Culture," ASE, XX, Dec. 1955: 680-684) Considering the foregoing remarks, we would like your opinion in respect to the following: A. Do you accept the proposition of an adolescent culv ture? B. What criteria do you, or would you, use to estab- lish the validity of an adolescent culture? We would greatly appreciate hearing from you at your earliest convenience. Thank you for your cooperation. While there were some differences in opinion as to the operational or research value of the term ”culture" (one respondent pointed out that Kroeber and Kluckhohn had uncovered over 16“ definitions of culture and that another one would only add to the confusion) there was general consensus as to the existence of an adolescent subculture. With few exceptions, most of our respondents were willing to 97 accept the proposition that there is indeed an adolescent subculture in our society. A number went on to point out that in all probability there is more than 222 subculture and that others can be identified once we look for varia- tions in sociol-economic, ethnic, and religious background as well as differences in age, residence, and perhaps school attended. Next, there seems to be general agreement as to the operational criteria which should be used in identifying or establishing the existence of the subculture. For the most part the writers felt that observed differences in values or behavior between adolescents and adults or for that matter adolescents and younger children would be sufficient for acceptance 0! the subculture dimension. While the above statement indicates a real agreement in view the matter is not so simply handled. It would appear that a number of the authors held some reservations as to just how far out on the limb they were willing to go in this question of adolescent subculture and validating procedures. Part of the hesitancy can certainly be attri- buted to questions of terminology or semantics; that is ”exactly what do we mean by culture or subculture?” The comments of Robert Hess of the University of Chicago reflect this view: The difficulty is really one of terminology. .If you use the term “adolescent culture" to mean a set of values that are independent of the values of adult societyg.and to imply that these values are trans- mitted from one generation to another (i.e., are socialized) it would obviously be difficult to defend 98 the proposition that there is an adolescent culture in the United States. If, however, you used the term to indicate patterns of behavior which characterize certain segments of our teenage population -- patterns that are different and sometimes in conflict with adult values, and also to connote a psychosocial phase that is dis- tinct from both childhood and adulthood, then the argu- ment for adolescent culture or subculture becomes very strong indeed. There is certainly evidence to support the notion that on many basic points, values of the adolescent culture are highly similar to adults. There is also evidence that certain values of adolescents diverge from those of adult society. A second factor which stimulates some comment is whether there really are great or significant differences between the attitudes and values endorsed by adolescents and those held by adults. In this case, as was noted earlier, there is the feeling that adolescents, at least some adolescents at any rate, do differ from adults in how they feel and in how they behave. The question seems to be just how great are these differences. Bernice Neugarten of Chicago takes the view that ”the notion of an adolescent subculture that operates separately from, or in defiance of, the adult's subculture is a much exaggerated phenomenon.” She goes on to note: I, myself, am not free of guilt, however. Spurred by your letter, I have reread the chapter on ”The Peer Group" in the book by Havighurst and myself, Society and Education; and I find that there, too, the state- ment that the child's or adolescent's peer group has a subculture of its own. I went on in that chapter, however, to stress the fact that the peer group teaches the adult culture. And I am of the same opinion today -- that adolescents may put their own imprint upon the culture and may produce a somewhat different version; but essentially, theirs is the same set of values, customs, and mores that operates in the adult world. In Coleman's own research findings, for instance, the fact that adolescents put athletic prowess ahead of 99 scholarship is itself no evidence that adolescent values differ from adult values. I wonder how a com- parable group of adults would have answered the same questionnaire? And I wonder if "compulsive conformity to peer group patters. . .etc.” are not equally characteristic of adult society; but simply displayed in somewhat different fashion. H. H. Remmers, director of the Purdue Opinion Panel, holds a similar opinion: The problem of whether there is a "teenage culture" is, I think, a matter of semantics and Operational definition. In terms of the latter there is no question. Teenagers' behavior differs in many measureable ways from that of the rest of the population. In these terms, I am certain there is also an old people's culture. There are, in other words differen- tial social behavioral norms. Having said this, I hasten to add that such evidence as I have indicates much greater overlap than differences among these subcultures. My impression is that teenagers are trying very hard to "learn the rules of the game" of the adult world. Another respondent looks at the same question and con- cludes that there is probably less of a gap between genera- tions today than there was at the turn of the century. Actually, one could make a pretty good case for the existance of more of an adolescent culture in 1900 than in 1960 in middle class America. In 1900 I think there was more of a gulf between the two genera- tions than there is now in the middle class, because the parental generation was more authoritarian and less indoctrinated with the idea of meeting the adolescent generation half way. If you were to interview a group of middle class men and women who are now about 60 years old, and to ask them to compare their relations with their own parents with their relations with the children as adolescents, I think you would find a good many of them feeling that they had closer relations with the adolescent children than they had with their parents when they, themselves were adolescents. If you read THE GOTHIC AGE by Henry Seidel Canby, you will find a description of Yale University students as of about 1910 which indicates a very strong adoles- cent subculture at that time. Then there is the literature of the 19th century, ' showing conflict between the generations which seems to f“\ 100 have existed with considerable intensity in the Euro- pean middle class and is described in such books as Turgener's FATHERS AND SONS, Thomas Mann's BUDDEN: BROOKS, and Edmund Gossed's FATHER AND SON. I would be inclined to distinguish between the gulf between the generations on the one hand and the social system of adolescence on the other hand. The gulf between generations has existed especially in the middle class for a long time; and perhaps there is less of a psychological gulf just now than there has been in the past. This is due to greater psychological sophistication and understanding of human motivation on the part of middle class adults. On the other hand, I think that there is a well defined social system of adolescence in the high school which is more strongly defined now than it was fifty years ago, and also more widespread. Fifty years ago the high school was not a universal institution in America and the social system of adolescence was more visible in the colleges than in the high schools. Now, with the high school almost universal, and with high school age youngsters having more freedom than they had fifty years ago, I think the social system of the high school has more of a hold on them. Muzafer Sherif of the University of Oklahoma examines the content of ”culture" and then suggests where he would place the research emphasis: Considering that there exists a controversy over the existence of adolescent culture, however, I am glad to reply to your Specific inquiries: A. The proposition of an adolescent culture is an empirical question whose answer depends upon the definition of ”culture.” In terms of the criteria by which I understand "culture" (see below), I have spoken of adolescent cultures. However, it might be more precise to deal with the phenomena in question through concepts specified in the criteria themselves. B. Any culture, adolescent or otherwise, presupposes at least the formation of (a) some system of status or role relations, as measured by differential behaviors in one or several social dimensions, e.g., prestige, respect, and notably effective initiative in the inter- action process; (b) some distinctive values or norms, viz. any criterion for defining the relative accept- ability of specific modes of behavior or social objects. Such properties are likely to develop in time, during the course of any interaction among individuals who 101 share common concerns, face common problems, or, to use Elkin and Westley's phrase, experience similar "psycho- logical tensions and distinctive interests." The normative system can be measured in specific instances by (a) ”uniformities” of behavior within a definite range of "latitude of acceptance," (b) reactions to deviation outside of that range, (c) sanctions for accep- table and deviant behavior, in the sense of agreed modes of rewarding or punishing (see Sherif and Sherif, 1956, An Outline of §ocia1 Psychology, chapter 8.) Being within a society where adult status and norm systems are dominant, adolescent "Culture" will inevitably reflect various of its aspects, depending in part upon the adolescents' location within the social scheme. Thus, in many respects, the more distinctive adolescent morms are to be found in areas of social and cultural transition, such as we are currently studying in our project on natural groups in differentiated urban areas. However, even in middle class high schools and neighborhoods, I believe there is evidence of (a) rather distinctive criteria for status stratificatinn and (b) norms distinctive from those of adults, including the use of words and phrases quite incomprehensible to most adults. In any specific situation, I would favor intensive study of the distinctiveness of the status and norm systems and also the extent of its linkage to pre-existing adult values or norms. Probably the degree to which any writer on this topic wishes to generalize for all adolescents depends upon the empirical information at his command, his purpose, and his boldness. Several writers point out that there are certain metho- dolegical problems which must be re-solved prior to any definitive statement as to differences between age greups. Ruth Shonle Cavan of Rockford College touches most of the methodological bases in her response. What is the standard against which one should measure adolescent deviating cultural forms? The parents' culture? The culture of the specific ethnic group to which the parents belong? Or the general American culture? If the last, what is this culture? Sociolo- gists sometimes speak of a middle-class Protestant ethos as the standard, but a rather large proportion of the population is neither middle class nor Protestant and in fact may be opposed to this particular ethos. The term subculture is too loose and has come to have 102 too many meanings. It means apparently, basic conform- ity to the main culture but deviations in some respects. In mild forms, there is no conflict, merely differences. In extreme cases, the subculture is in conflict with the main culture, perhaps to the extent of actively opposing the main culture in a destructive fashion. Milton Yinger has suggested the term gogtzgggltuge for the destructive type of subculture, e.g., for the delinquent subculture. .See his article, American Soc. Rev., vol. 25, 1960, pp. 625ff. Adolescents may have a subculture identical with or congruent with that of their parents, ethnic group, etc. This is probably true of many middle class sub- urbs where youth are not upwardly mobile and where there are not a variety of different influences. Adolescents may have a subculture that differs frem that of the parents without necessarily being in con- flict with it. One hears now of the middle class sub- culture centered around alcbhol, sex, automobile. If there is such a subculture it seems to be a variation of the adult pattern, carried to extremes, but later modified to meet the adult pattern as the adolescents become adult. Adolescents may have a subculture in conflict with the general culture er the parental culture, but net active- ly destructive of it. This situation would prebably exist in ethnic groups in which adelescents were in the process ef becoming Americanized: er in upper lower class groups with upwardly mobile yeuth. Any major shift creates some deviations of culture. Other adolescents are members of a delinquent or crimi- nal contraculture. I accept a variety of subcultures, each related to a specific social situation of stability or change., Why? 0n the basis of studies published and observation. Albert K. Cohen currently at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences adds yet another dimension when he looks at "what we mean by a subculture." In this instance, Cohen points out that differences in behavior between age groups are not sufficient to validate the prepos- ition of a distinct subculture if the observed behavior con- fer-s to age specific expectations. 103 The key question is: What so we mean by a subculture? It cannot mean that there are distinct adolescent patterns of behaving, no matter how different they are from those of adults, if those differences are merely ways of conforming to age-specific role expectations. I like to put it in terms of game model. If people are playing different positions their behavior may differ greatly but the differences derive from the same set of rules or cultural understandings. Even if people are playing different games, their cultures are not nec- essarily different. Each culture provides rules for different sorts of games, including rules about who may play them and under what cnnditions, and also rules defining the relative prestige of different games. So, if I play basketball today and hockey tomorrow, my culture has not changed. I am merely engaged in different activities, which run off, to be sure, accord- ing to different "rules of the game," but the rules that define both games new A culture is a set of norms, beliefs, etcetora that are shared by some set of people and that one comes to share by taking them over in a process of interacting with the-m Your culture and mine are different, if and to the extent that, they define the ”same” games differ- ently (i.e., conceive of the positions or roles differ- ently, or differently define the expectations that go with them), or differently conceive the occasions when these games are appropriate, or attach different valus- tion or prestige to this game or that or to particular positions or styles of play, etc. Negatively, this does not mean that the culture of two sets of people are different if they are organized in relatively distinct social systems. This could be equivalent to being involved in different games; the cultures wguld be different if the participants in the two systems had different notions about the rules under which such systems should operate or whether systems that operate this way are legitimate, etc. Now, to the instant case. The fact that there are "adolescent social systems" does not, f 1 el , mean that there is a distinct adolescent culture. Adults may avoid involvement in such systems or eschew the acti- vities because they are "childish," "kid Stuff," etc., and yet both they and the kids may see the involve- ment of kid! in systems of this sort as quite appro- priate. I am quite sure that a great deal of what is interpreted as a distinct ”youth culture" is implicit in 10h the gommon culture in this way, and is not "subcultural." It seems to me equally clear, however, that there are distinct adolescent subcultures. The distinctions may . be distinctions of emphasis, of gelative valuation, etc., but that does not make them the less distinct. Most cultural differences--e.g., the differences between American and German culture--are like this. I would say, then, that the culture of young people is largely the common culture they share with their parents, but marked, here and there, with differences is subcultural emphasis. These differences may be trifling or they may be of very great consequence. A sufficient test for mg_that the cultures of young people are significantly different from‘my culture is that I don't understand much of what goes on amongst them, and much of what I see I am upset by. I don't understand because I simply don't know what rules they play by, where this or that "fits in,” although thgy obviously know. And equally obviously I and most other adults place very different value upon certain games,or certain ways of playing them, than do the kids. It is, however, very difficult, it seems to me, to set up workable gpgzational criteria of subcultural distinc- tiveness, whether we are concerned with possible cult- ural differences between adults and children, or possible differences among youth cultures. The reason, as in- dicated, is that differences in the sorts of activi- ties in which people engage, the goals to which they are oriented, the criteria by which they evaluate them- selves, etc., need not indicate that they are respond- ing to different cultures. For example, the behavior of a group 6f boys might change significantly over a period of time, e.g., from relatively peaceable "club- type" behavior to relatively disorderly and combative "gang-type” behavior or vice versa. This might mean an important shift in the shared value scheme of the group. It could also mean, however, that there has been a change in the situation so that a different sort of activity or "game" (with its own role system, ways of keeping score, etc.) now seems more feasible or rewarding or appropriate; but this may be a shift to another activity and set of roles within the same cultural repertoire. 9232128 ions This portion of the review began with a discussion of the structural changes in our society which led to the 105 emergence of adolescent social systems. Briefly, it was proposed that the shift of child socialization and training from the home to the school has given young people a center for the initiating and diffusion of their own relatively closed normative order. We then moved to the responses of a number of social scientists and looked at how they viewed the proposition of adolescent culture. We noted that most of our respondents - with some methodological hedging -- agreed that there were specific age grade behavior patterns to be observed among adolescents and that these patterns could be identified as being part of a distinct subculture. In addition, most of the writers felt that, although there was much overlapping, it seemed fair to say that adolescents did behave and hold values that set them apart from other age groups. In summarynthen it would seem that while we are willing to accept the notion of adolescent subculture we are not really clear as to just how and where it departs from the total or more universal culture. The difficulty, it seems, stems from the fact that many investigators allow the sub- culture hypothesis to stand or fall on the degree of differ- ences observed between adolescents and some other age grade group. This approach, as several of our respondents indicate, creates a number of methodological and analytical hazards. First, what do we mean by differences? Secondly, differences in what? Third, how do we isolate values or behavior which are solely the product of the adolescent peer group contact from those which are learned from adults. It would not be 106 difficult to go in this way eventually including other off- setting factors such as background characteristics and cer- tain near demographic variables. Finally, what is accomplish- ed if we do finally note areas of differences between adoles- cents and adults? Will this prove that the adolescent peer group has more influence of educational aspirations than does parental influence? Will this allow us to predict what direction an adolescent might go in when faces with the pressures of his peers and the desires of his parents? 0n the contrary, a presentation of differences will do little more than show where young people are in agreement or dis- agreement with their elders. There is yet another -- and from a research angle -- more productive way to view and measure adolescent sub- cultures. The question of whether an adolescent subculture does or does not exist-should not be dependent on degrees or types of differences found between adolescents and adults. Differences may be sufficient but they are hardly a nec- essity in establishing the significance of a particular phenomena. In the case of the adolescent the question is not deviation from some universal norm but rather how involve- ment in and commitment to the adolescent group influences the behavior and beliefs of the participant. Once we can pin- point areas of influence and how they operate, we will be in a better position to evaluate the meaning of adolescent sub- cultures. This approach would get us beyond the descriptive accounts of adolescent behavior which although highly drama- tic at times tells us little about how the adolescent per- 107 ceives himself and his world. More specifically, research which took the following lines can be proposed: A. In terms of a continuum what are the dividing points between different degrees of involvement in adolescent social systems? In other words, can we establish different levels of commitment to this system? B. What are the differences in characteristics between those young people who desire and become part of the system as opposed to those who remain marginal or reject the system? G. How will the adolescent behave "when the chips are down?" When he is placed in a situation where he must choose between peer pressures and parential or adult expectations which way will he go? To what extent will his choice be influenced by involvement in or commitment to an adolescent social system? D. To what extent will membership in some gogigl- cizig-zeligious-edugational youth program alter participation in or influence by the adolescent social syStem found in our high schools? For example, will a member of the b-H Clubs, Sea Scouts, or Church of God Youth be as vulnerable to the norms of the system as will be the individual who has no such affiliation? E. What areas of adolescent life are influenced by the adolescent social system? Is the impact of this normative order and value system limited to current high school life or is there some carry-over to adulthood? To what extent are educational and vocational plans determined, altered, or reinforced by membership in the adolescent social system? How salient is the system to political attitudes, mass media preferences, clothing styles, etc. F. What variations can be found among and between institutions in respect to the organization of these adoles- cent social system? Will we find the same organization in a middle class suburban school as we will in urban lower class schools? To what extent are variations a product of the adults in the community and in the school? What types of schools and communities are most likely to encourage these social systems? G. What differences occur in the nature of adolescent social systems when the population composition of community and school changes? The reader will note that the proposed research empha- sized the importance of concentrating on both individual and 108 institutional variables. Since the adolescent social system does have its base in our high schools -- and no doubt many of our colleges -- it is important that we deal with varia- tions between institutions as well as individuals. CHAPTER 1V ANNOTATED BIELIOGRAPHIES A. THE ADOLESCENT AS CONSUMER A.1 Anderson, Esther M. ”A Study of Leisure-Time Reading of Pupils in Junior-High-School,” Elementary School, XLVIII (19b8), 258-267. PROBLEM: To discover the reading interests of students in the 7th and 8th grades. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 336 boys and 350 girls attending the Eau glair Junior High School. Ages ranged from 12.1. e CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the data revealed: (1) At every age level more girls than boys liked to read, (2) At every age level a greater percentage of girls than boys had a favorite book, (3) Boys read more magazines than girls, (h) Considering boys and girls as a group, the preference ranking ran: comic books, fiction, animal stories, biography, and western. A.2 Angelina, H.; Barnes, L. A., and Shedd, C. L. ”Attitudes of Mothers and Adolescent Daughters Concerning Clothing and Grooming,” Journal of Home Economics, XLVIII (December, 1956) 779-782. PROBLEM: A discussion of the existence, intensity, and type of disagreements between mothers and daughters concerning clothing, habits and manners. METHOD: Analysis of the data from interviews and questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: Within the same social class it was found that there was no difference between daughters or between the mothers. There was a difference between mothers and daughters, however. A differ- ence between mothers and daughters by social class was found. A.3 Balogh, K. J. ”Television Viewing Habits of High-School Boys," Educational Research Bulletin, (1959). PROBLEM: To examine the effect of T.V. viewing on study time and recreation and to examine the influence of parents in this area. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 103 sopho- more, junior and senior male high-school students from all socio-economic levels. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that, since parents usually insisted that homework be completed before watching T.V., viewing did not affect homework. All of the students spent more time watching T.V. on the week- ends than any other days. It was also noted that 109 110 the saphomores spent twice as much time on T.V. as the seniors. A.h Baisley, Gene. ”The Hot Rod Culture," Amgrican Quarterly, 11 (1950). 353-359. PROBLEM: Discussion of the Hot Rod culture. METHOD: Nonempirical discussion. CONCLUSIONS: The author discusses the image of the hotrodder as opposed to those considered the "real” hot rodders. The typical image depicts a lawless, spoiled delinquent while the true "redder” is a serious driver and interested in safety and mechani- cal functioning. A.5 Burma, John H. ”Self-Tattooing Among Delinquents," Sociology_and Social Research, (1959). PROBLEM: An investigation of the phenomenon of self-tattooing. METHOD: Data gathered from 883 adolescents who were inmates of training schools. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that more delinquents than non-delinquents tattoo themselves. Tattooing often serves as a status symbol and offers partial evidence that the individual is a member of a gang. A.6 Coffin, Thomas E. "Television's Effect on Leisure-Time Activities,” Journal of Applied Psychology, XXXII (19“9). 550~558. PROBLEM: To investigate the effect of T.V. on family leisure-time activities. METHOD: 27% interviews were taken from 137 T.V. and 137 non-T.V. families on Long Island. The television families had a slightly higher socio-economic level. CONCLUSIONS: The study found that T.V. generally brings about a change in the leisure-time activities of the family. This is reflected in the smaller amounts of time spent in other activities, both in the home and outside. In spite of the smallness of the sample, the author feels that the middle-class family is more affected by T.V. than the upper ClaSSe A.7 "Teen-Age Consumer,” Consumer Reports, XXII (March, 1957), 139-1u2e PROBLEM: To discuss why advertising is more and more directed to teenagers. METHOD: Non-empirical discussion. CONCLUSIONS: The greater emphasis being placed on the teenage consumer is due to the realization that they control a great deal of money as a group, they are marrying earlier, and they are a great emotional lever with which to influence the spending habits of the family. The author feels thatteens are not price conscious and have a greater urge to spend than to get high quality. He feels that informed adult con- 111 sumer guidance is needed. A.8 Croft, Joyce E. ”Prediction of Clothing Construction Achievement of High School Girls,” Educational and Psychological Measurement, (1959). PROBLEM: To develop an instrument to measure the ability of high school pupils in clothing con- struction. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 188 girls in homemaking classes in Ames, Iowa. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that three tests would satisfactorily predict achievement in clothing construction: (1) Clothing Construction Test, (2) The Miller Survey of Object Visualization Test, (3) The Finger Dexterity Test. A.9 Forer, Raymond. “The Impact of a Radio Program on Adolescents," Public Opinion Quarterly, XIX (Summer, 1955). 184-19“. PROBLEM: To study the effects of a program designed for adolescents. The author wanted to see if the advice from such a program was acceptable to adoles- cents, if the program was effective as a socializing agent, and if such a program could supplement the authority and prestige of a primary group. METHOD: Statistical analysis was made of the data from interviews and questionnaires taken from 2700 Connecticut high school students. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that a program that focused on subjects that are felt to be important by the audience would create its own audience regardless of its media rating. The program did act as a social- izing device and seemed to have a higher ”advice status“ than other primary groups, books, and teen magazines. The advice offered for solving a life situation was important to the adolescent audience. A.lO Friedson, Eliot. ”Adult Discount: An Aspect of Child- ren's Changing Taste," Child Develgpment, XXIV (March, 1953). PROBLEM: To see if children's changing tastes in dramatic material can be explained in terms of adult discount. (Adult discount being a condition where a stimulus elicits less and less emotional excitement as age increases.) METHOD: Non-statistical analysis of interviews from 79 lower class public school boys. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the study support the idea that changing tastes in children can be explain- ed in terms of adult discount. A.ll Ireland, Ralph R. ”The Significance of Recreational Maturation,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XXXII (February, 1959): 356-365. PROBLEM: To describe steps in recreational 112 maturation. METHOD: Descriptive analysis based on work with handicapped people. CONCLUSIONS: In the adolescent phase the recreational pattern is characterized by great interest in group activities. Young adults follow this pattern but they are better able to afford such activities as golf, water skiing and sailing. A.12 Jennings, J. ”Leisure Reading of Junior High School Boys and Girls,” Peabody_Journa1 of Education, VI (1929). 3h3-3h7. PROBLEM: To see what high school students read during their leisure hours. METHOD: Statistical analysis of data from a question- naire administered to 890 high school students in Knoxville, Tenn. CONCLUSIONS: The article describes the read.ng habits of this group in terms of frequency of and preference for newspapers, magazines, books, and continued stories. A.l3 Johnstone, John, and Katz, Elihu. ”Youth and Popular Music: A Study in the Sociology of Taste,“ American Journal of Sociolggy, LXII (May, 1957), 563-568. PROBLEM: To investigate the role of dating behavior and peer group relationships in the formation of preferences in popular music. METHOD: Self-administered questionnaires were com- pleted by 133 teen-age girls who were members of eight Hi-Y clubs in two neighborhoods of South Side Chicago. 53 of the girls were from clubs in the Hyde Park area and 80 were from clubs in the South Shore area. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that preferences in popu- lar music varied according to the.neighborhood in which a girl lived and her popularity among her peers. While the study design did not permit drawing the conclusion that peer groups influence musical preferences, it did establish that the peer group did influence the listening habits to the extent that a given ditc jockey was consistently preferred, thus limiting the music to which members of the group listened. A.lh Keislar, Evan R. ”Differences Among Adolescent Social Clubs in Terms of Members Characteristics,” Journal of Educational Research, XLVIII (December, 1955), 297-303- PROBLEM: To describe the adolescent social clubs in terms of members' characteristics. METHOD: The study was made on social groups to which membership was gained by invitation of the members. CONCLUSIONS: Of the three variables studies: intelli- gence, grade-point average, and the father's occupa- 113 tion, grade point average proved to differentiate the groups most consistently. Less differentiation occurred in intelligence and none occurred in father's occupation. A.15 Keill, Norman. ”Behavior of Five Adolescent Poker Players,“ Journal of Human Relations, V (1957), 79-89 e PROBLEM: To observe, in an adolescent poker game, the participants' interactions and the establish- ment of leadership in the game. METHOD: Analysis is made on the basis of observation and examination of a recording of five adolescents (ages 15 and 16) engaged in a poker game. The majority of the boys were upper middle class. CONCLUSIONS: As the game progressed, the amount of interaction increased. Each player strove to estab- lish a "man to man" relationship with the other players and assert his maturity in the game. A.16 Lynd, Robert S., and Lynd, Helen M. Middletown. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929. PROBLEM: To study the contemporary life of an Ameri- can community. This notation considers only the comments on leisure activities. Other areas will be noted in the appropriate sections. METHOD: The study was done in an industrial community of approximately 35,000 inhabitants. Interviews were held with 16h housewives and questionnaires were administered to 3/4 of the high school papula- tion (between 700 and 800 sophomores, juniors and seniors). All families were native born and white. CONCLUSIONS: (Leisure time) It was found that during the last 35 years there had been an increase in the formal organization of leisure time activities and their standardization; differences in the ways in which members of the Working Class and the Busi- ness Class spent their leisure time were found to be widening. In the area of traditional pursuits; the trend was away from spontaneous interest in art and music; there was a greater variety shown in reading and listening than was true a generation earlier but there was also probably a lessening in the time spent reading; there was a pronounced changing in habits and a creation of new problems as a result of the acceptance of new inventions, e.g., care and radios. A.l7 Lyness, Paul I. ”Patterns in the Mass Communication Tastes of the Young Audience,” Journal of Educational Psycholggy, XLII (December, 1951),’HE9;h67. PROBLEM: To describe the interest patterns of five different age groups of boys and girls with respect to the content of the mass media. 11“ METHOD: The sample, stratified by father's occupa- tion, was drawn at random from grades 3: 5: 79 9, and 11 of the Des Moines public school system. 691 boys and 727 girls comprised the sample. In addition to the questionnaires, the third grade students (115) were interviewed. CONCLUSIONS: (limited to the upper grades) The ratings for “educational content" in all media were low for all the girls. They were low for all boys except for the magazines where Popular Mechan- ics and science magazines were rated high. Male interest in movie and book adventure and violence was high in all grades, but adventure and violence in radio and magazines were more popular among 5th grade boys than among 11th grade boys. Girls rating of the love, private life and glamor cate- gories revealed a tendency for magazine stories and features and movies to become more pOpular relative to the other media from the 5th through the 11th grade. A.18 McCluggage, Martson, M., and Baur, Jackson L. "Drinking Patterns of Kansas High School Youth,” Social Pro- blems, V (Spring, 1958), 317-326. PROBLEM: To obtain factual information on drinking in high school students. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 2000 high school students. These questionnaires concerned their drinking behavior. The sample was drawn from the Kansas public high schools. CONCLUSIONS: (1) a poistive relationship was found between the size of the communitynand the number of students who drank; (2) drinking by students was positively correlated with drinking by parents; (3) student drinking increased with age and also when parental control was weakened; (b) hard liquor was usually tasted first in peer groups rather than in the families. A.19 McKellar, Peter, and Harris, Ralph. "Radio Preferences of Adolescents and Children,” British Journal of Educational Psychologz, XXII (1952), 101-113. PROBLEM: To determine the radio preferences of a group of British adolescents and children. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to lhoo boys and girls between the ages of 8 and 1h. CONCLUSIONS: In a simple choice situation between radio and movies, radio was preferred by a ratio of almost three to one. Program preferences favored the entertainment type rather than the serious type of program. The author feels that the influence of radio on young people has not been fully examined, resulting in an overstatement of radio's undesir- able effects and an understatement of its construc- tive values. 115 A.20 MacDonald, M., McGuire, 0., and Havighurst, R.J. ”Leisure Activities and the Socio-economic Status of Children,” American Journal of Sociology, LIV (MaY: 1949). 505-519. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that children in different socio-economic groups have different leisure activities and to examine the leisure activities of children which are not typical of their socio- economic groups. METHOD: The sample consisted of 201 fifth, sixth, and seventh graders (ages 10-12) in a public school located in a heterogenous urban community. Socio- economic status was determined by father's occupa- tion and type of housing. CONCLUSIONS: Systematic differences were found in the leisure time activities of members of the four social strata. Significant differences were also found between the social strata with regard to the number of activities with their families, the highest stratum having the most family activity. The number of respondents who read books increased as one moved from the lowest to the highest stratum. Those in the lower strata attended significantly more movies than did those in the upper strata. The authors also found that a significant number of lower class children were participating in predomi- nantly middle-class activities. A.21 Patel, A. S. “Newspaper Reading Interests of Secondary School Children," Journal of Education and Psycho- logy, Baroda, XI (1953), 3h-h3. PROBLEM: To investigate the reading interests of adolescents. METHOD: The study was conducted on a group of tenth and eleventh grade boys and girls ranging in age from 15 to 18 years old. CONCLUSIONS: Boys ranked foreign news, scientific news and comics as the most important while girls ranked comics, social events and the women's section as most important. With the groups com- bined, comics were most frequently selected as the preferred topic. A.22 Resume' of study conducted in New York. “Recreational interests and Needs of High School Youth,” Recreation, XLVII (January, 195“), h3-h6. PROBLEM: To determine availability, quality, degree of use, and desired additions to the recreational facilities in Schenectady, New York. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 1252 students (725 boys and 527 girls) ranging in age from 11 to 20 years. The students were distri- buted in four junior and three senior high schools in Schenectady. CONCLUSIONS: The needs of these adolescents seemed 116 to be: (1) a centrally located, well-supervised roller skating rink; (2) adequate indoor and outdoor swimming facilities; (3) additional parks and play- grounds with facilities for organized activities; (h) youth centers or canteens where adolescents could dance and congregate in an organized atmos- phere; (5) a desire for leadership was expressed in various ways by a large number of the subjects. A.23 Riley, Matilda W., and Flowerman, Samuel H. "Group Relations as a Variable in Communications Research,” American Sociological Review, XVI (April, 1951), 175:180. PROBLEM: "In receiving a message, persons in an audience react not as an isolated personality, but as a member of the various groups to which he belongs and with which he communicates.” (17h) METHOD: A pilot sample consisted of 50 children in a New York City progressive school. The second sample consisted of hOO students in a New Jersey public school. These students were questioned on their group attachments, behavior, and reactions to a communication. CONCLUSIONS: In the pilot sample it was found that those adolescents whose verbal communications were mainly with their peers differed considerably from adolescents who discussed things mainly with adults. Differences were noted in mass media relations, general activities, and interests. In the second sample the group was divided into "high“ and ”low” communicators on the basis of verbal interaction with their peers. In this sample it was found that the high communicators experiences the content of the media in terms of the significance for group , life. It was found that the “high” group was more active in clubs, were more popular with their peers and were less adult-oriented than the low group. A.2h Silverman, Sylvia 5. Clothing and Appearance: Their Psycholggical Implications for Teen-Age Girls, New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, l9h5. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to gain insight into the clothing and grooming behavior of adolescent girls with reference to four main pro- blem areas: (1) girls' actual clothing and grooming behavior; (2) motivating factors influencing girls' choices of clothing and their attention to appear- ance; (3) influence of the economic factor in rela- tion to clothing and grooming behavior; (h) rela- tionship between care of appearance and aspects of personality. METHOD: Responses to a questionnaire were received from 373 female students in grades 7 to 12 in a suburban New Jersey high school. The age range was 11? 12 to 18 years old. For problem #h, a group of 170 girls in the eleventh and twelfth grades were evalu- atedby their teachers for high and low ratings on appearance. CONCLUSIONS: The following findings were selected and abbreviated from the study. Problem #1: (1) all age groups were found to conform closely in the style of dress for daily wear, with sweaters and skirt, socks and flat-heeled shoes being the predo- minant style. Week-end apparel showed differences between age groups, with older girls wearing more mature items. (2) the use of make-up increased with age, but lipstick and powder were used even at age twelve. (3) the use of beauty parlor facilities was, in nearly all cases, restricted to special occasions. Problem #2; With slight variations in age groups, the motives in clothing and grooming revolved around the desire for approval, the desire for sexual attractiveness, and the internal feelings of poise, self-confidence and happiness. Problem #3: Economic differences were reflected only in the area of luxury items. The subjects seemed to be more affected by their desire to con- form to accepted modes of behavior. Problem #h: The group rated as high in appearance tended to be brighter, to have a slightly higher economic background, to participate in more school activities, to place a higher value on activities involving their own sex, and to be sought more as leaders than the group rated as low. A.25 Sterner, Alice P. "Radio, Motion Picture, and Reading Interests: A Study of High School Pupils,“ Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 932, Teahhers College, Columbia University, (19h7). PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to investi- gate the habits of high school students in seven different language media, to study three major in- terests (adventure, humor, and love) offered in these media, to see if the media rather than the interest attracts the adolescent, and to note the relationship of sex, school grade, intelligence and socio-economic status to adolescent choices of media and interests. METHOD: 372 students at Barringer High School, Newark, N. J., were used to obtain records of radio listening, book reading and involvement in other media. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that, while the interests of adventure, humor and love attracted adolescents to the media, no two media were used to the same extent to satisfy these interests. Also, from knowledge of sex, age, intelligence and socio- economic status, it was impossible to predict the interests, media, or type of radio programs the 118 individual would choose. It was also found that the students selected generally the same specific titles in each medium with the exceptions that boys and girls did not read the same types of books or magazines and juniors and seniors differed as to ' type of books read. A.26 Sullenger, T. E. “Leadership and Leisure-Time Interest of Grade School Boys,“ Sociology and Social Research, xxv (March-April, 19u1), 351-355. PROBLEM: To investigate the leisure-time activities and leadership traits important to boys. METHOD: The study was conducted on 2750 grade school boys of scout age (9-16) in Omaha, Nebraska. CONCLUSIONS: In the students' eyes, the most import- ant leadership qualities were the ability to under- stand boys and the attitude of being interested in them and liking them. The most common free-time activities were sports and creative activities. Boys magazines and classic boys books were popular reading material along with the local newspaper. While many of the boys studied would like to belong to the Boy Scouts, it was found that only about 30% were members. A.27 Swensen, J. and Rhulman, J. “Leisure Activities of a University Sophomore Class,” Educational and Psycho- lggical Measurement, XII (1952), #52;E66. PROBLEM: An investigation of the leisure interests of undergraduate students. METHOD: The results are based on polls and question- naires given to 1217 male and female undergraduate students. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that relaxation, working with people, opportunities for service, and pro- fessional interests were the chief reasons for parti- cipation in leisure activities. It was also found that girls were more interested and participated more in activities than men. While the highest percentage of participation wasfbund in social living units, the amount of participation within the fraternities and sororities was less than in other living units. A.28 Wax, Murray. “Themes in Cosmetics and Grooming,” Ameri- can Journal of Sociologz, LXII (May, 1957), 588-593. PROBLEM: This paper is a discussion of themes in grooming and is based upon personal experiences in motivational research in this area. COMMENTS: ”The clearest expression of the (casual) plastic motif is afforded by the ideal of a girl in late adolescence. Continually experimenting with new styles of dress and grooming, she is in effect trying on this or that role or personality to see what reSponse it will bring her. She is most aware . O . ' ' y n . . - m 0 ' | ' . L l . I l | . I V O . . . C . l '. A C . ‘ o O o f ' 5 \ . u . I I | . O . . ‘ . _4 I . . . _ . . . ‘ . ‘ v u ' l l . v D . . . 1 ' - - . . ' 0 ‘e 0 L . A O ’ 9 O . I J ' p . 119 of new products and new styles, and she uses them to manipulate her appearance this way and that." (591) "To some social observers, however, the teen- ager appears as the slave to fad and fashion and not as the experimenter. A more accurate formu- lation would be that the teen-ager follows fad and fashion to the extent that she does, and not all do, because she is experimenting with herself and has not yet deve10ped a self-image with which she can be comfortable. An older, more stable woman, who knows herself and her roles and how she wishes, can ignore fad and follow fashion at a distance.” (591) A.29 Weiland, I. H. ”The Psychological Significance of Hot Rods and Automobile Driving to Adolescent Males,” ngchiatric Quarterly Supplement, XXXI (1957), 261- 275. COMMENTS: In this discussion the author regards the automobile as a substitute for the mother in the Oedipal triangle. The auto is a focus for father- son conflict and by lending itself to modification permits exhibitionism an outlet for reaction forma- tions against anal smearing impulses. A.30 Witty, P.A., and Kinsella, P. "Children and T.V. - A Ninth Report.” Elementary Trainipg, XXXV (1958). “50"“56 e PROBLEM: This is the ninth in a series of studies which began in 1950. The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship of T.V. to school grades and reading habits, and the extent to which teachers associate behavior and adjustment pro- blems with T.V. METHOD: Interviews and questionnaires were used to gather data from 2800 students in Evanston and Skokie, Illinois. The inquiries were directed to the children, their parents, and teachers. CONCLUSIONS: The study found: (1) there is little relationship between television and school grades; (2) children seem to be reading more since the advent of television; (3) teachers seem to feel that adjust- ment and behavior problems are related more to other factors than to television viewing and are hesitant to regard T.V. as the primary source of undesirable behavior. A.3l Survey Research Center. A Stugy of Adolescent Boys. A report of a national survey of boys in the four- teen to sixteen age range. Conducted by Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, for the National Council, Boy Scouts of America, New Brunswick, N. J.: Boy Scouts of America, 1955. PROBLEM: As part of a larger study concerning the 120 Explorer Scout program, this study investigates the broad problem of adolescent group membership. Information is offered on the following six ques- tions: (1) what are the dominant needs, problems, and concerns of 1b-l6 year old boys? (2) how much leisure time do boys have? What non-leisure demands do they have on their time? (3) what are boys' principle leisure activities: What do they most like to do? (Q) How important a part do voluntary group memberships play in boys' lives? (5) what are the sources of motivation for joining groups? Who are the boys who do 22: join? (6) what kinds of groups are most attractive to boys? METHOD: Interviews were taken from a representative cross-section of lh-l6 year olds who are attending school and who are in the 7th-12th grades. The sample size was 10h5. CONCLUSIONS: The following conclusions are taken from chapter summaries in the report. Extensive specific findings are given in the body of the report. (1) The most important needs and concerns of boys center on achievement -- in the present and future, and attainment of maturity in personal controls and relations to others. Occupational strivings and the need to make a job choice are of concern to boys. Leisure activities and organizational membership are infrequently raised as sources of either satis- faction or concern. Desire for peer acceptance is not a concern verbalized by many boys. (2) With regard to leisure activities, half of the sample works part time, dating is a popular and common pattern at this age, and most of the boys have had experience with a good variety of leisure acti- vities. Specific activities that are most popular are swimming, hunting, working on cars, and team sports. (3) In the area of group membership, the following findings are reported: (a) three boys in ten belong to no clubs or organizations. An equal number belong to a single group, and the remaining forty percent have two or more group affiliations; (b) most boys who do not belong to organizations give as reasons for their non-membership some external pressure like lack of time; (c) the largest proportion of boys' memberships are in national activity organizations; (d) boys suggest sports and games, outdoor activities, and social activities most frequently as activities they would like a club to offer. (h) Following a discussion of the heterogeneity of the population of lh-l6 year old boys the study notes, '... no single organization, however broad its program, can expect to appeal to all (or even a majority) of adolescent boys. (111) (5) in the discussion of the boys who do not belong to clubs, the report notes: (a) boys who belong to clubs are from families with higher social status C» 121 and greater social stability than boys who have no organizational affiliations; (b) the leisure interests of group members are broader than those of non- members. Group members are particularly more active in hobbies, outdoor activities, and social activities. They date more often than non-members; (c) in addition to the needs for particular activities which are served by group membership, there are a number of more general psychological needs expressed in joining clubs. These are the need to adapt an adult role and deve10p independence in the direc- tion of one's behavior, and also the need for social mobility. (lUO). 122 B. THE ADOLESCENT AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS B.l Abrahamson, Stqphen. ”Our Status System and Scholastic Rewards,“ Journal of Educational Sociology, XXV (April, 1952), th-hso. ’— PROBLEM: To investigate the relationship between social class status and scholastic rewards and punishments received by students in high school. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to groups of children in two urban, two suburban, and three semi-rural areas. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of the findings that showed: (1) middle-class students received a disproportion- ate share of the high grades; (2) most class and school offices were filled by middle-class students; (3) middle-class students engaged in more extra- curricular activities; (h) no lower-class students ever received the American Legion Award, the author concludes that, within our status system, more rewards and fewer punishments go to the higher classes. B.2 Arsenian, Seth. ”Change in Evaluative Attitudes During Four Years of College,” Journal of Applied ngchology, XXVII (19u3), 338-3U9. PROBLEM: To investigate the amount and direction of change of attitudes in four years of college. Economic, social, political, and religious areas are investigated. METHOD: The Allport-Vernon Study of Values test was applied to an original sample of three succes- sive freshman classes at a men's college in New England. Of this group, 76 who graduated were retested. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that there was a great deal of change in the value patterns of the students during their college years. The direction of change, which was not always in line with the accepted pattern of contemporary society, appeared to depend on the content of the curriculum and extracurricular activities interacting in the given school environ- ment. The area of religious attitudes was held to be an area in which serious attitudinal changes occurred. B.3 Baker, H. L. ”High School Teachers' Knowledge of Their Pupils," School Review, XLVI (1938), 175-190. PROBLEM: To determine the extent of teachers' know- ledge of the individual differences in behavior and background of their students. The author also desired to learn why some teachers, more than others, had adequate knowledge of their pupils. METHOD: 2? teachers and 250 students were selected from high schools of varying size in different types 123 of communities. Questionnaires were applied to this sample. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that there was great variation in the amount of knowledge of pupils held by various teachers. Most of the teachers knew less than } of the facts held necessary by guidance counselors in the educational treatment of indivi- dual children. The amount of knowledge was felt to be related to such factors as: (1) the size of the class of which the student was a member, (2) the amount of teacher association in extra-class acti- vities, (3) the amount of time the teacher spent in conferences with the students. B.h Bartlett, Claude J., and Horrocks, John E. ”A Study of the Needs Status of Adolescents From Broken Homes,” Journal of Genetic Psycholpgy, XCIII (September, 1958), 153-159. PROBLEM: Two hypotheses were tested to determine the needs of adolescents from homes where one parent was deceased in comparison with the needs of adoles- cents from homes where both parents are living: (1) adolescents from broken homes will reflect a greater need for affection; and (2) adolescents from broken homes will tend to form dependent relationships more often than adolescents from unbroken families. METHOD: An experimental form of the Horrocks-Lucas Needs Questionnaire was administered to a total of 88 subjects. an of the adolescents were from broken homes and an were from families where both parents were living. CONCLUSIONS: Hypothesis #1 supported by the finding that adolescents from broken homes tended to seek affection in attention from the opposite sex. Hypothesis #2 was neither supported nor rejected. B.5 Becker, Howard S. “Social-Class Variations in the Teach- er-Pupil Relationship,” Journal of Educational Sociology, xxv (April, 1952), “51:365. PROBLEM: To describe the reactions of public school teachers to socio-cultural differences in the student bOdy e METHOD: The study is a descriptive analysis of 60 interviews with teachers in the Chicago public school system. CONCLUSIONS: Class differences in teachers reactions were most noticeable in the areas of teaching proce- dures, discipline, and moral acceptability. The lower-class students fail to live up to the teachers concept of the ideal pupil and thereby do not compare favorably with the upper classes. The lower-class pupils are also more difficult tocontrol and disci- pline and often display behavior that is morally unacteptable to the teacher. 12b B.6 Benedict, Ruth. “Transmitting Our Democratic Heritage in the Schools,” American Journal of Sociolpgy, XLVIII (May. 19u3), 722-727. COMMENTS: In this article, the author is concerned with the place of education in teaching values and in transmitting the democratic heritage to students. It is the author's contention that educational policies and programs by themselves cannot increase the stability of a society. She feels that the demo- cratic heritage must be reflected in the fundamental philosophy and method of education. The transmission of our democratic heritage, then, involves preparing the child to act with iniative and independence as an adult rather than merely subjecting him to forma- lized instruction in the school. 8.7 Berg, Irwin A. ”Expressed Standards of High-School Students, Teachers, and Parents,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, xxx1v (1956), 261-267. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of agreement among pupils, parents, and teachers on how students should and should not act in a variety of typical school situations. METHOD: A questionnaire comprised of open-end ques- tions was administered to three groups related to the Ohio State University Schools. The first group consisted of 225 students in the seventh through the twelfth grades in the school. The second group consisted of 19 of the teachers in this school, and the third group was made up of 18 parents of children attending the O.S.U. School. Seven situations in- cluding: Classroom, playing on a school team, class trips, between classes, and public bus were examined. CONCLUSIONS: There was substantial agreement between the three groups on appropriate behavior in the speci- fic situations. There was disagreement, however, between parents and students on how to attain these standards. 8.8 Bernard, Jessie. ”The Neighborhood Behavior of School Children in Relation to Age and Socio-economic Status,” American Sociological Review, IV (October, 1939) 9 652-662 0 PROBLEM: To determine the point at which a child's development becomes emancipated from the neighbor- hood in which he lives, and to see if socio-economic class effects this point. METHOD: The sample of “20 adolescents consisted of four groups, one each from a grade school,a public high school, a private high school, and a college SOphomore class. Analysis was based on the ques- tionnaire response of these groups. CONCLUSIONS: The findings revealed: (1) a definite trend for neighborhood attachment to decline with age, with the greatest relative decline noted in the middle- 125 class children at age 17 and in the lower-class at age 15; (2) the children in the lower socio-economic groups tended to show more neighborhood attachment than children in the upper groups. It was tenta- tively concluded that age was more important than socio-economic status in influencing neighborhood activity whereas SES was more important than age in affecting neighborhood attitudes. B.9 Biddulph, Lowell G. ”Athletic Achievement and the Personal and Social Adjustment of High School Boys,” Research Quarterly_of the American Association for Health1_Physical Education, and Recreation, XXV (19557. 1-7. PROBLEM: To study the personal and social adjustment of sophomore and junior high school boys, comparing those of high and low athletic achievement. METHOD: Data was gathered from “61 high school boys. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that students who ranked high in athletic achievement displayed greater personal and social adjustment than did thosewho ranked low in athletics. On the basis of this finding, the author recommended greater emphasis on intramural athletics as opposed to interscholastic athletics. B.lO Bledsoe, C. Joseph. ”An Investigation of Six Correlates of Student Withdrawal from High School,” Journal of Educational Research (1959). PROBLEM: To investigate six factors related to school drop-outs. METHOD: Case histories were secured from 247 students in a Georgia town of 20,000. These students had dropped out of school in the eighth, ninth and tenth grades. CONCLUSIONS: There are three main factors behind school withdrawal: low intelligence, dissatisfaction with school program, and economic reasons. The findings suggest that boys may be more likely than girls to drop out of school and that the level of parent education and the occupation of the parent are closely related to the students' level of aspiration. B.ll Boehm, Leonore. ”The Development of Independence: A Comparative Study,“ Child Development, XXVIII (1957), 85-92. PROBLEM: To study in a sample of Swiss and American children, the differences in social development. METHOD: 29 Swiss and #0 American children between the ages 6 and 16 were studied by means of Piaget's 'methode clinique.“ CONCLUSIONS: It was found that the American sample: (1) was more emancipated from their parents at an earlier age, (2) was less subjugated to adults, 126 (3) developed freedom of thought and independence of judgement earlier, and (h) developed a more autono- mous, but less complex conscience, than the Swiss bOYSe B.12 Bonney, Merle E. 'Sociometric Study of Agreement Between Teacher Judgments and Student Choices - In Regard to the Number of Friends Possessed by High School Stu- dents,“ Sociometry, X (May, l9h7), l33-lh6. PROBLEM: (1) To determine how well high school teachers can identify students who have the most and the least friends; (2) to determine the reasons for the differences between teacher ratings and student choices. METHOD: On the basis of the results of a rating scale given to the students of Demonstration High School, North Texas State College, a sample of 110 students was divided into three groups: high, middle, and low in number of friends. Thirteen teachers were asked to rate the 110 students. CONCLUSIONS: In general, it was found that teachers were not very accurate in their evaluations, even when they were rating students they knew fairly well. The differences between the student and teacher ratings may have been due to the use of different criteria in the judgments. B.13 Bowman, P. H., and Pellman, M. ”Socially Underprivileged Youth and The Schools,” ngp School Journal, XLI (Mar. 1958). 331-335. COMMENTS: In this article the authors discuss the treatment and lack of understanding that meets the socially underprivileged student. The proposal of a curriculum to satisfy the needs and abilities of these students follows from a discussion of the problems of adjustment, achievement, and conflict with middle-class teachers. The point is made that a good program for the socially underprivileged will benefit the average and the gifted student while it helps develop the capabilities of the under- privileged. B.lh Burchinal, Lee G. "Adolescent Role Deprivation and High-School Age Marriage," Marriage and Family Living, XXI (November, 1959), 378-38h. PROBLEM: Taking marriage as an index of role change among adolescent girls, the author investigates the proposition that role change is directly related to role deprivation. Three hypotheses are investigated: (1) marriage is directly related to dissatisfaction with parental relations; (2) marriage is directly related to the amount of heterosexual involvement of the girls; (3) marriage is a result of role depri- vation and is desired for expected satisfactions in a change of roles. .5 127 METHOD: The sample of 60 girls in each of two groups (total - 120), one group married, the other unmarried, was matched for grade, age, father's occupation, parents educational level, religion, size of family, and other items. Questionnaires were administered to the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Little support was found for hypothesis #1. With regard to hypothesis #2, it was generally found that the girls who married before graduation had had more heterosexual involvement than the other girls. Hypothesis #3 was tested by a compari- son of the personality needs of girls in both groups. Little variation was found in the needs scores of the two groups. B.15 Butler, Ruth M. 'Mothers' Attitudes Toward the Social Development of Their Adolescents,” (Part 1). Social Casework, XXXVII (1956), 219-226. PROBLEM: This study is an examination of mothers' evaluations of adolescent behavior and development and its effects on family and social relationships. This report covers the period of early adolescence, Part II includes middle and late adolescence. METHOD: Interviews were conducted with the mothers of 135 children between the ages of 12 and 20. CONCLUSIONS: Among the mothers of early adolescents (12 to 1h years), the following attitudes and responses to social development were common: (1) mothers were generally emotionally unprepared for their children's need for greater freedom and were disturbed by the children's attitudes toward the home, the neighborhood, and the community; (2) mothers had little comprehension of the significance of their children's rebellious behavior; (3) most mothers were confused and disturbed by the lack of cultural standards regarding the appropriate role for themselves in this period. B.l6 Butler, Ruth M. ”Mothers' Attitudes Toward the Social Development of their Adolescents,“ (Part II), XXXVII (1956), 280-288. PROBLEM AND METHOD: See B.15. This article covers the periods of middle and late adolescence. CONCLUSIONS: In the middle period of adolescence, the child attempts to displace the parent within the family while assuming more mature roles out- side the family. Demands for the car, later hours, changes in the school program,and increased hetero- sexual relations characterize this stage. Late adolescence is characterized by the adolescent's greater identification with the family, larger finan- cial contribution, and ability to be accepted as an adult within the family. In response to the third stage of adolescence, mothers' attitudes and responses usually reflect: 128 (l) greater pleasure in the mother-child relationship and an increased awareness on self on the part of the mother; (2) a move toward acceptance of the child's role as an adult and increased consideration of the child's preferences; (3) greater comfort and satis- faction in the marital relationship. B.l7 Calvin, A. D., and others. ”A further investigation of the Relationship Between Manifest Anxiety and Intel- ligence,” Journal of Consulting Psychology, XIX (1955), 280-282. __ PROBLEM: To determine the relationship between intelligence and anxiety in an undergraduate group. It was hoped that a negative correlation could be established between the two factors. METHOD: The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Test were adminis- tered to two groups of undergraduates at Michigan State University. Group A was composed of 36 stu- dents in an undergraduate psychology class. Group B was made up of 15 students with a lower I.Q. score who were having academic difficulty. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence was found to support the notion that there is some negative correlation between intel- ligence and performance on the anxiety scale. B.18 Cava, Esther, L., and Raush, H. L. “Identification and the Adolescent Boy's Perception of His Father," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psycholggy, SLVII (1952) 9 855’8530 PROBLEM: The hypothesis of this study is as follows: ”Those individuals who show greater conflict in areas of personality related to the identification process will indirectly perceive themselves as less similar to their like-sex parent than will those who show less conflict in these areas.“ (855) METHOD: The sample consisted of 37 twelfth-grade high school boys in attendance at Ypsilanti High School, Ypsilanti, Michigan. These boys were given the Strong Vocational Interest Blank as an indirect measure of perceived similarities and the Blacky Pictures (Nos. 1 and 2) as an indication of identification disturbance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings generally supported the notion that the boys who revealed less conflict in the area of identification would tend to per- ceive their fathers as more similar to themselves than the boys who showed more conflict. B.l9 Cavan, Ruth 5. ”The Relation of Home Background and Social Relations to Personality Adjustment," American Journal of Sociology, XL (September, 193“), 153-155. PROBLEM: "The emotional and social adjustment of the young adolescent is not fixed at birth, but it is, in part at least, determined by the experiences which 129 he has had in his various social groups. This study is an attempt to measure objectively the home background and the social relationships in terms of their tendency to produce well-adjusted children.” (1&3) METHOD: A questionnaire containing 36 questions on family relationships and ho questions on social relationships was administered to a group of “problem” and a group of “non-problem” children. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that, with the occasional exception of a well-adjusted child coming from a poor home environment and a poorly adjusted child coming from a good home background, the affect of a good home environment is the produc- tion of socially well-adjusted adolescents. B.20 Coleman, James S. ”The Adolescent Subculture and Academic Achievement,” American Journal of Sociology, LXV (January. 1960). 337-3h7. PROBLEM: This study is an examination of the status systems, the effects of these status systems, and the possible source of these systems. METHOD: The sample consists of 10 Midwest high schools, 5 in small towns, l in a working class suburb, l in a well-to-do suburb, and 3 in cities of varying sizes. All but one, a Catholic boys' school are coeducational and public. In addition to this group, two upper-middle class schools were included to answer certain questions rising from the analysis of the original group. Data was gathered from school grade records, I.Q. test results, and ques- tionnaires which involved questions concerning how the student would most like to be remembered in his school and what was required for entrance into the ”leading crowd.” CONCLUSIONS: In all the schools, the way the students wanted to be remembered was not as a brilliant student, but rather as a star athlete, leader in activities, or most pepular. The explanation of this lies in the values of the adolescents. In this case, the prestige and status was awarded in non-academic areas. In the explanation of the grade records and I.Q. scores the author supports the notion that in a high school social system which does not reward scholastic achievement, those who are held to be the ”intellectuals" will, in fact, not be the students who have the most ability. The most able students will seek status in other, more profitable areas. The author suggests that the lack of status associated with scholastic achieve- ment may be related to the emphasis on interscho- lastic athletics and offers the possibility that interscholastic competition in scholastic areas will affect the status systems. . _ 130 8.21 Cook, Jr., Edward S. "An Analysis of Factors Related to Withdrawal From High School Prior to Graduation,” Journal of Educational_§esearch, L (November, 1956), 191-I§6. PROBLEM: The reasons offered at the time of withdraw- al‘are not reliable indices of the real reasons. This study attempts to describe the differences between those who withdraw and those who finish their high school education. METHOD: Case histories, I.Q. scores, and a series of adjustment, and interest scales were examined for a group of 95 withdrawals and 200 randomly chosen nonwithdrawals from a metropolitan high school. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis revealed that the withdrawals were older than their classmates, retarded education- ally, and were the middle of three or more children in the family. It was also found that they had more poor marks, bad attendance records, and low scores on I.Q. tests. Poor personal orientation and adjust- ment to the family and the school was found to characterize the withdrawal group. 8.22 Cook, Lloyd A. ”An experimental Sociographic Study of a Stratified Tenth Grade Class,” American Sociolo- gical Review, X (April, 19h5), 250-261. PROBLEM: This two-year study attempts to describe the friendship structure of a tenth-grade class in terms of changes and the effect of social status. The second phase involved the improvement of the learning situation by means of individual guidance and group management. METHOD: The sample consisted of an male and female tenth-graders in a high school social studies class in a Midwestern community of about h,500 persons. The technique of the sociogram was employed in this study. CONCLUSIONS: The data revealed: (1) during the two-year period the average number of ”best friend” choices increased from 2.U0 to h.5l per student, indicating an increase in the amount of social interaction; (2) 75% of all the positive choices were made within the tenth grade, and a majority of the positive choices were same-sex and same-status choices; (3) upper-class children tended to be over chosen, and lower-class children tended to be under chosen throughout the two-year period; (b) the period of individual guidance showed both success and failure, but the period of group management resulted in the class becoming factionalized. B.23 Coster, John K. ”Some Characteristics of High School Pupils from Three Income Levels,“ Journal of Educa- tional Psygholo , L (April, 1959), 55-62. PROBLEM: This is a comparison of certain character- istics of students who have been divided into three 131 income groups. METHOD: 878 students from nine Indiana high schools were chosen from a sample of 3000 students. This group was divided into three income levels and com- pared on such items as sex, schooling of parents, and participation in school and community activities. CONCLUSIONS: Students in the high income group were found to be more likely than the students in the middle and lower groups to participate in school and community activities, to get high marks and honors in school, to attend church regularly, and to con- tinue their education. It was also found that attitudes towards school and community experiences varied considerably between the groups. To a certain extent this contradicted the results of an earlier study by the author. B.2h Dales, Ruth J. “A Method for Measuring Developmental Tasks: Scales for Selected Tasks at the Beginning of Adolescence," Child Development, XXVI (June, 1955), 111-122 e COMMENTS: In this study, the author discussed develop- mental tasks and reports on the development of scales to measure progress in achievement of develOpmental tasks. The three tasks selected for inclusion in the scales dealt with interpersonal relations with the emphasis on affection, social group, and sex role. The scales were administered to 510 children in grades six through nine in three schools in New York State. The results of this application estab- lished the value of the scales. B.25 Davis, Allison, ”Socialization and the Adolescent Personality,“ #3rd Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 1 (l9hE), University of Chicago Press, 198-216: COMMENTS: It is the contention of this author that i the successful socialization of the adolescent de- pends on the amount of socialized anxiety that his society has been able to place in him. Considering the different social classes in the United States, he points out the differences in the expected end- products of socialization within the lower and middle classes help maintain divergent cultures. Since the social reality of individuals differs between classes, the reactions of these individuals will be reactions to different situations, and a socialized lower-class boy may be regarded as totally unsocial- ized by the middle-class. B.26 Davis, Kingsley. “The Sociology of Parent-Youth Con- flict,” American Sociological Review, V (August, G990), 523-535. 132 COMMENTS: In this paper, the author discusses the problem of the amount of parent-adolescent con- flict found in contemporary western society. It is his contention that the parent-youth conflict arises from the interaction of relational universals and certain variables found in modern culture. The universals include: (1) the age differential between parent and child; (2) the deceleration of sociali- zation with age, and (3) the physiological, psycho- logical, and sociological differences between the age groups. The variables which interact with the above mentioned universals to produce conflict include: (1) the rate of social change; (2) the complexity of the social structure; (3) the degree of integration in the culture, and (h) the force of vertical mobility. In explaining the presence of con- flict in western societyy the author stresses the incompatibility of the rural-stable and the urban industrial-mobile societies. B.27 Davis, Kingsley. "The Child and the Social Structure,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XIV (December, 19ho), 217-229. COMMENTS: In this discussion, the author brings up the ascription of status and the place of sociali- zation and solidarity in relation to the handling of children in our society. The ascription of status is seen as basic to the process of sociali- zation and the maintenance of structural solidarity. Thus, the needs of society are served in the ascrip- tion of status in connection with children. The author expresses concern over the possibility that educational philosophy will be more concerned over the needs of the child than the needs of society thereby endangering the value of the socialization process and the solidarity of society. B.28 Davis, Kingsley. ”Adolescence and the Social Structure," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, CCXXXV (November, l9hh), 8-16. COMMENTS: In this discussion of the place of adoles- cents in the social structure, the author makes the point that adolescence in our society, as opposed to many other societies, is a period apparently not functionally tied to the social structure. It is interstitial between the period of childhood and adulthood and is accorded little meaningful status by the society at large. B.29 Edwards, Bently T., and Wilson, B. Allen. 'The Associa- tion Between Interest and Achievement in High School Chemistry,“ Educational and ngchological Measure- ment (1959). PROBLEM: To test the proposition that interest in the subject matter of a course is closely related to the 133 achievement in the course. METHOD: The Anderson Chemistry Test was administered to students enrolled in a basic chemistry course at an urban high school in the San Francisco area. CONCLUSIONS: By controlling variables in achieve- ment other than interest the analysis established that interest in science was correlated with achieve- ment in the chemistry course. B.30 Elkin, Frederick, and Westley, William A. “The Myth of Adolescent Culture,’ American Sociological Review, XX (December, 1955) 680-68h. PROBLEM: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the characterization of adolescence as a period of ”storm and stress” and "youth culture“ and the rela- tionship of this characterization to empirical evidence. METHOD: Empirical evidence is based on interviews with 20 high school adolescents and their parents, the children being lb or 15 years old, Protestant, Anglo-Saxon and from business and professional families, and case histories on 20 college students who lived in the community. The study was con- ducted in a suburban community of Montreal. CONCLUSIONS: Acceptance of the characterization of adolescence as a period of "storm and stress” and "youth culture” assumes that the storm and stress is peculiar to the period and the youth culture is a dominant and widespread phenomenon and is linked to the storm and stress. However, in the middle- class group investigated, the authors found few sharp conflicts between parents and adolescents, little discontinuity in the socialization processes, and no youth culture pattern which prevailed over the family guidance pattern. These findings lead them to question the validity of the present concept of adolescent culture. B.3l Ellis, Albert. ”Love and Family Relationships of American College Girls,” American Journal of Sociology. LV (May. 1955). 550-556. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to gather data on attitudes and behavior with relation to love and family relationships. METHOD: Questionnaires.were administered to a sample of 500 girls with different backgrounds who were widely scattered in 19 different colleges. CONCLUSIONS: These girls revealed a greater love for their mothers and sisters than for their fathers and brothers. They also indicated that "being in love" was a serious matter for them and directly affected their happiness. l3u B.32 Franzblau, Abraham N. ”Religious Belief and Character Among Jewish Adolescents,“ Teachers Collggg Contri- butions to Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, (193h) PROBLEM: To examine the proposition that acceptance of traditional religious dogma is conducive to the development of superior character. This principle is felt to be fundamental in most religions. METHOD: This proposition was tested by the analysis of the results of thirteen standard character tests administered to 701 Jewish adolescents. 392 of the subjects attended Reform Institutions and 309 attended Orthodox Institutions. The sample included 305 boys and 396 girls. CONCLUSIONS: The findings gave no support to the pro- position. The author suggests that other denomina- tions and age groups be investigated along similar 11n65e 8.33 Frick, Willard. ”The Adolescent Dilemma: An Interpre- tation,” Peabody Journal of Education, XXXII (1955), 266‘210e COMMENTS: This interpretation of the adolescent period of development in our society stresses the situation of adolescents who have no reliable frame of refer- ence for analysis of their behavior and who are faced with inconsistent expectations on the part of adults. The reaction of adults is often one which demands maturity while insisting on the immaturity ' of the adolescent. The author feels that urbaniza- tion and industrialization have been prime factors in the development of this situation. For those who feel a long period of adolescence is necessary for the preparation of the adolescent for the adult world, the author suggests that we have not utilized this period to the best of our ability. 8.3“ Friedenberg, Edgar Z. The Vanishing Adolescent. Boston: Beacon Press, 1959. COMMENTS: The prime task of adolescence is the devel- Opment of clear and stable self-definition. This self-definition can only take place in a context of prolonged conflict between the individual and society -- adolescence is conflict. In maintaining that the real adolescents are vanishing, are being replaced by a form that only slightly resembles the original, the author places a great portion of the responsibility on the school. The school is a prime agent in the clarification of experience for the adolescent, a clarification necessary in the develop- ment of self-definition. The school also plays a prime role in the establishment of self-esteem, but the author feels that the schools fail to meet their responsibilities, or, in some cases, succeed too well. In the words of the author, "What is needed (in the ’il l .1! III! till i ll! 135 schools) is no program of technical training-cum- indoctrination, but the patient development of the kind of character and mind that conceives itself too clearly to consent to its own betrayal.” (lhh) (parentheses added.) 8.35 Gordon, C. Wayne. The Social System of the Hpgh School. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1957. PROBLEM: To investigate the hypothesis that the behavior of the adolescent is related to the general social position he holds in the social structure of the school. METHOD: Experimenter-administered questionnaires and high school records were utilized to gather ma- terial on 576 high school students from the same school in a midwestern suburbancnmmunity. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the hypothesis that behavior is associated with generalized status position in the school's social structure. A defi- nite tendency was found to seek roles which would gain, for the individual, positions of prestige in the informal structure. It was also found that achievement in student activities was more signi- ficantly related to general status than was grade achievement. B.36 Grambs, Jean D. ”The Community and the Self-Governing Adolescent Group,” Journal of Educational Sociolggy, XXX (October, 1956), 9h-105. PROBLEM: This report is one of a series in this volume concerning the Youth Community Participation Project at New York University. This particular paper is concerned with the conditions under which the commun- ity supports and encourages the development of self- governing, civically-oriented youth groups. METHOD: The analysis is based on the weekly project reports of five youth groups engaged in the larger StUdy e CONCLUSIONS: The group experience of the adolescents seemed to be influenced by three variables: (1) the way in which the adult community was organized to help adolescents through its various institutions; (2) what adolescents felt about the community; (3) the mores, norms, and values that are a part of the demo- cratic community. (p.9h) All of the groups were affected in some way by: (l) the ethnic and racial experience of the group members and the adult commun- ity; (2) the experience of the adult community with adolescents; (3) the socio-economic level of the adult community; (h) the age and sex of group members. (p-9u) Three general postulates emerged from the analysis: (1) civically-oriented self-governing youth groups probably cannot develop or survive without active community help and localized institutional support 136 (p.96); (2) the broader American culture predis- poses a group towards prescribed organizational forms, group procedures, and group goals (p.99); (3) many adolescents perceive adolescents as persons judged by the community as being bad until proven good (p.102). B337 Hallworth, H. J. 'Sociometric Relationships Among Grammar School Boys and Girls Between the Ages of 11 and 16 Years,“ Sociometry, SVI (February, 1953), 37-70. PROBLEM: A series of hypotheses relating to group structure and develOpment are examined. The formation, stability, and value formation are examined. METHOD: The subjects for this study were 150 boys and girls from a coed grammar school outside of London. Interviews and questionnaires contributed to the sociometric analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis revealed that various groups organized around different value systems and leaders for different purposes. As the groups develOped the values became embodied in a few central figures with some of the students being unable to integrate in the larger group. The development of groups follows a definite pattern, but relatively stable groups are found on all levels of development. B.38 Havighurst, Robert J. ”Research on the Developmental- Task Concept," School Review, LXIV (May, 1956), 215-223 e COMMENTS: In this discussion of the literature on the developmental-task concept the author points out the value of the concept in helping the educa- tor maintain the proper perspective between the motives of the students and the ideals of society in the area of educational objectives. He also notes three problem areas in which research has been conducted. These areas include the definition and discovery of the tasks, their vvariation with age and culture background, and the measurement of develOpmental tasks. B.39 Havinghurst, Robert J., and Neubaur, Dorothy, ”Commun- ity Factors in Relation to Character Formation,” In R. J. Havighurst and H. Tabe Adolescent Character and Personality, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959. pp. 27-56. PROBLEM: This chapter ”describes the moral setting in which Prairie City boys and girls live.“ (27) While the entire volume is concerned with the develOp- ment and measurement of character and personality, each chapter is presented as a separate study. The subjects of all these studies, investigated by diff- erent means, are a group of lhh adolescents who be- came 16 years old in the calendar year 19h2. This 137 chapter deals with the general moral environment in the community. CONCLUSIONS: ”Through the home, school, church, youth organizations, recreational agencies, and the infor- mal 'peer culture' of the children's own world, values and moral standards are taught to boys and girls by their parents, teachers and other adults in positions of prestige, and by leaders of their own age groups. "Boys and girls tend to learn the values and standards of their own homes, churches, and social classes, but the adolescent peer culture of the high school is a pervasive middle-class influence, affecting all boys and girls who go to high school. In general, the school teaches middle-class youth, though they also succeed in serving a minority of lower-class youth. "The commercial recreation places vary in their moral influence.” (46) B.h0 Heaton, Margaret. "Sororities and the School Culture.” Journal of Educational Sociolggy, XXI (19U8), 527-535. PROBLEM: This article investigates the problem of high school sororities, what they mean, what factors foster them and how they affect the lives of the girls involved in them. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to all the tenth grade students in a high school located in a residential section of a midwestern city. CONCLUSIONS: It was generally felt that the problem of high school sororities grew out of the larger pro- blem of inadequate school planning for the needs of adolescents. The development of cliques and sorori- ties was seen as the result of unsatisfactory group life in the school. B.hl Hollingshead, August B. Elmtown's Youth. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1959. PROBLEM: This is an investigation of the hypothesis that the social behavior of adolescents is related functionally to their families' positions in the social structure of the community. This study is part of a long-range field study conducted in a typical midwestern community under the Committee on Human Development of the University of Chicago. METHOD: Various methods of investigation were employed on an accidental sample of 735 male and female adolescents who had graduated from the eighth grade between the years 1938 and l9hl. All the subjects were native white and 37“ lived in a community of about 10,000. One-fourth were rural. CONCLUSIONS: It was discovered that Elmtown was stratified into five social classes. The complex of traits within each class was regarded as the class culture. The investigation of the behavior of the 138 adolescents within each class indicated that class lines were apparent to the individual and that the social class position of the adolescents' parents directly and extensively influence his behavior in relation to the school, the church, the job, recrea- tion, peers, and family. The influence of social class position seems of primary importance. B.h2 Hurlock, Elizabeth B. Adolescent Deve10pment. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1955. COMMENTS: In this discussion of the development of the individual in the years of adolescence, the author cites many studies that have been done on various aSpects of development. The chapter on Family Relations is applicable in this context. B.b3 Johannis, Theodore B., Jr. ”Participation by Fathers, Mothers and Teenage Sons and Daughters in Selected Social Activity,” The Coordinator, VII (December, 1958). 2h-25. PROBLEM: To measure the degree of family participa- tion in 10 selected social activities. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 1027v high school sephomores from non-broken white homes in Tampa, Florida. Questions were asked relating to family participation in such activities as belonging to clubs, visiting friends of the family and of the children, outings, and entertaining. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that eight out of the ten activities investigated were shared by 78% or more of the families. The remaining two, visiting the child's friends and family participation in clubs was shared by more than 50% of the families. B.hh Johannis, Theodore B., and Rollins, James. ”Attitudes of TeenzAgers towards Family Relationships and Characteristics of Their Parents,“ Sociolo and Social Research, XLIII (July-August, 1959), 15- uzo. PROBLEM: This investigation was undertaken to deter- mine the extent to which male and female adolescents differed in reporting their parents backgrounds, and the degree of marital happiness in the family. It was also desired to determine their attitudes toward their parents. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a total sample of 158M students in the eight high schools in Tampa, Florida. From this group, only the responses of the white students were utilized. This brought the final sample to 1b00 tenth-grade stu- dents e CONCLUSIONS: Results revealed: (1) 80% ofthe respon- dents rated their parents' marriages as happy; (2) 82% of the respondents were satisfied with their home life; (3) there was no difference between the males ID 139 and the females with regard to the way they rated their parents marriages; and (h) the reSponses indicated that the students had more positive attitudes toward their mothers than their fathers. B.U5 Johnson, Thomas F. ”Conceptions of Parents Held by Adolescents,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psycho- logy, XLVII (1952), 783-789. PROBLEM: To compare two adolescent groups with re- gard to their attitudes towards their parents. It was felt that adolescents living away from their parents would hold different and more positive attitudes toward parents than adolescents living with their parents. METHOD: A projective type (Sentence completion) test was administered to a group of 113 adolescents at a school for delinquent boys and girls. The same instrument was applied to a group of 111 public school students. From this sample, #2 matched pairs were selected. The ages ranged from 13 to 17 years old. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicated that the adoles- cents who were not living with their parents express- ed more positive feelings toward parents, family, and father more often than those subjects who were living with their parents. No significant differences were found between the two groups in the expression of negative feelings. B.h6 Jones, Mary Cover. “A Study of Socializafi.on Patterns at the High School Level,” Journal of Genetic Psyphology, XCIII (September, 1958), 87-111. PROBLEM: This study was an attempt to isolate fact- ors Operating to influence the individual's parti- cipation in the social life of the school and thereby influence his contact with the socializing forces in the school. METHOD: The subjects were selected on the basis of a three-year study of a high school newspaper. Selection was made according to whether the indivi- dual contributed or did not contribute to the group life of the school. This examination yielded a 'high mention" group of 12 boys and 12 girls and a 'low mention” group of 9 boys and 9 girls. The two groups were then compared on ten points includ- ing: Skeletal Age, Behavioral Ratings, Drive Ratings, Intelligence, Reputation, Physical Abilities, Socio- Economic Status, Attitudes, Self-Concepts, and Role Patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Of the ten points compared, only four revealed significant differences and these were not conclusive in determining those who would be out- standing in the activities of the school. The Behavior Ratings for the ”high mention” group were more favorable (from adults) than for the "low 1&0 mention” group. High mention group had higher reputational scores. A small difference in socio- economic status was observed, but was of minimal influence. No significant differences were found in attitudes, self-concepts, intelligence, and physical abilities. B.h7 Kasdon, Lawrence M. ”Early Reading Background of Some Superior Readers Among College Freshmen,“ Journal of Educational Research, LVIII (December, 1958), 151-15h. PROBLEM: To gather information on the background of superior readers. When did they start reading? What aroused their interest in reading? METHOD: 50 entering college students in the Los Angeles area were selected on the basis of reading scores. The subjects were interviewed using open- ended questions. CONCLUSIONS: Of the 50 students interviewed, 27 (5h%) were able to read before the first grade. Of these, 18 had been taught by some member of the family. 20 (“0%) attributed comprehension to the fact that they read a lot. 25 (50%) felt they became interested in reading because of an interest in book content. Only 5 mentioned school or teacher as reason for becoming fast comprehenders and only 3 mentioned teacher as source of interest in reading. B.h8 Kay, B.; Dinitz, 5.; and Reckless, W. C. "Delinquency Proneness and School Achievement,” Educational Research Bulletin, XXXVI (December, 1957), 131-136. PROBLEM: To see if there is a relationship between delinquency proneness and achievement in reading and arithmetic. METHOD: This study, an outgrowth of the study reported in F.15, compares a group of 125 white boys in the sixth grade who were classed as ”delinquency insu- lated" by their teachers and a groUp of 101 boys classed as "delinquency prone.” The schools were located in areas of high delinquency in Columbus, Ohio. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that the delinquency prone boys had more trouble in reading and arith- metic than did the insulated group. The insulated group had a mean I.Q. 11 points higher than the delinquency prone boys. B.h9 Kinch, John W., and Bowerman, C. E. ”Changes in Family and Peer Orientation of Children Between Fourth and Tenth Grades,“ Social Forces, XXXVII (March, 1951), 206-211 e PROBLEM: To investigate the assumed change or orien- tation from family to peers as the child progresses from childhood to adolescence. 141 METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a group of 686 students from the fourth through the tenth grades in a white middle-class school district north of Seattle, Washington. CONCLUSIONS: The study found that increasing age leads to increasing activity with peers and thus to greater orientation to the peer group than to the family. This result varied with the degree of adjust- ment to the family in the period of expanding peer orientations. If the family was able to maintain adjustment in this period, the adolescent was not likely to completely change his orientation. B.50 Kuhlen, Raymond G., and Arnold, Martha. ”Age Differences in Religious Beliefs and Problems During Adolescence,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, LXV (19hh), 291-300. PROBLEM: An examination of the hypothesis that adoles- cence is a period of increasing religious problems. METHOD: The sample consisted of 5“? students from the sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades (12,15, and 18 years of age). Protestants constituted the majority of the sample with Catholics second and Jewish students third. Questionnaires were applied to this sample, 52 items of religious interest being included. CONCLUSIONS: A comparison between the groups revealed many significant differences in the area of religious beliefs. An increase was noted in the statements concerned with the subject's ”wondering about" certain beliefs. But, analysis of these statements did not support the idea that adolescence is a period of generally increased religious doubts and problems. It was also found that adolescents were dissatisfied with the conventional church services and the avail- ability of help for religious problems. B.51 Landis, Paul H. “The Ordering and Forbidding Technique and Teen-Age Adjustment,” School and Sociepy, LXXX (October, 1951+), 105-106. PROBLEM: To investigate the affect on teen-age adjustment of democratic and authoritarian family relationships. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 1900 boys and 2&10 girls. All the subjects were high school seniors. CONCLUSIONS: With regard to personal and social adjustment it was found that the child from the democratic family had a distinct advantage over the child from the authoritarian family. More parent-child disagreements arise in the authori- tarian family than in the democratic. B.52 Landis, Paul M. ”The Families That Produce Adjusted Adolescents,” Clearin House, XXIX (May, 1955), 537-5l‘0 e PROBLEM: This study deals with teen-age adjustment 142 with respect to authoritarian or democratic family background, large and small families, and whole and broken families. METHOD: Data were gathered from questionnaires administered to a sample of 5500 high school seniors. CONCLUSIONS: In the area of democratic versus auth- oritarian families, it was found that the child from the democratic family was generally better adjusted and had fewer teen-age problems. With respect to family size and adjustment, it was found that the only child had slightly more problems than the child in a larger family. The only child also showed fewer friends than the boys in larger families (who had the most friends). Only children were found to be the most active outside the home and were also the most intrOSpective. In the area of whole or broken homes, it was found that while the adoles- cents from broken homes had a few more problems than those from whole families, the differences were not great. There seemed to be more strain in child- ren from broken homes and they appeared to be more mature and ready to accept responsibilities. B.53 Langworthy, Russel L. ”Community Status and Influence in a High School," American Sociological Review, XXIV (AUgUSt: 1959), 537-539. PROBLEM: Noting that studies of communities suggest the reflection of the status structure in the Opera- tion of local institutions, the author examines the high school to see if it reflects community status systems. He also examines grade and sex stratifi- cation in the high school. METHOD: A paper and pencil test was applied to a sample of freshman and junior boys and girls in a high school in a New England town. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis showed that the status system of the community was definitely reflected in the high school. Preferences and ethnic choices defi- nitely followed the pattern of the community. With- in the school, influence was mainly held by the juniors over the freshmen. It was also found that the individuals' life was more influenced by members of his own sex than by members of the other sex. B.54 Latham, Albert J. ”The Relationship Between Pubertal Status and Leadership in Junior-High-School Boys," gpurnal of Genetic Psyghology, LXXVIII (June, 1951), 185-194. PROBLEM: To determine the affect of physical maturity on the selection of leaders in different age groups. METHOD: 447 boys, 13 and 14 years of age, were divided into two groups. One group was physically mature and the other was physically immature. Questionnaires were applied to these two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Three types of leadership were distin- (‘ 1n; guished in the study: Elective, Appointive, and Athletic. Of these three only the Athletic leadership consistently preferred physically mature boys. No significant relationships could be established between physical maturity and the Elective and Appointive positions. It was found that mature 13 year-old boys participated in athletics more than did the immature 14 year olds. B.55 Levinson, Boris M. “The Problems of Jewish Religious Youth,” Genetic Psychology Monographs, LX (1959), 311-3L‘7e ‘ PROBLEM: To see how religiously raised college fresh- men view themselves and to see the effect of the impact of the college culture on the expressed pro- blems of these students. METHOD: The Mooney Check List was applied to a sample of 220 Yeshiva College freshmen. Almost 90% of these students came from Yeshive high schools. CONCLUSIONS: Out of 380 items on the check list, 139 were underlined by 10% or more of the students. The average number underlined was 42. The subjects had particular difficulty with problems in the areas of Social and Recreational activities, Health and Physical Development, and adjustment to school work. The author attributed these problems to scholastic overloading as a result of overemphasis on academic areas e 8.56 Lewis, w. D. “A Comparative Study of the Personalities, Interests, and Home Backgrounds of Gifted Children of Superior and Inferior Educational Achievement,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, LIX (1941), 207-218. PROBLEM: To examine two groups of gifted children with respect to personality traits, home background, and interests in order to establish the causes for the differences in educational achievement between the groups. METHOD: The subjects in this study were selected from 455 schools in 310 communities in 36 states. The advanced group, educational age a year or more over mental age, contained 1078 students. The retarded group, 756 subjects, had an educational age a year or more lower than mental age. Personality inven- tories and ratings were used in conjunction with questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: It wasfbund that the educationally advanced group was rated significantly higher in desirable personality traits and generally came from superior home backgrounds. These advanced students were rated high on such traits as dependa- bility, originality, self-reliance, and investiga- tiveness. The retarded group was found to come from relatively inferior homes and to possess less desirable personality traits. 144 B.5? Liccione, John V. ”The Changing Family Relationships of Adolescent Girls,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LI (November, 1955), 421-426. PROBLEM: It was hypothesized that the relationship between mother and daughter during the pubertal period would be characterized by more conflict than the relationship between the father and daughter in the same period. METHOD: Conflict and relational change was measured by use of the Thematic Apperception Test applied to 200 girls ranging in age from 9 to 17. CONCLUSIONS: At all age levels there was a greater amount of both conflict and non-conflict interaction between mother and daughter than between father and daughter. The greater amount of conflict between mother and daughter is explained on the basis of greater general interaction between the two during this period. B.58 Lippitt, Ronald, and White, Ralph. “An Experimental Study of Leadership and Group Life,” in Readings in Social ngchologz, (ed.) E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E1 L. Hartley, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1958, 496-511. PROBLEM: An attempt to study, experimentally, the effect of three types of adult leadership (authori- tarian, democratic, and laissez-faire) on the be— havior of four clubs of eleven-year-old children. They also investigated the effects of varying the leadership type within the groups. METHOD: Data were collected on each group by the use of eight types of club records covering such items as continuous group structure analysis, record of social interactions, and accounts of all conversation. Data were also collected on the lives of the club members utilizing five instruments, including interviews with the subject and the parents, and talks with the subjects' teachers. CONCLUSIONS: Among the findings we see: (1) the pattern of interaction and emotional development of the groups was directly and strongly influenced by the leadership type imposed on the group; (2) the differences in club behavior were established as due to the effect of the changing leadership types rather than to the characteristics of the clubs; (3) in general, the democratic type leadership proved more productive and beneficial to the group than either the authoritarian or the unstructured, passive laissez-faire types of leadership. The study also establishes the validity of experimentation in the area of small-group life. 1' 1'45 8.59 Lundberg, George A., and Dickson, Lenore. ”Selective Association Among Ethnic Groups in a High School Population,” American Sociological Review, XVII (ngruary, 1952), 23-34. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to examine the social interaction of various ethnic groups in a large American high school. Examination is made on the choices of associates from the students' own or other ethnic group, the relative popularity of different ethnic groups, and the relevance of cer- tain background factors in choice of associates. METHOD: Questionnaires constructed by the researchers were administered by teachers to an accidental sample of 1544 students of different ethnic groups in Seattle, Washington. The ethnic breakdown was: 39.6% non-Jewish, white; 15.9% Jewish; 9.6% Japanese; 5% Negro; 4.8% Chinese; and 1.6 other. CONCLUSIONS: (1) all the minority groups became pro- gressively ethnocentric as their choices ranged from ”leaders“ (least) through ”work artners', and ”dates” to ”friends“ (most ethnocentrism ; (2) every ethnic group showed a preference for its own members on sociometric tests of leadership, work, dating, and friendshiprelationships; (3) it was found that the Jews were relatively non-ethnocentric as compared to the Negroes who were relatively ethnocentric; (4) the Jewish and the Japanese group rated each other most often as ”least liked”; (5) the non-Jewish whites were the most often chosen group on leader- ship, work and dating but were chosen less often on friendship. The authors conclude that prejudice or ethnocentrism is not confined to the majority group but is often more strongly felt in minority groups toward the majority and other minority groups. They seem to feel that prejudice in these groups is more related to specific relationships than to generalized prejudice. 8.60 Lundberg, George A., and Dickson, Lenore. “Inter- Ethnic Relations in a High-School Population,” American Journal of Sociology, LVIII (July, 1952), 1-10. PROBLEM: This is a replication of study described in 8.59 using a different sample. The purpose here is to determine the influence of the size of the ethnic group on inter-ethnic relationshi s and to examine the reciprocity and prediction 0 reciprocity in the choices made in the socio-metric test. METHOD: A sample of 1732 was drawn from the high school population of Seattle, Washington. In com- position the sample was predominantly non-Jewish white (91.3%). The remaining 8.7% was divided among 146 Chinese, Japanese, Negro, and Jewish. The same questionnaire was used. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that: (l) the degree of ethnocentrism between the two schools did not differ marked1Y3 (2) mutual friends were more apt to be of the same sex, class, and ethnic group than are non- mutual friends; (3) prediction of reciprocity of choice was accurate in about two-thirds of the cases; (4) 90% of the subjects were chosen as friends by at least one person but only 50% were named as enemies; (5) measuring social adjustment by reciprocated choices and predicted reciprocal choices revealed that the girls were higher than the boys. It was also found that this measure of adjustment increased with age. 8.61 Lynn, David P. ”A Note on Sex Differences in the Develop- ment of Masculine and Feminine Identification,” Psychological Review, LXVI (1959), 126-135. COMMENTS: The paper discusses existing literature and research findings on sex differences in masculine and feminine identification. The author formulates four hypotheses which seem to be supported by the discussed research. The hypotheses thus prOposed are: (1) with increasing age, males become relative- ly more firmly identified with the masculine role, and females less firmly identified with the feminine role; (2) a larger proportion of females than males will show preferences for the role of the Opposite sex; (3) a higher proportion of females than males adopt aspects of the role of the opposite sex; (4) males tend to identify with a cultural stereotype of the masculine role, whereas females tend to identify with aspects of their own mother's role specifically. 8.62 McArthur, Charles. “Subculture and Personality During the College Years," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXXIII (February, 1960), 260-268. COMMENTS: The discussion in this paper, based on existing research in sociology, education, and research, is concerned withthe listing of factors relating success in college to attendance at public or private high schools. No specific samples are described. In discussing the differences between the public and private high school boys' performance and behavior in college, the following points are made: (1) with I.Q. held constant, the public school boy outperforms the private school boy; (2) greatly differing childhood experiences in the two groups are reflected in their Thematic Apperception Tests; (3) the two groups reflect different social values; (4) the college grades of the public school boy can be predicted more accurately than the performance of the private school boys; (5) occupational aspirations among public school boys usually center in monetary 147 success and science, while the private school student reflects social, aesthetic, and higher status desires. 8.63 McClelland, F. M., and Ratliff, J. A. ”Use of Socio- metry as an Aid in Promoting Social Adjustment in a Ninth Grade Home Room," Sociometgy, X (May, 1947), 1147-153 0 PROBLEM: The purpose of this paper was to determine if it is possible for a teacher totcontrol the social adjustment of his pupils through the application of sociometric techniques. METHOD: Sociometric techniques were applied to a group of ninth grade students from low-income families. The fathers were semi- or unskilled workers or small business owners. CONCLUSIONS: It was heped by the use of sociometric analysis of the class to determine the composition of the group and to offer the teacher information which would enable him to plan the organization and activities of the group in order to increase acceptance and thereby increase adjustment and per- formance. Favorable results are reported. 8.64 McCord, V.; McCord, J.; and Howard, A. “Early Familial Experiences and Bigotry,” American Sociological Review, XXV (October, 1960), 717-722. PROBLEM: To examine the familial basis of prejudice. METHOD: The sample of 45 lower-class white males was originally part of the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Study. This group was examined between 1937 and 1940 and re-examined in 1948 with regard to their attitudes toward Jews and Negroes. At the time of the first interview, the subjects were be- tween 9 and 12 years of age. CONCLUSIONS: Results of the interviews indicated that prejudices in the lower-class boys was likely to be based on the acceptance of a stereotyped culture and not related to specific personality needs or to specific family environments. This differs from the middle-class pattern which apparently reflects personality needs and experiences within the family. 8.65 McKeachie, Daniel 5. “Students Ratings of Instructors: A Validity Study,” Journal of Educational Research, LI (January, 1958), 79-83. PROBLEM: To establish a relationship between students' ratings of instructors and selection of further courses in that field. METHOD: Instructor evaluations and students' course backgrounds were collected over a period of three years from students in courses in psychology. CONCLUSIONS: It was found, in two of the five sem- esters examined, that students' ratings of instruc- tors was significantly related to the number of stu- dents taking further courses in the field. 148 8.66 McNeil, John D. ”Change in Ethnic Reaction Tendencies During High School,“ Journal of Educational Research, LIII (January, 1960), 199-200. PROBLEM: (I) to compare the prejudice stereotypes of entering tenth-grade students and graduating students; and (2) to compare the tenth-grade stereotypes with the twelfth-grade stereotypes of the same group. METHOD: Analysis was based on students reactions to a list of stereotype words covering such items as occupations, racial groups, and personality types. For the retest two years later, 28 of the original 50 students were available. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the first comparison revealed that the twelfth-grade students had significantly more negative reSponses than the tenth-graders. Ethnic and racial stereotypes were more than double those of the tenth—graders; (2) the second comparison reveal- ed that the twelfth graders had increased in stereo- typed reactions over their response in the tenth grade. Those who were most prejudiced in the tenth grade were also the most prejudiced in the twelfth. 8.67 McQueen, R. and Williams, K. C., “Predicting Success in Beginning High School Algebra," Psychological Reports, IV (September, 1959), 603-606. PROBLEM: By comparing mental ability, reading ability, algebraic ability and eighth grade arith- metic marks, to determine the variables which could be used to predict how a student will do in first year algebra. CONCLUSIONS: From the results of the tests, it appears that it would not be valid to use reading ability and intelligence scores in predicting alge- braic success; however, the use of eighth grade arithmetic scores and scores on tests of ability in algebra is indicated, with considerable degree of accuracy to be expected. 8.68 Maas, Henry 5., "The Role of Members in Clubs of Lower- Class and Middle-Class Adolescents,” Child Develop- ment, xxv (1954), 241-251 (Seidman, pp. 29E-304). PROBLEM: To compare the type of relationship existing between the lower-class adolescent club member and the adult leader, the president, and other members, with similar relationships of the middle-class adolescent club member toward these figures. METHOD: Observation, participation, and specially deve10ped tally-sheet records were used to gather data from 126ymembers (boys and girls) aged 12 to 16 of lower-class and middle-class clubs. CONCLUSIONS: (1) lower-class and middle-class adoles- cents have different perceptions and different means of fulfillment of the club membership role; (2) the membership role for lower and middle-class adoles- cents appears to offer equal Opportunity, but differ- ent channels for release of aggression in teenage C1le5 0 149 8.69 Mangus, A. R., "Personality Adjustment of Rural and Urban Children," American Sociological Review, XIII (October, 1948), 566-575. PROBLEM: To determine if a farm background, as com- pared to an urban background, is a help or a detri- ment in making desirable personality adjustments. METHOD: Questionnaire, rating scales, personality tests were used to gather data from 1229 children enrolled in third and sixth grades in Ohio in 1946. CONCLUSIONS: In general and in the majority the children with farm backgrounds were found to be equally or better able to make necessary person- ality adjustments. Farm children were especially outstanding in areas Of self-reliance, personal worth, sense of belonging, lack of withdrawal tendencies, and possession of social skills. 8.70 Marshall, Helen R., ”Factors Relating to the Accuracy of Adult Leaders Judgments of Social Acceptance in Community Youth Groups,” Child Develgpment, XXIX (September, 1958), 417-424. PROBLEM: To ascertain what, if any, constitutes the deciding elements in the amount of accuracy displayed by adult leaders in judging social acceptance of adolescents. METHOD: The ratings of 36 adult women volunteers of 263 girl members Of 22 4-H clubs were compared to the ratings made by the girlsthemselves. CONCLUSIONS: The accuracy of the adult judges increased as the popularity of the girl being rated increased. The age of the girls also affected the accuracy Of adult judges who were better able to rate the older girls. It was also found that the larger the number of the group, the lower the accuracy of the adult raters. 8.71 Meek, Hayden; Lois; Cramer, Harriett; Chaffey, Judith, The Personal-Social Development of Boyg and Girls with Implications for Secondary Education, American Education Fellowship, Committee on Immediate Social Relations Of Adolescents, Committee on Workshops Progressive Education Association, (1940). PROBLEM: To analyze the factors which have a bearing on the personal-social growth of boys and girls in the period of adolescence and puberty. METHOD: Discussion of previously published materials; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: The three most important conclusions appear to be: (1) to keep in mind the perpetual interaction between every individual and his environ- ment; (2) that the truly meaningful things are not capable of being taught, but become a part of the personality through emotional and esthetic experi- ences; (3) the most motivating factor in the adoles- cent's quest is his desire to learn how to act in the 150 varied situations to be encountered in life. 8.72 Midcentury White House Conference, ”The Course of Healthy Personality Development," The Adolescent, A Book of Readings, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.: New York, (1950), 218-237. PROBLEM: To discuss the idea that there is a primary problem in each individual stage of human develop- ment which must be solved if the person is going to be able to go on confidently to the following stage. METHOD: Combining of ideas and theories on this hypothesis; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: Eight stages and central problems were formulated: (I) first year of life -- sense of trust; (2) 12 - 15 months -- sense of autonomy; (3) 4 - 5 years -- sense of initiative; (4) 6 - 11 (approx.) -- sense of accomplishment; (5) onset of adolescense ~- sence of identity; (6) adolescense -- sense of intimacy; (7) adulthood -- parental sense; (8) stage VIII -— sense of integrity. 8.73 Montague, Joel 8., Jr., ”A Study of Anxiety Among English and American Boys,” American Sociological Review, XX (December, 1955),—685-689. PROBLEM: To discuss the proposition that by determin- ing and comparing the frequency of the occurrence and expression of anxiety by a group of individuals representative of a particular class, conclusions may be drawn on the differences of each group in defining situations. . METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 600 English boys and 700 American boys in the age group 13-14, representing most of the social classes. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that greater anxiety was manifested in the United States sample and this was attributed to the greater institutional demands of our culture (the lowest classes in both samples showed the least amount of anxiety, giving further credence to the idea of demands being responsible for the manifestation of this phenomenon). It was concluded that the frequency Of anxiety in a culture is roughly proportional to amount demanded by that nationality for adaptation of the individual. 8.74 Moreno, J. L.; Jennings, Helen H.; Stockton, Richard, “Sociometry in the Classroom,“ Sociometgy, VI (November, 1943), 425-428. PROBLEM: The Objectives of this study were to add to the knowledge of group structure. (425) METHOD: Students in four fifth-grade classes aver- aging 25-35 pupils were instructed to choose spon- taneously those pupils they would prefer to be asso- ciated with in their classroom. (425) CONCLUSIONS: ”The self-assigning revealed that if the children had organized themselves of their own accord 151 they would have chosen neighbors in their class- rooms different from the ones they have now and would have developed definite groups with leaders and followers, drawing in outsiders from other classes into their midst and cutting off members of their class mates as undesired. Furthermore, teachers estimates of the most and least desired Of their pupils were surprisingly inaccurate.” (425 and 428) 8.75 Morrison, Mildred M., and Stinson, Pairlee J., “Sex Differences Among High School Seniors,” Journal of Educational Research, LIII (November, 1959). 103-169. PROBLEM: To investigate the hypothesis that the existence of sex differences might account for differences in the results of the Differential Appitude, COOperative English, Wechsler Adult Intel- ligence tests and grade point averages among seniors. METHOD: The above-mentioned tests were administered to 36 boys aged 16-19, and 33 girls aged 16-18 in a senior class in a high school in Missouri. CONCLUSIONS: The findings showed significant sex differences in six areas: (1) the boys were higher on numerical reasoning, mechanical reasoning, coop reading and vocabulary; (2) the girls were higher on clerical speed and accuracy, spelling, and grade point average. 8.76 Mussen, Paul, and Kagan, Jerome, ”Group Conformity and Perceptions of Parents,” Child Development, XXIX (March, 1958), 57-60. g . PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that adolescents classified as extreme conformists would be more apt to characterize their parents as harsh, restrictive, and punitive in TAT stories. METHOD: TATs and the Asch conformity experiment were given to a group of 27 male college students in order to determine their feelings toward their parents. CONCLUSIONS: The findings showed that, in this sample at least, a large enough number Of the group to be considered significant of those undergraduates designated as conformists did regard their parents as harsh, punitive, rejecting, and restrictive: this also gives credence to the idea that conformity in adulthood is a generalization of conformity be- havior learned early in childhood. 8.77 Neals, Edmund R., ”A Study of the Relationship Between Prior Experiences and the Quality of Creative Writing Done by Seventh Grade Pupils,“ Journal of Educational Researgh, LI (March, 1958), 481-492. PROBLEM: To study the effect of intelligence and environment on the quality of creative writing. METHOD: Manuscripts, observation and field study 152 techniques were used to gather data from 90 seventh- grade students. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the students of higher intelligence and more ”desirable" environmental backgrounds were noticeably lacking in creative quality, while those from ”poor“ environments were extremely creative; (2) derived experiences seemed to furnish material for papers of higher quality than did direct experi- ences, which most of the subjects used for back- ground reference. 8.78 Nelson, Marjory J.; Schmeidler, Gertrude Raffel; Bristol, Marjorie, ”Freshman Rorschachs and College Performance,” Genetic Psychologeronographs, (Febru- ary, 1959). PROBLEM: To determine in what manner Rorschachs tests can be used to predict relationships between their results and success in college and as an aid in making decisions regarding undergraduate college students. METHOD: To gather data, college records after gradua- tion of 633 students at Barnard College were compared with Rorschachs Tests given to them as freshmen. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that in general the Ror- schachs proved fairly reliable in indicating how a student might do in a particular area and in pre- dicting the careers on campus Of those shown as potentially creative. 8.79 Norton, Daniel P., ”The Relationships of Study Habits and Other Measures to Achievement in Ninth Grade General Science,” Journal of Egperimental Education, XXVII (June, 1959), 211-218. PROBLEM: To determine if study habits or intelli- gence, reading ability and appitude are more respon- sible for achievement in ninth grade general science. METHOD: 41 ninth-grade boys and 53 ninth-grade girls picked from general science classes in the high school in Hibbling, Minnesota, who had the same testing programs and teachers in seventh and eighth grade were observed and studied to gather data. CONCLUSIONS: When compared with the rating of the instructor study habits are not more closely equated to success than intelligence, aptitudes and reading ability; when measuring the individual students, the boys' study habits are more closely related to their achievement; for both sexes, aptitudes were the most accurate predictor of how the students would do. 8.80 Nye, Ivan, “Adolescent-Parent Adjustment: Socio-Economic Level as a Variable,” American Sociological Review, XVI (June, 1951), 341-549. PROBLEM: To ascertain if the adjustments between adolescents and parents are affected by their socio- economic levels. 153 METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 1472 students, enrolled in grades 8 through 11 of public schools in Michigan. The group was drawn from all socio- economic levels and controlled for rural and urban dwellers. CONCLUSIONS: Although socio-economic placement was not equally significant in all groups, it was shown that generally this index does have a definite in- fluence in adolescent-parent adjustment. 8.81 Parsons, Talcott, ”Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States,” American Sociologigal Review, VII (October, 1942), 604-616. PROBLEM: To present a tentative statement concerning certain areas of age and sex roles in this culture and how they influence a variety of problems. METHOD: Discussion of the views and past experience of the author; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: Throughout childhood, sex differentia- tion takes a secondary position, bowing to individual ability and class position; in adolescence, when sex roles begin to gain importance, the male role in particular instead of emphasizing responsibility, deliberately puts emphasis on frivolity and irrespon- sibility thus accounting for some of the tension connected with the transition between adolescence and adulthood. The youth culture then acts to ease the strain, but at the same time in order to satisfy emotional need, involves unrealistic romanticism in doing so. 8.82 Payne, Donald E., and Mussen, Paul H. ”Parent-Child Relations and Father Identification Among Adolescent Boys,” The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LII (May. 1956). 358-362. PROBLEM: To determine the relationship between the way in which boys view their fathers and its in- fluence on their identification with him. METHOD: From a stratified sample of 72 boys, 40 Of the lowest and highest identifiers, mean age 17.0 years and consisting of 16 seniorsand 24 juniors, were chosen and administered interviews; their parents filled out questionnaires and teachers rated the subjects on nine characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: The findings revealed: (1) high identi- fication with thefather correlated with perception of him as warm, affectionate, and rewarding; (2) boys with higher father identification scores perceived the father as more rewarding than the mother (slight- ly so) more so than the boys with lower identifica- tion; (3) those identifying strongly with the father viewed their relationships with their parents collec- tively as warm and rewarding; (4) in general strong father identification seemed to show up on the rating scales labeling those boys as more calm and friendly 154 than those boys who were less highly identified. 8.83 Peck, R. F. “Family Patterns Correlated With Adoles- cent Personality,“ Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LVII (1958), 347-350. PROBLEM: To attempt to make a comparison of inner adolescent personality traits with the quality and type of home life they lead. METHOD: Case histories, interviews, Questionnaires, and field study techniques were used to gather daia from 17 girls and 17 boys and their families all of whom represented a cross section of the popula- tion born in 1933. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent personality traits appeared to have significant relationship to their parents' disciplinary methods and emotional ties, those coming from warm, democratic families showing more positive characteristics than those living in autocratic, distrustful, and disapproving atmOSpheres. 8.84 Peckham, Charles W., and Howel, Thomas Ford. ”Religion as a Cultural Factor in One Aspect of the Personality of Selected College Students,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XXXI (October, 1957), 75-81. PROBLEM;*TO determine whether or not those students embracing the same denomination of a religious con- trolled collegewill have better grades than those who do not. METHOD: Case histories were used to gather informa- tion on this tOpic from all the students graduating from an Evangelical United Brethren college between 1945-50. These groups were matched for race, age, occupation of father, place of residence, rank in high school and I.Q. scores. CONCLUSIONS: The grades of the group who were the same denomination as was the college were..129 higher than those who were not the same denomination, which is not enough difference to substantiate the hypothesis. 8.85 Pierson, Jerome; Greenburg, Herbert, and Sherman, Stanley, ”The Effects of Single Session Education Techniques on Prejudiced Attitudes,“ Journal of Educational Sociology, XXL (October, 1957)82-86. PROBLEM: To determine what the effect is on pre- judice of a number of educational techniques used in a single session. METHOD: 290 students in introductory psychology classes were tested for prejudice and then given a series of lectures, each one consisting of a different method for combating it. Then they were retested. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of the results of the retests, it appeared that there was no significant 155 change in the attitudes of the students involved after hearing these lectures. 8.86 Prahl, Marie R.; D'Amico, Louis A.: Bryant, Howard J. ”The Relation Between MAT Scores and Achievement in Junior College Subjects," Educational and Psycholo- gical Measurement, XIX (Spring, 1959), 611-616. PROBLEM: To determine to what degree of accuracy MAT scores can be used to predict grades in junior college. METHOD: The grades of 450 students at Flint Junior College were compared with the results of MAT tests administered to them during the 1956-1957 school year. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that scores on the MAT tests are valid enough to justify their use for pre- diction of achievement in junior college. 8.87 Psathas, George. ”Ethnicity, Social Class, and Adolescent Independence from Parental Control,“ American Sociological Review, XXII (August, 1957), 415-423. PROBLEM: To find out how ethnic affiliation and social class membership affect parents‘ control of adoles- cent independence. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 467 high school boys median age 15.10 years, who were southern Italian and Eastern EurOpean Jewish in background. CONCLUSIONS: Four different areas of independence were isolated: (l) permissiveness in outside acti- vities; (2) regard of parents for judgment of adoles- cent; (3) those activities associated with status; (4) permissiveness in age-related activities. These results show that when comparing ethnic behaviors, one must always take into account differences re- sulting from class affiliation. 8.88 Racky, Donald J. ”Predictions of Ninth Grade Wood Shop Performance From Aptitude and Interest Measures,“ Educational and Psychological Measurement, XIX (Spring, 1959): 629'636. PROBLEM: To develop a formula which can be used to predict success for boys in shopwork. METHOD: A test battery was used to gather data from 215 freshmen high school boys enrolled in shop classes in Chicago Public Schools. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that use of the tests for final decisions involving selection or elimination of students is not warranted; however, they could serve a definite purpose in showing which pupils might be expected to have difficulty with shop courses. 8.89 Reals, Willis H. ”Leadership in the High School,” The School Review, XLVI (1938), 523-531. 156 PROBELM: To determine what factors in the home life accounts for the development of leaders and non- leaders. METHOD: Interviews were given to 74 high school students designated as leaders and nonleaders and their mothers. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that although there were slight differences in the homes of the two groups, they were more of degree than of content. 8.90 Reuter, Edward B. ”The Education of the Adolescent,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XIV (October, 1940}. 67-78. PROBLEM: To discuss the role and its differences in the past and present of education in the transi- tional period of adolescence. METHOD: Analysis and interpretation of original manuscripts; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: High schools, and colleges to some degree, have evolved and are presently carrying on a more elaborate extension of their original functions as places in which to contain and entertain that segment of the pOpulation, which is made up of adolescents, as yet unready for work or such other activity. 8.91 Roberts, Helen Erskine. ”The Reactions of a Group of High School Sophomores to Their Experiences in Special Classes,” California Journal of Education Research, X (November, 1959), 220-228. PROBLEM: To discover how the majority of students in this study viewed grades, extra assignments, special section placement, longer homework assign- ments, and other aspects of special calsses. METHOD: Interviews and Opinion polls were adminis- tered to 94 sophomore students enrolled in special geometry, Spanish, and English sections. CONCLUSIONS: Although somewhat divided on opinions regarding marks (a small majority feeling that better grades are achieved in regular classes), most of the participants in the special classes viewed it as a distinctly rewarding experience and that the classes should be extended to future tenth grades and also be continued in the eleventh grade, and that they should require more work than regular classes. 8.92 Rosen, Bernard C. ”Conflicting Group Membership: A Study of Parent-Peer Group Cross Pressures," American Sociological Review, XX (April, 1955), 155‘161 e PROBLEM: Using the Observance or nonobservance of 157 Kosher meatllaws, the object of this study was to determine the manifestation of the influence of pressures on the adolescent from his parent and from his peers. METHOD: Interviews, opinion polls, and Observation of 50 Jewish adolescents in a high school in a small upper New York State city were used to gather data for the study. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that two situations in particular caused conflicting expectations and pres- sures: (l) peer observant, parents nonobservant; (2) peer nonobservant, parents observant. On the whole, the data indicate that the peer group exerts greater influence on the choice of the adolescent in this matter than does the parents. 8.93 Ryon, F. J., and Davie, James 5. "Social Acceptance, Academic Achievement, and Academic Aptitude Among High School Students,” Journal of Educational Research, LII (November, 1958), 101-106. PROBLEM: To determine the relationship in the stu- dent culture between social acceptance and grades. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 326 students in four classes in the senior high school of a sub- urban town; 232 of these students were college pre- paratory pupils. CONCLUSIONS: (1) although small, there is a signi- ficant and positive relationship between grades and acceptance among the high school students tested; (2) the data tend to refute the theory that rejec- tion by peers will cause a student to turn to higher grades; instead academic success might earn the student a certain amount of prestige. 8.94 Scheidlinger, Saul. ”A Comparative Study of the Boy Scout Movement in Different National and Social Groups,” American Sociological Review, XIII (December, 1948), 739-750. PROBLEM: The author is using the Boy Scout Organiza- tion to study, comparatively, various cultural im- pacts used to foster nationalism in youth organiza- tions. METHOD: Discussion of the problem with reference to published materials and documents. No sample. CONCLUSIONS: "The institution of scouting has be- come a tool for inculcating into the young a total system of integrated behavior patterns considered desirable by the particular national or social group which is making use of the scout program. The specific national and cultural interests of the group, the given time, and factors determine the variations in the methods and objectives of the International Boy Scout Movement.” p.750 8.95 Spaulding, Charles 8., and Bolin, Ruth 5. ”The Cliques .\ 158 as a Device for Social Adjustment,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XXIV (November, 1950), 147-153. .__ PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that although the U. S. is predominantly a secondary society, it does use primary groups for making certain adjustments. METHOD: Sociometric tests and interviews were used to gather data from 220 girls in a freshmen class in a high school in Los Angeles. CONCLUSIONS: (1) girls used friendship groups already in existence as a means of easing adjustment to a new high school environment; (2) those girls who had no previous clique memberships established them shortly after enteringtngh school. 8.96 Trow, W. C.; et al, "The Class as a Group: Conclusions from Research in Group Dynamics,” Journal of Educa- tional Psychology, LXI (1950), 322-338 (Seidman, 437-452) ' PROBLEM: To discover methods for use by teachers in creating the best possible learning situation in their classrooms,-and to answer other related questions. METHOD: Review of the existing literature with any pertinence to this tOpic. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that learning progress is definitely affected by group phenomena as well as the kind of learning that occurs. Three sources of increased motivation were identified: gOal deter- mination, SUpportive atmosPhere, and participating members. 8.97 Warnath, Charles F. ”The Relation of Family Cohesive- ness and Adolescent Independence to Social Effect- iveness,” Marriage and Family_Livigg, XVII (Novem- ber, 1955). 3461548. PROBLEM: To determine the relationship of the type of family environment to the social acceptance Of its adolescent members. METHOD: Data were collected from 142 ninth-grade boys through the use of interviews and question- naires. 5‘ CONCLUSIONS: From this study, it seems that the home environment is a place for the learning and develop- ment of social skills and perhaps the desire to participate in group activities; those adolescents coming from affectionate, democratic type families, are better able to fit into the social structure of the adolescent peer groups. 8.98 Weckler, Nora L. ”Social Class and School Adjustment in Relation to Character Reputation,“ Adolescent Character and Personality, (Havighurst and Taba) New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., chapter 5, 1949. PROBLEM: To determine the validity of the hypothe- 159 sis that character reputation of adolescents is a function of their social class status. METHOD: Case histories and interviews were conducted among 16 year old boys and girls in "Prairie City.” CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that the character reputation of the adolescent (in Prairie City at any rate) is largely a result of the amount of con- formity to the school, which had middle-class values and ideologies. To the degree that this can be considered representative of other communities, it would seem then that social class does play some part in this process, for most schools are middle- class oriented. 8.99 Witryol, S. L. “Age Trends in Children's Evaluations of Teacher Approved and Teacher Disapproved Behavior," Genetic Psycholognyonogrgphs, XLI (1950), 271-326. PROBLEM: To identify and compare the behaviors named by children and teachers as most approved or disapproved by teachers. METHOD: Open-end questionnaires were given to 2240 sixth to twelfth grade students, 80 teachers and 540 education students in order to gather necessary data. CONCLUSIONS: In general there was substantial agree- ment between students from grades six to twelve and experienced teachers in naming social values thought to be teacher approved or disapproved. This accuracy increases with the age of the pupils, the experience of the teacher, and is slightly greater for girls than boys. 8.100 Bassett, Raymond E. ”Cliques in a Student Body of .Stable Membership,” Sociometry, VII (1944), 290-302. PROBLEM: To report on relationships within and between cliques and of relationships between clique membership and place in the student body, based on class, place of residence, etc. (p.290) METHOD: Sociometric data were secured from question- naires administered to 147 of the 148 students attending Gorham Normal School about a month before the close of the college year, 1943. (p.290) CONCLUSIONS: The results seem to suggest the follow- ing: (1) in a closed community of stable membership, individuals rejected by those they at first choose, tend in time to choose each other (p.292); (2) some tendency is seen for the popularity of a clique to vary directly with the popularity of its most popu- lar member (p.297); (3) the leaders, receiving about as many choices from outsiders as from clique mates when the community as a whole is considered, receive only half as many choices from outsiders as from clique mates in the leadership group along (p.298) 8.101 Cameron, Mary Y. “An Enquiry into the Factors Governing Memberships of Youth Clubs and Juvenile Organizations,” e . ~ . e ‘ t a . e . . 1 e ‘ ' t . e O ‘ e e ‘ _ . . e i \ , n . n , 1 . | e 160 British Journal of Educational Psychology, XVIII (February, 1948), 48. PROBLEM: To discover why so large a number of young peOple are not attached to any organization. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample Of 150 boys and 150 girls between the ages of 14 and 18, who were divided into club and non-club mem- bers. CONCLUSIONS: The passivity of the non-club members may be due to lower intelligence, poorer physical stamina, negative social attitudes, lack of intellec- tual stimulus, interest in non-group activities, or simply to lack of Opportunity. (All from p. 48) 8.102 Hurlock, E. 8., and McDonald, L. C. ”Undesirable Behavior Traits in Junior High School Students,” Child Development, V (September, 1934), 278-290. PROBLEM: To find if there is a relationship between chronological age and specific behavior traits, and if any sex differences exist in these (p.279). METHOD: Questionnaires were filled out by the teachers of 790 junior high school students, aged 11 to 14 (predominantly Jewish and from well-to-do homes) relating to their observations of 37 specific unde- sirable behavior traits. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicates that there is a relationship between chronological age and behavior traits, depending in a measure upon sex difference. In this sample the peak for ages showing the greatest number of undesirable traits was 14 years for the girls and 12 years for the boys. The only traits they found for the boys bearing no relation to age, were fearfulness, temper tantrums, and lack of interest. In girls, they were lack of interest, laziness, bullying other children, and rudeness. (p.289) 8.103 Landis, Judson T. (Kenneth C. Kidd collected and tabu- lated the data under the directorship of J. T. Landis). ”Attitudes and Policies Concerning Marriages Among High School Students,” Marrigge and Family Living, XVIII (May, 1956), 128-136. PROBLEM: To better understand the nature of the concerns school administrators have about high school marriages, the policies they pursue concerning such marriages, and the extent of positive programs in family life education in California high schools. (p.128) METHOD: Questionnaires were sent to the principals of each of the 469 high schools listed by the Calif- ornia Association of Secondary School Administrators (61% were returned). (p. 129) CONCLUSIONS: (1) almost all schools cease to require attendance after marriage; (2) opinions are divided as to whether or not married students are a problem 161 in the classroom, but very few feel they are an asset; (3) policies concerning pregnancy vary from immediate expulsion to leaving the choice to the student; (4) schools are offering courses in marri- age preparation more than ever before but the ma- jority are at the senior level and the marriages are occurring at all levels. 162 C. THE ADOLESCENT AND HIS PEERS C.l Anastasi, Anne and Miller, Shirley. “Adolescent 'Prestige Factors' in Relation to Scholastic and Socio-economic Variables,” Journal of Social Psychology, XXIX (February, 1949),143-50. PROBLEM: To study, by comparing two groups of adoles- cents matched in sex ratio, approximate age, and grade level, but sharply different in scholastic achieve- ment and socio-economic level, the part that addi- tional factors (besides age and sex) may play in the behavior commonly associated with adolescence. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 100 male and female high school students in a small suburban community in the New York City area. CONCLUSIONS: In general, group differences were greater than sex differences. Factors chosen by all the students as important fell into the stereotype of the popular, well-dressed, conformist to the group ideals, while the college-prep group put more emphasis on serious-mindedness, creativity, indivi- duality, and enthusiasm. The non college-prep students were more concerned with athletics, appear- ance, and maturity. C.2 Ausubel, David Paul; Schiff, H. H. and Gasser, E. B. "A Preliminary Study of Developmental Trends in Socioempathy: Accuracy of Perception of Own and Others' Sociometric Status," Child Development, XXIII (1952), 111-118. PROBLEM: To devise a method for measuring various developmental aspects of sociempathy, i.e., changes with age, and teachers' rating ability. METHOD: Rating scales designed to determine the ability of the individual to accurately place himself on a spectrum were administered to elementary and junior high school pupils from the public schools in Bloomington, Illinois, and to the junior and senior classes of the University High School. CONCLUSIONS: At all grade levels there were gener- ally high correlations between actual and predicted sociometric status, with a trend toward increased ability with advance in age. Children at all grade levels tended to use the upper parts of the rating and predicting scales disproportionately. There is a possibility that as the age of their pupils increases the sociempathic ability of the teachers decreases. From these findings, it seems that a reasonable accurate measure has been developed. C.3 Ausubel, David P. ”Sociempathy as a Function of Socio- metric Status in an Adolescent Group,” Human Rela- tions, VIII (Spring, 1955), 75-84. PROBLEM: To determine the validity of the hypothesis .\ 163 that ”like" sociometric status persons perceive one another more accurately than "unlike.” METHOD: Data were gatheredby having students rate each other on a five-point scale for acceptability, and, in addition rating themselves as they thought they would be rated by their classmates. CONCLUSIONS: While sociometric status did not signi- ficantly affect self perception and perception of others in one's group, there is a relationship be- tween sociometric status of the subjects perceived and sociempathy, C.4 Ausubel, David Paul. The Theory_and Problems of Adoles- cent Development, New York: Grune and Stratton, 1954. (Summary of that part of the book dealing with the adolescent and his peers.) PROBLEM: To explain the functions of the adolescent peer group. METHOD: Discussion of literature and findings on adolescence. No sample. CONCLUSIONS: The functions of the peer group are: (1) to provide the adolescent with primary status; (2) to act as the major source of derived status during adolescence; (3) to relieve the disorienta- tion and loss of stability during the change from childhood to adult frame of reference by acting as a merging and combining frame of reference; (4) to aid the adolescent in his strides toward emancipa- tion; (5) to act as a solid front in combating authority; (6) to act as a major training institution for adolescence in our society; (7) to provide an opportunity and set of norms for increased hetero- sexual contacts and adolescent sex behavior; (8) to lighten the load of frustration and to anhhor the whole of the transitional period. 0.5 Barbe, Walter 8. ”Peer Relationships of Children of Different Intelligence Levels,” School and Society, xxc (1954), 60-62. PROBLEM: In what manner do children of above and below average intelligence choose their friends? METHOD: School children were asked to pick out their friends or those with whom they would like to be friends. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that above average children are better liked than the slow learners by the aver- age and below average students, for bright children were chosen more often as friends than the slow learners by the avgrage child in the class. C.6 Bogardus, Ruth and Otto, Phyllis. ”The Social Psycho- logy Of Youth," Sociology and Social Research, XX (1936). 260-270. PROBLEM: To gather data on chumming. METHOD: The data were gathered from questionnaires submitted to 300 college students in sociology 164 classes. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that most chum friendships begin in high school and continue in college averaging at least four years, and that women chums mean more to each other than do men chums. While most chums share similar standards and ideals, personality traits, ages and college classification, many differ significantly in socia- bility and in their chosen life's work. Also of major importance to all chums was neatness and 'Sociability duality.” C.7 Bonney, Merl E. 'POpular and Unpopular Children, A Sociometric Study,” Sociometry Monographs, No. 9 (1947), Beacon House. PROBLEM: To develop a classification of personality trait-syndromes that will cover all traits involved in gaining social acceptance and in acquiring friends. METHOD: From an original group, numbering 100 white male and female sixth graders, case histories, ob- servation, and sociometric tests were used to limit the sample to ten subjects from whom the data were acquired. CONCLUSIONS: The findings clearly showed that it is impossible to classify ”popular“ and "unpopular" children on the basis of their personality traits, as it was shown that it is the "whole” personality and its total impression for which a person is liked or disliked, not individual traits. C.8 Bossard, James H. S. The Sociology of Child Development. New York: Harper and Brothers, (1948) (Summary of that part of the book dealing with peer groups.) PROBLEM: To discuss the role of the peer group. METHOD: Discussion of information presented. No sample. CONCLUSIONS: The roles of peer groups in child develop- ment include: emphasis on the rights of others, controlling agencies for their membership, a place of determination for personality roles, and as cultural entities. Although the individual child's contact with peer groups depends a great deal on (I) the length of his membership and (2) the amount of his need for peer group activities, this experi- ences in and with peer groups is one of the major experiences in his life, and accounts for at least one of the fundamental influences in shaping the personality he will assume in his adult life. C.9 Bretsch, Howard 5. ”Social Skills and Activities of Socially Accepted and Unaccepted Adolescents,” Journal of Educational Psychology, XLIII (December, 19527: ““9'558. PROBLEM: To show what relationship exists between classmates' ratings of acceptibility and self ratings 165 concerning participation in social skills. METHOD: Out of an original group of 696 ninth grade, students, data were collected from the rating scores which fell into the highest and lowest quartiles, and subsequently compared. ' CONCLUSIONS: In the higher group, the boys appeared to give above average self ratings, but this trend was significant for the girls only in the area of swimming (and the mean self-rating scores). The pupils who were judged to be more acceptable to their classmates were found to participate in a slightly but significantly greater number of social activities. 0.10 Cameron, W. Jaffray, ”A Study of Early Adolescent Personality," Proggessive Education, XV (November, 1938). 553-563. PROBLEM: In order to achieve a more harmonious blending of the school's objectives and needs and motives Of students, it was the purpose of this study to formulate a method for increasing under- standing of the social needs and interests arising in early adolescence. METHOD: Case histories, interviews, and personal participation were used to gather data from 200 children in a series of schools. CONCLUSIONS: The characteristics of the adolescent group as a whole, i.e., the ”in” group were a com- bination of physical and social maturity, friend- liness, good looks, and high pOpularity. The - majority of the subjects were concerned with accept- ance by their peers, approval from the opposite sex, and social activities; all of these were accompanied by feelings of acute insecurity. C.ll Centers, Richard. "Social Class Identification of American Youth,“ Journal of Personality, XVIII (1950). 290-302. PROBLEM: To ascertain the substance and scape of the feelings of adolescents concerning class member- Ship. METHOD: Data were gathered from questionnaires administered to groups of adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: (1) adolescents 333 class conscious and their patterns closely resemble those of adults in similar occupational stratification, with the major difference being that adolescents place themselves more toward the upper middle classes than do adults; (2) maturity is significantly related to self place- ment on the class scale; (3) girls seem to classify themselves higher on the class scale than do boys of the same strata; (4) adolescents who are children of manual workers are not significantly influenced by their parents' union membership, but the opposite is true of the children of white collar workers. 166 C.12 Christensen, Harold T. "Dating Behavior Evaluated by High School Students," American Journal of Sociolo , LVII (May, 1952), 580-586. PROBLEM: To determine adolescent attitudes toward dating practices. METHOD: From 8000 teenagers spread across the United States, a representative sample of 25 were chosen to represent the high school population of the nation, and the data were gathered from Opinion polls sub- mitted to them. ‘ CONCLUSIONS: It was discovered there are definite male and female patterns of dating: the boys are con- sidered more natural, but also more lacking in manners, more inconsiderate, more discourteous, and more aggres- sive in making a greater play for sexuality famil- iarity; the girls on the other hand are thought to be more socially and sentimentally disposed and there- fore are more likely to appear SUperficial or arro- gant or to be sensitive, possessive, or avaricious. Boys and girls are generally agreed on: (1) what to look for in choosing a mate; (2) conduct character- istic of each of the sexes; (3) self-criticisms as they affect the dating situation. However, they disagree principally in the area of projected blame, each sex identifying with the patterns of his or her respective sex. C.13 Cottrell, Leonard 5. Jr. ”The Adjustment of the Indivi- dual to His Age and Sex Roles,” American Sociolo- gical Review, XLVIII (October, 1952), 617-620. PROBLEM: To discuss the problem of adjusting to culturally assigned age and/or sex roles. METHOD: A review and summarization of the conclu- sions of others into a series of propositions con9 cerning the principal causes of the extent of ad- justment an individual is likely to make. CONCLUSIONS: Cottrell differentiates between role in two ways: (1) as a cultural role, and (2) as a theoretical system of responses composing culturally expected behavior, and then equates these to the particular and actual system of responses with which a person really Operates. C.14 Crist, John R. "High School Dating as a Behavior System," Marriage and Familprivng, XV (1953), 23-28. PROBLEM: To report on the conclusions of a study on high school dating. METHOD: Data were collected from adolescent high school students. CONCLUSIONS: (1) dating is generally controlled by the family but approved by peers; (2) early dating is done usually because it is an expectation of the group; (3) many students date solely because they wish to be accepted by their group, not because they are particularly interested in dating so much. 167 C.15 Davis, 0. L., Jr. ”The Effect of a sehool Camp Exper- ience on Friendship Choices,” Journal of Educational Sociology, XXXIII (1960), 305-313. PROBLEM: To test the validity of the hypothesis that social living experience at a school camp will increase the pOpularity with schoolmates of the part- icipants. , METHOD: 32 male and female eighth grade students who were enrolled in a campus laboratory school were interviewed and later tested sociometrically. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that friendship of those participating were significantly affected; more were named as friends after the camp than before. Boys and girls were affected differently, however, as the boys were chosen on more items of the sociometric tests than the girls after the camp experience. C.16 Gronlund, Norman E. and Anderson, Loren. ”Personality Characteristics of Socially Accepted, Socially Neglected, and Socially Rejected Junior High School Pupils,” Educational Administration and Supervision, XLIII (October, 1957), 329-338- PROBLEM: To compare the various and perhaps explana- tory characteristics of the socially neglected and rejected with the traits of the socially accepted. METHOD: The data were collected from sociometric tests and social analysis forms given to 158 seventh and eighth grade pupils in central Illinois. CONCLUSIONS: The traits of the socially accepted boys and girls were very similar, chief among them being: good-looking, tidy, friendly, likable, enthusiastic, cheerful, interested in dating, quiet, humor, initia- tive, talkative. Among the socially neglected, it was a case of being overlooked on these items, not disliked. The rejected, however, were rated nega- tively on all the above traits. C.17 Gronlund, N. E. and Whitney, A. P. ”Relation Between Pupil's Social Acceptability in the Classroom, in the School, and in the Neighborhood," School Review, LXIV (September, 1956), 267-271. PROBLEM: To ascertain the connection between pupils' acceptance by classmates in the school situation and friends in the neighborhood. METHOD: Sociometric tests were administered to 340 junior high students in a northern city of Illinois. CONCLUSIONS: The results showed the status of the student in the classroom is a fairly accurate indi- cation of his general acceptance by his peers, for pupils who were highly sought after in school tended to have high general acceptibility throughout the school, home, and neighborhood, while those who were ”unpOpular” with their classmates were also generally unacceptable to their peers in their neigh- 168 borhood situation. C. 18 Harper, Robert A. "Is Conformity a General or a =r Specific Behavior Trait?" American Sociological Review, XII (February, 1947), 81- 86. PROBLEM: To determine if conformity can be con— sidered a general behavior trait or if it is in actuality a specific response to an individual situation. _ METHOD: Questionnaires and interviews were admin- istered to a sample consisting of male students living in a dorm in a large state university, fe- males in a small state school, males studying in a Catholic university, conscientious objectors residing in a civilian public service camp, and a group of incoming inmates Of a federal reform school for young men. CONCLUSIONS: From the data gathered, it appears that conformity is not a general behavior trait, but is associated with specific situations. How- ever, the majority Of the scores fell in the median range and the extremes were rare. Women seem to be conformists more than men, with the tendency to conform increasing with age for both sexes. The smaller the town the greater the tendency to con- formity and the non-farming occupations have the greatest amount of non-conformity. C.19 Harris, D. B. and Tseng, Sing Chu. "Children's Attitudes Toward Peers and Parents as Revealed by Sentence Completions,” Child Development, XXII (1957), 401- 411. PROBLEM: To find out how children feel toward their peers and parents through the administration of sentence completions. METHOD: Sentence completions were given to 3000 students, third grade to high school, from public and parochial schools in a county seat town in rural Minnesota. CONCLUSIONS: (1) boys and girls are, in the major- ity, favorable to their peers and are especially positive in their attitudes toward their own sexed peers, at every age; (2) in general boys are more neutral in their feelings, and boy-girl antipathies are caused by girls changing their attitudes toward their opposite sexed peers; (3) boys and girls ex- press more positive than negative attitudes towards their parents with mothers receiving positive ratings slightly more often than fathers; (4) when there is a difference in attitudes for mothers and fathers, the mother usually receives more positive ratings. C.20 Hartley, Ruth Edith. Sociality in Pre-Adolescent Bgys, Teachers College, Columbia University, N. Y., Bureau of Publications, 1946. 169 PROBLEM: To study and analyze the workings of socialty -- the amount of acceptance an individual accords to his peers. METHOD: Through questionnaires and observation, the data were gathered from 140 boys ages 10-12 in an elementary school in N.Y.C. CONCLUSIONS: (1) for the subjects tested, there was a low correlation between self judgment of personal sociality and actual performance on any measure of it; (2) although in determining their own sociality, students seemed to be influenced by their success in establishing and keeping social contacts, popu- larity appears to have no direct relationship to desire for social contact. C.21 Harvey, O. J.; Sherif, M. and White, B. J. "Status in Experimentally Produced Groups,” American Journal of Sociology, LX (January, 1955), 370-379. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that when individuals are presented with goals having common appeal and requiring interdependent action for their completion, these individuals will form a definite group struc- ture made up of differentiated status positions and reciprocal roles. METHOD: Twenty-four 12 year old boys at a summer camp were studied in a situation group interaction type study. CONCLUSIONS: The hypothesis is that out of a number of individuals a definite structured group would form was substantiated. In addition, it was shown that when group members are confronted with an unstructured task, assuming sufficient motivation, their evaluations of group mate's performances are influenced by the status that person holds in the social hierarchy. C.22 Hildreth, Gertrude. ”The Social Interests of Young Adolescents,” Child Develgpment, XVI (1945), 119- 121. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that as well as maturing early physically, girls also tend to mature earlier in their social interest of a heterosexual nature. METHOD: The Hildreth Personality and Interest Inventory: High School Form was given to 87 boys and 105 girls aged 10-14, all of whom had above average socio-economic backgrounds. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the hypothesis that girls mature earlier in those social interests that are related to their earlier physiological sex maturation. C.23 Hill, Thomas J. “Dating Patterns and Family Position,” Clearinngouse, XXIX (May, 1955), 552-554. PROBLEM: To determine what consequence socio-economic 170 status has on the dating habits of the adolescent within his school. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 229 students in grades 9 - 12 of a laboratory school in Florida. The students were of several economic levels. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the majority of the students date within their social and school class, with the pu- pils in the higher social classes having the great- est number of dating partners; (2) the pupils from the lower classes have a tendency to go outside when choosing dating partners, and it was also observed that when a student dates outside of his social class, he usually dates outside his school class too; (3) there is a steady increase in grades 9-11 in the amount and number of dates and partners followed by a definite decrease in grade 12. 0.24 Hobart, Charles W. ”Some Effects of Romanticism During Courtship on Marriage Pole Opinions,” Sociological agg Social Research, XLII (May-June, 1958), 336- 3 . PROBLEM: Is the existence of the unrealistic, romantic attitudes held by adolescents affecting their perceptions of the marital role? METHOD: A specially constructed Marital Role Inven- tory was administered to 831 undergraduate students at a coeducational sectarian college on the West Coast. CONCLUSIONS: (1) at different phases of courtship, marital role opinions will differ, with adolescents at the pre-marital stage having unrealistic Opinions; (2) a cyclic movement was observed which caused the Opinions of those adolescents who were at the be- ginning and at the end of their courtships to be the most similar; (3) it was concluded that the acceptance of a youth subculture was the only approach which gives an adequate explanation of the finding that in some reSpects the non-dating students are closer to the married students in their attitudes than were the going steady and engaged students. 0.25 Hollingshead, A. B. ”The Concept of Social Control," ”American Sociological Review, VI (April, 1941), 217-224. PROBLEM: To discuss the hypothesis that social be- havior is the conditioned response of an individual to the controls he has learned are a concomitant of his membership in group life and that the causes of differences in behavior by class, group, or society are differential associations. METHOD: Critical analysis of published materials; no sample. 171 CONCLUSIONS: (1) interrelations among people Opera- ting within the limits of rules, practices, and be- liefs customary to their culture make up society; (2) conformity is established through the use of folkways, ideologies and institutions; (3) PeOple are taught and restrained by systems of behavior control possessed by society. C.26 Hussmann, L. A. and Levine, Gene. “Social Class and Sociability in Fraternity Pledging,” Americgg Journal of Sociology, LXV (January, 1960), 391-399. PROBLEM: To discover: the differences between those freshmen who decide to attend Rush Week and those who do not; to determine what happens during Rush Week; to find out the differences between those who pledge and those who do not. METHOD: Case histories, interviews, and question- naires were used to gather data from 890 freshmen students at an Eastern male college of engineering and science. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the greater the income of the rushee's family, the higher the chance that he will pledge; (2) the youth with money, regardless of his person- ality, and the student with social experience, regard- less of his lack of money will both be picked over the poor and socially inexperienced rushee; (3) those students who "rush" have spent less time studying in high school than those students who do not attend Rush Week. C.27 Jones, Edward E. and deCharms, Richard. "Changes in Social Perception as a Function of the Personal Relevance of Behavior,” Readings in Social Psycho- lO , (ed.) E. E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, E. L. Hartley, New York: Henry Holt and Co., (1958), 102-1090 PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that depending on whether or not a behavior has personal meaning for the perceiver, different influences will be derived from the same behavior. METHOD: The data were gathered from volunteers (in groups of 5 or 6) in an introductory Psychology course at North Carolina. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that behavior will be perceived and interpreted differently depending on the personal relevance of the action to the maintenance of the values of the individual per- ceiver. C.28 Jones, Harold E. ”Adolescence in Our Society," in The Adolescent - A Book of Readings, (ed.) Seidman, Jerome M., New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. (1949), 50-60. PROBLEM: To summarize the results of a 25 year study of the relationship between physical growth 172 and acceptance by peers, and self-acceptance. METHOD: Case histories, systematic observation and Peer Rating Scales were obtained from these children at various stages of their development. CONCLUSIONS: (1) One of the chief findings was that in urban American culture, girls are faced with more serious difficulties in adjusting to changing social expectations than are boys; (2) expectations for girls in the beginning of adolescence include: being quiet, unassuming, talkative, and showing aggressive good fellowship; (3) on the other hand, boys appear to have a more uniform set of standards to meet in the process of developing their sex roles during a similar period of growth. C.29 Josselyn, Irene M. ”Social Pressures in Adolescence,” Social Casework, XXXIII (May, 1952), 187-193. PROBLEM: TO study the proposition that our culture presents the adolescent with a set of expectations and then does not provide him with a means to help him meet these expectations. METHOD: Discussion of published materials and existing literature; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the social situation as it now exists tends to heighten adolescent apprehensions and bewilderment; (2) the presence of half truths adds to confusions, the behavior springing out of these half truths being unpredictable; (3) norms of adult expectations are so set up that it is extremely difficult for those who do not fit into this pattern to establish themselves in their peer group. C.30 Kanin, Eugene J. “Male Aggression in Dating-Courtship Relations,” American Journal of Sociology, LXIII (September, 1957), 197-204. PROBLEM: To determine if (1) protective influence by the family, (2) alcohol, or (3) Place of the occurrence were relevant factors in explaining male aggression in dating. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to the female members of ten university classes in Sociology and English in 1956. CONCLUSIONS: From the findings, it appears that the factors mentioned above are not to be considered primary causes of male aggression in dating; it seems that seasonal peaks (spring and summer) and length and involvement of the relationship are more important factors in determining the reasons for aggression in male-female dating relationships. C.3l Keislar, Evan R. ”A Distinction Between Social Accept- ance and Prestige Among Adolescents,” Child Develop- ment, XXIV (1953), 275-283. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that there is a 173 distinct difference between social acceptance and prestige and that these two traits will Show diff- erent patterns of association on sociometric tests. METHOD: Students were administered tests designed to show if there are distinctions between percep- tion of prestige and social acceptance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that social accept- ance was closely associated with popularity with one's peers, while prestige was linked with scho- lastic success and effort and other similar variables. C.32 Keislar, Evan R. "Peer Group Ratings of High School Pupils with High and Low Grades,“ Journal of Egperi- mental Education, XXIII (June, 1955), 375-378. PROBLEM: To discover how grades affect acceptance by one's peers. METHOD: ”Guess Who” rating scales were given to 196 girls and 194 boys in the eleventh grade of a high school in Los Angeles. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that: (l) the group receiving higher marks (both sexes) was rated higher on enjoying and persistence in school work and in putting studies before everything else; (2) girls with high marks were considered to be less popular but more influential with boys; (3) the boys receiv- ing the higher marks were rated as being more con- siderate. C.33 Keislar, Evan R. ”The Generalization of Prestige Among Adolescent Boys," California Journal of Educational Research, X (September, 1959), 153-156. PROBLEM: To study the hypothesis that on a prefer- ence test, an adolescent boy will try to imitate one of his peers who has been judged to have high achievement in tasks important to adolescent boys, and that he will do the opposite for a peer with low achievement in such tasks. METHOD: The data were gathered as a result of the systematic observation of 60 ninth grade boys with Otis scores over 100. CONCLUSIONS: Subjects changed their ”right” answers to those of their peers, even when deliberately made wrong by the testers, in a situation where they had an Opportunity of being influenced by the peer's answer. It was concluded that the hypothesis was substantially upheld. C.34 Kelly, H. H. and Volkart, Edmund H. ”The Resistance to Change Of GrOUp Anchored Attitudes,” American Sociological Review, XVII (August, 1952), 453-465. PROBLEM: To discover what effect on the tendency to resistance of change of attitudes firmly entrenched in group norms, the presence of different values on membership held by members has. METHOD: Interviews and questionnaires were used to 174 gather information from 145 Boy Scouts on their attitudes toward camping before and after listening to a speech denouncing the emphasis of the scouting organization on these activities and recommending in their place various city activities. CONCLUSIONS: (1) it was found that public conditions carried more influence than private or confidential did; (2) the extent of the effect of the message is inversely proportional to the amount of value placed on group membership, this relationship being even stronger under private conditions as Opposed to public 0 C.35 Komarovsky, Mirra. ”Cultural Contradictions and Sex Roles,” American Journal of Sociology, LII (November, 1946), 184:189. PROBLEM: To explain the essence of certain irrecon- cilable sex roles demanded by our society of college women. METHOD: From interviews and autobiographical essays, information was gathered from 73 senior members of a course on the family and from 80 senior female members of a social psychology class. CONCLUSIONS: Women college students commonly appear to be confronted with inconsistent and mutually exclusive adult sex role expectations -- homemaker on the one hand and career girl on the other. As a result, some girls feel they must vacillate with the pressures of the moment, and all of them suffer from the resulting manifestations of uncertainty and insecurity. C.36 Komarovsky, Mirra. “Functional Analysis of Sex Roles,” American Sociologgcal Review, XV (October, 1951), 508-516. PROBLEM: Since it is generally accepted that there is in the role of the middle-class urban woman a definite strain, it is here attempted to discover why today's sex roles are so fraught with mental and social discord, and which of the sexes is best equipped psychologicallyto shift from parental family to married living. METHOD: Case histories and secondary sources were used to gather data from middle-class, urban, married women. CONCLUSIONS: In the woman's childhood such strong ties are built up toward the parental family that the woman is severely handicapped in the psycholo- gical shift from devotion to her parental family to loyalty to her family of procreation. Men are given more freedom and privacy and they are given it earlier in childhood, enabling them to prepare themselves psychologically for the future shift which marriage demands. 175 C.37 Kuhlen, R. G. and Lee, B. J. ”Personality Characteris- tics and Social Acceptability in Adolescence,” Journal of Educational Psyphology, XXXIV (1943), 321-3E0 e PROBLEM: To ascertain what personality characteris- tics are related to, and, as such, might nurture social acceptability among like-sexed adolescents. METHOD: Data were obtained from questionnaires admin- istered to 600 sixth, ninth and twelfth grade stu- dents. CONCLUSIONS: (1) among those characteristics attri- buted to those who were the most acceptable socially were: popular, happy, enthusiastic, friendly, ini- tiator of activities; (2) changes were noted in pro- gressing from the sixth to the twelfth grade in the characteristic considered necessary to social accept- ance. Twelfth grade boys are more active, aggressive socially, and tend to be extrovertish; however, looks are not as important to them as to boys in grade six; (3) for girls, most of these characteristics applied, with the addition of being sociable and enjoying a joke. C.38 Lessing, Elise Elkins. ”Mother-Daughter Similarity on the Kuder Vocational Interest Scales,“ Educational and Psychological Measurement, (Fall, 1959), XIX, 395—400. PROBLEM: To measure the degree of homogeneity be- tween mothers and their daughters on vocational interests. METHOD: Interviews, mailed and personally adminis- tered questionnaires were used to gather data from 54 female students and their mothers. CONCLUSIONS: (1) in relation to persuasive and mechanical interests, mother-daughter pairs were significantly alike in their responses; (2) no indication of the importance of intelligence or special environment was found in these correlations; (3) there was no evidence leading to the conclusions that mothers and daughters have the least resem- blance on scales designed to test immaturity, unreal- istic ideas, etc. C.39 Lowrie, Samuel H. ”Dating Theories and Student Re- Sponses,' American Sociological Review, XXI (June, 1951), 334-340. PROBLEM: To discover if suspected confusion between sociological usages of the terms courting and dat- ing and actual usages really do exist, and to find out if any of the old definitions are still in prac- tical usage today. METHOD: Questionnaires were given to 931 girls and 914 boys in grades 11 and 12 and through the junior year of college. CONCLUSIONS: (1) it was shown that there is some 176 confusion in the definition and usage of these terms; (2) it was discovered that Noday the primary reason for dating is because of love and the neces- sity of mate selection; this reason was followed by the desire to learn; (3) girls appear to put the most emphasis on learning from dating, while boys are most concerned with having a good time and gaining prestige. C.40 McGuire, Lennon M. and White, G. "Adolescent Peer Acceptance and Valuations of Role Behavior,“ American Psychologist, VIII (August, 1953), 397. PROBLEM: To denote lucidly, and to quantify the ways that adolescents are valued and perceived by one another. METHOD: Sociometric valuations were given to 674 senior high school students. CONCLUSIONS: (1) it was found that, in general, acceptance of individuals by their peers did not vary significantly from year to year; (2) the index of peer status was found to be relatively stable as a measure of peer acceptance among adolescents. C.41 Marks, J. B. "Interests, Leadership, and Sociometric Status Among Adolescents,“ Sociometry, XVII (November, 1954). 340-349. PROBLEM: To attempt to link with social acceptability stated, inventories interests. METHOD: Interest tests and sociometric question- naires were administered to 370 students in grades 8 - 12, and from these the most unacceptable and acceptable were matched for grade and sex for further analysis. CONCLUSIONS: (1) it seems that, in general, adoles- cents are companionable, show an interest in people, and are impulsive; (2) it appears that, for boys, mechanical interests, and for girls, intellectual interests may provide compensation for isolation, but at the same time add to isolation; (3) the accepted girls expressed more interests that can be considered sociable, heterosexual, and disapproved by adults, and had considerably fewer intellectual- culture interests; (4) the accepted boys had scores negatively correlated with non-conformist tendencies and a curvilinear relationship with interest maturity. C.42 Meyer, William J. “Relations Between Social Need Strivings and the DeveIOpment of Meterosexual Affiliations,“ Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LIX (1959), 51-570 PROBLEM: To determine the influence of succorance and playmirth on the development of heterosexual affiliations. METHOD: Questionnaires were distributed to 212 girls and 175 boys in grades 5 through 12 of a rural com- 178 munity in New York State. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study substantiate the assumption that a system of social reinforce- ments is used during the school years to maintain sex-typed behavior. C.43 Mohr, George J. and Despres, Mariah A. The Stormy Decade: Adolescence, New York: Random House, 1958 (Summary of those sections dealing with the adolescent peer group.) PROBLEM: To explain the adolescent peer group. METHOD: Discussion and interpretation of published materials; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: The peer group plays an important part in fulfilling the basic needs of the adolescent, which include at this time association with others his own age, and support in the beginnings of his break with his family. Adolescents may go from one group to another or they may join and rejoin the same group, dropping out for good with the assuming of adult responsibility and more individual relation- ships. \ C.44 Neiman, Lionel J. “The Influence of Peer Groups Upon Attitudes Toward the Feminine Role,” Social Problems, 11 (October, 1954), 104-111. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that peer groups have an important influence in setting adolescent norms, including those toward feminism. METHOD: Kirkpatrick's ”A Belief Pattern Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Feminism” was given to 107 males and females between the ages of 11 and 13, 108 between 15 and 18, and 107 between 20 and 24, all from the lower socio-economic class. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that during adoles- cence there is a lessening of importance of family norms as the influence of the norms of the peer group becomes more significant. C.45 Neugarten, Bernice L. “Social Class and Friendships Among School Children,” American Journal of Sociology, LI (January, 1946), 305-313. PROBLEM: To answer the question: does the social class position of the family play an important part in the child's choice of friends or his reputation among his peers? METHOD: Sociometric Opinion polls and question- naires were administered to 174 boys and girls in grades 5 and 6 and to 206 boys and girls in grades 10 and II, representing all of the social classes of the town. CONCLUSIONS: (1) there is a striking relationship between the socio-economic position of the family and the child's friendship status, and it was found that it works at two levels; (2) although both age groups in the picking of friends are distinguishing 178 munity in New York State. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study substantiate the assumption that a system of social reinforce- ments is used during the school years to maintain sex-typed behavior. C.43 Mohr, George J. and DeSpres, Mariah A. The Stormy Decade: Adolescence, New York: Random House, 1958 (Summary of those sections dealing with the adolescent peer group.) PROBLEM: To explain the adolescent peer group. METHOD: Discussion and interpretation of published materials; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: The peer group plays an important part in fulfilling the basic needs Of the adolescent, which include at this time association with others his own age, and support in the beginnings of his break with his family. Adolescents may go from one group to another or they may join and rejoin the same group, dropping out for good with the assuming of adult responsibility and more individual relation- Ships 0 \ C.44 Neiman, Lionel J. "The Influence of Peer Groups Upon Attitudes Toward the Feminine Role,“ Social Problems, II (October, 1954), 104-111. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that peer groups have an important influence in setting adolescent norms, including those toward feminism. METHOD: Kirkpatrick's ”A Belief Pattern Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Feminism" was given to 107 males and females between the ages of 11 and 13, 108 between 15 and 18, and 107 between 20 and 24, all from the lower socio-economic class. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that during adoles- cence there is a lessening of importance of family norms as the influence of the norms of the peer group becomes more significant. C.45 Neugarten, Bernice L. “Social Class and Friendships Among School Children,” American Journal of Sociology, LI (January, 1946), 305-313. PROBLEM: To answer the question: does the social class position of the family play an important part in the child's choice of friends or his reputation among his peers? METHOD: Sociometric Opinion polls and question- naires were administered to 174 boys and girls in grades 5 and 6 and to 206 boys and girls in grades 10 and 11, representing all of the social classes of the town. CONCLUSIONS: (1) there is a striking relationship between the socio-economic position of the family and the child's friendship status, and it was found that it works at two levels; (2) although both age groups in the picking of friends are distinguishing 179 along class lines, the older children are not using this as a criterion regarding those that they re- ject as friends. C.46.Panos, D. Bardis. ”Attitudes Toward Dating Among Stu- dents of a Michigan High School,9 Sociology and Social Research, XLII (1958), 274-277. PROBLEM: To attempt to ascertain the length to which six and age influence attitudes toward dating and related practices. METHOD: 113 high school juniors aged 16 - 21 in a Michigan city were interviewed, given Opinion polls, and generally observed through the processes of field study and exploration in order to gather the neces- sary data. CONCLUSIONS: (1) females at all ages were less liberal than males; (2)males and females had begun to date at approximately the same age, 14, but were in agree- ment that girls should start to date earlier than boys; (3) unchaperoned activities were favored, but intimate physical relationships were somewhat frowned upon. C.47 Partridge, E. DeAlton. ”A Study of Friendships Among Adolescent Boys,” Journal of Genetic Psychology, XLII-XLIII (1933).'472-476. PROBLEM: TO test the hypothesis that children exhi- bit a tendency to choose for their friends other children of similar mental and moral development. METHOD: Interviews and questionnaires were used to gather data from 142 boys, between the ages of 12 and 17, attending a summer camp. CONCLUSIONS: It appears from the findings that the hypothesis that children pick for their friends children of like mental and moral development is substantiated. C.48 Phelps, Harold and Horrocks, John E. “Factors Influ- encing Informal Groups of Adolescents,” Child Development, XXIX (March, 1958), 69-86. PROBLEM: To investigate attitudes and activities leading to the establishment of informal adolescent groups 0 METHOD: Interviews and questionnaires were used to obtain data from a randomly drawn sample of 200 boys and girls in grades 7 through 12. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the most important overall reason for the establishment of informal groups among adoles- cents is to achieve a degree of emancipation from adult control; (2) they are formed by lower classes to fulfill a need for status and recognition not afforded by the students and faculty and values of the school, which are predominantly middle class; (3) the middle-class adolescents form such groups for a variety of reasons: pressure toward social -.v.- -. 180 conformity, home pressure to assume a semi-adult social role, Opportunities for unchaperoned acti- vities, pressures resulting from a need to play the masculine role, to excape the moral code of the home and school, etc. C.49 Pope, Benjamin. "Socio-Economic Contrasts in Children's Peer Culture Prestige Values,” Genetic ngchology Monographs, XLVIII (1953), 157-220. PROBLEM: To get information concerning the possibility of sex and/or socio-economic differences in prestige values within adolescent peer cultures. METHOD: A ”Guess Who" test was given to 400 sixth grade students. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that boys and girls of the higher socioeconomic classes place higher value on conforming to adult standards and "conventional” codes of conduct, while those in the lower socio- economic classes emphasize self-assertion and agression. C.50 Reuter, E. B. "The Sociology of Adolescence,” American Journal of Sociology, II (November, 1937), 414-427. PROBLEM: To critically analyze present knowledge in the area of adolescent research with the goal of describing a method t6 the approach of a sociolo- gical study of the adolescent world. METHOD: Discussion of personal documents of the author; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: The greater part of the individuals in society make the transition to adulthood without suffering noticeable mental strain or social disorder. The age at which this change begins and ends depends entirely on the individual child, and apparently even individual sex maturation sets no limit on the length of this phase. C.5l Scandrette, Onas C. ”Social Distance and Degree of Acquaintance,” Journal of Educational Research, LI (JanuarY. 1958). 367-372. PROBLEM: To establish how degree of acquaintance- ship affects friendship choices. METHOD: Acquaintanceship scales were given to 77 members of a ninth grade class who then rated each of the other 244 students in the ninth grade. CONCLUSIONS: (1) degree of acquaintanceship is definitely related to the number of times picked as a desired friend; (2) if an individual possesses socially acceptable personality traits, theoreti- cally the stronger the degree of acquaintanceship the greater are his chances of beingchosen as a friend; however, this can also work conversely. C.52 Seidler, Murray 8. and Ravtiz, Mel. ”A Jewish Peer Group,” American Journal of Sociology, LXI (July, 181 1955). 11-15. PROBLEM: To prove that the peer group under study ”was so strongly integrated that it became a primary group for its members and took over the role from the respective families." (15) METHOD: Case histories, personal participation and systematic observation were used as means of accumu- lating data from the activities of the 10 members of this group which started when the members were about 14 and lasted until the time of the review. (3) CONCLUSIONS: "The authors feel that their hypothesis was proven by the high incidence of out-marriages (3 out of 10), of non-conformist ideas, and of professionals -- physicians, psychiatrists, and social scientists -- as Opposed to businessmen. In any case the intense solidarity of the group and its long duration fostered a situation which was extreme- ly favorable to the members' internalization of its culture and all the personalities of the group were fundamentally affected by the group culture.“ (15) C.53 Stouffer, Samuel A. “An Analysis of Conflicting Social Norms,” American Sociological Review, XIV (December, 1949). 707-717. PROBLEM: ”To test the viewpoint that the range of approved or permissable behavior as perceived by the given individual is an important datum for the analysis of what constitutes a social norm in any group, and especially for the analysis of conflict- ing norms.” (708) METHOD: Open end type questionnaires were given to 196 Harvard and Radcliffe students enrolled in Social Relations 116. CONCLUSIONS: Three types of reactors were isolated: those who found the range of alternatives identical from the point of view of authorities and students; those who found them completely incompatible, and those who managed to strike an acceptable compro- mise between the two. The most important discovery is the unreality of using the stable ”social norm" as a starting point in drawing conclusions and form- ulating hypotheses, for it may be the very existence of some flexibility or social slippage -- but not too much, which makes behavior in groups possible. (717) C.54.Tyron, Caroline M. "The Adolescent Peer Culture,” 43rd Yearbook of the National Society_for the Stugy of Education, Part 1, (February, 1944), 217-239. PROBLEM: To discuss the adolescent peer culture. METHOD: Analysis Of published materials and case histories; no sample. CONCLUSIONS: (1) there is a tendency to overlook the significance of the experiences of the child in his peer group as they may bear on education; (2) many 182 Of the develOpmental tasks boys and girls are faced with during pubescence and later adolescence can only be solved through the medium of the adolescent peer group; (3) in our society it appears that the pre- sence of unshackled youth will always mean a sub- culture will be Operating; (4) peer groups are used for group solidarity and support in rebelling against adult authority and interference; (5) adolescent peer groups have much the same form and purposes as their adult counterparts, and their general charac- teristics are extremely similar. C.55 Waller, Willard. "The Rating and Dating Complex,” American Sociological Review, II (October, 1937), 727-7314'0 PROBLEM: "To discuss the customs of courtship which prevail among college students.” (727) METHOD: A casual survey was made of published material and integrated with the personal experiences and studies of the author. CONCLUSIONS: (1) in Spite of the strength of the old morality, among college students, dating is largely dominated by the quest of the thrill and is regarded as an amusement; (2) the rating and dating complex varies tremendously from one school to another; (3) there is an established class system or gradient of dating desirability on campus and it is clearly recognized and adjusted to by the students; (4) for boys, rating depends on fraternity standing, acti- vities, money, clothes, smooth line, dancing well, and access to a car; (5) for girls it is based on clothes, smooth line, dancing well and popularity as a date. C.56 Wallin, Paul. ”Cultural Contradictions and Sex Roles, A Repeat Study,” American Sociological Review, XV (1950). 288-293. PROBLEM: To report on a repeat of a study done in 1946 by Komarovsky on imcompatible sex roles con- fronting the college girl. METHOD: A random sample of 163 female undergradua- tes were selected for interviews and questionnaires and from them the data were gathered. CONCLUSIONS: The results are essentially in agreement with Komarovsky's findings, but the author feels that the great majority of college women who face incompa- tibility of their sex roles either do not take the situation seriously or are very readily able to solve the problem. C.57 Weilman, Beth. ”The School Child's Choice of Companions,” Journal of Educational Researgh, XIV (1926), 126-132. PROBLEM::Are children considered to be close friends and similar or dissimilar in certain characteristics such as chronological age, mental age, I.Q., scholar- 183 ship success, extroverted tendenCies, height and physical maturation? METHOD: 63 boys and 50 girls evenly distributed over the seventh, eighth and ninth grades were given a battery of tests designed to reveal pertinent information regarding the physical and mental charac- teristics listed above. CONCLUSIONS: (1) from the findings it appears that pairs of girls are most similar in scholarship and least similar in height; (2) the boys were found to be'more similar in height, I.Q., and chronological age, and least similar in extroversion, scholarship, and mental age. C.58 Whyte, William Foote. ”A Slum Sex Code,” American Journal of Sociology, XLVIV (1943), 24-31 (Seidman, BEE-358). PROBLEM: To indicate the presence Of an elaborate and highly developed sex code in an area formerly considered characterized by lax sex behavior. METHOD: Through personal participation and long term observation the information was gathered from a number of men in corner gangs in an Italian slum district of a large city. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate the existence of very complicated and strict sex codes in slum areas. The women are divided into categories for each of which there is an acceptable form of sex behavior which is sanctioned and furthered by the mores of the group. C.59 Whyte, William Foote. ”Corner Boys: A Study of Clique Behavior," American Journal of Sociology, XLVI (March, 1941), 647-664. PROBLEM: To delineate the characteristic relation- ships of small groups. METHOD: Case histories, field study, interviews, and personal participation were all used for the purpose of gathering data from Boston Italian slum men in the age range 20-35. A CONCLUSIONS: (1) an hierarchial structure is the basis of organization for informal groups; (2) mutual Obligations are the basis of all group re- lationships; (3) members behave as their position dictate; (4) the leader of each group acts as the representative and directs the group's activities. C.60 Wittenberg, Rudolph M. and Berg, Janie. “The Stranger in the Group," American Journal of Orthpsychiatry, XXII (January, 1952), 89-97. PROBLEM: To determine how the small group affects the deveIOpment of social attitudes. METHOD: Critical analysis and discussion of published materials in some of which a girl scout troop was part of the sample. 18“ CONCLUSIONS: At the time when the adolescent vacil- lates between adult and peer values, rejecting parents, siblings, and old friends the peer group greatly increases in importance as one of the decisive supports and aids in the adolescent's breaking with his family. How the adolescent realigns his peer group contacts will be later significant in his formation of adult social attitudes and in his discerning of appropriate group attitudes, etc. C.61 Zuk, Gerald H. "Sex Appropriate Behavior in Adoles- cence," Journal of Genetic Psyghology, XCIII (September, 1958), 15-32. PROBLEM: To ascertain the direction of trends in and the broad characteristics of sex-appropriate behavior in the years 15-17, and to discover if there is any relationship between this behavior and possible psychological-biological components. METHOD: Sociometric questionnaires were given to 99 boys and girls and data were collected from them. CONCLUSIONS: (1) although SAB increased in girls from 16-17, they seemed to be more stable in girls from year to year; (2) the SAB appears to fluctuate broadly from one area into another, with the most stability for both sexes noted in the 16th year. 0.62 Marshall, Helen R. and McCandless, Boyd R. ”Relationships Between Dependence on Adults and Social Acceptance by Peers,” Child Development, XXVIII (December, 1957) big-419. PROBLEM: "Is the degree of the pre-school child's dependence on adults in free play situations related to his participation with and acceptance by his peers? If so, is this relationship affected by length and progress of acquaintanceship? METHOD: Data were gathered from sociometric tests and observations of two 19 member groups of pre- school children, group one averaging h. h years and group two, b. 11 years. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that dependence on adults in the pre-school situation accompanies rela- tively low social status and participation within the peer group. No conclusions were drawn concern- ing the effect of length of acquaintanceship on peer acceptance. C.63 Wardlow, Mary E. and Greene, James E. "An Exploratory Sociometric Study of Peer Status Among Adolescent Girls," Sociometry, XV (1952), 311-318. PROBLEM: ”To what extent is measured peer status a function of the measuring instruments employed? What measurable traits and characteristics are signi- ficantly related to each of the five measures of peer status?” (311) 185 METHOD: The Ohio Social Acceptance Scale and the Ohio Social Recognition Scale plus a mental and physical test of projection were administered to 37 adolescent girls enrolled in a class of first-year homemaking in the University of Georgia Demonstration School. (311) CONCLUSIONS: ”Sociometric research dealing with corre- lates of peer status must recognize that peer status is per se situational or specific in character. (318) The relatively low relationships established between the five measures of peer status and the 35 variables suggest the need for further research to determine what characteristics are significantly related to peer status.” (318) 186 D. A2QLIfiQINIL2BIZABAIIQH.IQB—ADQLIHQQE. D.l Ausubel, David P. and Schiff, Herbert H. ”A Level of Aspiration Approach to the Measurement of Goal Tenacity. ”WW. LII (1955). 97-100. ‘ General Psyghology, L11 (1955), 97-100 RROBLEM: The problem in this study was to develop a measurement of goal tenacity through the use of a standard level of aspiration experiment. Goal tenacity is taken to be the individualis ability to maintain a high level of aspiration in the face of a failure or series of failures. It was felt that such a measure of goal tenacity would reflect a stable personality trait in the area of aspira- tional behavior. METHOD: Four types of speed tests were applied to a group of 50 members of the junior class at university High School in Urbana, Illinois. The mean age of the 215 boys and 26 girls involved in the experiment was 15.8 years. nest of the subjects came from professional homes. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the data gave indicatiena that the developed measure of goal tenacity did reflect a stable personality trait relating to aspirational behavior. Support was also given to the conception of the geal~tonacity score as a reflection of the individual's typical response pattern in the face of a series of successes and failures. D.2 Ausubel, D. P., Schiff, H. M., and Zelony, H. P. ”Real Life Measures of Level of Academic and Vocational Aspiration in Adolescents:' Relation to Laboratory Measures and to Adjustment,“ W, . XXIV (1953). 155-168., , _ PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to compare the usefulness of “real life” (subjective individual responses) measures of academic and vocational aspiration levels to standard laboratory measures. METHOD: Academic grade reports and a series of tests and scales were examined to obtain data on a group of 50 students in the junior class at university High School, Urbana, Illinois. The mean age of the 2h boys and 26 girls involved in the experiment was 15.8 years. Most of the subjects came from professional hOIOOe CONCLUSIOIS: Thero_Vt8 cOnerally found to be little or no significant telatienship between 'real life” and laboratory measures of the level of vocational and academic aspirations. This absence of significant relationships was attributed to the greater degree of ego-involvement in the ”real life“ measures as opposed to the typical laboratory experimental measures. 187 J D.3 Bordin, Edward S. ”A Theory of Vocational Interests as a Dynamic Phenomea,”‘Edu§ational and gszchological asurement, III (19 3 , h9-65. PROBLEM: Assuming thataan individual's responses to the Strong Vocational Interest Test reflect his accep- tance of a particular self-image in terms of occupa- tional stereotypes, the author hypothesizes: (1) that the degree of interest shown will vary positively with the individual's acceptance of the stereotype as self- descriptive; (2) that the degree of interest shown will vary positively with the individual's knowledge of the true occupational stereotype. METHOD: Analysis was made on the basis of a survey of existing pieces of research involving the Strong Voca- tional Interest Test. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the analysis seemed to support the hypotheses and enabled the author to make further predictions and hypotheses, including: (1) the relationship between the expressed interest and the specific occupation will vary according to the social status connected with the father's occupation, the length of time the occupation has been in the family, and the quality of the relationship between the father and the son; (2) the differences between claimed and measured interest will be reduced as the individual's knowledge and experience of the occupational stereo- type increases. D.“ Brown, James C. "An Experiment in Role Taking,” Sociolo 1 a1 view, XVII (October, 1952), 587-597. PROBLEM: This study is a preliminary investigation into the effects of the sex of the role-taker, the sex of the person whose role is taken, and the sexual orientation of the specific situation. Based on the proposition that the cultural disjunctions of the world of males and females will be reflected in the partial failure of their role—taking ability in speci- fic situations, it was expected that, in the experimen- tal situation, same-sex role-taking would be superior to cross-sexnrole-taking and that in male oriented situations the males would be more skillful than the females. METHOD: The non-random sample of 16 middle-class, white, 13 year olds was taken from a freshman class at University High School, Bloomington, Indiana. This group was divided into 8 mixed pairs which par- ticipated in a series of h seciodramas. Data on same- sex and cross-sex role taking was gathered fremithe subjects' evaluations of the performances in the plays. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the sexual orientation of the speci- fic situation had little influence on the role-taking with the exception that male roles in female oriented situations and female roles in male oriented situa- tions were most readily perceived; (2) regardless of the sexual orientation of the situation, males were ’0 . I i s V . O I l‘ 188 slightly better at perceiving the roles of others than were females. Generally speaking, both of the expected results mentioned above were present. D.5 Center, Richard. "Children of the New Deal: Social Stra- tification and Adolescent Attitudes,"'Intognatigggl We IV (1950) o 315'335e PROBLEM: The purpose of this paper was to see if the attitudes of adolescents on labor and collectivism would conform to observed adult patterns at different occupational strata. METHOD: The analysis was made on the basis of ques- tionnaires administered to more than 1000 high school students in a small city in How York. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the analysis tended to confirm the hypothesis that adolescent attitudes toward labor and collectivism would conform to pre- viously observed adult patterns._ D.6 Chapman, Dwight U. and Volkman, John."A Social Deter-. minant of the Level of Aspiration,"4-W' oci l s hole , (ed.) Maccoby, E.E., Newcemb, TdM., and Hartley, E.L., New York: Henry Hold and Company, 1958, 281-290. PROBLEM: This paper investigates the influence of knowledge of the aspiration level of individuals performing a given task. In one case knowledge is taken to mean knowledge of the performance of other groups rather than knowledge of.the specific task. In the other case, knowledge refers to firstdhand experience with the given task. , METHOD: Two groups of college students were given tests of ability in specific areas. The first group has no previous experience with the test, but were told how other groups of varying ability had perform- ed on the test. ‘Dhe second group was given odtonsivo knowledge of the test as well as knowledge of the past performance of other groups. Both groups were asked to estimate their score on the test. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis showed that the first group had a significant change in level of aspiration while the second group had no corresponding change. These results are explained by the author in teams of the differing frames of reference of the two groups. D.7 Dyer, William G. “Parental Influence on the Job Attitudes of Children from Two Occupational Strata,” fiegiglegy Wm. (:95?) . ‘ PROBLEM; This study was conducted to test the hype- theses that, within occupational strata, children's attitudes toward jobs will parallel their parents' attitudes and that the children of white collar par- ents will be more favorably disposed toward the father's occupation than will the children of blue 'vl' I! 189 collar families. _ METHOD: 8? families were selected at random from.tho population of Amos, Iowa. #2 of these families were white collar families and #5 were blue collar fami- lies. All family members over 10 years of age were interviewed. 51 children between the ages of 10 and 22 were thus in the sample. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the interviews showed that, while the white collar families were more satisfied with the father's occupation than were the blue col- lar families, neither the parents nor the children from either level wanted the children to follow the father's occupation. Since both groups fell in the lower categories of occupations, it was felt that the prestige value of the father's occupation played an important part in the evaluation of Job and its influence on his children. D.8 Dynos, R.R., Clarke, A.C., and Dinits, 5. "Levels of Occupational Aspiration: Some Aspects of Iamily Ex- perience as a Variable,"' ri n o l i e- viow, XXI (1956), 2129215.; ‘ PROBLEM: Drawing on psychoanalytic literature in the areas of aspiration levels, the authors set out to see if individuals with high aspirations are also characterised by more interflpersonal difficulties in their families than are those with low aspirations. METHOD: A questionnaire incorporating a measure of aspiration and a measure of family relations was ad- ministered to 3503university students. The sample was predominantly urban, middle-class, mid-western, and Protestant. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis revealed that the high aspir- ors: (1) felt their parents showed favoritism to- ward seme child in the family: (2) felt more feelings of rejection; and (3) felt less attachment to their parents. Evidence, then, supported the hypothesis. D.9 Elwood, Robert H. ”The Role of Personality Traits in “loathe ’ a Ger-0r.”"W. XI (1927). 199-201. PROBLEM: Considering the intellectual and emotional aspects of selecting a career, the author compared two groups of females with respect to their degree of oxtreversien. _‘ , U._ . g , METHOD: A group of nurses entering a Mew York City Training School were compared to a group of girls entering a liberal arts college on the basis of a standard intelligence tost_and two parts of the Colgate Mental Hygiene Tests. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the average nurse in the group tested was more extroverted than 9W% of all the college girls; (2) the nurses were found to be more stable than 77% of the college girls. 190 .a D.1O Empoy, LaMar T. ”Social Classaand Occupational Aspira- tion:, A Comparison of Absolute and Relative Measure- ment,“ o ican Seciel i al Review, XXI (December, 1955). 703-709. PROBLEM: The author tests three hypotheses in this study: (1) the absolute occupational status aspira- tions of male high school seniors from middle and upper classes are significantly higher than those of seniors from lower classes; (2) the relative occupa- tional status aspirations of lower-class seniors will indicate that they prefer and anticipate significantly higher occupational status than their fathers; (3) lower-class seniors will be more inclined than middle or upper to reduce their occupational aspirations significantly when faced with the necessity of choos- ing between their preferred and anticipated occupa- t10fl8. METHOD: Questionnaires were admdnistered to 1/10 of all the male high school seniors in Ihshington state in the spring of 195%. . CONCLUSIONS: The findings supported hypotheses 1 and 2, but failed to support hypothesis 3. D.11 Engol, Mary. “The Stability of the Self-Concept_in Ado- lescenco,"gho Agglesgegt, (ed.) Seidman, JaM. Mew Ezrk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., (1960) 656- 3. . PROBLEM: To investigate the stability of the self— cencopt in adolescence over a two-year period. METHOD: Analysis_was made on data from five instru- ments administered to 172 eight and tenth grade students in 195“. Two years later, the same children were retested with the same instruments. CONCLUSIONS: Among the findings we read: (1) ”sub- jects whose self-concept was negative at the first testing were significantly less stable in self- cencopt than subjects whose self-concept was posi- tive! (65b); (2) subjects who persisted in a negative self-concept over the two-year period gave evidence of significantly more maladjustment than subjects who persisted in.a positive self-concept. . .” (65“). D.12 Esell, Lennie B. and Tate, Henory H. ”High School Stu- dents Look totthe Tuturo,’ gougggl of Egggatignal Research, XLIX (November, 1955). 217-222. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to gather data on high school students' expectations for the future. METHOD: Analysis was made on the basis of question- naire administered to 1572 high school boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal: (1) most of the students expected to go to college and felt that their high school courses were preparing them for their an- ticipated occupations: (2) one-quarter of the boys and one—half of the girls, however, planned to go to work directly after high school: (3) there were very few 191 students who planned to marry as seen as they gradu- ated; (b) 10% of the boys and 1$zof the_girls were doubtful as to their future occupations; (5) 20% of the boys and 3% of the girls selected occupations similar to those of their parents. D.13 Havighust, Robert J. and Riogor, Audrey I. ”The Role of Adults Outside the Iamily in Character Formation,” in Havighurst. Rule and m... 3.. W- ESILSH§_Z:£_IH§;$£13 New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., (19kg), 70-80. COMMENTS: This chapter discusses two related studies that investigated what type of adults were chosen by sixteen year olds as ideals and what adults were most visible to them. There is no discussion of how those adults actually influence character formation. In conclusion the authors state, fiThe 'ideal self' seems to be increasingly influenced during adolescence. by adults outside the family,.and oxpocially by attrac- tive and visible young adults. The data indicate that, if imitation takes place, the objects of imitation tend to be attractive young adults and_successful middleu aged citizens. They also show that a small number, probably not exceeding r% of the adult population, are unusually visible to boys and girls and that perhaps these persons play aniinfluontial role in the character formation of adolescents in the community.” (80) D.1h Havighurst, R.J., Robinson, H.Z., and Dorr, M, “The Development of the Ideal self in Childhood and Ado- lescence,“ of Ed 1 es , XL (19b6), 2&1-257. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to describe the development of the ideal self, as revealed by self- reports during childhood and adolescence. METHOD: 539 boys and 608 girls in the age range 8 to 12 were asked to write essays on ”The Person I Would Like to be Like." All of the subjects were from the mid-west and were distributed as to educational, economic, and ethnic background. CONCLUSIONS: In general, the ideal self develops from the childhood identification with a parent figure to a composite of the parental figure and attractive, successful young adults by the period of late adoles- OQHCCo s- D.15 Hill, George E., and Hole, Richard M. FCemparison of the Vocational Interests of Tenth Grade Students with Their Parents"Judgmonts of These Interest.” Eduga-' tional and Psycholggiggl Mggsnggen , XVIII_(Spring, 1958)! 173‘187e PROBLEM: "Are parents of tenth-grade students able to respond to the_Euder Preference Record in such a way as to produce interest patterns similar to fihose of their children." (173) (‘l 192 METHOD: The Eudor questionnaire was administered to ho pairs of parents of tenth-grade students. CONCLUSTIONS: 80% of the parents were able to match two or three of their child's top three interests, with mothers estimating their children's interests slightly better than fathers. eIn general, parents tended to estimate their child's interests best in the literary, artistic, and dlerical areas for girls, and in the musical, artistic, and outdoor areas for DCYI o (183) D.16 Himmolwoit, Hilde T. 'Socio-Economic Background and Por- senality,” nto t on 1 clone Bul tin, VII (1‘11: 1955’: 29‘35. COMMENTS: In this study of 600 English 13 and 1“ year old students, the author found that the middle-class boys had higher aspirations than the lower-class boys: the upwardly mobile boys had stronger middle-class values than the middle-class boys; and the teachers . seemed to be biased in favor of the middle-class boys. D. 17 Hurlock, Elisabeth B. “A Study of Self-Ratings by Thir- teen-year-old Children,“ u f ed h - logy, XI (1927), #90-502. PROBLEM: This study describes the results of applying a check list of desirable and undesirable character traits to a STOMP of children to determine how they would respond to the undesirable traits. METHOD: The Downey Group Hill Temperament Test was administered to a group €323 Negro and white boys and girls in the seventh and eighth grades of a public school in New York City. CONCLUSIONS: The finding revealed that, not only did the thirteen year olds overestimate the presence of desirable traits and underestimate the presence of undesirable traits, but they also did this to a greater extent than was typical of college students. D.18 Jones, Mary C. and Hayley, N. “Physical Maturing Among Boys at Related to Baha'i-r.” W h.1. ’ XLI (195°), IZB-Ibeo PROBLEM: This study is an investigation of the re- lationship between the physical and psychological phases of development in adolescent boys. METHOD: Two groups of sixteen boys each were examined for this study. One group was selected on the basis of retarded physical development, the other on the basis of accelerated physical development. Physical development was judged from cumulative X-rays and the Tedd Standards for hand and knee. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that the physically advanced boys held more positions of leadership in the school, were accepted by adults as more mature, and had little need to strive for status among their peers. On the other hand, the physically retarded boys revealed mere 193 status striving and a higher degree of immature behavior. However, some of the retarded boys had achieved status in other areas and some of the advanced boys revealed characteristics which offset their presumed advantages. The authors stress the importance of the interaction of various physical, psychological, and cultural factors that influence personality formation. D.19 Jones, Mary C., and Mussen, Phul. "The Behavior-Inferred Motivations of Late and Early Maturing Beys,"ghiy1 W. XXIX (II-rah. 1958). 61-67. PROBLEM: This study examines the motivations of late and early maturing as inferred from their behavior. METHOD: The sample consisted of 3“ subjects, 16 of whom were physically adaancod. The remainder were physically retarded. Interviews were held With persons acquainted with the subjects in which the interviewees were asked to suggest particular moti- vations for the subjects' behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Significant differences between the early and late maturors was established in two of the nine questioned motives, Social Acceptance and Aggression. In both of those areas, the late maturers were signif- icantly higher than the early maturers. This was attributed, by the authors, to the feelings of insecurity, rejection, and dependency found in the late maturers. ‘u D.20 Jones, Mary C., and Mussen, P. H. "Self-Conceptions, Motivations and Interpersonal Attitudes of Late and Early Returns Ben." MW. XXVI! (June. 1957): 2&3’256e PROBLEM: To investigate the relationship between manifested aspects of personality and physical develop- ment in late maturing adolescent boys. METHOD: The Thematic Appercoption Test was administered to a group of 33 seventeen-year-old male students. Sixteen of the subjects were advanced in physical maturity and 17 were retarded. CONCLUSIONS: The physically retarded boys were found to have negative self-conceptions, feelings of inadequacy, feelings of rejection, and negative atti- tudes toward their parents. Uhile an earlier study (D.18) indicated that the early maturors had a more favorable environment than the late maturers, this study shows that there may be adverse effects arising from this discrepancy in environment. D.21 Jones, Mary C. and Mussen, P. H. "Self-Conceptions, Motivations, and Interpersonal Attitudes of Early and Late Maturing Girls.“ W. XXIX (December, 1958), #91-501. PROBLEM: To see if early maturing girls reveal negative self feelings and less satisfactory inter- personal attitudos more than do late maturing girls. 19a METHOD: The Thematio.Appercoption Test was administered to a group of 3“ soventeon-year-old girls. Sixteen of the subjects were advanced in physical maturity (early maturers) and eighteen were retarded (late maturing girls.) CONCLUSIONS: It was found that the early maturing girls: (1) had better scores on total adjustment; (2) had lower scores on negative characteristics: (3) reflected less of a desire for personal recogni- tion than did the late maturing girls. D.22 Eahl, Joseph A. I'Educational and Occupational Aspirations of 'Common Man' Boys,” PROBLEM: This study was concerned with investigating why, in a group sf 2“ upper-lower class boys, 12 boys were planning on college and attempting to better themselves while the remainder were not aspiring to higher educational and occupational 1".1. . ‘ METHOD: The sample of 2b boys was drawn from a larger group of 3971 boys who had been subjects in ”The Mobility Project" at Harvard university. Interviews were conducted on the smaller sample. CONCLUSIONS: In general, it was found that the ”common man" boys who aspired to higher educational and oecuptatienal status came from families which were relatively unsatisfied with their position and encouraged their sons to improve themselves. These boys who were not planning on attending college came from families which did not stress the advantages of education and did not encourage their sons to improve themselves. D.23 Lane, Lenora C. 'SolféRoalisatien: An Exploratory Study hf the Self Concept in a Group of College Students,” W. LVII (Sprint. 1957). 196- O PROBLEM:-To investigate the relationship between self- cencopt, self-realisationnand religious development. ‘METHOD: 63 college students (30 freshmen and 33' sophomores) were asked to tell what they liked most about themselves and what they liked least. CONCLUSIONS: In general, the best-liked characteristics were related to the self in successful relations with others. Disliked characteristics were related to poor interpersonal solations. It was felt that the self was found wanting when it did not meet the expectations of the culture. Interpreting awareness of cultural expectations as a concern over the ”common good” and asserting that the kingdom of God is grounded in the “co-on good,“ the author concludes that these students are oriented toward the religious life. 3'. 195' D.2b Ledge, Helen C. ”The Influence of the Study of Biography on the Moral Ideology of the Adolescent at the Eighth Gr“- LovolfialsnLWLEL-amh. 1- (193‘). 2&1-255. PROBLEM: The purpose of this research was to study the effect of a course on biography on the value system of eighth grade students. METHOD: Prior to a course in biography, a group of eighth grade students were requested to write a paper entitled, "The Person I Mould Like to be Like.” A second and third rewriting were requested following the course. Interviews were also utilised. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis revealed that the course in biography had little influence enztho value system of the students. A marked influence in the relation- ship of personally known adults to the students and a strong vein of realism concerning life expectancies was found. D.25 Miyameto, S. Prank and Dornbusch, Stanford M. “A.Test of Interactienist Hypotheses of Self-Conception,” A;ggig;5_ W. LXI (March. 1956). 399403. PROBLEM: To study the influence of the responses of others in shaping self-definitions and the "response of the other” (Mead).broken down into the actual response of the other and the subject's perception of the response of the other. METHOD: 195 subjects in ten groups ranging in sise from 8-8“ persons were asked to complete questionnaires. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the data indicated that the response of others is related to self-conception but the subject's perception of the response of the other is even more related to the self-concept. In general, the findings support the interactionist hypotheses of self-conception. D,26 Nesow, Sigmund. ”Educational Values and Orientations of 00110:- Studont- ." W. LIII (December, 1958), 123w128. PROBLEM: This study was based on the assumption that college students' objectives will be reflected in their attitudes toward instructors, the content of the curriculum, and other areas of the educational "Ob... o METHOD: Analysis is made on the basis of polling of a sample of 169 Michigan State university students who were in their first term of Social Science. CONCLUSIONS: If was found that socioeconomic back- ground, succoss in school, sex of the subject, or the subjects' attitudes toward the instructor played little part in the students' attitudes toward the class. It was concluded that students were more achievement oriented than content (or substance) oriented. Students with favorable attitudes toward the course were less achievement oriented than were those of unfavorable attitudes. l‘I 196 D.27 Pearson, Gerald B. J. . New York: N. M. Norton and Co., Inc., 1258. COMMENTS: This non-empirical discussion of the pro- blems in adolescence is focused on the development of the ego to meet new strains placed on it by the growth aid maturation processes found in adolescence. The conflict of generations arises from the emerging ego development of the adolescent in interaction with the older generation which manifests a stubborn resistance to the development of a personal identity and the assumption of adult roles on the part of the adolescent. D.28 Pierce, J. J. ”Secio-Economic Status and Adolescent Int-ruth'W. V (October. 1959). 683ff. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that significant relationships exist between socioeconomic status and interest behavior. METHOD: The sample consisted of 185 males and 185 females chosen at random fhom the eleventh grade population in a city of h0,000. This sample was given the Home Index Test and the Nudor Preference Record. Item analysis was used on the data. CONCLUSIONS: The findings tended to support the hypothesis. It was found that: (1) low SES students preferred mechanical, domestic, service, and clerical tasks; (2) high SES students preferred complex social activity, and occupations demanding high ability and offering responsibility and prestige; (3) each group tended to reject the items that the other group accepted. D.29 Rivlin, Leanne G. ”Creativity and the Self-Attitudes and Sociability of High School Students,“ jgugfigl_g£_ PROBLEM: To see if creative and non-creative high school students of equal ability would differ with regard to self-attitude and sociability. METHOD: 1“ criteria of creativity were applied to 126 tenth and eleventh graders in the New York City high schools. The subjects were nominated by teachers as creative or uncreativo. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis revealed that: (1) the overall self-attitudes of the creative and non-creative students did not differ; (2) two factors, secial confidence and higher educational level of parents, were found to be associated with creativity. The author suggests that a number of trait combinations mdght be equally conducive to creativity: D.30 Rosen, Bernard C. “The Achievement Syndrome: A Psycho- cultural Dimension of Social Stratification," l i w, XXI (April, 1956), 203-211. PROBLEM: From the proposiiidnm that social mobility I, 197 can be explained in terms of the differing motives; (psychological) and values (cultural) of the social classes, the author hypothesises that social strata are dissimilar with respect to achievement motivation and value orientation. METHOD: 120 male; white, 1“ to 16 year old high school students in the New Haven area were given a T.A.T. type projective test. The sample was stratified by the social position of the major wage-earner in the family. ' CONCLUSIONS: The findings supported the hypothesis of differences in value orientation and achievement motivation between social classes. It was generally found that high motivation scores were, but value orientations were not, related to high grades. It was also found that educational aspiration was related to value orientation but not to motivation score. The author suggests that middle-class children are more likely to be taught both the motives and the values that make achievement possible. D.31 Roth, Robert M. ”The Role of Self-Concept in Achievement,“ W. mu (Jam. 1959). 265-281e PROBLEM: To examine the relationship between selfd concept and achievement. It was felt that the self- concopts would vary depending upon the particular group (explained below) into which the subject fell. MITHOD: The subjects were drawn from reading improve- ment classes at the university of Texas. In those classes students were repeatedly tested for improve- unto CONCLUSIONS: The findings supported the notion that achievement or non-achievement is a function of the needs of the student's self-concept. The improver group showed the least general defensiveness, while the attrition group showed the greatest amount of defensiveness. The non-improver group fell in between the other two groups. 8.32 Schmidt, John L. and Rothney, John I. “Variability of Vocational Choices of High School Students,“ Po so no nd Guida e o rnal, XXXIV (November, 1955), l 281 6. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to examine the consistency of vocational choice in the high school period and to relate this to vocational activity after high school. METHOD: Data for this study were drawn from the Wisconsin Counseling Study which began in 19b8. For this study, a sample of 3“? sophomore students were chosen at random from four Wisconsin high schools. CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the findings suggest that consistency is the exception while variability is the rule in vocational choice in the high school years. 198 D.33 Sewell, W. H., Heller, A. 0., and Straus, M. A. "Social Status and Educational and Occupational Aspiration," W. XXII (February. 1957). 67'73e PROBLEM: This examination rests on the testing of a series of null hypostosos based on the general hypothesis that, when the effects of intelligence are controlled, the levels of aspiration of youth, of both sexes are associated with the social status of their families. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a random sample of all nonyfarm seniors in public and private high schools in Wisconsin in 19b7. The sample sise was “167. Of the null hypotheses, two related to males and two related to females. The second xariable in the hypotheses was educational or occupational aspirations. D.3b Simpson, Richard L. and Simpson, Ida H. “The Sehhol, the Peer Group, and.Ado1escent Development,“ 133;2§;_g£ Wu. xxxn (1958). 3741. COMMENTS: This article is a non-empirical analysis of the status of the adolescent in the 0.3., the peer group and adolescent social needs, and the role of the school in adolescent development. The lack of well-defined status position for the adolescent in the 0.5. may be reflected in the adolescent's lack of an all pervasive self-concept. The peer group, through its acceptance of the individual on personal grounds, defends him against the formal structure and the lack of status. The author feels that the school can aid the adolescent through its realization that extracurricular activities serve to draw together the separate roles of "student” and “member of the peer group.” D.35 Stephenson, Richard M. “Mobility Orientation and Strati- fication of 1000 NinthlGraders,9 m, xxn (April, 1957). zone-212. EROBLEM: This paper is concerned with three variables: mobility orientation, mobility resources, and mobility skill, in the determination of social mobility within the class structure. - METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 1000 ninth grade students in four, semi-industrial, medium-sized communities in New Jersey. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal that students do make a distinction between aspirations and expectations. The students revealed a relatively high common agree- ment in the area of aspirations, but the area of expectation was strongly influenced by their position in the class structure. This is explained by regarding aspirations to be generally culture based while oxpoc- tations are influenced more by class differences in opportunity and life chances. 199 9.36 struts. Ruth. WW. 3'" Yuk: McGraw—Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957. COMMENTS: Concerning the adolescent's anxiety over? educational and occupational goals, we read in Chapter 11, "The anxiety so many adelescents feel concerning their inability to make educational and vocational choices arises from.their general struggle to become psychologically independent. This anxiety is augmented by their parents' conflicts, insecurity, and unfulfilled ambitions, and by social and economic conditions which limit their choice or make it impossible for them to carry out appropriate plans. Added to those causes of anxiety are the earlier feelings of insecurity and inadequacy many adolescents bring with them into the teens.” D.37 Strang, Ruth. ”Gifted Adolescents' Views of Growing Up," t ildren, XXIII (October, 1956), 10815. PROBLEM: To obtain more information on the way in which adolescents (especially gifted ones) perceive themselves and their world and how they feel about growing up. METHOD: Data was obtained from compositions on "How it Tools to be Growing Up' written by 112“ pupils in grades 7-12 inclusive. The sample was divided into 883 students with average I. Q. of 95. and 2&1 students with I. Q.'s 120 or greater CONCLUSIONS: (1) the gifted students are more satisfied with their body growth and status than the average students; (2) the gifted group expressed more satis- faction with their rolations with their parents; (3) fewer of the gifted students were indecisive about their vocations; (u) the gifted group is not much lggg, concerned with scholastic success or grades than the average students; (5) an overwhelming concern for world peace was expressed by the gifted student. D.38 Stratton, Dorothy C. “Interpretations of the lindings of the National Study of Adolescent Girls,” Jgggng; t o s t W e D W. XXI (October. 1957). 18-20. PROBLEM: To discuss the findings of the survey of girls hopes, worries, relations with parents and friends, dating plans for education, work and marriage sponsored by the National Girl Scout Organisation. METHOD: Interviews were held with 2000 girls in the age range from eleven to eighteen. CONCLUSIONS: Among the findings, we see that: (1) while most of the girls started dating around the age of 1“, only 10% of the total girls ”go steady" and only about 20% even like the idea; (2) most of the girls felt that the rules laid down by parents were fair and necessary, but occasionally conflicts arose over clothing, dating, and hours; (3) the girls appeared to have resolved the conflict between marriage and career by‘a desire for a period of work followed by marriage. 200 D.39 Wilson, Alon B. "Residential Segregation of,Socia1 Classes and Aspirations of High School Boys," WW. XXIV (Docs-Mr: 1959): 836-8 5. PROBLEM: To examine the role played in the formation of aspirations by the values of membership groups. METHOD: Questionnaire data collected from the male populations of thirteen 'high schools in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay area. CONCLUSIONS: It is shown that the values of the member- ship groups do affect the formation of aspirations and, further, that the ethics of the school affect academic achievement, political preferences, and occupational aspirations. The concentration of social classes in definite areas in an urban area affects the climate of the school, the membership groups, and thereby influences the motivations of the child. D.hO Yeumans, E. Grand. “Social Iacters in the Work Attitudes and Interests of 12th Grade Michigan Boys,” gaggegl, 19 ). 11W. XXVIII (S-pto-bor . 35’ 8e PROBLEM: To investigate the influence of certain social factors in the attitudes towards work of a group of adolescent boys. METHOD: Dxta were collected from.questiennaire responses of a group of 1279 twelfth grade school boys in Michigan. CONCLUSIONS: The following hypotheses were confirmed in whole or in part: (1) social stratification is . significantly related to the differential socialiqatien of youth in the home, in the school, and in the community; (2) the value orientations of the social strata are more important in forming work attitudes than school work experience or type of community; (3) actual work experience produces changes in behavior and those changes are then reflected in work attitudes; (h) the school is not successful in removing class centered attitude differences concerning work which can be seen in youth from different strata. 201 E. 0 WORLD ! E.1 Aborle, David F. ”Shared Values in Complex Societies,” American Sociolggica; Beview, XV (August, 1950), “95‘5020 PROBLEM: The purpose of this article is to discuss other possible approaches to the analysis of value- systems in complex societies other than searching for the most general or the most universal values. Special attention is given to the matter of the inte- gration of subsystems with diverse values, within the total social system. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the various value-systems within a society should be studied with the idea in mind that the value—systems must be integrated with one another and that every individual participates in a number of subsystems; (2) the various inter- actienal situations involving value-systems should be studied so as to, '. . . see what values must be shared in each situation, and how this impinges on the value-systems shared in other situations" (502); (3) there should be a ”. . . more precise formulation of role-systems and their component value-elements, and their integration with one another through certain common value-elements from one system to the next." (502). E.2 Beyer, William H. ”A Survey of the Attitudes, Opinions and Objectives of High School Students in the Mulwaukee Area," o n' u a i l , xxxxx (February, 1959), 3 -3ue. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to secure direct information on high school students in the Milwaukee area. . METHOD: 569 adolescents in the Milwaukee area were. given an anonymous questionnaire. 69% of the respondents were from the upper high school grades. CONCLUSIONS: From the analysis of the questionnaires, the author concludes: (1) most of these students are unaware of the critical problems of today. The author regards this as an indication that they are really unaware of the realities of today's world: (2) most of the students felt that education is a vocational preparation and are unable to realise its non-vocational values; (3) it was found that students are more than willing to accept the advice of their parents, especially their mothers. E.) Cahman, Werner J. ”Attitudes eerinority Youth: A Methodological Introduction," Am 1 31m: XIV (Auflflt. 1959). 51‘3-51‘8. PROBLEM: To discover (1) "how Jewish and Negro youth look at themselves; (2) and how they formulate their cultural and inter-cultural interests.” (5&3) 202 METHOD: Interviews and questionnaires plus regular attendance at the meetings of a current events club were used to gather information from two groups of Jewish adolescents and from two similar groups of Negro young people. ’ CONCLUSIONS: (1) in general, “in terms of interest, Jews appear as social actionists; Negroes as musical actionists. Both groups if confronted with the same stimulus resort to a different response” (5H5), thus the basis for formulation of their cultural and inter- cultural interests; (2) the views of Jews by Jews stress “narrowness of outlook, clannishness, compet- itivenoss, defensiveness, inhibition, anti-semitism of Jews, feelings of insecurity; (3) the views of the Negroes stress as their weak points: drinking, fighting, physical violence, economic jealousy, carelessness, lack of foresight, lack of community sgtrit, of political organization, inferiority complex.” (6) E.h Carroll, Rebecca E. ”Relation of Social Environment to the Moral Ideology and the personal Aspirations of Negro Boys and Girls,“ §ghggl flgyiew, LIII (l9h5), 30‘38o PROBLEM: The purposes of this study were to determine the relation of the socioeconomic status of boys and girls in a Negro community: (1) to their conception of what is right or wrong; (2) to their ideas of the person they would most like to resemble. METHOD: 300 Negro adelescents were divided into two groups (Lower and middle classes). The median I.Q. for the middle class group was 105, while that for the lower class group was 95. The median age for each group was 13. Each individual wrote an essay on ”The Person I Would Host Like to be Like" and essay answers on their ideas on lying, cheating, and . t.‘11ng o CONCLUSIONS: (1) middle-class adolescents tended to choose ”successful" adults while the lower-class adolescents preferred the "glamorous” adults; (2) the ideal self of the middle-class adolescents was character- ised by moral and intellectual qualities, but the loweruclass ideal self reflected personal beauty and fame; (3) in this sample the middle-class adoles- cents seemed to have a higher degree of moral develop- ment than the lower-class individuals. In general, this study supported the theory that the environment has a strong effect on the formation of moral and social values in adolescents. Eb, Chapman, Amos W. ”Attitudes Toward Legal Authorities by Juveniles,” Sogiglggy and fiecig} Bgseazch, XL (1956), 170-175e PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to determine if the attitudes toward legal authorities differed 203 between delinquents and non-delinquents. METHOD: Questionnaires designed to measure these attitudes were given to a group of 160 boys between the ages of 13 and 17. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that delinquents held more negative attitudes toward police and other legal . agencies of authority than did the non-delinquents. E.6 Dixon, Marguerite M. ”Adolescent Girls Tell About Them- ”IV-s.“ W’ XX (Numb-r. PROBLEM: To determine the personal, social interests and aspirations of girls eleven to eighteen years of age. METHOD: The data was gathered by means of interviews and questionnaires from 200 girls from grades six to twelve. This is the first section of a two-part survey by the National Girl Scout Organisation on the needs of the adolescent girl and how they can be met. CONCLUSIONS: (1) adolescent girls are under the most stress between the ages of 1b and 16 when they are beginning to make important outside centcts; (2) ' although most of the girls started dating at age 1“, the majority do not like the idea of going steady. Personality rather than physical appearance is seen as determing popularity with boys; (3) in their family relationships, most girls felt that the rules laid down by the family were fair, necessary, and help- ful. Up to lb years old, most family disagreements centered around clothes and make-up, from 1“ to 16 driving and dating were the major disagreements, but after the age of 16 family conflicts were centered in ideas; (h) most of the respondents planned to work before and after marriage and preferred white-collar jobs both for themselves and their husbands.” E.7 Durkin, Delores. "Children's Concept of Justice: A Further Comparison With the Finest.“ We}. W. (1959)- PROBLEM: This study deals with children's concept of justice in a situation of physical agression between children. METHOD: Case histories and interviews on 119 boys and girls from grades two, five, eight, and eleven in a large west-coast city were examined. CONCLUSIONS: The older children showed more concern over possible mitigating factors in the particular situation and tended to turn to an authority person for a judgement. E.8 Prenkel-Brunswick, Else. 'A.Research Prooect on Ethnic Prejudice in Children and Adolescents,” flglgg Relations, I (19b8), 295-306. PROBLEM: This study discussed the determinants of children's and adolescents' susceptibility to ethnic 20h and racial prejudice. METHOD: Attitude and personality tests and inter- views with parents and children were utilized. The original sample of 1500 boys and girls was reduced to 120 who were found to be extremely prejudiced or unprejudiced. Ages ranged from 11 to 16. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that there was a somewhat consistent patterning of responses to statements about men and society, which, in turn, was related to certain personality features. ‘The parents of the prejudiced children were found to be very con- cerned with status and harsh in their discipline. . The parents of the unprejudicod children were less rigid and more oriented toward love and understanding. The formation of prejudiced attitudes is seen to be a function of the child's attitude toward authority as influenced by the attitudes of the parents. E.9 Harmin, Merrill, and others. ”General Characteristics of Participating Youth Groups,“ W m. XXX (October. 1956). 9-57. COMMENTS: This volume of the lg;;ngl_g£_§§ggg§igng; ‘figgiglggx is devoted entirely to various discussions of the Youth Community Participation Project at New York University. This project was concerned with '. . . studying the achievement of freedom and significance by youth in community life.“ (Mb) This selection describes the general characteristics of the eleven youth groups involved in the larger study. It illustrates the importance of adult direction in youth clubs which are desirous of ~ relating to the larger community. These clubs with little direction or desire to relate to the community as a whole seem to develop or degenerate on different grounds than the sponsored'blubs., E. 10 Hess, Robert D. and Goldblatt, Ireme. ” The Status of Adolescents in American Society: A Problem of Social Identity,“ w, xxvn (December, 1957). #59-h68. PROBLEM: In this study the attitudes of teen-agors and parents toward adelescents were investigated. In addition, the relationship between the attitudes of parents and teens within the same family was investi- “tOde METHOD: The sample was comprised of 32 adolescents and 5“ parents. A set of rating scales as well as interviews were used. The families in this sample were upper—middle and middle-class in a metropolitan area. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that: (1) while parents and adolescents express a mildly favorable opinion of teen-agers, the parents tend to feel that teens have an extremely high opinion of themselves and that teen-agers tend to undervalue adults; (2) on the 205 other hand, adolescents feel that, while adults evaluate themselves relatively accurately, they tend to under-value adelescents. Adolescents see a relatively greater status difference between teen- agers and adults than do the parents, but both adolescents and parents believe that the status differences between teen-agers and adults will be distorted to approximately the same extent by the other group. E.11 Hill, David S. ”Personificatien of Ideals by Urban mailman." W. I (1930). 379'393o , PROBLEM: The purpose of this paper is to ascertain age and sex differences in the selection of personages that are considered by youth as ”ideals.“ METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 8812 white students in grades two through twelve in the public school system of Birmingham, Montgomery and Mebilo,’ Alabama. CONCLUSIONS: Age and sex differences: (1) the largest number of ideals were historical and public characters. This selection was found to increase with age; (2) the second largest number of ideals were selected (all ages combined) from the immediate environment, I.e., father, mother, thacher, but the influence of those ideals was seen to dedhine with age; (3) at every ago more boys than girls selected ideals from the remote environment while more girdlwselected ideals from the immediate environment. E.12 Kluckhohn, Florence R. "Dominant and Variant value Orientations," szsonalitz in NatureI Sgcietz ggd Qultgre. (ed.) Eluckhohn, G., and Murray, H. A. . (2nd ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), 3&2-357. COMMENTS: While the aim of this paper is the develop- ment of a conceptual scheme which will permit the ordering of cultural value orientations in a frame-f work of common human problems it can be interpreted as having value for the understanding of variant value orientations within a given group such as the adeles- cont group, Considering the role, ethnic and class differences within a society the expression of variant values is understandable. E.13 Kuhlen, Raymond G. and Bretsch, H. S. "Sociometric Status and Personal Problems of Adolescents,” Sggigmggzx, X (May, 1957), 122a132. PROBLEM: This study was a search for data on the kinds of personal problems which characterize adolescents who are socially unacceptable as contrasted with the problems of those who are acceptable to their age mates. METHOD: A questionnaire incorporating the Mooney Problems Check List, Junior High Form was administered to a sample of 692 ninth graders in a city in central New York State. The mean age of the subjects was 1h.6 years. fl 206 CONCLUSIONS: The general finding was that the unaccepted children have more problems than the accepted children. The accepted group checked problems that related to social activities, educational and occupational future while the unaccepted group checked problems that related to concern over social skills, dislike of school, family problems, unhappiness, and lack of status. E.1h Logan,R. F. L. and Goldberg, E. M. "Rising Eighteen in a London Suburb," Briti h a1 f clo , IV (December, 1953), 323-3h5. PROBLEM: To study the physical, mental and social health of a group of London adolescents. METHOD: A group of 85 males (aged 18) were given questionnaires, focused interviews, and physical exams in l9h9. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the chosen occupation of the son was strongly influenced by the social class of the father; (2) there was a striking lack of interest in con- structive leisure pursuits; (3) within a great range of exhibited maturity more emotional disturbance was found, but there was little observable guilt in the area of premarital sexual relations. E.15 McKee, John P. and Sheriffs, Alex C. "Men's and Women's Beliefs, Ideals, and Self-Concepts,"‘Aggziggn_Jgnzn;; f 10 . XLIV (1959). 355-363. PROBLEM: To study aspects of the attitude and belief system which may reflect role changes in, and dis- equilibrium between the sex groups. METHOD: 100 single men and 100 single women at the University of California were given Sarbin's Adjective Check List. ' CONCLUSIONS: In general, the findings show that the Arolos of men and women are changing and that there is a disequilibrium between the groups. Investigation of the content and implications of the stereotypes of males and females revealed: (1) women's Real Self is more sex-typed and more unfavorable than men's; (2) women's Ideal Self is a little less sex-typed than men's (3) women, in describing their Ideal Man, ’ select favorable female characteristics as often as they select favorable male characteristics. Men, however, include favorable male characteristics considerably less often in describing their Ideal '0‘“ o E.16 Mooney, Ross L. "Surveying High-School Students? Problems by Means of a Problem Check List,” ggnggtigng; Rosggggg Bullotig, xx: (March, 19h2), 57-69. PROBLEM: In this study the author has applied the Problem Check List to one school.in order to illustrate the nature and uses of the data obtainable with this instrument. 0‘ 207 METHOD: The Problem Check List was administered to 603 students in the Stephens-Lee High School in Ashville, North Carolina. CONCLUSIONS: In general, the findings revealed that the problems could be divided by grade-level and sex in many of the cases. Predominant problem areas by grade level were generally as follows: (1) freshman, more than any other class, were concerned with health problems while sophomores, to a small degree, favored problems in the classification of ”social and recreational activities“ and juniors led other classes in their emphasis on problems related to "adjustment to school work.” Seniors were most concerned with problems in the area of ”the future: vocational and educational”; (2) the girls at all grade levels led the boys in the mention of problems in the areas of ”home and family" and "secial-psychological relations” while the boys led the girls in the areas of “adjust- ment to school work: and “The future, vocational and educational.” E.17 Newcomb, Theodore M. ”Community Roles in Attitude Iormation," As1zi2:n.§22islssiasl_asxiaz. VII (October. 1952). PROBLEM: This study deals with individual attitude changes and the influence of the community setting. This is based on the thesis that the personality processes involved in attitude formation are closely related to the processes by which position is assumed in groups which have a characteristic attitude toward a given issue. 7 METHOD: An attitude scale entitled ”Political and Economic Pregressivism" was administered to the student body of Benningten College from 1935 to 1939. The scale was constructedte emphasize issues of importance in the community. CONCLUSIONS: Full assimilation into this college community.demands the assumption of less conservative attitudes. The trend of attitude change ran from freshman conservatism to senior non-conservatism. The explanation for the exceptions to this trend and the process of attitude change and personality formation in general is felt to lie in the inter- action of the individual's response to the total community (her response to membership in a community with certain approved attitudes) and the effect of membership in one or more reference groups which may or may not be contained in the immeduate community and, if found in the setting, may not reflect the attitudes of the total community. E.18 Pierce, J. J. “Interest Correlated of 1Secio-Econemie Status in Adolescents," c . nt, xxx (3.11, 1959), 65-67. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was: (1) to ’1 I. 208 construct new scales which would measure socio- economic status indirectly through teen-agers? responses to an interest inventory; (2) to see if the results of conventional interest scales were comparable to the results of the new scales and to objective socio-occnomic status. METHOD: The scales were constructed from data ob- tained from two random samples of eleventh-grade pupils in a city of 50,000. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the new scales were found to be reliable measures of the socio-econemic status of the sample; (2) investigation revealed that interest status was positively related to I.Q., grade-point average, and literary, musical, scientific and persuasive interests. E.19 Pierce, J. J., Reid, J. B., and Kind, I. J. ”Adoles- cent Racial and Ethnic Group Differences in Social Attitudes and Adjust-ent.” W. V (0°t0b0r. 1959). 599-552. PROBLEM: The hypothesis of this study was that Negro and white children similar in their levels of intellectual ability differ in several important social attitudes and in certain areas of personal and social adjustment. It was felt that there would also be differences between ethnic groups. METHOD: Data was taken from a sample of 252 adeles- cents (80 Negroes, 8h Latin-Americans, and 8“ Angle- Americans). This group was selected from a population of about 1600 seventh-grade pupils which were under study in the Human Talent Research Projects at the university of Texas. CONCLUSIONS: (1) the only significant relationship found within racial groups was the Negro children were more negatively oriented to society; (2) , feelings of social ill-ease were reported by Latin- Americans more than by Anglo-Americans or Negroes. No significant difference in the self-report of feelings of social inadequacy was found between Negroes and Anglo-Americans. E.20 Ramsey, Charles E. and Nelson, Lowry. ”Change in Values and Attitudes Toward the Family," Agpziggn_§ggigr logiggl Review, XXI (October, 1956), 605N609. PROBLEM: Considering the increase in the divorce rate from 1939 to 1952 and the surrender of functions of the family to other institutions, the authors expect to see a change in attitudes toward the family as expressed by adelescents. METHOD: The data for this study was taken from a study done in 1939 and replicated in 1952. The questionnaire, which controlled for sex, father's occupation and residence, was administered in 1939 to 58 females and 33 males. In the 1952 replication, 71 females and 71 males received the questionnaire. All the subjects r9 209 were juniors and seniors in high school. CONCLUSIONS: With the exception that the 1952 girls felt less obligation to the family of origin, there was no supporting evidence for the expectation that there would be a change in adolescents' attitudes toward the family. E.21 Remmers, H. H. and Druckor, A. J. ”Teen-Age Attitudes Toward Problems of Child Managoment,' Jggzngl_g£ Educational ngghology, (1951), 105-113. PROBLEM: The purpose of this study was to assess teen-agers' attitudes and behavior in the area of child management. The variability of attitudes, future orientation to the role of parent, and education for child management are among the topics discussed. METHOD: Form A and Form B of the Stedman-Remmers Scale were administered to a sample of 1132 high school students. The samplo was stratified with respect to high-school grade, geographical region, religion, and level of parents' education. The sample was randomed with respect to sex, size of community and home environment. This scale was administered to the national sample of Poll No. 2“ of the Purdue Opinion Panel. CONCLUSIONS: The findings show that girls are better than boys on the StedmanABemmers Scale of attitudes, that attitudes improve with age, maturation, and educational influence. The authors conclude that the high school years are appropriate for education and training in child-management. E.22 Remmers, H. H. and Radler, D. H. "Teenage.Attitudes,“ Sgientifig Agefiigan, CXCVIII (June, 1958), 25-29. PROBLEM: In 19 l H. H. Rommers began a study of adolescents. In 1957 Rommers and Radler published The American Teenager. This book was a summary and interpretation of the findings of the first #5 polls conducted by the Purdue Opinion Panel, the group Rommers formed in l9hl., This article brings the polling results up to date and discusses interpreta- tions found in the book. METHOD: The samples of the Purdue Opinion Panel are drawn from various high schools throughout the nation in such a way as to accurately represent all the high- school grades, the various sections of the country, and rural and urban dwellers. The results of the polls load the authors to the conclusion that the. main characteristic of adolescents in 1958 is a drive toward conformity. They note, among other things, a strong tendency to drift with the crowd, a type of passive intollectualism, and a strong drive to be liked by one's peers. . E.23 Rose, Arnold M. ”Attitudes of Youth Toward Mental Health 210 ProblémS.” §fl2i21galland_snsis1_82ssezgh. XLI (June. 1957). 393-3 8. PROBLEM: The purpose of this paper is to compare the attitudes and knowledge of adolescent girls and boys with regard to mental health problems. METHOD: The original sample for the study consisted of lhOO students (the entire sophomore class) of three Minneapolis high schools. The original sample included all ethnic groups and secio-economic classes in the city. The final sample, 100 students from each school, was drawn at random from the original .m10e CONCLUSIONS: The major finding was that the girls revealed a greater knowledge and held better attitudes toward the problems of mental health than did the boys. It was hypothesized that the difference in attitudes and knowledge was a function of the generally higher scholastic performance of the girls. Since they study more, they will have more accurate knowledge of the problem. No evidence was offered in support of this hypothesis. 3.2» Rothman, Philip, 'Socie-Economic Status and the Values of Junior High School Students,“ Jouzngl of Educ;- tigngl Sociology, XXVIII (November, 195 ), 126u130. PROBLEM: This study is concerned with the relation- ship botweon the social class position and the value systems of students in the lower-middle and upper- lower classes. METHOD: The findings are based on an investigation, of a sample of 56 ninth-grade students, 28 in the lowerumiddle class and 28 in the upper-lower class. CONCLUSIONS: Of the seven areao examined (Purpose, Feelings, Attitudes, Interests, Beliefs, Thinking, Action, Aspirations), only the areas of Purposes, Actions, and Aspirations showed a slight differen— tiation between classes. While the study was_ ‘ generally unable to show a significant relation between value differences and class differences, the author felt that the slight differentiation mentioned seemed to emphasise the need for the teacher to deal with the student as an individual. E.25 Schenk, Quentin I. and Romney, A. Kimball. ”Some Differential Attitudes Ameng Adolescent Groups as Revealed by Bogardus' Social Distance Scale," 5.212;,g: and figgigl Egggarch, XXXV (September- October, 1950). 38-h5. PROBLEM: In this study the attitudes of four resi- dentially homogeneous groups of adolescents regarding the effects upon secial distance attitudes of social isolation and ecology are analysed. , METHOD: The Social Distance Scale was administered to 89 adolescent boys (20 of whom were Negro) ages 12- 18, who lived in three different areas of one city. f0 211 CONCLUSIONS: ”The influence of differences in residential area did not show up as important as did the differences in age and race.” (h5) E.26 Strang, Ruth. I'Adolosconts' Views on One Aspect of Their Development," u al o E u t e , XLVI (1955). u23.u32. PROBLEM: To analyze the attitudes of a group of adolescents with respect to their feelings about growing up. METHOD: 277 adelescents were asked to write an essay on ”How It Tools to be Growing Up.” These essays were then examined to determine the range of attitudes. CONCLUSIONS: It was found that many of the statements made by the adelescents supported what is generally known about adolescent life, but some of them suggested attitudes and feelings which have not been sufficiently explored. Among those are: (l) the satisfaction in successful completion of adolescent tasks; (2) the recognition that freedom should be accompanied by roeponsibilityi (3) the adolescent's eagerness to assume responsibility; (0) the adolescent's insight into adult's point of view. E.27 Symonds, Percival M. ”Sex Differenc. in the Life Problems and Interests of Adolescents,” c and iet , XLIII (Moi. 1936). 751-752. PROBLEM: This paper presents the results of a study of the more important life problems and interests of adolescents. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 78“ boys and 857 girls of the high schools of Tulsa, Oklahoma, and the Grover Cleveland High School in New York. CONCLUCIONS: In the area of interests: (1) boys indicate a groator interest in safety, health, money, civic affairs, recreation, and study: (2) girls indicate a greater interest in personal attractiveness, etiquette, and getting along with other people. In the area of problems, boys rank money higher than girls as a problem. Girls rank personal attractive- ness and etiquette high as problems. E.28 Taba, Hilda. ”The Moral Beliefs of Sixtoon-Year-Olds.” The Adolgsgggt, (ed.) Seidman, Jerome, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., (1953), 592-596. COMMENTS: This article was taken from a cooperative study, Adolggggnt Chgtagtg: and Personality, (See General Bibliography entry #110), that studied the character and personality of 16-year-olds in a mid- western community. In tho article the author,gives us some understanding of the adelescents' code of morals with respect to qualities of friendliness, honesty, loyalty, moral courage, and responsibility. 212 Generally, she finds that adolescents of this age group tend to rely on stereotyped slogans rather than value judgments in the resolution of conflicts arising in their daily experience. In other words adolescents lack maturity in applying moral beliefs to daily experience. E.29 Tryon, Caroline M. "Evaluations of Adolescent Personality by Adolescents,” Child Rehavigr and ngelopment. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19 3. PROBLEM: To investigate the factors involved in peer status maintenance in junior high school and to analyze children's notions of what are prestige lend- ing characteristics and behaviors. METHOD: Two testings, six months apart, were used in this study. The average age of the first group was 12.1 while the average age of the second group was 1h.9. All of the children attended Oakland, California, public schools. About 3/h of the subjects were common to both testings (260 out of 350). CONCLUSIONS: (1) lz-year-old boys -é children of this age emphasised generalized activity, aggressiveness, boisterousness, and competence in group games as important characteristics in boys; (2) l5—year-old boys -- in this group generalized activity had lost its appeal as a prestige factor and skill in games, self assertion, social ease, and poise in hetero- sexual relations are important prestige factors; (3) 12-year-old girls -- in this group, prestigo attributes include such items as attractive appearance, friendly social manner, good sense of humor, and controlled behavior conforming to adult standards; (u)‘l5-year- old girls -- two channels of prestige are noted for this group: light-hearted good-fellowship with both boys and girls, and glamorous qualities appealing to the boys. In the younger group, the differences between boys and girls lie in the areas of aggressive and generalized behavior. In the older group, the boys feel that attractiveness to the opposite sex includes the approval of other boys while the girls at this age feel that attractiveness is independent of their relations with other girls. E.30 Turner, Ralph H. "Moral Judgment: A Study in Roles,” Agozggan Sociglggicg; Review, XVII (February, 1952), 70‘77o PROBLEM: ”This paper is concerned with the way in which an indiyidual conceives his role in a situation in which a close friend has violated a moral norm." (70) METHOD: Of 120 written projective questionnaires administered to students at the University of California, Los Angeles, 105 responses were used in the analysis.d From the analysis of this data, the 213 author formulates a typology of role—playing in the questionnaire situations. CONCLUSIONS: ”In summary, a typology of role-playing . . . has been shown to be associated in some respects with patterns of role-taking, views of the friend- ship relation, and the individual's view of the norm. There is some suggestion of personality types reflected in the roles, including individuals who feel personally implicated in the misdeeds of others, individuals with high 'social responsibility' orien- tation, and moralistic individuals with high personal loyalty." (76) E.3l Whitlow, C. M. "Attitudes and Behavior of High School Students,” AsoIi2an.£22:aal_2£_§2siglgsx. XL (JanuarY. 1935). #89-u92. PROBLEM: This study is an attempt to discuss attitudes and behavior of high school students on the basis of data gathered directly from them. , METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to a sample of 603 male and female students in a six year high school. The questionnaire was concerned with potential offenses. The subjocts were asked to select, from the 26 items listed, the five worst and the five most committed offenses. CONCLUSIONS: From the analysis of the responses the author concludes that the school has little or no direct influence upon the formation of ethics or conduct. A hypothetical "typical student" extrapolated from the data discloses that the typical student: (1) believes that stealing, drinking and lying, in that order, are the worst offenses, but he most frequently commits the offenses of swearing, dis- obedience, and lying; (2) has never failed a grade, is affiliated with some church, never drinks, and has little patience with a ”flunkor.” Girls were found to be more consistent than boys in relating attitudes to behavior. Zlh F. ADOLESCENT DEVIANT BEHAVIOR F. l Benedict, Ruth. "Continuities and Discontinuities in l/ " v/ Cultural Conditioning,” Psychiatr1,1 (1938), 161- 167. COMMENTS: In this discussion of the interrelation- ships between biological, group membership and role determinants of personality, the author contends that maladjustment and personality upheavals may be, in part, due to the discontinuities in the society's cultural conditioning. She notes that many primitive societies assume the presence of strain in the shift of roles and the physiological changes inherent in the transition from childhood to adulthood. Those societies minimise the disruptive influences of such ahanges by the use of specifically ddfinod age groups (secret groups) and ceremonies that serve to support the individual and define the situation. In our society, with no well-defined and supported period of transition, the shift from childhood to adulthood may easily produce anxiety that is expressed in the fixation of personality development at an earlier stage. F.2 Davids, A. and Parenti, A. N. ”Personality, Social Choice and Adults' Perception of These Factors in Groups of Disturbed and Normal Children,“ e o r , (1958). PROBLEM: To examine the sociometric patterns of normal and disturbed groups in order to describe the sim- ilarities and differences in group structure. METHOD: Sociometric investigation of three mixed groups: (1) U8 emotionally.disturbod children at Bradley Hospital, Riverside, R.I.; (2) 80 normal children at a summer camp in Kingston, N.Y.s (3) 57 normal children attending public school in E. Providence, R.I. CONCLUSIONS: Social popularity was found in both groups to be associated with good emotional adjust- ment, possession of positive personality traits, and absence of nogativo personality traits, In the dis- turbed group, the disliked tended to be more dis- turbed than were the ignored. F.3 Domerath, N. J. "Addlescont Status Demands and the Student Experiences of Twenty Schizophrenics," Am' ca Sggielggical Review, VIII (October, 19U3), 513-518. PROBLEM: To investigate the hypothesis that successful adjustment to adult demands depends greatly on the individual's participation in the informal group life of adolescence. METHOD: Investigation of the case histories of ten male and ten female white, native born, Protestants who were hospitalized for schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS: Investigation of the case history material 215 revealed that the twenty subjects had little participation.in the informal life of their age mates and seemed to be precocious adults in their desire to conform to adult standards. It was found also that the student experiences of the subjects were not essentially different from the experiences of many non-psychotics. I.“ Fromm, Erich. "Individual and Social Origins of Neurosis," Y Amaricgg figgiglogigg; Review, IX (August, 19Uh), 380- 38 . PROBLEM: To discuss the concern of the psychoanalyst. Beyond the readjustment of the individual, the psychoanalyst must be aware that the individual's ideal of normalcy may work against readjustment. METHOD: Discussion, no sample. CONCLUSIONS: One of the points made in the discussion is that the crux of the neurosis is often the individual's defeat in the fight against authority. One of the factors in this defeat is the stigma connected with sex rather than the incestuous wish of the child. F.5 Furfey, Paul H. "The Group Life of the Adolescent,”' Jougngfi of Educational ficciologx, XIV (December,19h0), 195-20 o PROBLEM: To point out a general trend in research on the adolescent.' ‘ METHOD: Discussion, using secondary sources, of delinquent behavior in terms of cultural behavior patterns. No sample. . CONCLUSIONS: The authors point out that there is a tendency to study group behavior more in terms of the cultural behavior patterns of the group and loss in terms of the individual. The adolescent is being studied more as a member of a group than as an individual. Delinquency patterns in Chicago are used to illustrate the discussion. F.6 Gibbons, Don C. and Griswold, J. Manzer. “Sex Differentials Among Juvenile Court Referrals,” c e d l R_:___soa_agh_. (1959) . PROBLEM: To test the findings of sex variations in' delinquency. METHOD: Data was based on records from 35 counties in the state of Washington and concerned with children referred to the juvenile courts between 1953 and 1955. Over 18,000 cases were examined. Ratio of males to females was approximately 3.5 to 1. Seven percent of the cases were non-white. ‘ CONCLUSIONS: (1) Compared to boys, female cases were more likely to be non-white, (2) Most female cases involved running away from home, (3) More girls than boys were from broken homes or were out of school, (0) More girls than boys were committed if their cases were not dismissed. 216 F.7 Cough, Harrison G. ”A Sociological Theory of Psychopathy," American o l of ociclo , LII (March, 19b8), 359-366. PROBLEM: An attempt to approach the concept of the psychopathic personality by a sociological point of view. METHOD: Theoretical discussion, no empirical data. CONCLUSIONS: The author contends that the sociological concept of role-playing is of particular importance in the diagnosis of psychopathy. He contends that role-playing inability is a more valuable diagnostic element than social maladjustment. F.8 Kobrin, Solomon. "The Conflict of Values in Delinquency Areas." WW. XVI (Oct-bu. 1951), 653-661. PROBLEM: To discuss delinquency as the result of personality or psychological processes rather than as the result of cultural processes. METHOD: Discussion of existing statistical data and secondary sources. CONCLUSIONS: The author feels that available statistics support the proposition that urban areas of high rates of delinquency manifest a quality of conduct norms rather than a dominant conventional or delinquent culture. This conflict of values is useful in .explaining the variability of behavior of boys in delinquent areas and in formulating a model of delin- quency areas based on the interaction of opposing value schemes. F.9 Levy, John, J. D. ”The Impact of Cultural Forms Upon Children's Behavior," ent l H‘ iene, XVI (April, PROBLEM: To discuss the hypothesis that the specific society into which a child is born has an influence on the specific conflicts and disturbances the child will face. METHOD: Non-statistical discussion of the problem. CONCLUSIONS: The sources of conflict in childhood arise from the conscious instruction of the social group in the form of discipline and the unconscious emotional stress placed on the child by his culture. Since the training of the child induces contain conflicts and the structure of family life, sex codes, and religious beliefs influence his emotional develop- ment, the author feels that problem children are, in part, a produce of our social organization. F.10 Lexten, Donald A. ”A Study of the Validity of Parent Attitude Measurement," De o o n , LNII (December, 1958), 515-520. PROBLEM: To determine if there are differences between‘ the attitudes of parents of problem children and the attitudes of parents of non-problem children towards (3 f) 21? their respective children. METHOD: Twenty pairs of parents_of children from each grade of two Los Angeles grade schools were given the Shoben Parent Attitude Survey and the Minnesota Teachers Attitude inventory. CONCLUSIONS: The author found: (1) a significant similarity between mother and father attitudes towards children within a given family; (2) no significant difference between scores of parents whose children had excellent adjustment ratings and parents whose children had poor adjustment ratings; (3) a wider disagreement between parents of poorly adjusted children than between parents of well- adjustod children. F. 11 Mayo, Elton. ”Psychiatry and Sociology in Relation to Social Disorganization,” Amgzigan 1e uznalo of §_£_2;£KIs LXLL (“‘19 1937): 825-831o PROBLEM: To relate sociology and psychiatry to each other in the field of social disorganization. METHOD: Discussion of problem with reference to secondary sources. CONCLUSIONS: ”In adolescence the insufficiently conditioned individual may develop perverse or promiscuous practices, or, if he endeavors to repress such a tendency and to live like more normal persons, he will instantly develop psychoneurotic symptoms. The psychoneurosis is the negative of the perversion. It is not the repression of a normal sexual impulse that loads to psychoneurosis, but the attempt to impose a normal expression upon an abnormal attitude." (828) F.12 Miller, Derek H. ”Family Interaction in the Therapy of . r'-/” _... Adolescent Patients,” s tr , XXI (August, 1958), 277-28ue PROBLEM: To describe the steps taken to minimize potentially disturbing family interactions in hospital- ized adolescents. METHOD: Analysis of the case histories of 25 malesand female adolescents under two-year treatment at Menninger Memorial Hospital. CONCLUSIONS: Since each of the patients was in the hospital as a result of the interaction with his family, futthor contact is strictly controlled until the precise nature of the relationship is established. As the patient progresses to the point where he can handle the contact, increased interaction is permitted and encouraged. F.13 Olson, V. J., Nye, I. T., and Short, J. F. ”Socie- Economic Status and Delinquent Behavior,”.Amorig§n iguggal of figgielggy, LXII (January, 1958), 381-389. PROBLEM: To see if a measure of reported delinquency as opposed to official records would yield the result 218 that delinquency is more prevalent in the lower classes. It was also felt that there would be no difference in delinquency rates between boys and girls at the various socioeconomic levels. METHOD: Questionnaires were administered to 2350 boys and girls in three Western communities and 250 boys and 265 girls in three Midwestern communities. CONCLUSIONS: They study found: (1) no significant difference in delinquent behavior of boys and girls at the same socioeconomic level; (2) when status was held constant by two independent measures, no significant relation between status and delinquency was found. F.1h Philip, B. R. and Peiretto, H. E. ”An Objective Evalua- tion of Brief Group Psychotherapy on Delinquent Boys,” ggnadiag lggrggl gt Rsyggglggz, XII (December, 1959), 273N280. ‘ PROBLEM: To see if projective type tests would work better than questionnaire type tests when applied to delinquent boys (Who are often suspicious of the latter type . METHOD: A sample of 86 delinquent boys, 1“ to 16 years old, committed for minor misdemeanors to St. John's Training School, Uxbridgo, Ontario, was divided into 8 groups - U control and h experimental. The experi- mental greups received the projective tests and were expected to show a reduction of hostility. CONCLUSIONS: Reduction of hostility in the experimental group reached the 5% level of confidence and the hypothesis was supported. Changes in four ohher variables were noted but did not reach an accepted level of significance. F.15 Polk, Kenneth, ”Juvenile Delinquency and Social Areas,” Se 1 Pr bl , v (1957), 21u-217. PROBLEM: To see if delinquency rates varied between , census tracts (where tracts reflected differences in / exhibited culture)._ ' . ' METHOD: Study done in San Diego, California, within the framework of social area analysis. Group behavior comparison of all delinquency in census tracts was based on economic status, family status, and ethnic status. CONCLUSIONS: (1) areas of low economic status, low family status, and high ethnic status reflected the highest rates of delinquency; (2) with family status and ethnic status held constant, no evidence could be found to show that the rate of delinquency was based on a class system. This also hold true for ethnic' and family status when the two other variables were held constant. F.16 Reckless, W. 0., Dinits, Si, and Murray E. "Self-Concept as an Insulator Against Delinquency," AEOZEOBD ”/1 i 1 al Review, XXI (December, 1956) 7 -7h6. 219 PROBLEM: In a high delinquency rate area in Columbus, Ohio, what insulates some early teenage boys against delinquency? METHOD: 125 "good" boys evaluated by teachers as "good", were given a series of four self-administered scales. CONCLUSIONS: ”Insulation against delinquency on the part of these boys may be viewed as an outgoing process v” reflecting an internalization of non-delinquent values and conformity to the expectations of significant others.” (706) Their continued ”goodness" will depend on their ability to maintain their present self-image. F.17 Reeves, J. M. and Goldman L. "Social Class Perceptions 1 and School Maladjustments," Rersonnel and Guidance Journal, XXXV (March, 1957), a l -hl9. PROBLEM: To examine the internal and external definitions of social class and relate these to school maladjustment. Close agreement of definitions was expected from the adjusted students. METHOD: Three questionnaires were administered to a sample of 385 students in the ninth through the twelfth grades of a high school in Western New York. All social classes were represented. CONCLUSIONS: The findings offered some support for the proposition that maladjustment is associated with discrepancies between internal and external measures of social class level. F.18 Reiss, Jr., Albert J. ”Social Correlates of Psychological Types of Delinquency,” Amezigan §cciolog1cgl Rgview XVII (December, 1952), 710:718. PROBLEM: To attempt to isolate social correlates of psychological types, which may operate in the formation of personal controls of delinquents. METHOD: Discussion of problem with reference to published materials and documents. No sample. _ CONCLUSIONS: Three psychological types and a series of associations for these typos were isolated. .The three types were: (1) the relatively integrated delinquent; (2) ~the delinquent with markedly weak ego controls; (3) those with relatively weak super- ogc controls. F.19 Robin, Leo N. and O'Neal, P. ”The Marital History of Former Problem Children,” Sogigl Rnglems, V (Spring, 1958). 397-357. PROBLEM: To test the hypothesis that socially dis- approved marital history is related to socially disapproved premarital history. METHOD: Interviews were obtained from 52h consecutive patients of the St. Louis Municipal Psychiatric Clinic located after 30 years. CONCLUSIONS: (1) religious background was found to be less important than early behavior problems in pre- dicting divorce; (2) broken homes were found to be less 220 related to divorce in later life than the fact that the patients had been problem children. F.20 Stolz, H. R. and Stolz, L. M. "Adolescent Problems Related to Somatic Variations,” hfird xearbogk of the Natigggl §ogigty to; the Study of Education, University of Chicago Press, (19“ ), Pt. 1, 81-99. PROBLEM: To attempt to analyze some of the somatic conditions which may be involved in problems which adolescents face. METHOD: Discussion of the problem with reference to secondary sources and personal knowledge as physician and educator. No sample. CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude that, in matters of individual guidance, an adjustment problem exists only were the individual recognized the existence of the problem. It is up to the guide to determine the significance of actual or imagined somatic conditions. F.21 Vold, George B. ”Discussion of Solomon Kobrin's Paper .// 'Tho Conflict of Values in Delinquency Areas," ’ ” Agegican fiogiglggigal Review, XVI (October, 1951), 671-672o PROBLEM: To discuss the above-mentioned paper. METHOD: Discussion CONCLUSIONS: Vold agrees with the hypothesis of simul- taneous existence in delinquency areas of two conflictdgg value systems. He feels, however, that the significant theoretical problem in this area is determining why a person identifies with one of those systems rather than the other. He feels that motivation for identi- fication rather than existence of the systems is the critical point. F.22 Wattonberg, William W. and Balistriori, James J. ”Gang Membership and Juvenile Misconduct,“ Agggigfifi_ figgiologicg; ngiow, XV (December, 1950). 7 -752. PROBLEM: (1) ”in a group of boys, all having police records, those belonging to gangs would show a higher proportion coming from poorly supervised homes and from unfavorable socioeconomic conditions; (2) the differentials between gang and non-gang boys on items reflecting socioeconomic conditions and home super- vision would be sharper among boys repeatedly in trouble than among those whose police records were limited to a single incident; (3) items reflecting weak home supervision and poor neighborhood conditions would be more highly predictive of repeating among gang boys than non-gang boys." (706) METHOD: Analysis of the case histories of 5878 boys between the ages of 10 and 16 who were “interviewed onucomplaint" by Detroit police officdrs in l9h6 and 19 7. CONCLUSIONS: "These boys who belonged to gangs differed from non-gang boys in showing evidence of coming from 221 easy-going homes and living in socieecenomically low neighborhoods. The non-gang boys gave indications of coming from tense or depriving families. In predicting repeating by these boys, socioeconomic indices had greater value in the case of gang members, and family indices in the case of non-gang boys.” (752) F.23 Witmer, Helen L. ”The Influence of Parental Attitudes on the Social Adjustment of the Individual,” Am V” W. 11 (October. 1937). 756-763. PROBLEM: To discuss the parent-child relationship and its influence on the later adjustment of the individual. , METHOD: Non-statistical analysis of case histories, w“ interviews and secondary sources. CONCLUSIONS: Well-adjusted children are less likhly to have had poor parent-child relations than problem children, delinquents, pro-psychotics, manic-depressives, and schizophrenics. The treatment of children with poor parent-child relationships is rarely successful unless there is improvement in the parental attitudes. F.2h Block, Herbert Aaron, Ihg_§3ng, New York: Philosophical Library (1958). PROBLEM: To discuss the hypothesis that when society does not provide ways for the indoctrination of the adolescent members into the status of adults, forms of behavior arise among them spontaneously which supplies the necessary psychological reinforcement, in our society these being the gangs. METHOD: Discussion of published material on this subject. No sample. CONCLUSIONS: (1) from an understanding of the role of the adolescent gang, it is possible to gain understanding of the role of the adolescent in any given culture; (2) the findings indicate that the phenomenon of adolescence contains certain basic similarities in all cultures, no matter what the differences between the cultures themselves; (3) it seems expedient to rqggrd adolescent gangs as a normal manifestation of that particular age level. 1. 2e 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 222 CHAPTER V GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbott, M. 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