FAT AND PkGMENT m RATiONS OF TURKEY
FRYER-ROASTERS (BROILERS)

Thesis for flu Dogm of M. S.
MICHlGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Howard E. Wildey
196.6

 

 

  
 

 
 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

1

ABSTRACT

FAT AND PIGMENT IN RATIONS OF TURKEY
FRYER-ROASTERS (BROILERS)

by Howard E. Wildey

It has been proposed that large white female poults
fail to produce turkey broilers with the desired confor-
mation and adequate finish to stimulate the maximum de-
mand for turkey broilers. It was therefore of interest
to evaluate the effect of feeding supplements and pig-
ments on body conformation, appearance and finish, as
well as on rate of gain and feed utilization.

Replicate pens of large white female poults were
fed 1.5, “.5 and 4.5 percent of stabilized animal tallow
plus a surfactant, starting at 6 weeks of age. The birds
were weighed at 2 week intervals and at ll weeks of age.
At 11 weeks of age, one-half of the birds on each treat-
ment were slaughtered; the remainder were slaughtered at
12 weeks of age and the carcasses of both groups were
evaluated for finish, conformation and appearance. Body
weight and feed conversion data were evaluated but no
significant differences were found between the treatment
groups. No significant differences were observed in

finish, market grade and conformation.

Howard E. Wildey

A second trial was conducted in which 0 and 1.5 per-
cent stabilized tallow, were evaluated in combination with
no pigmenter, 10 milligrams xanthophyll per pound of feed
supplied by Florafil and 10 percent corn gluten meal in
the ration. The fat treatments were started when the
birds were 2 weeks of age; the pigmenter levels were added
at 8 weeks of age. Standards starting and growing rations
were modified to prepare the various treatments but pro—
tein levels were kept uniform for all treatments for each
2 week growth period. Body weight and feed utilization
data were obtained and evaluated for each 2 week growth
period. All the birds were slaughtered and dressed,
ready-to—cook, at 12 weeks of age. Half of the birds
from each treatment pen were dressed at 130° F. and the
remainder were processed at 135° F. temperature so as to
obtain carcasses with and without the epidermis or skin
cuticle.

There was a significant difference (P < 0.01) in
favor of no added fat when improved body weights at 10
and 12 weeks of age were considered. There was a signifi—
cant difference (P < 0.05) in favor of added fat regard-
ing improved feed utilization for the 10 to 12 week
growing period only. The response to diets containing
Florafil was not significantly different from that of
birds on diets containing no added pigmenter but birds
on both of these treatments were significantly better

than those on the diets containing corn gluten meal

Howard E. Wildey

regarding body weight gains. Superior pigmentation of
birds fed the diets containing corn gluten meal was ob—
served when the skin cuticle of the carcasses was intact
but not when processing procedure removed the skin cuticle
from the carcasses. Although the abdominal fat of birds
fed corn gluten meal was more highly pigmented than that

of birds fed diets containing Florafil or no added pigment,
the turkey broilers apparently lacked sufficient fat in
their skin to exhibit the yellow pigment when the epidermis
was removed. The pigmentation of birds receiving Florafil
was no better than that of birds receiving no added pig-
menter.

A consumer preference panel evaluated turkey broiler
carcasses differing approximately 1 pound in weight and
found no significant difference in preference for one
sample over the other. Panel studies regarding consumer
preference for turkey broiler samples from birds exhibiting
yellow pigmented skin and those having the natural white
skin revealed a highly significant difference (P < 0.01)

in favor of the birds with the natural white skin.

FAT AND PIGMENT IN RATIONS OF TURKEY

FRYER—ROASTERS (BROILERS)

By

Howard E. Wildey

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Poultry Science

1966

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to
Dr. Theo H. Coleman, Professor of Poultry Science, for
his guidance and interest in this study and his direction
and helpful suggestions in the preparation of this manu-
script.

The author also appreciates the guidance and help
provided by Dr. Philip Schaible, Professor of Poultry
Science, for his guidance and direction in the development
of the research regarding this study. Special thanks are
due Dr. H. C. Zindel and Professor J. A. Davidson of the
Poultry Science Department, Dr. L. E. Dawson of the Food
Science Department and Dr. H. E. Larzelere of the Depart-
ment of Agricultural Economics for their guidance and
assistance regarding certain phases of the research re-
ported in this manuscript.

The author is also indebted to Dr. C. J. Flegal
and Mr. T. L. Barton, of the Poultry Science Department,
who contributed substantially to the successful completion
of this project.

Thanks also go to Michigan State University, the
Department of Poultry Science and the people of Michigan
for providing laboratory and farm facilities used in this

study.
ii

 

 

 

Chicag
Clintc

this s

Patien

ti)

N.ry 5

during

The author wishes to thank the Dawe's Laboratories,
Chicago 32, Illinois, and the Clinton Corn Products Co.,
Clinton, Iowa, for donating special ingredients used in
this study.

Finally, the author is warmly appreciative of the
patience and encouragement shown by his family, wife,
Mary Evelyn; daughter, Mary Marguerite; and son, Edwin,

during this important period of study and research.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Summary of Literature Review on Hormone Use
to Enhance Finish . .

Dietary Energy and Protein Relationships.

Summary of Review of Literature Regarding

Dietary Energy and Protein Relationships.

Surfactant Studies .

Pigmentation Studies

Studies Related to Consumer Preference
OBJECTIVES.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Trial 1.

Procedure .
Results of Trial 1

Trial 2.
Purpose.
Procedure

Results.

Quality Evaluation

iv

Page
ii
vi

vii

Page

Consumer Evaluation Panel Test. . . . . . 66
Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Panel Instruction and Procedure . . . . 70
Results of Paired Comparison Tests . . . 70
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 76
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . 80
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Table

10.

ll.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Turkey Starting and Growing Diets, Trial 1

Results of Feeding Trials from 6 to 11 Weeks
of Age with Large White Female Poults,
Trial 1.. . . . . . . .

Turkey Starting and Growing Diets, Trial 2

Results of Feeding Trials for 2 Week Inter-
vals from 2 to 12 Weeks of Age, Trial 2

Analysis of Variance of 10 Week Body Weights

Comparison of Average Body Weight Data for
10 Week Old Large White Female Poults
by Pen and Treatment Combinations

Analysis of variance of 12 Week Body Weights

Comparison of Average Body Weight Data for
12 Week Old Large White Female Poults
by Pen and Treatment Combinations

Analysis of Variance of Feed Conversion
Data for 10 to 12 Week Period

Comparison of Average Feed Conversion Data
for 10 to 12 Week Growth Period for
Large White Female Poults by Pen and
Treatment Combinations. . . .

Consumer Preference as Influenced by Carcass
Size and Pigment in Skin of Ready-to-Cook
Fryer-Roaster Turkeys . . . . .

Consumer Preference Data Adapted for
Analysis by Binominal Test

vi

Page
AB

149
57

58
59

60
61

62

6A

72

73

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Form for Consumer Evaluation Test . . . . 7A

vii

INTRODUCTION

Female poults are sought by turkey meat producers
mainly for the production of consumer size birds, 12 to
1“ pound weights, for the holiday market. This situation
causes a strong demand for female poults during the months
of May, June and July. However, tom poults are in demand
generally throughout the year, except in areas where
growers avoid starting poults when they would finish the
growing period in very hot weather or when they may be
subjected to severe winter storms.

The large toms are demanded by both growers and the
commercial food trade because of inherent efficiencies in
the production and processing of the larger carcasses.
The large toms have a favorable feed to meat conversion
ratio and the poult and brooding costs are spread over
more pounds of meat in the finished carcass. Processing
efficiency advantages for the large toms show up as in-
creased tonnage of meat processed plus reduced cost per
pound for packaging and other factors related to process—
ing and distributing. The risk to those who hold title
to large toms throughout the period of storage is less
since the large carcasses are regarded as a stable pro—

tein food commodity, accepted by the institutional and

restaurant trade as well as the further processing segment
of the industry.

This unequal demand for tom and female poults, and
the fact that both sexes are hatched in equal numbers,
often causes a serious problem in the hatchery segment of
the industry. Industry observers doubt that producers
could afford to pay $1.30 to $1.50 a poult for sexed toms
early in the season to allow female poults to be destroyed.
The situation is not quite the same as is the case within
the chicken egg industry where the cockerel has no value
except for breeding purposes.

Hatcherymen have been dealing with the problem of
what to do with female poults during the winter and early
spring months by growing out large numbers of the females
to light weights as fryer—roasters and/or by offering the
day-old poults to producers at favorable prices. Generally
the hatcheryman determines an average price per poult,
including all costs and desired profit. This amount is
multiplied by two and the sale price of the tom poult is
subtracted from this amount. The hatcheryman then tries
to sell the female poult at the price indicated by the
balance. Thus, if a hatcheryman feels he must average a
sale price of $.65 per poult and he can sell tom poults
for $.78 each, he subtracts $.78 from the average price
of two poults or $1.30 and tries to sell the females for
the balance, or, as in this case, $.52 each. The large

white turkey strains offer advantages in processing and

a better appearing carcass when derssed out at immature
weights over the Broad Breasted Bronze variety and better
feed conversion over the Beltsville Small White variety.
White-feathered birds cost less to process because of

less noticeable pinfeathers. Birds classified as heavy
white breeds or large whites have been greatly improved

in recent years for such traits as rapid growth, body
conformation and eviscerated yield. They also offer
growers the option of raising them to light weights, as
fryer-roasters competitive with Beltsville Small Whites,
or to maturity, depending on market conditions (Anonymous,
l96ua). The large bronze hen has not found favor in the
industry as a fryer-roaster due to processing difficulties
with pinfeathers though it offers growth efficiencies
equal to or better than some large whites and small whites
(McCartney, 1952).

There are two schools of thought in the turkey in—
dustry regarding turkey fryers: One group holds that the
production of turkey fryers (or broilers as they are
sometimes designated) is a special business which requires
special breeding. Generally, a strain based on the Belts—
ville Small White variety is used. The eviscerated ready—
to-cook carcasses produced from such stock is considered
by many processors and retailers to have superior consumer
appeal over fryer-roasters produced from large type white
females. (There seems to be general agreement that large

type male poults are not favored for this type of

production because of unfavorable conformation and finish
at immature weights.) Breeders and producers of large
white strains feel that the female poult from the large
white strains will grow into a satisfactory product at
less cost for feed due to a more favorable ratio of units
of feed required per unit of gain in body weight than that
required for the small type white poult. Circumstances
already discussed result in favorable and competitive
large white female poult prices. The exponents of the
large white feel that the large white will adequately
serve three purposes for the industry: (1) provide female
poults for fryer—roaster production, (2) provide female
poults for the production of mature birds for the holiday
market, and (3) provide tom poults for the production of
heavy toms for the restaurant, institutional and further
processing segments of the turkey market.

The size range for the family—size, ready—to—cook
turkey fryer—roaster ranges from 5 to 8 pounds. The
large white female will usually reach average weights
within the upper region of this size continuum by 12 weeks
of age with a very favorable feed to meat conversion ratio.

It has been pointed out by Adams (1956) that the
increase in turkey "broiler" production and the extensive
use of large white poults for turkey broiler production
resulted in complaints by some processors and retailers
that such stock produces broilers that are inferior in

finish and general consumer appeal. Processing technique:

have made it possible to freeze these birds so they will
exhibit a uniform light skin color but others in the in-
dustry have charged that there is a lack of flavor in
turkey broilers fed out using large type poults. The

small white type turkey fryer-roaster is marketed at 1U

to 16 weeks of age, the toms going to market at 1A weeks

of age and the females at 15 to 16 weeks. The large white
female fryer-roaster may be too large if fed beyond 12
weeks of age and many birds are large enough to market

by 11 weeks of age. However, the small white type broilers
appear to develop better finish (more fat in the skin) than
the large type birds because of their older age at market-
ing time.

Looking at developments in the chicken broiler in-
dustry, one might conjecture that genetic improvement in
large type turkey strains will some day result in birds
that will feather and finish to a highly satisfactory de—
gree at 10 to 12 weeks. However, until this can be
accomplished through breeding, it seems desirable to
develop rations that will attain these ends if they are
really perceived as quality factors by the consumer.

Although limited studies have been conducted to
evaluate various rations and feed additives in the
production of turkey fryer-roasters, few reports are
available at present regarding work done with stock now
currently available from large white commercial breeders.

Some nationally known large white strains are reported

to provide average mature weights that exceed that of
stock used a few years ago by 1 1/2 to 3 pounds.

An evaluation of the present economic importance
of turkey fryer-roaster production can be obtained from
data regarding the number of pounds of turkey slaughtered
and certified for wholesomeness in federally inspected
plants. The quantity of fryer-roaster turkeys certified
in this way during 1965 was 105.7 million pounds, ready-
to-cook weight. This may be compared to 1,195.0 million
pounds of other young turkeys certified in such plants
during the same period. Fryer-roaster turkeys repre—
sented 0.81 percent of the combined weights of all young
turkeys so handled (calculated from data reported in
Anonymous, 1966). It is suggested that improvements in
the quality of fryer-roaster turkeys would result in in-
creased consumer demand and expanded economic production.

The purpose of this series of experimental trials
was to evaluate the market qualities of young, large white
turkey females slaughtered while immature at fryer-roaster
weights. They were fed specific feedstuffs and feed
additives to enhance quality factors such as finish (fat
in skin) and yellow pigmentation. Consumer acceptance
of these quality traits was evaluated by a consumer panel
since the consumer is the ultimate receiver of the pro-
duct and will determine the economic value of any quality

innovation.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Davidson et_al. (19AM) administered diethylstilbestrol
and dianisylhexene to turkeys between the ages of 21 and 26
weeks. Diethylstilbestrol was injected into the throat
wattle while dianisylhexene was fed in the ration. Two
treatment groups of hens showed improvement in fat grade
but only the carcasses of males showed improvement regard-
ing pinfeathers. The estrogen treatment usually reduced
the final weight of the birds while increasing feed con—
sumption over that of the control groups by 20 to 60 per-
cent. Smith (1949) found that an implant of two 15 milli-
gram diethylstilbestrol pellets was adequate to give
superior fleshing and finish and fewer pinfeathers in large
toms but there was a growth depression or no growth effect
as a result of the treatment. Lane et_al. (1951) reported
similar results with Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys six
months of age.

Jaap and Thayer (19AM) fed estrogens to poultry and
concluded that the dimethyl ether or diethylstilbestrol
is the most potent of those tested and recommended its
use in fattening rations. Jaap (1945) demonstrated that
there is a distinct difference between the relative

potency of some of the estrogenic compounds when fed to

chickens and turkeys. Diethylstilbestrol was found to

be more active when fed to turkeys than when fed to
chickens. The reverse was found to be true upon the oral
administration of dienestrol. Thayer et_al. (19AM) found
that the potency of diethylstilbestrol when fed in the
ration was insufficient for practical use in fattening
chickens. Dimethyl ether of diethylstilbestrol was re—
ported to be extremely potent for fattening when fed to
chickens.

Lorenz (1944, 19U5) found that diethylstilbestrol
pellets implanted in turkeys at 110 and 166 days (approxi—
mately 16 and 24 weeks) increased deposition of abdominal
fat while similar treatment with chickens markedly in—
creased the fat content of muscle tissue without affect-
ing growth. The optimum treatment period was determined
to be from A to 6 weeks. Thayer and Davis (19A8) fed
triphenylchloroethylene and dianisylhexene to young turkeys
and observed an improvement in finish due to fattening as
well as increased gain. Almquist and Meritt (1952) re-
ported an improvement in gain and feed conversion A weeks
after l2—week-old Beltsville Small White turkeys were im-
planted with 15 milligrams diethylstilbestrol pellets.
Smyth and Vondell (1955) injected 10 milligrams of
diethylstilbestrol in a paste carrier into 8—week—old
Jersey Buff and White Holland turkeys. They found that
treated turkey fryers of these varieties had heavier

weights at 12 weeks of age than the untreated controls

and that a growing ration was superior to a finishing
ration when fed in conjunction with the estrogen treat-
ment. Growth rate was superior and fat finish was equal
to finishing ration. They reported no effect on feed
efficiency. A 20.6 percent protein growing ration and a
16.9 percent protein finishing ration were compared.

Adams (1956) compared the response of large white
and small white varieties of turkeys, both hens and toms,
to a 15 milligram pellet implant of diethylstilbestrol
and found that gain and finish were significantly improved
in both varieties. He found that the treated large whites
were fatter than the untreated Beltsville Whites, showing
that hormone treatment can overcome varietal differences
in carcass quality. Adams (1957) reported testing both
diethylstilbestrol and dienestrol diacetate as growth and
fattening aids. Diethylstilbestrol was administered as a
pellet (15 milligrams), paste (10 milligrams), oil solution
(12.5 milligrams) and liquid (15 to 20 milligrams). All
treatments were started 3 weeks before slaughter. He found
that diethylstilbestrol as a pellet or paste produced
significantly better effect on gain, finish and feed effi-
ciency than liquid or oil solutions. Dienestrol diacetate
in the mash at 31.75 milligrams per pound resulted in no
favorable effect on gain, only slight improvement in
finish and depressed feed efficiency.

Stadelman (1952) implanted 12 milligrams diethyl—

stilbestrol pellets in 7-week-old Broad Breasted Bronze

lO

turkeys, with and without thiouracil, and evaluated weight
gain, finish and feed conversion at 11 weeks of age when
the birds were slaughtered as fryers. This study in-
volved two trials. In the one trial, which was uncompli-
cated by a disease problem, the treated group required

less feed per pound of body weight gained. The mortality
due to treatment was important sincetmmh.trial groups
receiving combinations of thiouracil and diethylstilbestrol
had much higher mortality than the control group.

Miner g£_§l. (1959) studied the effect of feeding
turkey broilers dienestrol diacetate and that of injecting
them with diethylstilbestrol and methimazole. Beltsville
Small Whites and broad breasted large white turkeys were
used in this study. The large variety was found to show
more response to the hormone treatment than the small
variety. However, the small variety was finished better
without hormones than the large whites when treated with
hormones. These workers concluded that turkeys of the
large variety, with or without hormone treatment, did not
attain a satisfactory (Grade A) finish when slaughtered
at 13 weeks of age. While the diethylstilbestrol-
methimazole treatment improved finish in both varieties,
the results with dienestrol diacetate were variable re-
garding this trait. Their data show that when low protein
levels (13 to 16 percent) were fed to broad breasted large
white turkeys from 10 to 13 weeks of age, diethylstil-

bestrol-methimazole treatment gave a significant

11

improvement in weight gain, but only slight improvement

was obtained with higher protein levels (19 to 22 percent).
The addition of fat to the diet slightly improved weight
gain and finish of the Beltsville Small Whites. Dienestrol
diacetate (7.94 milligrams per pound of feed) appeard to
depress weight gain or had no effect. In general, the hor-
mone treatment improved finish in all trials.

Combs gt_al. (1958) studied the effect of diethyl-
stilbestrol pelleting, dietary fat level and Calorie-
protein ratio on growth, feed requirements and quality of
ll-week-old Broad Breasted Bronze turkey fryers fed to
14 weeks of age. Treatments included rations containing
2 or 10 percent added stabilized fat with a Calorie-protein
ratio of nu:1, with or without implantation of 15 milli-
gram pellets of diethylstilbestrol. A further comparison
was made with rations containing 2 or 10 percent added fat
with a Calorie-protein ratio of 60:1 but without the hor-
mone.

Birds implanted with the hormone gained weight more
rapidly and had significantly greater finish scores than
the controls, but without significant differences in
feed efficiency or intake of energy or protein per 100
grams of weight gain. Only slight differences in weight
gains were noted between diets containing 2 or 10 percent
added fat with and without the hormone implant. The
quality of fryers receiving rations containing 10 per-

cent added fat was not significantly different from those

l2

fed a ration containing 2 percent added fat, but growth
rate was improved and feed requirement was reduced when
10 percent added fat was in the ration. The rations

with the 1:60 Calorie-protein ratio gave significantly
greater dressed finish scores and greater abdominal fat
and drip loss. Taste panel results showed no significant
difference regarding acceptability of the meat from the
different treatment groups.

Carter gt_al. (1958) studied the effects of oral
administration of estrogens on growth, feed conversion
and carcass quality. The effect of different levels of
dienestrol diacetate and length of time of feeding period
and the comparative effects of dienestrol diacetate and
diethylstilbestrol when included in the ration of turkey
broilers were evaluated with and without 5 percent added
fat. Two trials were conducted in this experiment. In
Trial 1, dienestrol diacetate significantly improved weight
gains of Beltsville Small White turkeys when included in
the diet at the level of 22 to 32 milligrams per pound of
ration fed for 3 or 6 weeks before marketing at 16 weeks
of age. The only significant improvement in finish was
in males fed 22 milligrams of dienestrol diacetate per
pound of feed for either 3 or 6 weeks. In Trial 2,
dienestrol diacetate had no effect on weight gains, but
diethylstilbestrol significantly improved weight gain of
small white type turkeys when fed from 9 to 12 weeks of

age. The addition of 5 percent animal fat had no effect

13

on weight gain. In this trial, the feeding of 5 percent
added fat alone or in combination with either of the
estrogens, failed to produce any observable difference
in market quality. The authors concluded that the
difference between the ages of the birds in the 2 trials
may have influenced the response of the birds to the
treatment.

Creiger gt_al. (1960) studied the effect of oral
administration of diethylstilbestrol and dienestrol di—
acetate on growth rate and feed efficiency of Beltsville
Small White turkey broilers. He found that the feeding
of diethylstilbestrol in the diet of lO—week—old Belts-
ville Small White broiler turkeys failed to improve feed
efficiency and only slightly increased weight gains. The
incorporation of dienestrol diacetate in the ration signifi-
cantly improved weight gains when fed over a A week period
and feed efficiency was improved. The addition of fat in
either experiment did not significantly improve weight
gains unless the diet also contained estrogens. However,
fat alone in the diet improved feed efficiency.

Bird et_al. (1948) found that the composition of
the ration accompanying either orally or subcutaneously
administered estrogens is an important factor in fat
deposition in chickens. Treated birds fed a 1“ percent
ration gained less weight but showed more fat deposition

than did those fed an 18 percent protein ration.

14

Summary of Literature Review on Hormone
Use to Enhance Finish

 

 

The findings of Davidson et_a1. (1944) and Jaap and
Thayer (1944) that estrogens or estrogen-like hormones
increased finish in turkeys and chickens were confirmed
in general by the other research results cited. Growth
was generally found to be reduced or unaffected by hormone
treatment unless fat was added to the diet (Combs et_al.,
1958) or the diet protein level was low (Miner gt_al.,
1959; Bird et_al., 1948). However, restrictions in ef-
fect at the time of this study prohibiting the use of
estrogen hormones in poultry and turkey feeding were deemed
adequate reason for seeking other means by which the finish
and other factors of market quality might be enhanced in
turkey broilers produced from large white type female

poults.

Dietary Energy and Protein Relationships

 

The studies of Scott et_al. (1947) revealed that
rations high in energy content generally promoted more
rapid growth and better feed efficiency in chickens than
rations of lower energy content. When stabilized fats
and greases became available for use in poultry feeds,
even higher energy levels were made possible and studies
were initiated to explore the relationship between energy
and protein ratios in the ration. Hill and Dansky (1950)
in studying the relationship of the protein requirements

of chicks to dietary energy level found that growth was

15

depressed when a high-energy-low-protein ration was fed;
growth was improved with this ration when the energy

level was lowered. Aitkin et_a1. (1954), in a study of
the use of beef tallow as a source of energy in broiler
rations, fed beef tallow to chicken broilers to 10 weeks
of age, after which the birds were slaughtered and graded
for finish by official government graders. Two diets were
used containing 22 and 25 percent protein, respectively.
The addition of 10 percent tallow to the ration containing
22 percent protein failed to give a significant increase
in growth rate and gave only a slight improvement in feed
efficiency. However, the addition of 10 percent tallow

to the 25 percent protein ration gave a highly significant
increase in growth rate and an 8 percent improvement in
feed efficiency. The diet containing 25 percent protein
and 10 percent added beef tallow produced broilers with
finish superior to that of birds fed the other diets. A
consumer preference panel preferred the birds fed rations
containing tallow because of perceived moistness in the
cooked meat though no difference was noted in the flavor
of the meat from the birds on all the diets.

Hill and Dansky (1954) studied the effect of dietary
energy level on growth and feed consumption. Crossbred
chicks were fed rations with energy levels ranging from
75 to 505 Calories per pound of ration (using pulverized
oat hulls up to 40 percent of the ration). They obtained

maximum growth rate as measured by body weight and shank

16

length with a ration containing an energy level of 623
Calories per pound. They observed that feed consumption
was determined by the energy content of the ration and
concluded that protein level in the ration had little or
no effect on feed consumption. Maximum growth rate at
low dietary energy levels was associated with marked in—
creases in feed consumption. Though the birds increased
feed consumption their total energy intake was decreased
progressively as the dietary energy level of the diet was
decreased. The energy level of the diet was reflected in
the fat content of the carcasses. The chicks fed the
ration highest in energy concentration had the highest
carcass fat content, and fat content was progressively
lower as the energy level of the ration and total energy
intake declined.

Sunde (1954), in experiments conducted to evaluate
the use of animal fats in poultry feed, found no con-
sistent improvement in growth when white grease, prime
tallow, and soybean oil at 2.2 and 5.0 percent levels
were added to rations fed to chickens. The same levels
of these fats when added to turkey rations showed growth
improvement only when prime tallow was used. Feed utili-
zation was improved with both chickens and turkeys when
the various fat levels were fed. The addition of fat
to poultry feeds reduced the amount of dust and improved
the texture and color of the feed. Sunde (1956a) con-

ducted four experiments with crossbred chicks to determine

17

the importance of energy—protein relationships. Diets
containing 20 and 28 percent protein were supplemented
with 0.5 and 10 percent white grease. Energy levels of
655, 730, 771, 806, 845 and 932 productive Calories per
pound of ration were used. He found that a high protein-
1ow energy diet caused a reduction in the growth rate and
in feed efficiency. Raising the energy level of this type
of diet by adding fat improved both growth and feed effi—
ciency. He concluded that the data suggested that changing
the protein level changed the optimal energyzprotein
ratio.

Carver e§_al. (1955) studied the utilization of fats
of different melting points when added to broiler feed.
These workers determined the extent of absorption of
tallow, hydrogenated tallow, fatty acids from hydrogenated
tallow, and oleic acid by the chick. Neither hydrogenated
tallow nor hydrogenated tallow fatty acids are effectively
utilized as fat supplements to broiler feed. Unmodified
tallow is well absorbed, 82 to 100 percent.

The chicks readily hydrolyzed as much as 90 percent
of the fats fed; hence, a lack of digestion does not
account for the poor absorption of hydrogenated fats.

The hydrogenated fat and fatty acids did not improve 4
week feed conversion while tallow improved feed conversion
in these experiments.

Cullen et_al. (1962) studied the metabolizable

energy values and utilization of different types and

18

grades of fat by the chicken. The metabolizable energy,
absorbability and effect on growth and feed conversion

were measured on a number of fat samples including

different grades of tallows and greases, hydrolyzed ani—

mal and vegetable fat, methylester and fatty acids when

fed to chicks. The results showed that feed conversion

was improved by all fats used in the test. The authors
concluded that any of the grades of animal fat or hydrolyzed
animal and vegetable fat that are commonly found on the
market will give satisfactory feeding results.

Donaldson gt_al. (1956) experimented with chickens
reared to 4 weeks of age and found that the productive
energy level in the ration influenced the protein level
required in relation to rate of growth, feed consumption
and body composition. Energy intake and carcass fat
deposition were increased and water content of the carcass
was decreased as the Caloriezprotein ratio in the ration
was widened. The results showed that feed conversion and
growth were impared when the ratio of Calories of pro-
ductive energy per pound for each percent protein ex-
ceeded 43.9, 48.6 and 53.7 on the low, medium and high
fat diets, respectively. A wider ratio of productive
energy to protein in the ration was tolerated without ad—
versely affecting growth rate, as the proportion of the
Calories from dietary fat to those from other sources

was increased. As the energyzprotein ratio of the ration

19

was increased, less protein and more energy were required
per unit of gain.
The authors offered two possible explanations as
to why the chicks fed rations containing added fat could
tolerate wider Calorie:protein ratios before growth was
adversely affected than could the control chicks. They
proposed that a specific effect of fat in metabolism
might involve an increased ability of the chick to con-
vert energy from added fat in the diet into body fat,
thus permitting a greater increase in dietary energy intake
when diets contained less than optimal protein levels.
They also offered the possibility that the proportion of
energy obtained from fats versus carbohydrates might exert
a physiological effect on the bird affecting its appetite.
Potter gt_al. (1956) worked with poultry rations
containing varying protein levels from 20 to 30 percent
combined with varying Calorie:protein ratios from 32:1 to
56:1 to determine the effect of these combinations on
growth and feed efficiency. Each of 32 diets was fed to
18 crossbred chicks, in batteries, through 6 weeks of age.
As the productive energy and protein increased in diets of
a constant Calorie:protein ratio (32:1 to 56:1), or as the
Calorie:protein ratio increased in diets of a constant
protein content (from 20 to 30 percent) growth rate con-
sistently increased until the diet energy level was approxi—
mately 1150 Calories and feed efficiency increased throughout

the experiment. These researchers concluded that both chick

20

growth rate and feed efficiency were more closely related
to productive energy level than they were to the Calorie:
protein ratio.

Dymsza et_al. (1953) studied the response of grow-
ing turkeys to variation in the fiber and energy content
of mash and pelleted diets. Diets containing 5, 10 and
20 percent fiber supplied principally by adding oat hulls
were fed as mash and as pellets to floor—reared 10—week-
old White Holland turkeys. The dietary energy level
varied from 245 to 875 Calories per pound. All turkeys
except those fed the 20 percent fiber diet as mash made
satisfactory gains and produced carcasses of good quality
at 27 weeks. Pelleting of feed generally increased body
weight, efficiency of feed utilization and dressed carcass
score. The benefits of pelleting were progressively
greater as the fiber level increased and were more apparent
in males than in females. Increased fiber levels retarded
feather pulling. These workers concluded that the pro-
ductive energy requirements of growing turkeys, 10 weeks
of age and older, seemed to fall within the range of 460
to 875 plus Calories per pound of feed. High fiber diets
were found to stimulate feed and water consumption caus—
ing wet litter. Dymsza et_al. (1955) fed poults 28 per-
cent protein diets with energy levels of 744, 539 and 341
Calories per pound with fiber levels of 5, 10 and 15
percent, respectively. The heaviest poults of both sexes

were_produced with diets containing 744 Calories of

21

productive energy per pound. The calculated energy to
protein ratio was 26.5 to l.

Biely and March (1954) carried out four experiments
to study the relationship between optimum protein and fat
levels in chick and poult rations. They observed that
the addition of fat to a 19 percent protein diet depressed
growth and feed efficiency in chickens. However, when
fat was added to 24 percent or a 28 percent protein diet,
growth was not affected or was stimulated and feed ef-
ficiency was improved. Supplementing the diet with tallow
increased the level of protein which might be expected to
give maximum growth to 7 to 8 weeks. A 28 percent protein
diet containing 5.0 or 7.5 percent tallow and supplemented
with aureomycin produced the fastest growth to 7 weeks of
age.

Broad Breasted Bronze poults grew faster when the
ration was maintained at 28 percent protein than when it
was gradually reduced to 20 percent. This was true with
and without added tallow. The growth rate of the birds
was increased by the addition of tallow, particularly in
the ration maintained at 28 percent protein. The authors
concluded that the addition of fat in both chick and
poult rations may be advantageous when relatively high
levels of protein are fed. When the energy content of
the diet is raised by the addition of fat, the level of

protein which can be utilized efficiently is raised also.

22

Baylock et_al. (1954) studied the effect of energy
level of the diet on growth, feed efficiency and degree
of fattening of turkeys. Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys
were grown to 8 weeks of age under practical conditions
and then placed on test. They were divided by sex into
12 groups of approximately 50 birds each. The birds were
fed high and low energy pellets with grain. There were
no differences in the average finish scores or commercial
grades of hens fed the various diets. However, the toms
fed the low energy pellets and corn had poorer scores and
lower percentages of Grade A birds than toms fed the
higher energy diets.

Lockhart and Thayer (1955) used poult diets with
various protein and energy levels supplemented with lysine
and methionine to study energy-protein relationships in
turkey poult starters. Turkey starter rations were fed
containing 22, 24, 26, 28 and 30 percent protein. Each
protein level was fed with three available dietary energy
levels, 720, 800 and 880 Calories per pound of ration,
respectively. Lysine and methionine were added to the
rations in the series which contained protein levels of
22 and 26 percent and an available dietary energy level
of 800 Calories per pound. These workers reported that
the heaviest weights were obtained with a 30 percent
protein diet containing 880 Calories of available energy
per pound. The authors concluded from other data, how-

ever, that maximum growth was not being obtained during

23

the 4 week test period during which this ration was fed.
The addition of methionine to the 22 percent protein
ration significantly increased rate of gain but no addi-
tional gain was obtained by supplementing the ration
with lysine. The addition of a combination of lysine
and methionine to the 26 percent protein level ration
substantially increased gain but only a slight increase
in gain occurred when methionine or lysine was added in—
dividually.

Ferguson et_al. (1956a) studied the effect of amino
acid supplements to the diet of Broad Breasted Bronze
turkey poults fed various levels of protein and productive
energy to 8 weeks of age. A total of 828 Broad Breasted
Bronze turkey poults were distributed at random into 18
groups of 46 birds each for this experiment. Methionine,
tryptophane and lysine were added to diets which contained
21.7, 24.8 and 28.6 percent protein and had been calculated
to contain 825, 774 and 716 Calories per pound, respectively.
These researchers reported that poults fed a 24.8 percent
protein diet containing 774 Calories of productive energy
per pound and supplemented with methionine or tryptophane
produced the best growth. They reported that a Calorie—
protein ratio of 25:1 gave the best growth of poults
with a 28 percent protein diet not supplemented with
amino acids, but the diet appeared to be low in energy.
The authors found that the optimum growth response was

produced with a 24.8 percent protein diet supplemented

24

with methionine or methionine and tryptophane with a
Calorie:protein ratio of 31:1. The results of this
experiment indicate that the amino acid levels supplied
by the 21.7 and 24.8 percent protein diets were not high
enough to provide optimum growth. The data indicated
that methionine is the first limiting amino acid since

7 out of 8 of the groups receiving methionine produced
heavier poults at respective protein levels.

Ferguson e£_al. (1956b) studied the effect of feed—
ing Broad Breasted Bronze turkey poults a 26 percent pro-
tein diet with varying levels of productive energy. The
calculated productive energy levels tested were 670, 739,
797, 739, 802 and 865 Calories per pound of ration. The
best growth at 8 weeks of age was obtained with males
and females fed a diet containing a Calorie-protein ratio
of approximately 29:1.

Baldini e£_al. (1954) in a study of the protein re-
quirements of turkey poults demonstrated that poults would
grow at a normal rate to 6 weeks of age on a properly
supplemented 20 percent protein diet. This was con-
siderably less than the 28 percent protein level suggested
by the National Research Council in 1950. These researchers
found that lysine and methionine are the first and second
limiting amino acids, respectively in a 20 percent protein
corn-soybean oil meal poult diet. However, they found
evidence regarding growth rate indicating that methionine

is the limiting amino acid in a 28 percent protein

25

corn-soybean oil meal poult diet. Condensed fish solubles ‘
and procaine penicillin were found to be valuable supple—
ments in low protein corn-soybean poult diets. Baldini

and Rosenberg (1955; 1957) demonstrated that the methionine
level in the feed must be increased as the energy level of
a ration increases. The results of these studies indicated
that the nutritional effect of fat in a diet containing
adequate amounts of essential fatty acids was due to the
Caloric value of the fat. These workers found that growth,
feed conversion and body composition were not affected by
increasing the fat content of the diet when the Caloric
value of the diet was held constant.

Yacowitz e£_al. (1956), Carter et_al. (1957) and
Carter and Wyne (1956) found that Calorie-protein ratios
from 33 to 60:1 did not affect the growth rate of poults
between 8 and 16 weeks of age but the addition of fat to
the diet improved feed utilization. Yacowitz et_al. (1956)
fed turkey broilers a turkey starter ration supplemented
with 2.5 percent stabilized animal fat and 3 percent fish
solubles to 9 weeks of age. After 9 weeks of age, the
birds were started on experimental treatments. Levels
of 0, 3 and 6 percent stabilized animal fat were used in
combination with calculated protein levels of 20, 23 and
26 percent. These workers reported that there were
significant differences among groups of males fed the
various levels of fat but there were no significant

differences among groups of males receiving 20, 23 and

26

26 percent protein. The interaction between protein and
fat levels alone significantly affected female weights
at 16 weeks. None of the rations had any measurable ef—
fect on market quality as judged by handling the live
birds at 16 weeks. The authors concluded from their re-
sults that the 20 percent protein level was adequate for
turkeys 8 to 16 weeks of age with rations containing up
to 6 percent added fat and 937 Calories of productive
energy per pound.

Carter et_al. (1957) conducted two experiments to
study the effect of dietary energy on growth and feed con-
version of turkeys from 8 to 16 weeks of age. In the first
test, 450 small type white turkey poults were fed from 8
to 16 weeks of age on rations containing 17, 20 and 23
percent protein, each with and without 3 and 6 percent
stabilized animal fat. The second experiment was similar
except that large type poults were used and the protein
levels used were 14, 17 and 20 percent with the same
additions of fat. These workers found that with small
type turkeys, 7 to 10 pound weight at 16 weeks, rations
containing 17 percent protein and up to 6 percent animal
fat with an energy level of 1004 Calories per pound were
adequate for growth at this age. Efficiency of feed con-
version was improved at each protein level as the energy
value of the ration was increased. However, with the
heavy type turkeys, 9 to 12 1/2 pounds, 14 and 17 percent

protein did not support normal growth. The authors

27

concluded that a ration containing 20 percent protein

with up to 6 percent animal fat and supplying 957 Calories
of productive energy per pound is required for the large
type poults. Feed efficiency was improved when fat was
added to rations containing 14 percent protein but not
with rations containing higher protein levels.

Atkinson et_al. (1957) conducted three experiments
feeding turkey poults to 8 weeks of age to evaluate pro—
tein and energy levels for turkey starting diets. Diets
containing 26, 28, 30 and 32 percent protein were each
tested with three levels of productive energy giving
energy:protein ratios (Calories productive energy per
pound to each 1 percent of protein in the ration) of
24:1, 27:1 and 30:1. Stabilized animal fat was used to
regulate the energy level replacing some soybean oil meal
and grain. In trials in which fat was used, growth rate
and feed efficiency were significantly improved as the
percentage of protein in the diet was increased. Also,
in these trials, with each protein level, growth and ef—
ficiency improved as the energy value of the diet in—
creased. However, it was observed that at the higher
levels of protein, the energy:protein ratio was of less
significance for growth than at the lower levels. The
protein requirement per gram weight gain was less when
the productive energy of the diet within each protein

level was increased.

28

The authors suggested that it may be advisable to
start poults on a high protein ration, 30 or 32 percent,
supplying at least 720 Calories of productive energy
per pound, and to reduce it after a week to 10 days to
28 percent protein with 840 Calories per pound.

Waibel (1958) studied the effectiveness of unknown
growth factors, antibiotics and animal fat in turkey poult
rations and concluded from his data that supplementation
of "complete" poult diets with animal fat resulted in a
marked growth response and improvement in feed efficiency,
provided the protein level was adequate. The experiment
included 24, 28 and 32 percent protein levels. A protein
level of 28 percent was in all trials superior to a level
of 24 percent. The 28 percent protein diets produced a
growth rate equal to that of 32 percent protein diets in
this study. Growth was further improved when 10 percent
of animal fat was added to rations containing high levels
of protein.

Early in the hatching season, unknown growth factors
provided by 6 percent fish meal, 3 percent alfalfa meal,

3 percent distillers dried solubles and 2 percent whey
added to corn-soybean oil meal diets fed to turkey poults,
produced only small growth increments. However, when
these supplements were added factorially to a corn-soybean
meal basal turkey poult diet and fed to poults hatched from

eggs produced late in the hatching season, each supplement

29

produced highly significant and independent growth re-
sponses.

The performance of turkey market stock is determined
by many management factors but recent research has empha-
sized the interdependence of breeding and nutrition where
gain and efficient feed utilization are the criteria
being measured. Thayer et_al. (1961) in a study of energy
and protein interrelationships in turkey grower diets,
using a semi-purified all-mash diet, produced 12 pound
market weight hens in approximately 19 weeks on 2.1 pounds
of feed per pound of gain and 24 pound market weight toms
in 24 weeks on 2.3 pounds of feed per pound of gain. A
commercial strain of Broad White turkeys was used in this
experiment. A related study of Dunkelgod et_al. (1961)
in which a commercial Broad Breasted Bronze strain of
turkeys was used, showed that market weight hens with an
average body weight of 12 pounds were produced in 16 weeks
on 1.95 pounds of feed per pound of gain. A comparison of
the results obtained in the two feeding trials shows that
the growing period was reduced in time by approximately
3 weeks in the latter trial. The authors attributed these
results to a greater potential for gorwth in the strain of
turkeys used and a more adequate nutrient balance in the

daily nutrient intake.

30

Summary of Review of Literature Regarding
Dietary Energy and Protein
Relationships

 

 

 

The idea that growth and feed utilization are in-
creased by raising the energy level of broiler diets, as
demonstrated by Scott et_al. (1947), has been confirmed
by the research results cited. The attempts to increase
the energy content and density of poultry rations through
the use of vegetable and animal fats as reflected in the
work of Aitkin gt_al. (1954), Hill and Dansky (1954) and
Sunde (1945; 1956a and 1956b) have generally produced diets
that enhance feed conversion, gain and, sometimes, finish.

The findings of Carver g£_al. (1955) and Cullen
g§_§l. (1962) have established the practicability of feed-
ing poultry the vegetable and animal fats generally avail-
able to the feed industry as sources of energy when the
cost of these ingredients makes this practice economically
feasible.

Dymsza e§_al. (1953) working with turkeys, demon-
strated the beneficial effect of increasing nutrient
density using varied levels of fiber and pelleting of the
diet.

The use of fat with increased levels of protein has
been demonstrated consistently to improve the growth rate
of turkey poults. The addition of fat to the diet with
an accompanying increase in energy level increases the
level of protein which may be considered to give maximum

growth (Biely and March, 1954). These findings have been

31

supported in the literature cited from Baylock et_al.
(1954), Lockhart and Thayer (1955), Ferguson et_al. (1956a;
1956b) and Atkinson gt_al. (1957). However, Baldini and
Rosenburg (1955) found that the improved nutritional

effect of fat in a diet containing adequate amounts of
essential fatty acids was due solely to the Calorie value
of the fat.

The work of Baldini et_al. (1954), Lochart and
Thayer (1955), and Ferguson et_al. (1956a) emphasized the
importance of the amino acid balance in the poult diet
by supplementing relatively low protein diets with the
important amino acids, methionine and lysine. The con-
clusion of Weibel (1958) that supplementation of "complete”
poult diets with animal fat resulted in a marked growth re-
sponse and improvement in feed efficiency, provided the
protein level was adequate, may well sum up the findings
of this literature regarding fat in the poult diet and it

seems equally applicable to the chick diet, too.

Surfactant Studies

 

Growth stimulation in chicks following the feeding
of certain synthetic detergents, such as are commonly
used in household washing preparations, was reported by
Ely (1951). He found that the inclusion of lauryl
ethelene oxide condensate, a surface—active compound,
stimulated the growth of chicks to a significant degree,

in some cases as great as 10 percent. A search of the

32

literature revealed that only a relatively few reports

have been published indicating general negative results

in much of the experimental work stimulated by this initial
work. According to Flett (1942), detergents or surfactants
as they are more technically called refer to those agents
which have an unusual surface active action. This activity
comes from their ability to coat over surfaces with layers
so thin that they do not visibly change the coated material.
The material so coated no longer presents its own surface
to a surrounding solution, with the result that its pro-
perties in solution are changed. Neidig and Hersberger
(1952) estimated there were 700 to 800 surface active
agents available commercially in the United States at that
time. According to these authors the industry has stand—
ardized on a broad classification of surface active agents
as anionic, cationic and nonionic. The cationics are
largely used because of their germicidal properties. The
anionic and nonionic surfactants have uses comparable with
soap. The types of synthetics classified as anionic are:
alkyl aryl sulfonates, alcohol sulfates and miscellaneous
sulfates and sulfonates. Those classified as nonionic
are: alkyl phenalethylene oxide type, aliphatec poly—
hydric alcohol esters and fatty acid amides. The non—
ionics are generally liquids and do not have the high
foaming characteristics of the anionics. According to

Ely (1951) the first mentioned group (the cationic com-

pounds which have a germicidal nature) produce growth

33

responses during the early weeks in chicks or at about

the same time as the antibiotics but generally do not

give the dramatic responses of the better antibiotics.

It was his opinion that the action of this type of sur-
factant was basically the same as that of the antibiotics
in that both modify the intestinal microflora. The second
group of surfactants, the emulsifying and wetting agents,
he believed to have a different effect on growth. He
found that these materials promoted extra gains during the
latter weeks in the case of broilers (6th to 12th week).
Ely suggested this reaction may be a physical phenomenon
in which more favorable conditions for the assimilation

of nutrients from the digestive tract are achieved.

Anson (1939) suggested that detergents might act as

physiological substitutes for bile salts. He stated:

Physiologically, the bile salts emulsify fats,

activate lipase and promote the absorption of
various substances. The possibility muSt now be
considered that the physiological reactions of the
bile salts, like their reactions with proteins,
depends not on their specific structures, but on
their general hydrophobic-hydrophilic character,

and that other substances with the same general

hydrophobic-hydrophilic character can act as

physiological substitutes for the bile salts.

The reported results of feeding surfactants to other
animals and poultry in the literature do not consistently
support the results reported by Ely (1951). Ely and
Schott (1952) provided a possible, partial explanation

for these different results when they emphasized that

the favorable response to the feeding of surfactants to

34

chicks could not be detected until after the birds were
5 to 6 weeks of age.

Harris et_al. (1951) found that the growth of rats
was inhibited when these animals were fed diets containing
high levels of certain surfactants. However, Leucke et_al.
(1952) found that the surfactant, Ethomid C/l5, gave a 36
percent increase in growth when fed to young pigs. This
response was equal to that obtained by feeding aureomycin.
Scott e§_al. (1952) fed this same surfactant to chicks
and failed to stimulate chick growth up to 28 days. In
this test the Ethomid C/l5 was one of a group of six sur-
factants tested including both cationic and nonionic sur-
factants. The addition of aureomycin to the basal diet
greatly accelerated chick growth but in no case was growth
stimulated by supplementing the basal diet with a sur-
factant. In one trial the combination of surfactants
sharply depressed growth. The authors observed a small
incidence of perosis in chicks receiving the surfactants
and expressed the opinion that this should not be ignored
even though the number of affected birds among the 25
used in each test pen was small. Out of 8 pens, 2 had
zero perotic birds, 3 pens had 1 perotic bird each, 2
pens 2 affected chicks each and l pen fed 0.1 percent
Ethomid C/15 had 4 perotic chicks. All surfactants were
fed at the 0.1 percent level.

Stern and McGinnis (1953) compared the growth re—

sponse of chicks to detergents, germicides and penicillin

35

and failed to obtain growth stimulation up to 4 weeks of
age. Snyder et_al. (1953) fed the surfactant (Ethomid
C/l5) used by Scott et_al. (1952) and by Leucke et_al.
(1952) along with other surfactants over a 10 week test
period without significantly improving growth.

Biely et_al. (1954) studied the effects of including
6 percent of herring oil, 150 milligrams per pound of
iodinated casein, and 0.1 percent of a commercial sur-
factant (Santomerse-80) individually and in combinations
in a laying ration. The surfactant agent was used in an
effort to increase fat utilization. The supplements were
added to a practical laying ration and fed to White Leg-
horn pullets in individual cages. The 6 percent of oil
did not affect the rate of production; however, the birds
receiving this oil attained heavier weights than birds
receiving rations without the herring oil. The addition
of iodinated casein to the ration produced lighter birds
but the inclusion of 6 percent fat overcame this depression.
The supplementation of the diet with and without herring
oil with Santomerse—BO resulted in better feed efficiency

for egg production in both cases.

Pigmentation Studies

 

A search of the literature failed to reveal reports
of work related to the development of yellow pigment in
the skin of turkeys. However, considerable work related

to this subject has been done with chicken broilers.

36

Research by Palmer (1915), Heiman and Tighe (1943) and
Fritz gt_al. (1957) has demonstrated that the degree of
pigmentation in broilers is controlled primarily by the
level of pigmenting substance (xanthophyll) in the
ration. Palmer (1915) first demonstrated that xanthophyll
is the principal yellow pigment of the chicken body fat,
egg yolk and blood serum and pigmentation generally was
proportional to the pigment in the feed. Certain feed
ingredients have been shown to limit pigmentation. Hammond a,
and Harshaw (1941) found that fortified cod liver oil,

cod liver oil and sardine oil at high levels suppressed
pigment. However the levels required to do this were be-
yond levels for practical application based on present
practices.

Conflicting results have been reported concerning
the effectiveness of feeding antioxidents in the ration to
enhance pigmentation. An improvement in pigmentation by
the use of diphenyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPPD) has been
reported by Potter e£_al. (1956) and Fritz et_al. (1957).
Harm gt_al. (1958) reported that the addition of DPPD to
broiler rations significantly depressed pigmentation.
Potter g§_al. (1956) reported a slight improvement in
pigmentation when dietertiary-butylpara-cresal (BHT) was
included in the ration.

House (1957) determined that 9.5 to 10.0 milligrams
of exanthophyll per pound of ration was necessary for

adequate pigmentation of broilers. Fritz et al. (1957)

37

considered 12.5 milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of
ration adequate to produce good pigmentation. According
to Day and Williams (1958), the work of Hill and Dansky
(1951) and Maw (1939) developed evidence indicating a
positive relationship between carcass fat and pigment
deposition.

Carver (1959) found that yellow grease, No. l tallow,
hydrolyzed animal and vegetable fat, and methyl esters of
vegetable fat reduced pigmentation when included in rations
bed to broilers. Ratcliff et_al. (1959) found that changing
The Calorie-protein ratio of rations in a range from 35
through 60 had no important influence on broiler pigmen—
tation.

Day and Williams (1958) found that the addition of
BHT to the ration at the 0.0125 percent and 0.025 percent
levels reduced pigmentation somewhat in most trials.

Their data showed that stabilized beef tallow at a 5 per-
cent level significantly increased the utilization of
xanthophyll when it replaced an equal amount of white
corn in broiler rations. ‘These workers found the
xanthophyll in alfalfa meal and corn gluten meal to be
utilized about equally well for pigmentation in broilers.
The xanthophyll in yellow corn was found to be more ef-
ficiently utilized for pigmentation than the xanthophyll
supplied by corn gluten meal and alfalfa meal. Commer-
cial xanthophyll concentrates were found not to be as

effective as alfalfa when compared on the basis of their

38

respective levels of xanthOphyll. They found that ade-
quate pigmentation was obtained with broilers when as
little as 6.25 milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of
ration was fed provided a portion of the pigment came

from yellow corn. The authors suggested that when alfalfa
meal, corn gluten meal or a combination of these two feed-
stuffs is used as the source of xanthophyll, the dietary
level needed for good pigmentation may be somewhat higher.
Xanthophyll was reported to be more effective in increasing
pigmentation when fed during the latter weeks of the grow-

ing period.

Studies Related to Consumer Preference

 

Studies by Mills gt_al. (1961) have demonstrated that
the consumer is influenced favorably or unfavorably toward
turkey by the grade label placed on the carcass. Consumers
reacted favorably to grade labels, "Prime," "Choice," and
"Good" as labels for whole turkeys as well as for raw
turkey parts and cooked turkey products. This study re—
vealed that consumers preferred the word label "Choice"
to the letter grade "Grade A." The word grade label
"Good" was preferred to the letter label "Grade B."

Makens (1960) found that consumers consistently
preferred birds labeled as hens to those labeled toms
during panel studies. He concluded that mandatory sex
labeling could result in a decreased demand for toms sold

through retail stores to consumers with a resulting decrease

39

in price and lower marketing margins. This would bring
about an unnecessary economic loss to the turkey industry.

Studies by Makens (1963) explored the effect of
brands on consumer packages of turkey. It was his con-
clusion that brands did "differentiate turkeys of similar
weight and quality in terms of consumer preference."

This researcher evaluated the extent of market segments
which are favorably and unfavorably affected by brands.
The portion of the consumers favorably affected by brands
were divided into segments who would be willing to pay a
premium for a specific brand. The findings of the re-
search showed that 20 to 25 percent of the consumers in—
volved were willing to pay a premium for a well-known
brand. As many as 33 percent demonstrated a willingness
to pay as much as $.05 per pound extra for a preferred
brand. Approximately 60 percent of the consumers con-
sistently preferred a popular well-known brand to unknown
brands of similar weight and apparent quality.

Brand names appeared to help consumers make decisions
between products when they were unable to observe differ—
ences in the quality of the competing turkeys. However,
personal inspection appeared to be the most important
factor involved in the selection of turkeys. One brand
caused consumers to discriminate against the turkeys sold
under it and green appeared to be an undesirable label
color. A brand label which obscured too much of the

turkey breast from inspection by the consumer appeared to

40

meet with consumer disfavor. A well-known brand in the
market area was not always preferred by consumers over

an unknown brand.

OBJECTIVES

Two specific objectives were sought in this experi—

ment: the first was to evaluate the market qualities of

market qualities of fryer-roaster turkeys grown
poults of large white varieties; the second, to
the effectiveness of the various diet treatment

nations of specific fat and pigment supplements

from
evaluate
combi-

and/or

additives fed during the experiment. The evaluation re-

garding these objectives was based on specific criteria

of growth, finish, market quality, feed utilization, and

consumer acceptance. The following hypotheses were de-

veloped and tested:

1. The performance of treatment groups receiving

the basal rations regarding specified

criteria

will equal or excel that of birds receiving the

other treatments.

2. The response of treatment groups receiving 3.0

percent added animal tallow regarding the

specified criteria will excel that of the

controls.

3. The response of treatment groups receiving 3.0

percent added animal tallow plus a surfactant

will excel that of the control groups regard-

ing specific criteria.
41

42

The response of groups receiving treatment
diets containing 0 percent added animal fat
will excel that of birds receiving the basal
diet regarding the specified criteria.

The response of groups receiving the Florafil
additive will excel that of birds fed the basal
diet and equal or excel that of the groups re-
ceiving 10 percent corn gluten meal in the

diet regarding pigmentation in the carcass fat
and skin, as well as the specified criteria.
The response of groups receiving the treatment
containing 10 percent of corn gluten meal will
excel that of the control and equal or excel
that of the Florafil treatments in pigmentation
of carcass fat and skin, as well as the criteria
specified.

Consumer preference panel members will express
no preference between two samples of fryer-
roaster turkeys differing approximately 1 pound
in individual carcass weight.

Consumer preference panel members will eXpress
a definite preference for either the 6 pound

or the 7 to 8 pound sample.

Consumer preference panel members will show no
preference between the yellow pigmented sample
and the sample exhibiting the natural white

skin color.

lO.

43

Consumer preference panel members will express
a definite preference for either the yellow
pigmented sample or the sample having the

natural white skin color.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Trial 1

Procedure

 

A review of the literature revealed very little
information in recent work related to growth and market
quality with the popular commercial large white turkeys
when they are grown for market at fryer-roaster weights.
Thus, the decision was made to start the present project
with feeding trials based on turkey starting and growing
rations presently being recommended by the Poultry Extension
Specialists, Michigan State University, using large white,
female poults from a leading commercial breeder. Three
diet treatments were used in this trial: Diet No. l was
the basic turkey starting and growing feeding program;

Diet No. 2 consisted of the basic diet but modified by

the addition of 3 percent of stabilized animal tallow; and
Diet No. 3 was the same as Diet No. 2 with a surfactant1
added at the rate of 1 percent of the animal fat in the
diet.

Eighty-two day-old Nicholas Large White female poults

were received by parcel post at the Poultry Research Center

 

lDiethanol Amide, a tallow amide produced experi—
mentally by Swift & Company, Union Stock Yards, Chicago
9, Illinois, and obtained through the courtesy of Dr.
Keith Johnson.

44

45

Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, on

March 30, 1965. The poults were promptly wing-banded

and started on feed and water in 8 sections of a starting
battery. All poults were given the same 30 percent pro-
tein starting ration in mash form for the first 2 weeks.
The birds were debeaked at 7 days of age by removing about
one-fourth of the upper beak with a Lyons Electric de-
beaker. The intent was to remove only enough of the beak
to prevent cannibalism before 12 weeks of age when the
birds were to be slaughtered. At 2 weeks of age the poults
were randomly distributed among 6 - 4 feet by 6 feet grow-
ing pens.on ground corncob litter. Small 4-inch by 4-feet
feeders were used for the first few days of brooding until
the birds adjusted to eating from the larger hanging feeder.
One hanging feeder was supplied in each pen. A l-gallon,
glass water fountain was used at the start and subsequently
changed to a 3-gallon pan fountain with guard as the birds
grew in size.

The protein content of the ration, which was 30 per-
cent at the start of the trial, was adjusted down 2 percent
at the end of each 2 week growing period until all the
birds had been slaughtered; part at 11 weeks and the
balance at 12 weeks of age.

All the poults were weighed at 6 weeks of age and
66 birds were selected from the 81 surviving poults to
allow for six groups of birds consisting of 11 poults for

each pen with a balanced distribution of sizes in each

46

group. The weight of each bird was recorded when it was
placed in the test pen. The test pens were numbered 1
through 6. The diet treatments were assigned to pens as
follows: Diet No. l was fed to Pens 1 and 4; Diet No. 2
was fed to Pens 3 and 6; and Diet No. 3 was fed to Pens

2 and 5. The basic diets fed in each treatment are shown
in Table l. All.treatments started when the birds were
placed in the test pens at 6 weeks of age. The birds

were weighed and the individual weights recorded at 2

week intervals from 6 weeks to 10 weeks of age. All the
birds were weighed at 11 weeks of age, at which time the
birds in Pens l, 2 and 3 were slaughtered, eviscerated

and ready-to-cook weights were recorded (giblets and necks
included). Feed consumption records were obtained at each
weighing period. The slaughtered birds were evaluated for
finish and market quality by an expert panel of three men.
The following week the remainder of the poults were weighed
and slaughtered, graded and the eviscerated weights recorded
in the same manner as were the turkeys from the first three

pens.

Results of Trial 1

 

All of the turkeys, including the ll—week-old birds,
were considered adequate in appearance to be graded "Grade
A4 turkey broilers. The panel observed no significant
differences between the treatment groups at 11 weeks of

age. Weight gains and feed conversion data for all pens

47

are shown in Table 2. Analysis of variance of weight
gains and feed conversion data failed to reveal any
significant differences in the performance of the birds
receiving the various treatments through 11 weeks of age
for the 6 to 8 week, 8 to 10 week and 10 to 11 week growth
periods. The panel evaluated the eviscerated carcasses of
the birds from Pens 4, 5 and 6 (which were slaughtered at
12 weeks of age) to be approximately equal in appearance
and found the fleshing and finish (fat in skin) markedly
improved over that of the birds from replicate pens
slaughtered at 11 weeks of age..

The birds were scalded at approximately 135° F. to
facilitate the removal of pinfeathers. The removal of
pinfeathers at this temperature presented no special
problem for any of the treatment groups. The cuticle
or epidermis of the skin was removed from the carcasses
during the defeathering process at this temperature.

Only one bird was lost during the 6 week test period.
This was a perotic bird which was in one of the pens re—
ceiving the surfactant and was removed at 10 weeks of age
when it could no longer stand to reach feed and water.

It was a male bird which had gotten into the trial

through sexing error. This incidence may be of interest
since Scott g§_al. (1952) noted the incidence of perosis

in chicks fed surfactants. However, this seems unimportant

as an isolated event in this trial.

.3oaamp Hmeficm pom posed god mmfipoflmo comm BOHHm moofipmHSUHmox

 

48

 

m.mm om as p.33 e.ms m.wm e.em m.om m.mm oupmm seasonanwucofimo
omoa mam mmoa mmm suoa emm mom mmm mmm *ecsoa can mausoamo
oo.om mm.mu oo.mm oo.mm oo.em oo.:m oo.om om.sm om.mm camposm

”mammamcm UmumHSOHmo
om.e om.H om.e om.H om.: om.u om.H om.H om.H .emsuaugmpm .30HHme
om. om. om. om. ON. ON. om. mm. mm. . gasses

.cHz .pu> e: uomooaoz
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H A.mo Remy mcoumoeHu
og.m OH.m oa.m oa.m ms.H ms.u me.a om.H om.a .m ama
..mo New ..monm .HmOHo
om. om. om. om. om. om. om. om. om. pamm
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.a oo.H oo.H oo.H Aaemv
choc ..Hom amuse .pmuo
om. om. om. om. oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H Aamev amass amass msmzmnm
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H om.H om.a om.H oo.m oo.m ARNHV sauna .smnz
om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m ANNHV Ham: moamoae
om.m om.m om.m om.m oo.m oo.m oo.m oo.m oo.m Aaomv amnom «com a pas:
om.m om.m om.m om.m ms.m ms.m ms.m oo.m oo.m “domv Ham: swam
mm.mm HN.HN mH.em em.mm mm.sm ss.mm mm.am om.:m mm.mm Amomv umaasnma
upco>aom .Hmmz cmcnmom
em.mm mm.mm mm.em ma.mm mm.ms m:.mm Hm.me mm.es om.mm caoo
Amam\fi e Amumxfl e AERN\H.=
.aomv Auomv .ummv Aammv .usmv Anemv Auwmv Aammv Amomv

 

.H HmHLB .muoap wcfizoow pom wcfipnmpm zmxozell.a mqm<e

49

.psmflmz moon CH cfimw mo has: nod Umezmcoo poem mopwofipofi c\mH

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

om.m Hmmm oo.m ”mam :m.m seem mmea .>< m
me.e samm mm.m swam em.m Hmem emefl m m
mm.m memm ms.m 30mm HH.m mmem omea m m
mm.m ommm mm.m moem sm.m ooem saga .>< m
mm.m ommm mm.m mmmm sm.m Noam osefi o m
mm.m mmmm mm.m mmem sm.m mmmm emefi m m
mm.e swam mm.m mmmm om.m mmem mmsfi .>e a
mH.e mmmm em.m mamm Hm.m oaem ease : H
om.: moo: om.m emmm mm.m omem ooze H H
oxm .pz .>< u\m .pz .>e ucxe .pz .>e .pz .>< .
mxmms Ha mxmmz 0H mxmmz m mxmmz m oz com 02 poem

 

.H amuse .mpflsoa
oHMEmm opens owan spas mmm no mxmmz Ha on m Boom mamagp wcfipmmm mo muHSmmmnl.m mqm<e

50

Trial No. 2

 

Purpose
Since the results of Trial No. 1 failed to show any

significant economic advantages to be derived from feeding
large white female poults 3 percent added fat over the
amount in the basal starting and growing ration, either
with or without a surfactant, the decision was made to
evaluate the performance of large white female poults of
the same breeding as that used in Trial No. 1 when fed to
light fryer—roaster weights on diets without added fat as
compared with birds fed the basal diet. In addition, the
performance of three levels of pigmenter were tested on
the premise that yellow pigment in the skin and fat of
immature turkey broilers might be perceived as a favorable
quality factor by consumers. The two levels of fat and
three levels of pigment were combined in a 2 x 3 factorial
arrangement for statistical evaluation. (Consumer ac—
ceptance of pigmentation was evaluated in a third trial of
this experiment in cooperation with the Agricultural
Economics Department, Michigan State University.) The
turkeys fed the six experimental diets were evaluated for
market quality and finish, pigmentation, weight gains and
feed conversion and the performances of the experimental

groups were evaluated statistically for significance.

51

Procedure

 

One hundred fifty-four (154) Nicholas Large White
female poults were delivered by Air Express from Swift
and Co., Fresno, California, to the Poultry Research Farm,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, on
August 12, 1965. The birds were promptly wing-banded
and started on feed and water in 16 sections of starting
batteries. All poults were fed the same 28 percent protein
starting ration containing no added fat for the first 2
weeks. Except for the removal of the stabilized tallow,
this ration was similar to the 28 percent protein diet
fed in Trial 1. The birds were debeaked at 1 week of age;
about one—fourth of the upper beak of each poult was re-
moved with a Lyons Electric debeaker. At 10 days of age
the poults were placed on the floor in twelve 4- x 6-feet
pens. Aureomycin at 300 grams per ton, N. F.-l80 at 4
pounds per ton and Amprol Plus at 0.0125 percent were
added to the 28 percent starting ration when the birds
were placed on corncob litter in the test pens. Only
Amprol Plus was fed continuously in the ration for medi-
cation after the 14th day of brooding. All the diets were
supplemented with an additional 20,000 IU of Vitamin E
per pound of ration.

Four (4) electric heat lamps provided heat in each
pen. Small feed troughs were used for a few days until

the poults adjusted to eating from the larger hanging

52

feeders. A 1—gallon water fountain was used at the start
and then replaced with a 3-gallon pan fountain with guard.
At 14 days of age the poults were weighed and 132
were selected to provide 11 poults in each of the 12 floor
pens with a balanced distribution of weight sizes in each
pen. The pens were numbered 1 through 12. At this time
the birds in six of the twelve pens were placed on a 28
percent protein starter with 1 1/2 percent added stabilized
tallow while the rest of the birds continued on the 28 per-
cent protein diet without added animal fat. The corn and
soybean oil meal content of the ration was adjusted to
allow for the addition of the fat without changing the pro-
tein content of the ration. The basic starting and growing
diet recommended by the Michigan State University Poultry
Extension Specialists was modified to provide the diets used
in Trial No. 2. To provide no fat in this test, the fat
was removed from the standard ration and the corn and soy—
bean oil meal adjusted to provide the desired level of
protein. Except for the addition of extra Vitamin E, the
1 1/2 percent fat level treatment ration was essentially
the same as the basic diet used in Trial No. 1. All treat—
ment diets fed during this experiment were calculated to
contain the same protein level through each feeding period.
A 28 percent protein diet was fed to 4 weeks of age after
which the protein level was reduced to 24 percent for the
period 4 to 8 weeks. A protein level of 20 percent was

fed in all rations for the last 4 weeks until the birds

53

were slaughtered at 12 weeks of age. The basic diets fed
in this trial are shown in Table 3.

At 8 weeks of age the three pigment levels (no
added pigment, Florafil and corn gluten meal) were added
factorially to the two basic diets which contained no
added fat (Diet A) and 1 1/2 percent added fat (Diet B).
The treatment combinations were designated as follows:
Diet A-l contained no added fat or pigmenter; Diet A-2
contained Florafil but no added fat; Diet A-3 contained
no added fat but 10 percent corn gluten meal (60 percent
protein) was provided as a pigmenter; Diet B-l contained
1 1/2 percent stabilized tallow but no pigmenter; Diet
B-2 contained 1 1/2 percent tallow plus added Florafil
to provide 10 milligrams of xanthophyll per pound of ration;
and D—3 contained 1 1/2 percent added fat plus 10 percent
corn gluten meal as the pigmenter.

The turkeys were weighed at 2 week intervals until
they were slaughtered at 12 weeks of age. The total weight
gain, average weight, feed consumed and feed conversion
data were determined for each 2 week period. When the
birds were slaughtered, one-half of the birds from each
treatment pen were scalded at 130° F. and the remaining
half of each pen-were processed at 135° F. to assure
samples of carcasses with and without the cuticle intact.
The lower temperature allowed the cuticle to remain on
the carcasses of the dressed birds while at the higher

temperature the cuticle was completely removed in the

54

defeathering process. (It was observed in Trial 1 that
the carcasses of the turkey broilers exhibited yellow
pigment in the skin only when the cuticle was intact.)
The semi-scald (130° F.) thus assured yellow pigmented
birds for consumer studies in Trial 3.

The dressed and eviscerated birds (roaster style)
were weighed with giblets and necks included and the
weights recorded for the individual birds. Dressing per—
centages were determined. The eviscerated carcasses were
held in ice water overnight and then were displayed in
their respective treatment groups identified only by
code number. A panel evaluated the birds by treatment

groups for pigmentation, finish, and market quality.

Results

The results of the feeding trials from 2 to 12 weeks
of age for the six treatments tested for weight gain and
feed utilization are given in Table 4. Analysis of vari-
ance of 10 week and 12 week body weights were highly
significant (P < 0.01) for fat and pigment treatments.
Analysis of variance of 4, 6 and 8 week body weights re-
vealed no significant differences between the treatment
groups. Significantly greater body weights were attained
by the turkeys fed diets containing no added stabilized
animal tallow at 10 and 12 weeks. Analysis of variance
of carcass yield data revealed no significant differences

between treatment groups. Regarding the pigment levels,

55

the birds receiving treatments containing Florafil attained
the greatest body weight average. The diets containing no
pigment produced the second greatest weights while the
treatments containing corn gluten meal produced the

poorest growth. Both Florafil and no pigment treatments
produced significantly (P < 0.01) greater body weights

than the corn gluten meal diets at 12 weeks. However, at
10 weeks the Florafil treatments were significantly better
than the corn gluten meal treatments for growth but not
significantly different from the no added pigment treatments
results. Analysis of variance Tables 5 and 7 show the
comparison of average body weight data for the six treat-
ments for the 10 and 12 week weighings. Analysis of
variance of feed utilization data for the six treatments

is shown in Table 9. The mean body weights by pen and
treatment for the factorial combinations of fat and pig—
ment levels at 10 and 12 weeks are shown in Tables 6 and

8, respectively.

Analysis of variance of feed utilization data for
the periods 2 to 4, 4 to 6, 6 to 8 and 8 to 10 weeks for
the six treatment groups failed to reveal any signifi-
cant differences. However, significant differences
(P < 0.05) in feed utilization were found for the fat
and pigment treatments for the 10 to 12th week growing
period. Among all treatment combinations, those contain—
ing no added pigment had the lowest ratio of feed per

unit of weight gain, 3.13:1. The treatments containing

56

corn gluten meal had the highest average feed conversion
ratio, 3.49:1. The no-added-pigment treatments had a
significantly lower average feed conversion ratio than

the corn gluten meal treatments. However, the Florafil
treatments were not significantly different from the other
treatments regarding feed utilization at 10 weeks. Analysis
of variance Table 9, shows feed conversion data for the

six treatments from the 10th to 12th week. A comparison

of these data for large white female poults by pen and

treatment combinations is shown in Table 10.

57

 

mmm.ma

om.H

mCOHpmp Ham CH :ofipmo mo mpcsoo

«N

r U
omoa

mmm.ma

mcoz

LIN

r—‘I (D

000

mmm.ma

om.H

.3-

Ln
[\_
O\C‘\

ooo.om

mcoz

on
mmm

moo.zm

om.H

me

Hem

00.:m

mcoz

mm.

0')

CH O‘)

O \.

.
ha.

s
me
o

om.H

n.1,1

mam-

mmm.mm

mooz

OOH god Umppm memgm mm.HH

odusm :Hmwonmumflnoamo
Ammfiooamov

mwomom m>Hpozpoom

Campoom

“mfimmamcm pmpmazoamo
nmNHHHpmpm .BOHHMB

ADH\BH ooo.omv m .pa>

 

mo. mo. mo. mo. mo. mo. mo. mo. Aflm>mfi mmflo.ov mafia Honaee
om. ON. ON. om. om. om. mm. mm. ghetto
guanpu> an: Homeoaoz
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H OH.H 0H.H oo.H oo.fi A.mo ammv weepmmeHu
OH.m oa.m oa.m oa.m me.fi me.H oo.H oo.H A.m ama
..mo ammv .moem .HMOwa
om. om. om. om. om. om. om. om. pumm
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H naemv
mmflnsaom amass .pmwo choc
om. om. om. om. oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H Aamev swam» amuse mnmzmnm
oo.H oo.H oo.H oo.H om.H om.H oo.m oo.m ANNHV amuse .smcz
om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m om.m . Amway Ham: moamofla
om.m om.m om.m om.m oo.m oo.m oo.m oo.m Aeomv datum seem a paw:
om.m om.m om.m om.m ms.m ms.m oo.m oo.m Aasmv Ham: swam
. oo . OH 00 . OH mcoz mcoz @202 $202 mCOZ $502 Afiowv Ham: CmuSHU Shoo
Hm.m oo.m oe.Hm ms.Hm em.mm mm.mm mm.:m :m.em Aaomv Ham: Huo camnsom
am.mm ma.sm mm.mm me.em mm.mm .mo.mm sm.ee eu.oe choc
Apmo\z Apmoxz Annex: Auao\3 w
some Atoms moms “Roms dams lasso ammo Adams “assess cu

 

.m Hmane .wpofip wcfizonw pom moapompm mmxosan|.m mqm<e

58

 

 

 

sm.m sasm mm.m mmmm mm.m emmm aa.m mmma am.a amm amm .>< mum
me.m mmmm oo.a momm om.m smmm mo.m mama mm.a mmm mmm oa mum
ma.m maem mm.m ommm em.m mmmm :a.m emma am.a emm mmm m mum
mm.m mmo: sm.m amom mm.m :omm ao.m mmma om.a smm mmm .>< mum
mm.m name mm.m mmom mm.m scam mo.m :mma mm.a ace mmm ma mum
ma.m mmmm mm.m amom mm.m 20mm oo.m smma mm.a mmm mmm m mum
oo.m mmmm ma.m mmom mm.m amwm eo.m mmma sm.a emm 2mm .>< aum
mo.m ammm mm.m msmm mm.m aomm mo.m smma am.a :mm amm aa aum
sm.m mac: mm.m amom em.m ammm mo.m mmma ms.a 0mm amm a aum
mm.m mmmm mm.m msmm :m.m ammm mo.m omma mm.a mag mmm .>< mue
mm.m mmmm mm.m smmm mm.m eomm so.m amma mm.a mos mmm A mue
es.m memm ma.m mmom oe.m mmmm so.m mama mm.a owe smm m mua
ae.m mama mm.m mmmm mm.m memm ao.m mmma mm.a mas smm .>< mue
mm.m emmz mo.m mamm mm.m ammm mo.m eaaa mm.a mme emm m mu<
sm.m amma om.m mmmm mm.m :mmm mo.m :mma mm.a mam smm m mu<
mm.m New: ma.m momm om.m mwmm mo.m mmma mm.a mos emm .>e a-<
ma.m mam: mo.m msam om.m mmmm eo.m mama mm.a 0mm amm m an<
mm.m mam: mm.m smmm om.m Noam mo.m mmma mm.a mms :mm a an<
A.meV A.mewv A.mewv A.mewv “.mewv A.mewv .oz .02

o\m .pz .>< o\m .p: .>< w\m .uz .>< u\m .uz .>< o\m .pz .>< .az .>< cmm pmao
mxmoz ma mxmms oa mxmmz w mxmmz m mxmoz : mxmmz m om<

.m amass

.mmm mo mxmmz ma on m anm mam>omuoa xmmz m pom mamas» moapmcm mo mpHSmmmll.z mqm<9

59

TABLE 5.--Ana1ysis of variance of 10 week body weights.

 

 

Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean F
Variance Freedom Squares Square Ratio
Fat 1 418,133 418,133 7.50**
Pigment 2 1,600,890 800,445 l4.36**

Interaction 2 18,434 9,217 .14
Subtotal 5 2,027,457 405,491 7.27**
Error 102 5,687,045 55,755

Total 107 1,050,308,850

 

i”Significant at the 0.01 level of probability.

.pmmp mmcmm madapad: Gnocsa an pmamQEoo coLs Aao.o v mv
pomLmQMap mapcmoamacwam poo mam .on Amv ..m.m «momppma ooEEoo some mommfixx

60

 

on

Amv

 

 

o.mmom o.m:mm m.o:mm o.mmam **mcmme
ucmEpmmnu
pomewam
m.:ma m.mm m.mma m.mma mam>ma new
no memos
awesome
mocmnmmmao
w.::om a.wmmm .>< m.omam .>< o.mmom .><
m.mmmm oa m.mmmm ma a.amom aa
o.oomm m s.mmom m o.mmom a Aam\a av
own emow<
**m.mmam m.mmmm .>< m.oamm .>< m.aomm .><
3.3mmm m m.mmmm m m.mmam .m
m.mmom m m.ommm m a.ammm a emu
venom oz
A.mewv .oz A.mewv .oz A.mewv .oz
A.wewv one: 2mm one: com one: dog
memo:
am>ma use ammz aaamaoae acmemam mam>ma use
copzau cnoo cmoo< oz

 

mam>ma pcoewam

mucoEummnB

 

.mcoapmcaoEoo ucmEpmmau com com an mpaBOQ
mamEmm moans mwama vac x063 ca now some ucwamz moon owmam>w mo comaamQEooun.m mam<e

61

TABLE 7.--Analysis of variance of 12 week body weights.

 

 

Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean F
Variance Freedom Squares Square Ratio
Fat 1 1,172,916 1,172,916.o 12.68**
Pigment 2 3,507,973 1,753,986.5 18.96**

Interaction 2 73,949 36,974.5 .40
Subtotal 5 4,754,808 95o,961.6 10.28**
Error 102 9,435,117 92.501~l

Total 107 14,189,925

 

uSignificant at the 0.01 level of probability.

(tens-J" \I'S‘T— my
I.

.pmmp omcmm madapasz ooocsm an ooLMQEoo cons Aao.o v mv
ucoammmao mapomoamacwam we: who .Anv Amv ..w.o .maoppoa coEEoo spas mcmoza

 

62,

 

 

a.mmoa pa.emsm mm.ooma as.emaa *mcmoe acme
apnoea pooemam
a.mom e.ama m.sam m.mmm mao>oa use
no momma
cmmzumo
mocmammmwo
m.ammm s.masm .>< o.msoa .>< o.mooa .><
m.mmmm oa m.emaa ma m.mooa aa
m.mmsm m a.mmmm m «.mao: a Aam\a av
Baa eoooe
m.maae 2.2mmm .>< a.mmma .>< m.sama .><
m.msmm a o.mama m m.mmaa m
o.mmmm m m.soma m a.moma a use ooooa oz
A.wEwV .oz A.mewv .oz A.mEmv .oz
“.mEmV com: com com: com com: com
mono:
amt: aaoaaoaa ocoewao
aosoa use copsao coco emcee oz maosoa use

 

mao>mq pomewam

 

mucoEpmmaB

 

.mcoapmcHQEoo pooEpmoap one dog mo mpasoo
wHMEmm moans omoma oao xomz ma Lou mpmo unwaoz moon mwmam>m mo commama500|n.m mqm<e

63

TABLE 9.--Analysis of variance of feed conversion data

for 10 to 12 week period.

 

 

Source of Degrees of Sum ofv Mean F
Variance Freedom Squares Square Ratio
Fat 1 0.164 0.164 8.63*
Pigment 2 0.270 0.135 7.11*
Interaction 2 0.113 0.0565 2.97
Subtotal 5 0.547 0.1094 5.76*
Error 6 0.114 0.019

Total 11 133.994

 

*Significant at the 0.05 level of probability.

:1 a: m' “AO‘Wi

l '13'. um... Ix

r7

 

.pmop owomm madapasz smooso an ooomoEoo coo: Amo.o v mv
pcmoommao mapcmoamaowam no: can .on Amv ..w.o .mooppoa coEEoo Spas momoz*

 

64

 

 

oma.m oomm.m oma.m ammoe oaooa
amno>ooo
am>oa pomemam
mm. mo. mm. mpmo commam>coo
ao>ma pom some»
Ion oocmammmam
mm.m om.m .>< mm.m .>< oo.m .><
m:.m oa mm.m ma mo.m Ha
ma.m m ma.m m sm.m a aam\a av
pom omoo<
m:.m mm.m .>< H:.m .>< om.m .><
mm.m m mm.m m ma.m m
mm.m m mm.m m mm.m a now omoom oz
U\m. .oz c\mH .oz o\m .oz
Com com com
coammm>coo aoo: aaooaoaa ocosmao o o>o o
m couzao coco oooo¢ 02 a a p m

 

mao>oq pcmewam

 

mucoEuomLB

 

.mcoapocHnEoo pooEpmmou pom cod an mpasoo oadEom moans wwpwa pom
ooanoo cusoaw xooz ma on oa pom womb soamao>coo oooo owoao>m mo comaamQEooun.oa mam<e

65

Quality Evaluation

 

The treatment groups were evaluated for pigmentation,
finish and conformation by capable judges. The pigmentation
evaluation was concerned with the development of yellow pig-
ment in the skin of the turkeys. Finish was determined by
the degree and extent of coverage of fat in the skin. Con- Pg:
formation included the degree of development, shape and

fleshing of the birds. The market grade (anonymous, 1964b),

. 1.2.111.

"Grade A," was assigned to all of the treatment groups.

However, the panel observed notable differences between

 

certain treatment groups in pigmentation, finish and con—
formation. The turkeys fed Diet A-3, which contained 10
percent corn gluten meal with no added fat, were rated
highest in pigmentation and finish. The birds fed Diet
A—2, containing Florafil as an added pigmenter, were rated
second in color and finish. Among the treatment groups fed
no added fat, Diet A-l produced the poorest conformation.

Among the treatments containing added fat, birds on
Diet B—3, containing 10 percent corn gluten meal, were
rated highest in pigmentation and finish. Turkeys on
Diet B-l, which contained no pigmenter, were rated highest
for conformation. Diet B-1 and Diet B-2 produced birds
that were rated equal for pigmentation and finish.

The panel found no differences in skin pigmentation
between the various treatment groups when the cuticle was
removed. The diets containing corn gluten meal gave the

best pigmentation as observed in the skin color only when

66

the cuticle was intact on the dressed bird. Although

superior pigmentation was observed in the abdominal fat

of the birds fed rations containing 10 percent corn gluten

meal, it appears that the intensity of pigmentation or,
perhaps, the deposition of fat in the skin of l2-week—
old turkeys is not adequate to show pigmentation after
the cuticle is removed.

The pigmenter, Florafil, at 4 pounds per ton, was
rated equal to the treatments to which no extra pigmenter
was added. However, the Florafil seemed to enhance feed
consumption and weight gains. Though the treatments
containing Florafil produced the largest average weights

among the treatment groups, these weights were signifi-

cantly different only from that of the treatments contain-

ing corn gluten meal. Birds on Florafil containing treat—

ments were not significantly different from those on

treatments containing no added pigment.

Consumer Evaluation Panel Test

 

According to Greig, as found in Sorenson (1964), a
firm within the food industry strives to exploit existing
demand for its products and to create new demand. It
can do this in two ways: (1) it can alter consumers'
attitudes and beliefs concerning the product by adver-
tising and promotion or (2) it can change the quality of
the product to more closely conform to consumers' current

preferences and prejudices. Quality is defined in this

' " i flifi Tm. . F

‘ 's, 6“ ti 1'..—

67

case to include color, shape, materials, design, grade,
service and other qualitative characteristics perceived
to be important by consumers. Regardless of the method
employed to exploit existing demand for a product, a firm
must continually try to obtain better knowledge of con-
sumers' activities, habits, tastes, wants and customs.

If useful information is obtained, the firm can then
change the product and~the product quality experimentally
to test new ideas concerning consumer wants and actively

search for innovations with the same end in mind.

 

In-this trial, the attempt was made to determine
the influence of the quality factors: (1) size of carcass
and (2) degree of pigmentation on consumer acceptance of
fryer-roaster (broilers) turkeys grown from large type

white female poults.

Procedure

 

Samples were selected for uniformity of size, body
conformation, and pigmentation. Three birds were selected
from those processed at 11 weeks of age in Trial 1. The
birds weighed approximately 6 pounds each, ready-to—cook.
Another sample of three birds weighing 7 to 8 pounds was
selected from the turkeys processed at 12 weeks of age.
The birds in both samples were processed and prepared
for display by similar procedures. All were packed in
heat shrinkable plastic bags and frozen at —40° F. to
assure a relatively white appearing skin as is the

practice in commercial plants.

68

Two samples of three birds each were selected from
those processed at 12 weeks of age in Trial 2 for the
evaluation of pigmentation as a consumer quality factor.
One sample was selected from those birds dressed at 130° F.
and exhibiting marked yellow pigment in the carcass skin.
The other sample was selected from the birds dressed with
the scalding water at a temperature of 135° F. and from i
which the yellow cuticle had been completely removed.
This sample was selected to be equal in size and con-

formation to the pigmented sample but exhibiting the typical

 

white turkey carcass skin color.

The symbols "(), *, & and %," which suggest no im-
plied order, were used to designate the different samples.
The two comparison tests were designated as I and II. As
noted by Marquardt (1964), a comparison test is a method
whereby the panelist judges paired samples by comparing
one sample with the remaining samples. The panelist
selects the sample he prefers and indicates his preference
by placing l by the symbol which identifies the sample he
prefers and 2 by the other sample. The two samples com-
pared in Test I were designated by "%" and "&". The "%"
symbol represented the relatively light weight, evis-
cerated, ready-to—cook turkey roasters weighing approxi-
mately 6 pounds each and "&" represented birds weighing
7 to 8 pounds, similarly prepared as were the lighter

birds.

69‘

The second comparison test, designated as Test II,
consisted of two samples of three birds each. In this
test, the symbol "()" represented ready-to-cook carcasses
of l2-week-old fryer roaster turkeys grown out of large
white, female poults but fed and processed so that the
birds exhibited a deep yellow pigment in the skin. The

second sample was represented by the symbol "*" and was

-J‘b—l_‘

similar to the "()" sample except that the birds were pro-

~ C

 

duced and processed to exhibit the more common natural

white appearance of turkeys.

 

Consumer preference panels in Detroit, Michigan, com-
posed of a cross section of income levels and representing
approximately 79 percent of the gross income of residents
of that city, were used throughout the tests reported in
this study.

The binomial test (sign test) was selected to
evaluate the experimental results. Analysis of the data
required that plus and minus signs be used for the 1 and
2 placings, respectively, that were used by the panel
members. Thus, the placing by each panel member can be
viewed as a "success" or "failure" or more preferably,
in this study, as "accept" or "reject" according to the
interpretation we place on a 1 (plus) or 2 (minus) rating

by each panel member.

70

Panel Instruction and Procedure

Members of the consumer evaluation panel ranked
several different types of products at each panel meeting.
Immediately prior to each panel session, groups of 10 to
20 members were given instructions concerning the differ-
ent series of items to be ranked and the forms on which
to rank each series of products. A new group was briefed

every half hour. The products were displayed on tables

x .‘ -mm: fi‘ I471
.

in a large room and from 10 to 20 panelists at a time

proceeded independently to rank the samples. When an in-

l—_a offrrv -,

dividual member completed his ranking of the products, his
forms were checked to make sure that he had ranked all the
products within each series.

The members were not told the purpose of the specific
test. They were told only that the samples were to be
ranked according to their individual preferences. The
respondents were allowed to express preference for or
against either or both samples without regard to price.

Voluntary written comments were permitted.

Results of Paired Comparison Tests

The comparison tests were conducted during an after—
noon and an evening session on the same day. A total of
60 consumers completed acceptable consumer evaluation
cards for the two tests during the afternoon session. A
sample evaluation card is shown in Figure 1. Regarding

comparison Number I, the test of small fryer-roasters (6

71

pounds) versus heavier fryer-roasters (7 to 8 pounds),
the choices were evenly divided: 30 panel members pre-
ferred the smaller birds to 30 who preferred the larger
carcasses. Consumer preference data for Test I and Test
II are shown in Tables 11 and 12. Table 11 presents the
data as taken from the panel members' forms and Table 12
shows the data adopted for the sign test. The results
were similar during the evening session for comparison
Number I with 43 panelists placing "l" beside the smaller

birds, 52 placing a "2" beside the smaller birds and l

 

panelist indicating no choice. A total of 54 panel members
placed "1" beside the larger birds, 41 placed a "2) beside
the larger birds and 1 panel member indicated no choice.
It is apparent here that 2 panelists voted favorably for
both the small and large birds so the data were adjusted
by removing these two votes to meet the requirements of
the binomial test. Though the division of preferences

is not exactly even in this, the difference is so small
that it could have easily happened by chance and is not
significantly different. The statistical analysis pro—
cedure used was the binomial test.

In comparison Number 11, the comparison of pig-
mented birds versus naturally white birds, consumer
preferences were decidedly in favor of the naturally
white birds in both.the afternoon and evening sessions
as can be seen in Table 11. A total of 18 panelists

rated the yellow pigmented birds as "1" indicating

72

TABLE ll.--Consumer preference as influenced by carcass
size and pigment in skin of ready-to-cook fryer-roaster
turkeys.

 

Comparison Test Consumer Evaluation Session

No. and Sample

 

 

 

 

 

Symbol: Afternoon Evening
11 2 x 1‘ 2 x
Test I
% 30 30 0 43 52 l
& 3O 30 0 54 41 1
Test II 1
() 18 42 0 23 72 1
44 16 0 72 23 l
1l = Accepted.
2 = Rejected
X = Indicated no preference or an omission.

73

*ln

omuomnmm

 

 

 

 

coawmcm ooapm3am>m headmcoo

oopdooo< u +a
oo.ooa mm oo.ooa mm oo.ooa mm oo.ooa mm amuoe
am.:m mm mm.mm mm mm.mm ma a:.mm m: *
mm.mm mm am.:m mm az.mm mm mm.mm ma AV
HH poms
oo.ooa mm oo.ooa mm ooa ow ooa om Hopoe
No.3: a: mm.mm mm om om om om a
.mm.mm mm No.3: a: om om om om a
H umoa
ARV A.ozv any a.ozv ARV A.ozv ARV A.ozv Haooelam
oaQEom one
.02 note
awchm>m Hooocnmume commamano

 

.pmop amca80cHn an mammaoco pom omuqmom mumo mocoaomoAQ aoESmooouu.ma mqm<s

74

_
.1. lion}... u.

.pmme ooapmzam>m headmcoo pom Enomll.a oozwam

 

woxase

nonezz

 

mpomEEoo mEmz

 

AV a

.HH .H

wBHmmm>HZD mB<Em z<meon

75

preference for the yellow carcasses over the white. A
total of 44 out of the 60 panel members rated the yellow
birds "2" indicating disfavor. A total of 44 panelists
rated the white birds as "1" while 16 rated the sample as
"2". It can be seen that two panel members rated both
the yellow pigmented birds and the naturally white birds
as "1" or favorable. The choices of these two panelists
were dropped from the data as shown in Table 12 as re-
quired for the binomial test. The data thus corrected
shows 16 panelists rating the yellow pigmented birds as
"1" and 42 rating them as "2" while 42 members rated the
white skinned birds "1" and 16 rated them "2". From the
proportions it may be interpreted that 27.59 percent of
the panel members favored the yellow carcasses while 72.41
percent of the panelists rejected them. There was a highly
significant difference in favor of preference for the
white birds (Probability of Type I Error < 0.01).

During the evening session, 95 panel members com—
pleted acceptable consumer evaluation cards. A total of
23 of these panelists rated the yellow pigmented turkeys
as "1", while 72 rated them as "2". A total of 72
panelists out of 95 rated the white birds "1", while 23
rated them "2". Each panelist expressed a distinct
preference for one.sample over the other. The proportion
of panel members favoring the pigmented birds was 24.21
percent while 75.59 percent of the members rejected them

and expressed preference for the white birds. These

 

Wflrfla A' _ '
“Fr:-

76

results are highly significant (P < 0.01). The difference
in favor of the white birds was expressed in both the
afternoon and evening session and was significant whether
the results of each session were evaluated individually

or combined. However, the proportions of panelists ac-
cepting the white birds in the afternoon and evening
sessions were significantly different at the 0.05 level.
This difference may be due to chance differences of opinion

between the two population samples or to changes in the

 

appearance of the samples resulting from thawing and ex-

posure to the air during the panel evaluation sessions.

Conclusions

 

It appears from the information obtained in this
study that a difference in weight of approximately 1 pound
between two samples of turkey broilers is not important
in influencing preference for one sample over the other.
The fact that the smaller birds were only ll-weeks-old,
and thus lacked in appearance as compared to the heavier
sample, failed to influence the choices of the panel members.
The panelists appeared to have no difficulty in perceiving
that a size and wieght difference existed between the
samples in Comparison Test 1. Typical comments of panel
members viewing this sample are as follows: "I like the
small ones soil can have them once and that's the end of
it." "I like the larger turkeys; my family will tolerate

turkey three times without complaint." "These appeal to

77

me for my family because they are small." "I like them
big." "I'd never buy a turkey with pinfeathers because
if they are careless about that, they are probably care-
less how they cleaned the birds and the rest."

These data indicate that the natural white color of
turkey fryer-roasters is preferred by a significant majority
of the population sampled. The study does not attempt to
determine why the majority of the panelists preferred the
white birds but comments of panel members during the study

indicated that some individuals associated the yellow color

 

with fatness which caused them to discriminate against the
yellow birds. They believed the meat from such birds-would
be more fattening than meat from-the white birds. Several
panelists perceived the yellow pigmentation as green and
associated this with spoilage.

The yellow pigmented birds, with the cuticle or
epidermis intact, lacked the smooth texture of skin that
was exhibited in the white birds from which the yellow
cuticle had been completely removed. The resulting
coarser skin texture of the yellow birds was perceived
as an undesirable factor by same panelists. This rough-
ness of skin could be eliminated in subsequent tests by
(using clear and pigmented shrinkable bags. This would
permit processing of the test birds so both samples would
exhibit the same skin texture.

Typical comments made by panelists viewing Compari-

son Test Number II are as follows: "The pigmented birds

78

look older." "Don't these (yellow pigmented sample)

look kind of green? They're too blotchy and rough looking
--must have been sick." "These yellow birds look older.
The other birds look fresher." "I think the yellow birds
would be fatter. The pinkish ones would be too dry."

"These (pigmented) have got more fat; the others are

1

leaner." .
Based on the findings of this study, the following

generalizations regarding the production and processing

 

of fryer-roaster turkeys to comply with consumer preferences

I. ‘ F...“ ”#1:- a. 1
.

are offered:

Turkey fryer-roasters slaughtered and processed ready-
to—cook at weights ranging from 6 to 8 pounds per carcass
will be accepted by consumers without important size prefer-
ence differences.

Turkey fryer-roasters produced from large white type
female poults may be marketed at 11 weeks of age as readily
as at 12 weeks of age regarding consumer preference for
finish and conformation.

The present system of feeding and processing turkey
fryer-roasters to exhibit a white skin color is preferred
to feeding and processing procedures that would result in
a dark yellow pigmented skin.

This study did not evaluate consumer preference for
a lighter shade of yellow pigment in the skin of the carcass
or the carcass package as would be the case with differ-

ently colored shrinkable bags. It seems that further

79

studies evaluating varied degrees of pigmentation would
be desirable. Variation in skin texture should be avoided

as an uncontrolled variable in future studies.

 

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

A review of the literature revealed that various
ideas have been offered by researchers as a result of
their interpretations of research results regarding the Fe-
use of feedstuffs, feed additives and hormone injections
or implants to enhance the rate of growth, feathering,

finish and feed efficiency of chickens and turkeys. The

 

oral feeding and subcutaneous implantation or injection ii
of hormone or hormone—like compounds with chickens and.
turkeys have produced variable results but have generally
improved the finish of the bird. The use of added dietary
fat to increase the energy content and nutrient density of
poultry and turkey rations has generally resulted in diets
that improved feed conversion, gain, and, sometimes, finish.
The idea of specific inherent benefits being associated with
the feeding of fats as put forth by Donaldson gt_al. (1956)
is questioned somewhat by the findings of Baldini et_al.
(1955; 1957) that growth, feed conversion and body compo-
sition were not changed by increasing the fat content of

the diet-when the Calorie value of the diet was held con—
stant. The use of surface active agents in chicken and
turkey diets has resulted in improved and negligible re-

sponses in growth. The surfactant used in this study

80

81

failed to enhance growth, feed conversion or deposition

of skin fat in turkeys. The idea that maximum growth,

feed utilization and finish may be obtained by compound-

ing rations with certain ratios of units of energy per

unit of protein has been generally supported by the re-

search cited though fairly conclusive evidence is also r»

reported to show that improved amino acid balance in the

protein fraction of the diet will reduce the level of

. 'i'vm

total protein needed in relation to the energy of the

 

diet. Added fat in Trial 1 failed to improve growth, 'j
finish and feed utilization over the basal diet. l

The results from Trial 2 of this experiment show
that while added dietary fat and the related added energy
significantly improved feed utilization, growth was
significantly impaired as compared to the response of
turkey poults fed diets containing no added fat. The
fact that feed utilization results were significantly
different in favor of added animal fat only during the
10 to 12 week feeding period suggests that poults may not
be able to completely utilize this fat to 10 weeks of
age.

The failure of turkeys in the treatment groups in
Trial 2 to respond favorably to the added stabilized
tallow may have occurred because relatively low protein
levels were used in the treatment rations without supple-
mentation with added lysine and methionine. The Calorie:

protein ratios (Table 4) used in this trial between 8 to

82

12 weeks of age, were 8 to 10 units wider than the ratios
recommended for commercial feeding. According to Couch
(1966), a 27-30:l ratio is recommended for poults to 5

or 8 weeks of age and a 42:1 ratio for the 9 to 12 week

 

period.
It appears that the supplementing of turkey starting
and growing diets to 12 weeks of age with 1 1/2 percent of 57“
animal tallow and of growing diets with 4 1/2 percent
animal tallow, with and without a surfactant, failed to
produce improved finish and conformation over similar { g.

diets containing no added fat.

The supplementing of turkey growing diets with
Florafil, a xanthophyll supplement, yielded superior
growth over diets containing 10 percent corn gluten meal
as a pigmenter, but was not significantly different from
the response of poults fed diets containing no added pig—
ment. Although the birds fed the diets containing Florafil
were rated fairly high for finish by the panel, the
fact that the degree of pigmentation in the fat of these
birds was not observably different from that of birds fed
diets containing no added pigmenter suggests that the
favorable appearance of the Florafil fed birds was the
result of excellent general growth and not a specific
response to the added pigment.

The diets containing 10 percent corn gluten meal
produced the best observable pigmentation when the cuticle

remained an intact part of the skin of the dressed turkey

83

carcasses. However, there were no differences in pig—
mentation between the various treatment groups when the
cuticle was removed from the test birds in the defeather-
ing process.

The significantly poorer growth response of the

birds fed the diets containing 10 percent corn gluten meal

fin

was probably due to an amino acid imbalance which resulted i

from the replacing of part of the soybean oil meal, a F

relatively high source of lysine, with the corn gluten

meal, a low source of this important amino acid. (5
by

 

This experiment was limited to the treatments tested
because of limited time, facilities, and other resources.
Studies regarding certain economic aspects of the research
results might be in order, but were not included in this
study for the reason stated above. Further studies re-
garding fat supplementation combined with higher levels
of protein or selected levels of certain essential amino
acids would seem to offer worthwhile possibilities re-
garding early finish and growth development. Consumer
preference studies with different populations regarding a
wider range of carcass weights and varied degrees of
pigmentation would seem desirable. Such studies should
preceed further efforts to develop high levels of pig-
mentation in the fat and skin of fryer-roaster turkeys.
Studies should be continued toward the development of

finish at an early age in turkeys.

84

Hypothesis 1 which predicted equal or superior
performance of birds fed the basal diet is accepted and
hypotheses 2 and 3 which predicted superior performance
of treatment groups fed supplemental animal fat and fat
plus a surfactant, respectively, are rejected. Hypothesis
4 which predicted superior performance of turkeys fed 0
supplemental fat is accepted. Hypothesis 5 is rejected,
the prediction that the groups receiving Florafil would

excel in pigmentation was disproved. Hypothesis 6 is

 

accepted under the condition that the cuticle or epidermis {j
remains intact on the processed carcass; it is rejected :
when the cuticle is completely removed. Hypothesis 7

which predicted no preference between fryer-roaster samples

differing approximately 1 pound in weight is accepted.

Hypothesis 8 which predicted a definite preference for

one sample size over the other is rejected. Hypothesis 9

which predicted no preference on the part of the panel

members between the pigmented and unpigmented samples is

rejected. Hypothesis 10 which stated that panel members

would express a definite preference for either the yellow

pigmented sample or the sample with the natural white

skin color is accepted.

REFERENCES

Adams, J. L. 1956. The effect of diethylstilbestrol on
large type versus small type turkey broilers.

Poultry Sci. 35:1251-1254.

Adams, J. L. 1957. A comparison of methods of adminis—
tering estrogenic hormones on growth, fattening and
feed efficiency in B. B. Bronze turkeys. Poultry
Sci. 36:1101.

Aitkin, J. R., G. S. Lindblad and W. G. Hunsaker. 1954.
Beef tallow as a source of energy in broiler rations.
Poultry Sci. 33:1038.

Almquist, H. J. and J. B. Merritt. 1952. Effect of
diethylstilbestrol on gains and feed conversion of
turkeys. Poultry Sci. 31:749.

Almquist, H. J. & J. B. Merritt. 1955. The effects of a
detergent in the diet of range turkeys. Poultry
Sci. 34:740.

Anonymous. 1964a. Poultry and Egg Situation, U. S. D. A.,
May 1964, p. 9.

Anonymous. 1964b. Regulations Governing the Grading
and Inspection of Poultry and Edible Parts Thereof
and United States Classes, Standards, and Grades
with Respect Thereto, U. S. D. A., July 1964.

Anonymous. 1966. Supplement to the Poultry and Egg
Situation, May 1966.

Anson, M. L. 1939. The denaturation of protein by
detergents and bile salts. Science 90:256-257.

Atkinson, R. L., A. A. Kurnick, T. M. Ferguson, B. L.
Reid, J. H. Quisenberry and J. R. Couch. 1957.
Protein and energy levels for turkey starting diets.
Poultry Sci. 36:767—773.

Baldini, J. T., H. R. Rosenberg and J. Waddell. 1954.

The protein requirements of the turkey poult.
Poultry Sci. 33:539-543.

85

 

86

Baldini, J. T. and H. R. Rosenberg. 1955. The effect
of productive energy level of the diet on the
methionine requirement of the chick. Poultry Sci.
34:

Baldini, J. T. and H. R. Rosenberg. 1957. The effect of
Calorie source in a chick diet on growth, feed
utilization and body composition. Poultry Sci.
36:1031-1035.

Baylock, L. G., J. R. Hunt, F. Ziegler, E. B. Patterson
and W. J. Stadelman. 1954. The effect of energy
level of the diet on growth, feed efficiency and

degree of fattening of turkeys. Poultry Sci.
33:864-866.

Biely, J., B. E. March and D. A. Silverstrini. 1954.
Fat studies in poultry. I. Herring oil, Santomerse
--80 and thyroprotein in the laying ration. Poultry
Sci. 33:1130-1135.

 

Biely, J. and B. March. 1954. Fat studies in poultry.
II. Fat supplements in chick and poult rations.
Poultry Sci. 33:1220-1227.

Bird, H. R., S. J. Marsden and W. L. Kellogg. 1948.
Supplements for soybean meal in turkey diets.
Poultry Sci. 27:53-59.

Carter, R. D., J. W. Wyne and H. Yacowitz. 1957. Effect
of dietary energy and protein level on growth and
feed conversion of turkeys from 8 to 16 weeks of
age. Poultry Sci. 36:824-828.

Carter, R. D., J. W. Wyne, V. D. Chamberlin and M. G.
McCartney. 1958. Oral administration of estrogens
and their effect of growth, feed conversion and
carcass quality of growing turkeys. Poultry Sci.
37:1284-1288.

Carter, R. D. and J. W. Wyne. 1956. The relation between
protein and energy levels in finishing rations for
turkey broilers. Poultry Sci. 35:1136.

Carver, D. S. 1959. Variation in the effects of fat
supplements on broiler pigmentation, growth and
feed conversion. Poultry Sci. 38:71-76.

Carver, D. S., E. E. Rise, R. E. Gray and P. E. More.
1955. The utilization of fats of different melting
points added to broiler feed. Poultry Sci. 35:
544-546.

87

Combs, G. F., N. V. Helbacka and G. L. Romoser. 1958.
Effect of diethylstilbestrol pelleting, dietary
fat level and Calorie-protein ratio on growth,
feed requirements and quality of turkey fryers.
Poultry Sci. 37:855.

Couch, J. R. 1965. Turkey nutrition-—l966. Feed Age
15(12)§26-29.

Creiger, C. R., R. H. Mitchell, M. L. Jones, R. L.
Atkinson, J. H. Quisenberry and J. R. Couch. 1960.
The effect of oral administration of diethylstil-
bestrol and dienestrol and dienestrol diacetate on
growth rate and efficiency of feed utilization of
Beltsville Small White turkey broilers. Poultry
Sci. 39:1041-1045.

Cullen, M. P., O. G. Rasmussen and O. H. M. Wilder. 1962.
Metabolizable energy values and utilization of
different types and grades of fat by the chicken.
Poultry Sci. 41:360.

Culton, T. G. and H. R. Bird. 1941. The effect of cer-
tain protein supplements in inhibiting pigment
deposition in chickens. Poultry Sci. 20:432-436.

Davidson, J. A., L. F. Wolternik and E. P. Reineke. 1944.
Some effects of high dosages of synthetic estrogens
in young turkeys. Poultry Sci. 25:400.

Day, E. J. and W. P. Williams, Jr. 1958. A study of
certain factors that influence pigmentation in
broilers. Poultry Sci. 37:1373—1381.

Donaldson, W. E., G. F. Combs and G. L. Romoser. 1956.
Studies on energy levels in poultry rations. I.
The effect of Calorie-protein ratio on growth,
nutrient utilization and body composition of chicks.
Poultry Sci. 35:1100-1105.

Duncan, D. B._ 1955. Multiple Range and F Tests.
Biometrics 11(1):1-42.

Dunkelgod, K. E., E. W. Gleaves, L. V. Tonkinson, R. H.
Thayer and J. J. Sirny. 1961. Daily nutrient intake
as a basis for formulating turkey starter and grower
diets. Poultry Sci. 40:1086—1097.

Dymsza, H., R. V. Boucher and M. G. McCartney. 1953.
Response of growing turkeys to variations in the
fiber and energy content of mash and pelleted diets.
Poultry Sci. 38:898.

 

88

Dymsza, H., R. V. Boucher and M. G. McCartney, '1955.
The influence of fiber content and physical form
of the diet on the energy requirements of turkeys.
1. Studies with turkey poults. Poultry Sci.
34:435-439. "

Ely, C. M. 1951. Chick growth stimulation produced by
surfactants. Science 114:523—524.

Ely, C. M. and S. Schott. 1952. Surface active agents
as growth stimulators in chick rations. Proc. of
Seventh Distillers Feed Conf., Cincinnati, Ohio, Ta.
pp. 72—84.

Ferguson, T. M.,-H. P. Vaught, B. L. Reid and J. R. Couch.
1956a. The effect of amino acid supplements to the
diet of-Broad Breasted Bronze turkey poults fed
various levels of protein and productive energy.
Poultry Sci. 35:1069-1073.

 

Ferguson, T. M., H. P. Vaught, B. L. Reid and J. R. Couch.
1956b. Growth of‘Broad Breasted Bronze turkey
poults fed a 26 percent protein diet with different
levels of productive energy. Poultry Sci. 35:
1305-1308.

Flett, L. 1942. Detergents from petroleum. Chem. and
Eng. News 20(13):844-848.

Fritz, J. C., F. D. Wharton, Jr. and L. J. Classen. 1957.
Influence of feed on broiler pigmentation. Feed-
stuffs 29:18.

Harms, R. H., J. H. Quisenberry and J. R. Couch. 1958.
The effects on broiler pigmentation of incorporating
milo, dehydrated alfalfa meal and diphenyl-p-
phenylenediamine (DPPD) in the diet. Poultry Sci.
37:143-147.

Harris, R. S., H. Sherman and W. W. Ketter. 1951.
Nutritional and pathological effects of sorbitan
monolaurate, polyoxethylene sorbitan monolaurate,
polyoxyethylene monolaurate and polyoxyethylene
monostearate when fed to rats. Arch. Biochem.
Biophys. 34:249-258.

Hammond, J. C. and H. M. Harshaw. 1941. Some factors
influencing shank and skin color in the growing
chicken. Poultry Sci. 20:437-444.

Heiman, V. and L. W. Tighe. 1943. Observations on the
shank pigmentation of chicks. Poultry Sci. 22:
102-107.

 

89

Hill, F. W. and L. M. Dansky. 1950. Studies on the
protein requirements of chicks and its relation to
dietary energy level. Poultry Sci. 29:763.

Hill, F. W. and L. M. Dansky. 1951. The influence of
diet on body composition of growing chicks. Proc.
Cornell Nutr. Conf. pp. 27-32.

Hill, F. W. and L. M. Dansky. 1954. Studies on the
energy requirements of chickens. I. The effect
of dietary energy level on growth and feed con-
sumption. Poultry Sci. 33:112—119.

House, W. B. 1957. Carcass and shank pigmentation.
Feedstuffs 29-31.

Japp, R. G. and R. H. Thayer. 1944. Oral administration
of estrogens in poultry. Poultry Sci. 23:249-251.

Japp, R, G. 1945. Activity of synthetic estrogens on
oral administration in the domestic fowl and turkey.
Endocrinology 37:369-376.

Lane, R. P., J. H. Quisenberry, J. R. Couch and S. 0.
Brown. 1951. Effects of feeding poultry certain
hormones on growth and market quality of poultry;
results of biochemical tests for hormonal residue.
Poultry Sci. 30:921.

Leucke, R. W., J. A. Hoefer and F. Thorp. 1952. Growth
stimulating effect of a surface active agent on
pigs. Michigan State College Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.
34(3):33l—332.

Lockhart, W. C. and R. H. Thayer. 1955. Energy-protein
relationships in turkey poult starters. Poultry
Sci. 34:1208.

Lorenz, F. W. 1944. The influence of diethylstilbestrol
on fat deposition in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 23:

Lorenz, F. W. 1945. The influence of diethylstilbestrol
on fat deposition and meat quality in chickens.
Poultry Sci. 24:128-134.

Makens, J. C. 1960. An evaluation of mandatory grade
and sex labeling of turkeys. Unpublished thesis
for the degree of M. S., Michigan State University.

Makens, J. C. 1963. The influence of brands upon
consumer preference for frozen whole turkeys.
Unpublished thesis for the degree of Ph. D.,
Michigan State University.

 

‘!" "C!

90

Marquardt, R. A. 1964. An evaluation of the methods used
in designing and analyzing consumer preference
studies. Unpublished thesis for the degree of Ph.D.,
Michigan State University.

Maw, W. A. 1939. Cereals in the poultry ration. Seventh
World's Poultry Congr. Proc. pp. 177-178.

McCartney, M. G. 1952. Rate of growth, efficiency of
feed utilization and market quality in three varieties
of turkeys to eighteen weeks. Poultry Sci. 31:838-843.

Mills, W. C., Jr., L. E. Dawson and H. E. Larzelere. 1961.
A study of word versus letter grading of turkeys.
Poultry Sci. 40:537-542.

Miner, J. J., S. J. Marsden and C. A. Denton. 1959. The
effect of diethylstilbestrol-methimazole and .
dienestrol diacetate on turkey broilers. Poultry 5
Sci. 38:750-757. L}

 

National Research Council. ‘1954. Nutrient requirements
for domestic animals. I. Nutrient requirements
for poultry. Pub. 301.

Neidig, C. P. and A. B. Hersberger. 1952. Organic
synthetic detergents. Chem. and Eng. News
30(35):3610-3615.

Ostle, B. 1963. Statistics In Research, 2nd Ed., The
Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

 

Palmer, L. S. 1915. Xanthophyll, the principal natural
yellow pigment of the egg yolk, body fat and blood
serum of the hen. The physiological relationship
of the pigments to the xanthophylls of plants. J.
Biol. Chem. 23:261—279.

Potter, L. M., L. D. Matterson, D. Carlson and E. P.
Singsen. 1956. Studies on the effect of varying
protein levels and Calorie-protein ratios in poultry
ratiogs on growth and feed efficiency. Poultry Sci.
35:11 5.

Ratcliff, R. G., E. J. Day and J. E. Hill. 1959. Broiler
pigmentation as influenced by dietary modifications.
Poultry Sci. 38:1039-1048.

Scott, H. M., L. D. Matterson and E. P. Singsen. 1947.
Nutritional factors influencing growth efficiency
of feed utilization. I. The effect of the source
of carbohydrate. Poultry Sci. 26:554.

91

Scott, H. M., B. C. Johnson and E. A. Goffi. 1952.
Effect of surface active agents on chick growth.
Poultry Sci. 31:746.

Smith, E. Y. 1949. Turkey World 24(12):11, 119, 120.

Smyth, J. R., Jr. and J. H. Vondel. 1955. The effects
of diethylstilbestrol administered in a paste
carrier to turkey fryers. Poultry Sci. 34:963-967.

Snyder, J. M., B. C. Johnson and H. M. Scott. 1953.
Surface active agents and the time of their effect Er:
on growth with special reference to vitamin B and
Aureomycin interrelationships. Poultry Sci. 32:
527:531.

Sorensen, V. L., editor. Agricultural Market Analysis.
Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Graduate
School of Business and Administration, Michigan
State University, 1964, pp. 154—156.

 

 

W”
‘I-u-a.

Stadelman, W. J. 1952. The use of thiouracil and
diethylstilbestrol in finishing turkeys for market.
Poultry Sci. 31:310-315.

Stern, J. R. and J. McGinnis. 1953. Comparative growth
response of chicks to detergents, germicides and
penicillin. Poultry Sci. 32:26.

Sunde, M. L. 1954. The use of animal fats in poultry feed.
J. Am. Oil Chem. 800. 31:49-52.

Sunde, M. L. 1956a. A relationship between protein
level and energy level in chick rations. Poultry

Sci. 35:350-354.

Sunde, M. L. 1956b. The effect of fats and fatty acids
in chick rations. Poultry Sci. 35:362-368.

Thayer, R. H., R. G. Jaap and R. Penquit. 1944. Fattening
chickens by feeding estrogens. Poultry Sci. 23:555.

Thayer, R. H. and G. T. Davis. 1948. Use of estrogens
in turkey broiler production. Poultry Sci. 27:176—181.

Thayer, R. H., K. E. Dunkelgod and D. A. Benton. 1961.
Energy and protein interrelationships in turkey
growing diets. Poultry Sci. 40:1079-1086.

Waibel, P. E. 1958. Effectiveness of unknown growth
factors, antibiotics and animal fat in turkey poult
rations. Poultry Sci. 37:1144-1149.

92

Yacowitz, H., R. D. Carter, J. Wyne and M. G. McCartney.
1956. Effects of varying protein and fat levels
in a finishing ration for turkey broilers.

 

A

"7111177111711[’747711777711‘ES