IRRADIATION AND PROCESSING OF NAVY BEANS
(Phasequs vulgaris)

Thesis for the Degree of M. S.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
MICHAEL M. MOLINE
1969

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THESJIS

 

      
     

L I B R A R Y
Michigan Stan
Univcrsity

ABSTRACT
IRRADIATION AND PROCESSING OF NAVY BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris)
By
Michael M. Moline

Navy beans may require a 10 to 30 percent increase in
process time, over that required for sterilization, to
tenderize adequately the canned product. Beans, irradiated
at 170 Krad with gamma radiation, soaked for 16 hours in cold
water, and processed were more tender, as measured with an
Instron Universal Testing Instrument, than were unirradiated
beans. A sensory panel found a flavor difference between
beans irradiated at O and 340 Krad, but could not distinguish
any tenderness difference among bean samples treated at 0,
A2, and 170 Krad.

Chemical analyses showed no losses of protein or
starch from cold-water soaking. The drained weights of
the canned beans decreased as irradiation dose increased.
Fill volume, moisture content, and appearance showed little
change. Radiation doses less than and greater than 170
Krad resulted in lesser tenderization. Above 3A0 Krad,
the beans became tougher than the unirradiated samples.

Hot—water soaking for one hour, followed by process-
ing resulted in an increased toughening as the irradiation
dose increased. However, the hot-water soaked beans were
more tender than those given the cold-water soak, even at

170 Krad.

IRRADIATION AND PROCESSING OF NAVY BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris)

 

By

Michael M. Moline

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Food Science

1969

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is sincerely appreciative of the helpful
guidance and assistance given by Dr. R. C. Nicholas, as
advisor, in preparation of this study.

Other members of the Food Science Department helped
make this research possible through their interest and
support. Dr. C. L. Bedford and Dr. P. Markakis were very
helpful in offering advise and information concerning the
processing and irradiation of navy beans. Dr. E. J. Benne,
Department of Biochemistry, gave valuable assistance in the
protein determinations made in this study.

The author is also grateful to the above for their

contribution in serving as members of the Examining Committee.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
METHODS AND MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Preparation . . . .

Beans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Soaking . . . . . . . . . . 27
Processing . . . . . . . . . 28

Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moisture . . .
Appearance . . . .
Tenderness . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sensory Panel Evaluation . . . . . . . . . AA
Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . A7

U.)
[.1

EXPERIMENTAL AND RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U9
Tenderness and Pack Characteristics . . . . . . A9
Sensory Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8“
Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

. 103

A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

iii

Table

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Effect of gamma irradiation on the water
uptakes of dry beans after soaking (16
hrs) and cooking. Figures indicate %
of weight increase . . . . . . . .

Summary of handling and processing effects
on navy beans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An example of the calculated dose for a
300 g sample of dry navy beans placed
50 cm from the source and irradiated
for 2.33 hrs on 3/6/69 . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of commercial
brands of canned beans . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, comparison of
processed navy beans measured by an
Instron and an Allo-Kramer Shear Press . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated,
processed navy beans (cold-water soak),
measured after 7 days storage . . . . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated, processed
navy beans. (Cold-water soak, 2lleOO cans,
measured after 7 days storage) . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated,
processed navy beans (cold-water soak),
measured after 7 days storage. . . . . . . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated, processed
navy beans. (Cold—water soak, 211xAOO cans,
measured after 7 days storage) . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated,
processed navy beans (cold-water soak),
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively . .

iv

Page

10

2O

26

43

AA

50

51

53

5A

List of Tables (continued)

Table

11.

12.

13.

1A.

15.

16.

17.

l8.

19.

Pack characteristics of irradiated, processed
navy beans. (Cold-water soak, 2lleOO cans,
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively) . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated,
processed navy beans (cold-water soak),
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively. .

Pack characteristics of irradiated, processed
navy beans. (Cold-water soak, lexAOO cans,
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively) . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, and pack char-
acteristics of unirradiated, processed navy
beans. (Cold-water soak, 2lleOO cans,
measured after 7 days storage, duplicate
experiments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated,
processed navy beans (hot-water soak),
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively. . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated, processed
navy beans. (Hot-water soak, 2lleOO cans
measured after 7 days storage, 2 experiments
designated here as a and b respectively) .

Temperature, 0F, of unirradiated navy beans,
at 15 minute intervals after being covered
with 200°F sweetened sauce, (beans were
previously soaked) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of unirradiated
navy beans, (hot water soak), processed at
different times at 2A5°F, measured after 1A
days storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pack characteristics of unirradiated, navy
beans. (Hot-water soak, 2lleOO cans,
processed at different times at 2A50F,
measured after lA days storage). . . . . . .

Page

60

62

6A

66

68

7O

72

75

76

List of Tables (continued)

Table

20.

21.

22.

23.

2A.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated
navy beans, (hot-water Osoak), processed at
different times at 2A5O F, measured after 7
days storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated, navy
beans. (Hot- water soak, 2lleOO cans,
processed at different times at 2A50F,
measured after 7 days storage) . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated
and unirradiated navy beans, cold-water
soaked 1 hr (processed 30 min at 2A50F),
measured after 30 days storage . . . . . . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated and unirra-
diated navy beans. (Cold-water soaked 1 hr,
2lleOO cans, processed 30 min at 2A50F,
measured after 30 days storage). . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated
and unirradiated, "hard" navy beans, cold-
water soaked 16 hrs (processed 30 min at
2A50F), measured after 7 days storage. . . .

Pack characteristics of irradiated and unirra-
diated, "hard" navy beans. (Cold-water
soaked 16 hrs, 2lleOO cans, processed 30
min at 2A50F, measured after 7 days storage.

Ranking totals for tenderness of irradiated
and unirradiated navy beans, for duplicate
ranking tests by a l6-member sensory panel,
(Tenderest = l). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated
and unirradiated, navy beans, (cold—water
soak, processed 30 min at 2A5° F, stored 10
days). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Protein, %/g product, of navy beans given
different treatments (6 samples/treatment),
determined by KJeldahl nitrogen determina-
tion for crude protein . . . . . . . . . .

Absorbance readings from a Spectronic 2O
Colorimeter of prepared starch solutions,
and of soak water used to soak irradiated
and unirradiated navy beans 16 hrs at
36oF (2 samples tested per solution) . . . .

vi

Page

77

78

8O

81

83

83

87

88

9O

91

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Effect of gamma irradiation on the texture
of navy beans (Markakis et a1. 1965). . . . . . 7

2. Effect of gamma irradiation on soluble solids
of navy beans (Markakis et al. 1965). . . . . . 9

3. Dry navy beans, 300 g/polyethylene bag, ready
for exposure to gamma radiation . . . . . . . . 25

A. Navy beans, 300 g/dry sample, in aluminum
screen bags, soaking in 1200 m1 of arti-
ficially prepared hard water. . . . . . . . . . 29

5. Processed navy beans, after storage, being
tested for tenderness on the Instron,
fitted with a L.E.E.-Kramer shear press
cell on the crosshead . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6. L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell fitted onto
the crosshead of the Instron. . . . . . . . . . 37

7. L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell. . . . . . . . . . 38

8. Compression curve for a 100 g sample of
processed whole navy beans, after storage.
(L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell fitted
onto an Instron, blade descent rate and
recording chart speed 50 cm/min). . . . . . . . A0

9. Tenderness of irradiated dry navy beans as
a function of dose. (Two trials, cold-
water soak, processed at 2A5°F for 30
minutes, and stored 7 days) . . . . . . . . . . 55

10. Tenderness of unirradiated dry navy beans
as a function of process time at 2A5°F
(Hot-water soak, and stored 1A days). . . . . . 7A

11. Tenderness of irradiated dry navy beans as
a function of dose. (Cold-water soak or
hot-water soak, processed at 2A5°F for
30 minutes, and stored 7 days). . . . . . . . . 93

vii

INTRODUCTION

In the United States, beans have been and remain a
popular food item. About 7—1/2 pounds of beans are
consumed per person yearly (Doughty, undated). However,
the form in which these beans are sold to the consumer
has changed somewhat during the last 50 years. Today, the
lOO-lb sacks of dry beans are no longer popular, and even
l-lb sacks are less popular than the canned beans, especi-
ally for summertime eating. According to the Cooperative
Extension Service (1968), "eighty—five to ninety per cent
of the beans for domestic consumption are canned--the
remainder are packaged and sold as dry beans."

The dry bean family consists of over 180 varieties.
Michigan produces several of these including navy, light
and dark red kidney, cranberry, yelloweye, pinto, red,
and many minor varieties. Beans rate as Michigan's
second largest cash crop with a value of about $50 million
(Cooperative Extension Service, 1968). "Navy pea beans
are preferred by processors; they are uniform, flavorful
and hold their shape in the can" (Doughty, undated). Of
all the navy beans produced in the United States, Michigan
\grows more than 98% of them; and three-fourths of these

come from Michigan's Thumb and Saginaw Valley areas. There

are several uses for these navy beans, but the most impor—
tant product is canned pork and beans (Cooperative Extension
Service, 1968).

"Canned pork and beans or beans with pork is a
non—seasonal specialty item prepared from one of several
varieties of beans, with the addition of a formulated
tomato sauce or sweetened sauce and pieces of pork"
(Continental Can Company, undated a). As background
information concerning the canning of pork and beans, the
overall operation is discussed in brief detail as given by
the Canning Memorandum "The Canning of Pork and Beans"
(Continental Can Company, undated a). The flow diagram
of this process is given in Appendix A.

The raw materials used in canning pork and beans
include dried beans of any one of the three varieties
generally used. Although the Michigan pea bean or navy
bean is preferred, California pea beans or Great Northern
beans can be used. The pork to be added should be small
pieces of well-cured sweet salt Jowl, or fat side. The
tomato sauce or plain sauce varies with each pork and
bean processor, but the formulas in Appendix B are typical.

As part of the preparation of the beans for canning,
they are first inspected, and moldy, off colored, or
otherwise defective beans are removed. Soaking, either
by a long cold-water soak or a short hot—water soak, is

the next preparation step.

In the canning operation, the cans are first spray-
washed with l8OOF water. At the time of filling, the
pieces of pork are put into the cans first, then the
soaked beans, and, finally, the sauce is added at a temp—
erature near the boiling point. The proper fill—in
weight of beans depends strongly on the quantity of water
absorbed prior to filling, because additional water is
taken up during and after processing. The cans are closed
at atmospheric pressure, and washed in a warm water spray.

The closed cans are sent without delay to the heat
processing operation to sterilize the product. The
sterilization process depends primarily on the tomato
pulp and starch content of the sauce (Continental Can
Company, undated a). The National Canners Association
(undated) recommends the heat processes listed in
Appendix C for sterilizing beans in sauce. However, it
is noted by Continental Can Company (undated a) that a
much longer heat process is often required to tenderize
adequately Michigan and California pea beans. In addi—
tion, Continental Can Company (undated a) mentioned that
a 10 to 30% increase in the process time, over that
required for sterilization, has been required depending
on various conditions, principally water hardness. As
soon as possible after completion of the heating process,
the cans are cooled by water until the contents reach

lOOOF.

Although the present process yields an acceptable
product, prolonging the cook Just to tenderize the beans
is a disadvantage. Testing the possibility of using gamma
radiation to tenderize the beans was the basis purpose
of this study. In addition, the effects on pack charac-
teristics, water absorption, possible loss of proteins

and starch, and flavor changes of the beans were examined.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Initially, it was thought that gamma ray irradiation
of dry navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) would be of great
value in decreasing the heat processing time required for
their tenderization. Schroeder (1962) was granted a
patent for a process which tenderized and shortens the
cooking time of dehydrated vegetables by exposure to
ionizing radiation such as gamma rays or electron beams.
Afterwards, they could be rehydrated to an edible and
desirable texture in a much shorter time than was pre-
viously required without irradiation, for instance 3
minutes instead of 10 or more. The radiation dose
required to effect a given decrease in rehydration and
cooking time varied with different vegetables. However,
it was found that, in general, the greater the radiation
dose the greater the reduction in rehydration and cooking
time. The range of irradiation dosage found to be sat-
isfactory was about 1 to 11 million rep.l

Schroeder (1962) also found that irradiation of

dehydrated vegetables reduced or eliminated undesirable

 

lEvans (19A7) defines rep (roentgen equivalent,
physical) as the energy lost by ionizations, produced by
a primary source other than photons, in tissue, equal to
the same energy loss for one roentgen in air.

side effects, such as poor flavor and/or texture loss,
that occur when irradiating vegetables in the fresh state.
Dennison (1967) mentioned that dehydrated vegetables will
rehydrate more quickly if irradiated than they will if
not irradiated. He claimed that vegetables irradiated

in the dehydrated state may have great promise for manu-
factured food products like dried soup.

Irradiation studies made on beans by Bakker-Arkema,
Bedford, Hedrick, and Hall (1966) showed no consistent
results in their flavor evaluations of bean powders made
from irradiated beans (1 Mev electrons). The beans had
been subjected to doses from 0 to 1600 Krad.l Beans given
more than 200 Krad did, however, show some indication of
flavor detriment. Bakker-Arkema et al. (1966) claimed
that the rate of rehydration of beans soaking for A0
minutes in 2100F water showed little or no change due to
radiation of the beans. Both the irradiated and the non-
irradiated bean samples had weight increases between 56
and 60% after soaking. Cooking for 90 minutes at 2500F
produced no further increase in weight.

Markakis, Nicholas, and Schweigert (1965) found
that dry navy beans exposed to gamma radiation showed a
steady decrease in firmness as the irradiation dose

increased up to 1600 Krad (Figure 1). These beans were

 

lRad = 100 erg/g, energy absorbed/unit mass of
material (energy imparted by ionizing radiation, either
direct or indirect). U. S. Department of Commerce (1962).

Units)

Firmness of Rehydrated Beans (Arbitr.

 

 

- 1'.o 1.5
Dose, MRAD

-I-

+
5

0.

Figure 1. Effect of gamma irradiation on
the texture of navy beans (Markakis et al. 1965).

not cooked, however, only rehydrated in four times their
weight of distilled water for 2A hours. In addition to
this decrease in bean firmness, the soak water showed an
increase in soluble solids from 1.5% for the unirradiated
bean samples to 7.0% for the bean samples given a 1.6
Krad dose (Figure 2). The weight gain of the beans after
rehydration was 90% for the unirradiated samples and

101% for the samples exposed to A50 Krad. The moisture
content for the above two samples was 5A% and 56%
respectively.

The percent weight increase of irradiated and
unirradiated navy beans soaked for 16 hours in distilled
water, and samples that were soaked and then cooked at
atmospheric pressure was studied by Markakis gt_a1. (1965).
Dry bean samples had been irradiated at the following
doses: 0, 10, A00, 600, 800, and 1,000 Krad of gamma
radiation. The cooking times used were 0, 0.5, 1.0,
and 2.0 hours at atmospheric pressure. The results, as
shown in Table 1, show that the samples exposed to A00
Krad generally had the highest percent weight increase.

Markakis e£_al. (1965) also attempted to reduce the
processing time, on the basis of tenderness, by use of
gamma radiation. Dry Great Northern beans were irradiated
at 0, 300, and 600 Krad, soaked 16 hours, steam—blanched
3 minutes, and retorted at 2A0°F for various lengths of
time from 15 to 75 minutes. After 2 days storage, the

canned bean samples were examined and it was reported

% Soluble Solids in Soak Water

 

 

L
I

. +
5

I
0.5 1.0 1.
Dose, MRAD

Figure 2. Effect of gamma irradiation on
soluble solids of navy beans (Markakis et a1. 1965).

10

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that "the irradiated samples were the softest when short
periods of retorting were used, but this tendency reversed
as retort time increased."

Markakis e£_al, (1966) irradiated dry navy beans at
A00 and 800 Krad, and tested them for hardness after being
cooked at various times without prior soaking. The beans
were cooked in demineralized water at atmospheric pressure,
and at 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 hour intervals during the
cooking, samples were removed for hardness measurement
in a shear press. Again, the irradiated samples initially
were softer than the unirradiated beans, but after 2 hours
of cooking, the hardness measurements were about the same
for all samples. The beans had to be cooked for 3 hours
in order to be considered properly soft. In addition, no
difference in taste was noticed between the irradiated
and unirradiated bean samples.

Other methods besides radiation have been used to
aid in tenderizing and shortening the heat process time
for navy beans. The practice of soaking beans is the
best known, and there are many variations of this widely
used method. According to Bedford (1968) the amount of
time required for soaking depends on the water temperature,
water hardness, and the bean quality. The Continental
Can Company (undated a) also agreed that the tenderness
of canned beans is greatly influenced by the hardness of

the soak water and the water used in preparing the sauce.

12

Water having A to 9 grains of hardness is considered the
most desirable for canning beans. Soft water has disad-
vantages because it may cause the beans to split excess-
ively, to become too soft, and to mat together in the can.
However, too much hardness causes the canned beans to
toughen which then requires a longer cook time for the
desired tenderness (Continental Can Company, undated a).

Bigelow and Fitzgerald (1918) mentioned several
factors concerning the soaking of beans. The length of
time required for soaking varies according to the moisture
content. For instance, beans containing 15 to 18% water
require about 8 to 10 hours soaking, whereas drier beans
may require 12 to 15 hours because they rehydrate less
uniformly. It has been observed that no difference occurs
whether the beans are soaked in shallow layers or in
deep tanks. Some beans tend to rehydrate with more
difficulty than others, possibly due to the outer bean
coating being impervious in nature. A preliminary
blanching may be used prior to the soaking procedure,
but this isn't always advantageous. During the soaking
and blanching procedures, the water extracts 2 to A% of
the solids from navy beans, depending on the temperature
and length of time in the soak water.

According to Bedford (1968), the soak time varies
among bean processors. Some use 16 to 20 hours at room
temperature, or 7 to 8 hours at 90°F, or 20 to 60 minutes

at 180—2100F. However, the high temperature--short time

l3

soaking method is the most popular because it lessens the
potential for bacteriological problems and requires less
equipment and floor space, among other advantages. In
addition, the beans need not be blanched with the hot-
water soak. In fact, the blanching operation is probably
not needed even when using the cold-water soak. During
the soaking operation, the beans should have absorbed
enough water to approximately double their weight; their
moisture content should then be between 53 and 57%. At
this moisture level, the beans are usually considered
ready for further processing.

The mechanisms that control the rehydration rate in
beans and also affect the tenderness of canned beans are
not clearly understood. Bedford (1968) states:

"There is no doubt that moisture content, age,

storage conditions, composition and factors
related to production conditions influence water
uptake. Various theories concerning the tough-
ness or hardness factor in beans have implicated
divalent metal ions, pectins, free fatty acids
and changes in the proteins."

Gloyer (1928) used the term "hardshell" to describe
beans that had a seed-coat that showed impermeability to
water. He also inferred that hardshell was the same thing
as toughness of the seed-coat. In 350 varieties of beans,
the percentage of hardshell varied from 0 to about 80%.

Hardshell in beans is rather difficult to detect by a

1A

visual examination alone. Gloyer (1928), in his investi-
gation of beans, found no correlation between bean color
and hardshell. The difficulty with hardshell seems to

be influenced by the soaking temperature. For instance,
it took 2A hours at 1300F, and 17 days at 1000F to swell
all hard beans during soaking experiments. Beans can
develop the condition of hardshell quickly if stored at

a temperature of 72oF or above, and if the relative humid—
ity is less than 65%. If the canner finds that his beans
have 10 to 30% hardshell, he will need to steam them 5

to 10 seconds before soaking. Also, soaking the beans

at 1800F for 10 minutes prior to the regular soaking
procedure will overcome the hardshell condition (Gloyer,
1928).

Dawson, Lamb, Toepfer and Warren (1952) reported a
satisfactory short soaking method. The beans were placed
in boiling water for 2 minutes, then the heat was removed
and the beans allowed to soak for 1 hour in the hot
water. When the beans were later cooked in this soak
water they were equal in palatability to beans soaked
overnight. However, when the soak water was discarded
after hot-water soaking, the cooked beans were less palat-
able and contained less thiamine and ash than when the

l

soak water was retained. Dawson et a1. (1952) reported

that the addition of sodium bicarbonate allowed as much

 

lIn commercial practice, soak water is discarded.

15

as a A2% reduction in cooking time for beans without a
loss of thiamine or ash, although the palatability
scores were lower than for beans without sodium bicar-
bonate.

In comparing the cook times for beans at 250°F with
that of cooking in boiling water, great reductions were
noticed (Dawson et_al., 1952). Beans stored at AOOF were
fully cooked in 5 minutes instead of 90, and beans stored
at 750F cooked in 10 minutes compared to 120. The cook
times listed above for 250°F were exclusive of the 25
minutes required to bring the temperature up to 250°F
and to lower it again to 212°F.

Hoff and Nelson (1965) found that the rate of water
absorption in dry pea beans was increased by steam
pressure, vacuum, and sonic energy. This result occurred
because the absorbed or trapped gases were released from
the bean surfaces. The fastest rate of water absorption
occurred in layers measuring less than three bean dia-
meters thick. By restricting the bean layers to this
thickness, the beans could be ready for cooking after only
20 minutes soaking at 176OF. According to Hoff and Nelson
(1965), the rate of water absorption by beans could be
increased by the addition of polyphosphates to the soak
water. Certain combinations of both polyphosphates and
sodium chloride increased the rate of water absorption

even more, giving higher yields and beans that were more

16

' tender than those conventionally processed. 0n the other
hand, sodium chloride by itself in the soak water had
very little effect.

Snyder (1936) found that the cooking time of beans
could be reduced A0% by scarification prior to soaking;
however, it produced beans of poor appearance. Other
methods reported by Snyder (1936) to soften the bean seed
coats include the use of sodium bicarbonate, which he
proposed was due to solvent action with the pectic acid.
The bean seed coats can also be softened by the action
of ammonium salts of oxalic, citric, and tartaric acids,
but oxalic acid was claimed to be the most efficient.

In processing pork and beans, Bigelow and Fitzgerald
(1918) reported that 2AOOF was the optimum temperature.
They did not favor using a lower temperature than this,
and also cautioned that a temperature materially higher
than 2AOOF yields an undesirable brown color. Rockland
(1965) reported that beans generally require a l2-hour
or longer rehydration time prior to cooking. The hot-
water methods of accelerating dry bean rehydration produce
unfavorable texture and flavor changes when boiling water
is used. Rockland (1965) experimented with other methods
to increase the rehydration rate and soften the beans.
These included vacuum hydration with salt solutions pre—
pared by using the alkali metal salts of tripolyphosphate,

pyrophosphate, and ethylenediamine-tetra-acetate.

17

The cookability of dry beans could also be improved
by the proper storage of dry beans after harvest. Burr,
Kon, and Morris (1968) reported that beans stored at high
temperature and high moisture content had to be cooked
longer. They indicated an optimum moisture content of
10% for maintaining quality of dry beans during storage.
At this moisture content, the quality is maintained for
several years regardless of storage temperature. Muneta
(196A) agreed with the above conclusion, and also found
a high correlation between moisture content and cooking
time. However, the moisture content was still not con-
sidered by Muneta (196A) to be the primary factor affect-
ing cooking time. Instead, he assumed that the moisture
content is probably correlated with another factor or
factors requiring longer cook time. Since dry beans
contain highly unsaturated lipids, he concluded that the
possibility of their oxidation and polymerization may
result in changes in the water permeability and cooking
time.

Kon (1968) studied the effect of high moisture and
high storage temperature on the cooking rate of dry beans.
His purpose though, was to determine if the poorer cooking
quality was due to changes in the quantity of pectic sub-
stances. He concluded that no significant difference
occurs between the total pectic substances from either
high or low moisture beans. Even though it appears that

there is no relation between the decreased cooking quality

18

of beans and the pectic substances, the pectic content

does have other affects. Hamad and Powers (1965) found
that the pectic content of dry beans was "conversely"
related to the rate of water absorption for both cold-water
(room temperature) and hot—water (190-2000F) soaking.

They also found that the pectic content of the dry beans

was directly related to drained weight after canning.
Another aspect concerning the processing of beans
that needs some discussion here is the effect of process—

ing on the nutritive value. Hackler, LaBelle, Steinkraus,

 

and Hand (1965) mentioned that soaking beans overnight
improves their nutritive value, probably because some

of the antinutritional factors were removed. Kakade and
Evans (1965) stated: "Rats fed the diet containing auto-
claved beans gained weight and appeared to be normal.
This improvement can be attributed to the destruction of
heat labile trypsin inhibitors and hemagglutinins."
Hackler gt_al, (1965) found that beans cooked for A0
minutes or longer at 250°F had a decreased protein

1 A further decrease in protein nutri—

efficiency ratio.
tional quality results when carbohydrate is added to the
beans after cooking. A greater decrease results from
dextrose, however, than from sucrose. Powrie and Lamberts

(196A) found that by processing navy beans for 70 minutes

 

lProtein efficiency ratio, or PER, as described by
Kakade and Evans (1965) is a measure of protein quality
equal to the weight increase in grams per gram of protein
consumed.

19

at 2500F instead of 20 minutes, the apparent digesti-
bility decreased 6%, in addition to decreases in experi—
mental rat weight gain, protein efficiency ratio, and
biological value. The protein nutritive value decreases
slightly when only sucrose is added to the liquid of the
canned beans. The addition of glucose, however, greatly

decreases the protein digestibility and biological value.

“n-I . u~a1

The above information concerning handling and pro—
cessing effects on navy beans is summarized in Table 2.

The cooking rates of dry beans can be estimated by

 

1n

measuring their tenderness, according to Binder and Rock-
land (196A). By using a L.E.E.-Kramer shear press
equipped with an automatic recorder, they measured the
maximum shear pressures of cooked beans to determine their
tenderness after various cooking times. Primarily, 100 g
samples were employed, using a multibladed shear head
descending at a constant rate of 5.71 cm/min with the
shear pressures being recorded on the strip chart travel—
ing at a speed of A.57 cm/min. The curves showed 2 peaks
for lima beans. Their explanation was that the first
peak results from the shear of the cotyledons, while the
second was from the seed coats, which had detached and
were stratified as the cotyledonous material was
extruded.

Irradiation of dry beans may serve another purpose:
to destroy insects that infest beans in storage. Accord—

ing to Larson and Fisher (1938) the bean weevil

2O

 

 

TABLE 2. Summary of Handling and Processing Effects on Navy Beans.
Treatment Effect
Irradiation
over 200 Krad Flavor detriment

up to 1600 Krad

Storage -
Temp. 720F or greater
Relative Humidity
less than 65%
Moisture content of beans
over 10%

Soaking
Soft water
Hard water
Overnight soaking
Hot water
Hot water discarded
after soaking
Boiling water
MahCo, added
J
Polyphosphates added
NaCl added

Polyphosphates + MaCl

Ammonium
citric,
acids

Pectic

salts of oxalic,
and tartaric

content of beans

Forced gas release
Steam preSSAre
Sonic Energy
Vacuum

Vacuum Hydration with salt
solutions (alkali metal
salts of tripolyphosphate,
pyrophosphate, and EDTA

Scarification

Cooking
_ (3,1
250 r 0
over A0 min at 250 F
Carbohydrate added

after cooking

Increased tenderness after rehydration in cold water,
increased soluble solids in soak water, and in-
creased rehydration rate.

Development of hardshell, and increased cooking time.
Development of hardshell.

Increased cooking time, and possibly correlated with
oxidation and polymerization of lipids causing
changes in water permeability.

Excessive splitting, softening, and matting.
Toughening.

Removes some antinutritional factors.
Increased rehydration rate.

Lower palatability, less thiamine and ash.

Production of unfavorable texture and flavor changes.

Reduction in cooking time, lower palatability, softing
of bean seed coats.

increased rehydration rate.

Either negative or slight positive effect of rehydra-
tion rate.

increased rehydration rate, greater yields of processed
beans, and increased tenderization rate during pro—
cessing.

Softens bean seed coats.
Conversely related to rehydration rate, and directly
related to drained weight after canning.

increased rehydration rate during soaking.

Increased rehydration rate and tenderization.

Reduces cooking time, and poorer appearance.

Improves nutritive value by destruction of trypsin
inhibitors and hemagclutinins.

Reduces cooking time over that of an atmospheric cook.

Decreases protein efficiency ratio.

Decrease in protein nutritional quality.

 

21

(Acanthoscelides obtectusj Say) and the southern COWpea

 

weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus, F) can inflict injuries
to the beans leading to huge losses. These insects grow
and develop easily under the same climatic conditions
that favor the growth of beans, which conditions may
often prevail even after the beans are harvested and
stored. Larson and Fisher (1938) described these weevils
as follows: "The adults are small active beetles that
oviposit in or on maturing pods in the field, and on or
among dry seeds in storage. They live from a few days

to a month or more depending on the temperature and food
supply." To control bean weevils, Baker, Taboada, and
Wiant (195A) irradiated infested navy beans at a dose of
10,000 rep of accelerated electrons, which was lethal to

100% of the weevils after 1 week.

Beans

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Preparation

Navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) from either of the

3 100—1b lots described below were used:

Lot 1.

Lot 2.

Lot 3.

1967--crop, "Casserole brand Michigan Navy Beans."
The beans were purchased in the fall of 1967 from
the Michigan Elevator Exchange, Lansing, Michigan.
On October 29, 1968, the moisture (w.b.) was
determined to be 13.68%. These beans are

referred to as: "old l967-—crop beans."
1967--crop, "Jack Rabbit brand Michigan CHP Navy
Beans, Packed by Michigan Bean Co., Saginaw,
Michigan." The beans were purchased in September,
1968, from the Michigan Elevator Exchange, Lansing,
Michigan. On December 6, 1968, the moisture (w.b.)
was determined to be 15.20%. These beans are
referred to as: "new l967-—crop beans."
1968--crop, "Jack Rabbit brand Michigan CHP Navy
Beans, Packed by Michigan Bean Co., Saginaw,

Michigan." The beans were purchased in November,

22

23

1968, from the Michigan State University Food

Stores. The moisture (w.b.) was determined to be

13.81% on December 6, 1968, and 1A.15% on April

30, 1969. These beans are referred to as:
"1968-—crop beans."
All the above beans were stored at 36oF. Prior to F7

irradiation and processing, the beans were sorted by hand

to eliminate discolored, broken, and cracked beans.

Radiation

 

Irradiation of the bean samples was accomplished by El

 

using the Cobalt-60 Research Irradiation Facility located

in the Food Science Building at Michigan State University,

East Lansing, Michigan. At the time of installation of

the Research Irradiator source, June 1967, the strength

was 50,500 curies. The source consists of 2A source strips

arranged vertically in about a 1-foot diameter cylindrical

configuration. A11 irradiations were conducted in air.

When the source is not in use, it is lowered into a 15-foot

deep water pool, to provide shielding while placing samples

in the irradiator cell.

The irradiation dose is dependent on
from the source center, as well as the time
The field of radiation for the MSU Research
source has been mapped using ferrous-cupric

chemical dosimetry. The field intensity is

the distance
of exposure.
Irradiator
and Fricke

expressed as

Krad/hour at various distances from the source, all referred

2A

to a reference date of August 1, 1967. The intensity on
any other date is calculated by applying the decay correc-
tion factor for 00-60 given in U.S.P.H.S. (1960). The
average dose received by a sample is based on the approxi—
mation that the sample thickness can be expressed as water
equivalent, and that the extinction coefficient for gamma
rays in a sample of density different from water is the
same as that for an equivalent thickness of water.

The bean samples to be irradiated were weighed into
polyethylene bags (see Figure 3), sealed by a heat sealer,
and placed upright on the floor of the irradiator cell;
the center of the bag was about 2.6 cm from the floor. The
,bulk density of these bagged bean samples was determined
to be 0.82 g/cm3, with an estimated thickness measured
parallel to the radiation of 6.5 cm. The equivalent thick—
ness in terms of water of 1 g/cm3 density equaled 6.5 cm X
0.82 = 5.3 cm. The samples were turned 180O midway during
the exposure to reduce the difference between the maximum
and the minimum dose received. For a sample of equivalent
thickness of 5.3 cm, a theoretical calculation shows the
maximum dose received to be 87% of that falling on the
face closest to the source, the minimum is 8A.5%, and
the average is 85.5%. The theoretical calculation was
verified with chemical dosimetry. An example showing the
calculation of the actual dose received by the sample is

given in Table 3.

25

U‘AAA,'\K \.\/\f\\§~ l

 

Figure 3 Dry nav
° y beans
bag, ready for exposure to gamma Eggigéggiyethylene

26

 

 

omnx ham mw.o man mm.m Hm.o p£\ompx mam
omoa .o>¢ omom .o>< mom :oapdaommnH mm\o\m hoe mo\a\m
omumasoamo soapoohaoo ho mafia coapoohnoo comm mmom
coauapomn< havoc

 

.mm\o\m so was mm.m pom oopmflomppfi one meadow the soap 60 em «woman women m>mc

ago no oaoemm m com o pom omoo oopmHSOHmo one

M) mHQmem mm .m mqm<e

27

Soaking

The beans were soaked prior to retorting to help
rehydrate, clean, and tenderize the beans. Since Continental
Can Company (undated b) considered water with A to 9 grains
hardness optimum for soaking beans, an approximate average
of 6 grains hardness was used. In a few preliminary
experiments, however, beans were soaked in distilled water.
These beans, after retorting at least 7 days storage in
cants, showed more splitting and matting than beans soaked
in the artificially prepared hard water of 6 grains hard-
ness. Continental Can Company (undated b) stated: "It
has been shown that extremely soft water used for soaking
and blanching will contribute to the splitting and
matting of the beans in the can."

The 6 grains hardness used is measured as CaCO3,
thus only A0.0A% of the hardness is due to calcium. All
calculations for preparing the hard water were based on
the above fact. In addition, a correction was made for
the CaCO3 in the distilled water used, which contained
approximately 2 ppm. Initially, CaCl2 was used to pre-
pare the artificial hard water of 6 grains hardness. This
was later changed, however, to CaSOu'2H2O, then CaSOu when
it became available. According to Dawson g§_§1. (1952),
calcium and sulfate ions ". . . represent the type of

permanent hardness found in most hard waters of this

country."

28

The containers used for soaking the beans included
an aluminum screen basket containing the bean sample, which
was in turn placed into a glass beaker with A times the
bean sample weight of the artifically prepared hard water.
(see Figure A). Only two soaking methods were used:

1. Cold-water soak of 16 hours at 36°F.

2. Hot-water soak of 1 hour at approximately

1800F.
The temperature of the long, cold—water soak was purposely

kept low, to slow down bacterial growth.

Processigg

 

After soaking, the beans were canned as quickly as
possible in 211 x A00 cans. Each can contained 167 g of
beans plus 167 g of sweetened sauce. Production and
Marketing Administration (19A7) defines a sweetened sauce
used in canning dried beans as ". . . sweetening ingredi-
ents in the packing medium with or without any one or
more of the following: salt, thickening ingredients,
coloring agents, spices or other flavorings, and molasses."
For this research, an unthickened sauce was desired Just
to give flavoring to the canned navy beans, but hopefully
not to mask any radiation off-flavor. The sweetened sauce
formula used was one described by Continental Can Co.
(undated b): 20 pounds of NaCl and 30 pounds of sucrose
per 100 gallons of sauce. In preparing this sweetened

sauce, approximately 2.A% NaCl and 3.6% sucrose was made

29

 

Figure A. Navy beans, 300 g/dry sample,
in aluminum screen bags, soaking in 1200 ml of
artificially prepared hard water.

30

up to 1 gallon with the artificially prepared hard water
of 6 grains hardness, as described previously under the
soaking method.

Bedford (1968) suggested that the approximate
fill of soaked beans should be 50% by weight of the
total fill. The weight of water filling a 211 x A00 can
is 33A grams. Thus, for the majority of the experiments,
each can contained 167 g of soaked beans plus 167 g of the
sweetened sauce at the time of canning. A few of the early
experiments, however, had only 105 g fill weight of
soaked beans. The sauce was added at a temperature of
about 2000F to give an initial temperature of the can
contents at the time of retorting of about llO-l2OOF for
the beans given a cold-water soak, and about 130—1A00F for
the beans given a hot-water soak. The time between filling
and retorting varied between 15 and 30 minutes and temp-
erature measurements of the can contents at 15 and 30
minutes after filling gave the temperatures mentioned
above.

The heat process used is one suggested by the
National Canners Association (1966) for beans in a light
sauce packed in number 2-1/2 and smaller cans: 2A5°F
for 30 minutes. The initial temperature of the can con-
tents at the time of retorting is recommended to be in
the range of 100-1A00F, which is in agreement with actual
initial temperatures mentioned above. At the end of the
heat process time, the cans were cooled by a cold-water

spray.

31

Storage

After processing, the canned beans were stored at
approximately 72°F for a time long enough for the beans
and the liquid to equalize. To determine the length of
time necessary for equalization, 6 cans of beans each
containing 105 g of soaked beans at the time of canning,
were processed and stored for various lengths of time at
approximately 72oF. After 6 days, 1 can was opened, 2
cans were opened after 12 days; and, 3 cans were opened
after 22 days. In each can, the beans had increased in
volume to occupy two—thirds of the can. Bedford (1968)
suggested that 7 days should be sufficient time for the
beans to equalize with the liquid inside the can. Thus,
based on the above information, the canned beans for
these experiments were stored for at least 7 days at

approximately 72°F prior to examination.

Examination

 

Moisture

The method of determining moisture content of the
dry beans is the vacuum oven method described by Makower,
Chastain, and Nielson (19A6), but with some modification.
The Makower gt_§l. (19A6) method was also used by Morris
and Wood (1955) in determining the moisture content of
dry beans.

Essentially, the Makower gt_§l. (19A6) method

included the following:

32

100 g sample, systematically sampled.

The sample was coarsely ground in a Wiley mill
equipped with a U.S. lO—mesh sieve, which has
2.00 mm sieve openings.

A quartering funnel used to separate out a 25 g
portion, which was reground to pass through a
U.S. AO—mesh sieve, having 0.A2 mm sieve
openings.

Two to A g samples were placed in small glass-
stoppered weighing bottles, 20 mm in diameter
and 25 mm high for drying.

Two empty bottles were included with each set
of samples to check on reproducibility of
weighing.

Determinations were made in duplicate or
triplicate.

Drying was accomplished in a vacuum oven kept
at a pressure of 5 mm of mercury or less, and
at 70°C for A0 hours.

At the end of the drying time, air dried by
passage through a calcium chloride tube was
slowly admitted into the oven for 20 to 30
minutes to bring it up to atmospheric pressure.
Samples were allowed to cool in dessicators

containing calcium chloride, prior to reweighing.

33

The modifications to the above method included:

1.

100 g sample of dry beans taken equally from
the top layers of 2 separate sacks of beans.
This procedure was followed because all the
beans experimented with came from the top
layers.

The sample was ground in a Micro mill to pass
through a sieve having 1.00 mm sieve openings.
25 g of the coarsely ground sample was random-
ly taken and reground to pass through a sieve
having 0.50 mm sieve openings.

Approximately 2 g samples were weighed into
predried, aluminum moisture pans with lids.
The pans were A.5 cm deep, 6.3 cm in diameter,
and having a cover that fitted over the pan
with a 0.5 cm overhang. The pans were predried
for A hours in the vacuum oven at 100°C and

a vacuum of about 29 inches of Hg. All weigh-
ings were made to the fourth decimal place.
CaSOu was used in the dessicator and to dry

the air going into the vacuum oven.

A model 52A vacuum oven was used in conjunction with

a model 25 vacuum pump, both made by Precision Scientific.

In calculating the percent moisture, the loss in

weight of the ground sample during drying was taken as a

measure of the moisture content. All the moisture deter-

minations were calculated on a wet basis.

3A

The moisture content of soaked, and processed beans
was based on drained weight determinations, and the weight
of the dry matter in the dry beans. All drained weights
were determined after a 2 minute drain. Soaked beans
were drained in the aluminum screen bag that they were
originally soaked in, but the processed beans were drained
in a No. 7 sieve having 2.83 mm openings. A No. 7 sieve

was used for convenience, instead of the more common No. 8.

Appearance

 

The visual examination consisted of estimating they
fill volume of beans in the can, as an indication of slack
fill, and noting the general appearance of the can contents
according to prevalence of cracked beans, matting, bean
color, and consistency of the sauce. This examination
gave in impression of the overall acceptability of the

canned beans.

Tenderness

 

The word "tender" was used to describe the ease
with which cooked beans could be broken down, cut, or
chewed. The words "texture," "hardness" or "softness"
had been considered also, but they seemed to connote
other meanings that are not entirely appropriate here.

For instance, texture indicates structure; hardness means
a degree of unyielding firmness, and softness means giving
away easily under pressure. Although these other terms

could possibly be used, they do not convey the exact

35

meaning desired. Binder and Rockland (l96A) used the
term "tenderization rate" to describe the work required
to shear lima beans.

An Instron Universal Testing Instrument, Type TTBM,
was used to measure the tenderness of the beans. Bourne
et_§l. (1966) gave a good description of this instrument
and its use in measuring food properties. Basically the
Instron has 2 main parts, the crosshead and the load-
sensing device, which is connected to an automatic recorder.
The crosshead is driven vertically by twin lead screws,
and can be set at selected rates of travel ranging from
0.05 to 50 cm/min. The system of load sensing and record-
ing is made up of electric bonded-wire strain gauges whose
output is recorded on a strip-chart. The full scale
load range of this Instron model is 2 g to 500 Kg, and a
compression load cell is used to obtain this range. The
rate of travel of the recording strip—chart can be set
by changing the drive gears. Chart speed can equal that
of the crosshead or be a simple multiple of it, because
the same power supply drives both systems. The working
parts have a total space of about 28 x 20 cm between the
twin drive screws, and an 80 cm stroke length.

Fitted onto the crosshead of the Instron, was a
stainless steel L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell (see
Figures 5, 6, and 7). In measuring the tenderness of the
beans, the sample was put into the sample cell box, and

the blades were driven down through the sample and 0.5 cm

36

. o .‘..fl¢...“l.i C..‘P.l...".....l~‘!.‘.l. J .O.“
0... ti O .00. o 0. 0.00001. .00.... 6. O. I O O... O. 0‘. .0. I. .0.

$235.. wiggling; $21.41. ...

‘L

. .3... to v...
00000 O o
\.$‘.....'
.0... one.

6 d .0 O. .
0‘. .‘.. C‘ .
. b Q 0 0

. e _.
' I C. i
c o o o o
Q. I. a . a. GI. v'tul'.‘ I). .0 .

 

Figure 5.
storage, being tested for tenderness on the Instron,

Processed navy beans, after

fitted with a L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell on the

crosshead.

37

0‘ C QflOvO.“

2%

to...

.1

Off ..\Op
”.4 . \.\Jj

it.

 

L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell

Figure 6.
fitted onto the crosshead of the Instron.

38

 

#

Mounting shoe

 

 

 

 

‘ F ' H I I I I “ ”fess?“

 

 

t“I

 

10.5 cm

Length of
blade travel, cm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

o cm——.rl~ni Ana Anten- Un~ .1

 

Sample cell
”box cover

7 and blade
_-J guide

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Depth Of 11:

sample A.8 cm 4—_§:T£Ple 0811

Top of

Bottom

grating: 4—; * Bottom cell
7'6 cm ‘—__"_’grating and

 

 

 

blade guide
End of travel, 8.6 cm-——"‘f

Figure 7. L.E.E.-Kramer shear press cell.

39

past the bottom cell grating. The size of the sample

used was 100 g, which was the preferred quantity of sample
used by Binder and Rockland (196A). The descent rate of
the crosshead and shearing blades was set at the maximum
for this instrument-—50 cm/min to attempt to simulate the
descent rate of human teeth in actual chewing. The record-
ing-chart speed was also set at 50 cm/min. Proctor,
Davidson, Malecki, and Welch (1955) worked on a strain—
gage tenderometer fitted with human dentures, an instru-
ment mechanically arranged to simulate frequency of chew-
ing. Their denture tenderometer, cycling at A5 cycles/
min with a stroke of 2.1 cm, traveled at an average speed
of 189 cm/min. Thus, the Instron speed is only about a
third the chewing rate, but gives the closest simulation
presently available. A descent rate of 5 cm7min was also
tested, and the tenderness values for 6 lOO—g samples

of beans were lower than at the 50 cm/min speed. In

other words, the average force recorded at 5 cm/min was
approximately 20% greater than that at 50 cm/min.

The curve obtained on the recording strip-chart
showed 2 peaks for every sample run (see Figure 8). Binder
and Rockland (196A) also reported that double peaks
appeared on recorder tracings while shearing intact lima
beans using a L.E.E.-Kramer shear press. They concluded
that the first peak resulted from the response of shear-
ing both the seedcoat and cotyledons of the beans, but

primarily the cotyledons. The second peak was thought

A0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Beans compressed
90-1!-
80‘”
vqlnitial contact
yQ~~ of blades with
bottom grating
60‘"
O R
H “0 if
9
a
CC
If)
m
0
C nu.
g A0
59
:5
5+ I
Q hi)“-
e. ‘
20““
Initial contact
10.. of blades with
bean sample \ V
/ Q ..
.1 I I“-.. . . x I .-
0 2 A 6 8 10 2
Distance, cm

Figure 8. Compression curve for a 100 g sample of
processed whole navy beans, after storage. (L.E.E.~Krame
shear press cell fitted onto an Instron, blade descent
rate and recording chart speed 50 cm/min).

.
.L

A1

to be due to the independent shear of the seedcoats that
became detached and stratified as cotyledonous material
was extruded. In attempting to determine the cause of
the double peaks while shearing navy beans, a 100 g sam-
ple of intact processed beans was subjected to the shear
blades on the Instron, and examined at the positions
showing the 2 peaks. At the starting position of 0 cm
(Figures 7 and 8), the shear blades were about A.7 cm
above the sample and 7.5 cm above the top of the bottom
grating. The first peak occurred at 7.0 cm distance,
which is about 80% through the original sample, which

was just beginning to extrude through the bottom grating.
The second peak occurred at 7.5 cm, where the blades are
just beginning to mesh with the bottom grating. At this
position, the blades have forced some of the bean sample
through the bottom grating and the rest of the sample into
the spaces between the blades. The extruded beans at
both peaks appeared to have equal proportions of seed-
coats and cotyledons. Thus, from the above observations,
it is concluded that the first peak results primarily
from the compression of the bean as a whole, and there

is no special separation of seedcoats from cotyledons.
The second peak results from the force required to
extrude the beans through the bottom grating along with
the initial meshing of the blades with the grating. Based

on these conclusions, it was decided that only the first

A2

peak gives an uninterrupted measure of the tenderness of
the beans, thus only the results from the first peak are
reported.

To obtain some knowledge of what is the generally
accepted measure of tenderness for processed beans, 7
commercial brands of canned beans were examined for
tenderness by using the Instron. In addition to tender-
ness, the amount of can fill and appearance were noted.
Table A shows the results from 2 sample cans from each
of the 7 commercial brands. Each can contained enough
beans for 2 lOO-g samples. All the samples of commer-
cial beans in Table A contained cracked beans, with only
the Meadowdale samples having some of the beans completely
broken. The fill of beans in the cans ranged from approxi—
mately 80 to 100% of the total volume.

Since the other tenderness measurements, in the
literature, on processed beans were determined with a
shear press instead of the Instron, a comparison of the
tenderness measurements from these 2 instruments was made.
Samples of 1968-crop beans were given a cold—water soak,
processed, and stored for 7 days prior to examination.
Each can provided 2 lOO-g samples, as was the case in
most of the other experiments on tenderness described later.
An exception was made in this comparison for the blade
descent and chart speed from the 50 cm/min speed described
earlier; instead, 20 cm/min was used, because this was

the maximum blade descent speed with the Allo-Kramer Shear

.smo\mmamewm w ooa m can .ocmnn\mcmO oHQEMm 039

 

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Press values to be 7.3 kilograms or 12% higher per sample
than from the Instron (Table 5).
TABLE 5. Tenderness, kg/lOO g product, comparisons

of processed navy beans measured by an Instron and a Allo—
Kramer Shear Press.l

 

 

Instron Shear Press2
62.5 65.0
58.0 68.2
56.0 61.8
53.5 58.6
5A.5 61.A
5405 6707
Mean 56.5 63.8

 

lBlade descent and recording chart speed 20 cm/min,
3 cans tested on each instrument, 2 lOO-g samples/can.

23000—lb ring.

Sensory Panel Evaluation

Two factors were investigated by sensory panel.
These included flavor and tenderness differences, which
were possibly due to gamma irradiation. A triangle test
was used for determining differences in flavor, and a 3-
sample ranking test was used for tenderness differences.
Both tests were run in duplicate.

The irradiated samples used in the triangle test
had been exposed to 3A0 Krad gamma irradiation, because
at this dose the tenderness is about the same as it is

for unirradiated beans. For the ranking test, the 3

A5

samples were given the following doses of irradiation:
0, A2, and 170 Krad. Prior to the sensory tests, the
bean samples had been given a cold-water soak, processed,

and stored for 8 days.

Chemical Analysis

 

Crude protein and free soluble starch were the only
constituents analyzed. The measurement of crude protein
was made by using the Kjeldahl method for determination
of total nitrogen. All the bean samples to be tested for
protein were first dried to complete dryness by using the
method mentioned previously for moisture determination.
Details of the Kjeldahl nitrogen determination as recom—
mended by Benne (1969), are as follows:

1. 1 g samples of the dried, ground beans were

used.

2. 0.1—0.5 g CuSOu and 8-12 g K2804 added to

increase the boiling point of the solution
for better digestion of the sample.

3. 25 ml conc H280” added for digestion of the

sample.

A. Samples were heated to boiling for approxi—

mately 2.5 hours.

5. After cooling the Kjeldahl flasks, the follow-

ing was added in approximate amounts: 3 or A

drops mineral oil, 200 ml distilled H20, 1

A6

granule of mossy zinc, and 80 ml of 50%
NaOH solution.

6. The Kjeldahl flasks were heated to boiling,
and the ammonia distilled off into Erlenmeyer
flasks containing 1 drop methyl red indicator
solution and 15 m1 0.2N H280”.

7. If the methyl red indicator changed to a yellow
color, indicating an alkaline solution in the
Erlenmeyer flask, 5 m1 additional 0.2N H2804
was added.

8. 2 additional drops of methyl red indicator
solution was added to the contents of the
Erlenmeyer flasks, then titrated with 0.1N
NaOH.

From the amount of 0.1N NaOH required to titrate the
remaining unneutralized 0.2N H2804, the percent of nitro-
gen in the original bean sample was calculated. The per—
cent of protein was in turn calculated by multiplying the
percent nitrogen by a factor of 6.25.

The blue value index was used as an indication of
the free soluble starch content of the soak water after
cold—water soaking of navy beans. The procedure followed
is the same as that described by Palnitkar (1967), except
that extraction was accomplished on whole beans soaked in
A times their weight of artificially prepared hard

water, described previously, for 16 hours at 36°F. A

A7

measured volume of 5 ml of the soak water was combined
with 2 ml of 0.02N iodine—potassium iodate solution and

93 ml of distilled water. This solution was allowed to
stand for 10-15 minutes. The absorbancy of the solution
at 660 mu was then measured on a Bausch & Lomb Spectronic
20 colorimeter, with red filter and photocells recommended
for use at this wavelength. The colorimeter was standard-
ized with 2 ml of the 0.02N iodine-potassium iodate solu—

tion diluted to 100 ml with distilled water.

Statistical Analysis

 

The tenderness and drained weight measurements were
analyzed statistically by using analysis of variance.
When significant differences were found within the sources
of variance having a series of 3 or more means, Duncan's
Multiple Range Test was used to test all the possible
differences. The triangle tests for flavor were tested
for significant differences using Kramer's tables listed
by Amerine, Pangborn, and Roessler (1965). These tables
listed the totals required for significance for a normal
distribution. The totals for both triangle tests for
flavor were also evaluated by the chi—square distribution.
This test was used to find out if the observed frequency

distribution, f differs significantly from the theore-

O,

tical or expected frequency, fe. Since the triangle test

involves only 1 degree of freedom, the chi-square formu—

la was adjusted as follows:

A8

2 _ (/fo—fe/ - %)2
X - X fe

 

In testing for significant agreement between rankings for
tenderness, the total ranking results were compared with
Kramer's rank totals for significance. These tables are
also listed by Amerine g§_§l. (1965). The ranking results
were also analyzed using the statistic W, the coefficient

of concordance (Amerine et al., 1965).

EXPERIMENTAL AND RESULTS

Tenderness and Pack Characteristics

 

Based on the previous research concerning the
tenderization effects of gamma radiation on dehydrated
vegetables and dry navy beans, experiments were conducted
to explore this effect further. Only dry navy beans were
used in these experiments, but they were subjected to
various gamma radiation doses and various processing
conditions, including different soaking methods and heat

processing times.

a. Cold-water soak for 16 hours, and a 30—minute pro-

cessing time at 2A5OF.

Table 6 shows the tenderness measurements of canned
beans previously soaked in artificially hardened water
(CaCl2) for 16 hours at 36°F, and heat processed 30 min-
utes at 2A50F. The average tenderness values, Table 6,
tended to show increased tenderness as the irradiation
dose increased from 0 to 3A0 Krad, however, these diff-
erences were not significant. The 2700 Krad samples

showed no tenderization effect at all; in fact, the beans

A9

50

appeared tougher than even the unirradiated samples. The
average values for these 2700 Krad samples were signifi-
cantly higher than all the other samples. In addition,
there was a significant interaction between the doses
and the cans.

TABLE 6. Tendernessl, kg/lOO g product, of irradiated

processed navy beans (cold-water soak), measured after 7 days
storage.

 

Dose, Krad

 

O A2 3A0 2700
66.5 57.0 6A.5 113.5
69.0 58.5 65.0
60.5 58.0 58.5 102.5
62.5 60.5 58.5
61.0 55.0 48.0 99.0
61.0 60.0 A8.0
Mean 63.A 58.2 57.1 105.0

 

lThree cans at each dose, 2 lOO—g samples/can, except
at 2700 Krad (see text).
The drained weight of the contents from each can,
the percent fill, moisture after soaking, and moisture
after processing and storage of the beans are listed in
Table 7. In comparing the average drained weights from
each group of samples given different irradiation doses,
it was noted that the drained weights decreased as the
dose increased beyond A2 Krad. This decrease was signifi-

cant at the 5% level of statistical significance, and

51

for the 2700 Krad samples, it was significant at the 1%
level.
TABLE 7. Pack characteristics of irradiated, pro—

cessed navy beans. (cold-water soak, 211xA00 cans,
measured after 7 days storage).

 

Dose, Krad

 

 

 

Characteristic 0 A2 3A0 2700
Drained weight, 238.0 2A6.0 225.0 202.5
g/can 2A9.0 2A2.0 228.0 207.0
2A5.0 2A7.0 2A5.0 209.0
Mean 2AA.0 2A5.0 232.7 206.2
Fill volume, %1 9o 90 85 80
Moisture, %
after soaking 55 55 56 57
after storage1 69 69 68 6A

 

1Average of 3 cans.

The moisture of the beans after soaking and prior to
canning tended to increase slightly as the radiation dose
increased. However, the moisture after processing and
storage decreased as the radiation dose increased; this
effect also showed up in the decreasing percent fill of
beans in the cans. The percent fill was so low for the
2700 Krad samples that 2 lOO-g samples of beans for the
tenderness measurements were not available. Although the
2700 Krad samples had drained weights over 200 g after 2

minutes draining, part of this weight was attributed to

52

the sweetened sauce clinging to the beans. After the
drained weights were taken and prior to weighing out the
second 100 g sample for tenderness measurement, enough
sauce had dripped off the beans resting in the No. 7
sieve to account for the lack of sufficient sample.

The general appearance of the canned beans was also
noted. Beans previously exposed to 0 and A2 Krad showed
slight cracking of the seedcoats and cotyledons, plus a
very slight amount of matting. The 3A0 and 2700 Krad
beans showed even fewer cracked beans, but at the 2700
Krad dose the beans showed some brown off-color and small
pieces of white material in the sauce.

Based on these results, it was concluded that 2700
Krad was too extreme a dose for producing canned beans of
acceptable quality. To narrow down the radiation doses,
2 experiments were conducted, one in the dose range of
0 to 680 Krad and the other 680 to 1A00 Krad. Tables 8
and 9 show the results from these experiments, and Figure
9 shows the tenderness results graphically. The bean
samples, after exposure to the different irradiation
doses, were processed the same way as those of the pre-
vious experiment. The only exception was that the beans
were soaked in water artificially hardened with CaSOu'2H2O
instead of CaCl2 for 16 hours at 36°F prior to the heat
processing.

The tenderness values in Table 8 show that tender-

ness increased as the irradiation dose increased to 170

53

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56

Krad, but from 340 Krad and up, the beans became tougher.

It should also be noted that the bean samples given the 340
Krad dose were similar to the unirradiated samples in tender-
ness. The statistical analysis showed significant differ-
ences among the doses, and cans, plus a significant inter—
action between these 2 sources of variation. With so many
irradiation doses being discussed here, it is less confusing
Just to give the value for the shortest significant range
between adjacent means for tenderness among the doses.

This value was 5.“ Kg. Between cans of beans, the signi-
ficant difference was between can 1 and the other 2 cans,

at the 5% level of significance only.

In Table 9, the drained weights of the canned beans
again show results similar to the last experiment. The
drained weights decreased as the radiation dose increased.
A significant difference was noted between the doses and
the cans. The shortest significant range between adjacent
means for drained weights, among the doses, was “.5 g.

The only can significantly different from the others was
can 1. The percent moisture of the beans after soaking
and prior to processing showed slight increases as the
irradiation dose increased. However, after processing and
storage, the percent moisture decreased as the radiation
dose increased. This last statement also helps explain
why the percent fill of beans exposed to 680 Krad and

higher decreased. The general appearance of the canned

57

beans shows the O to 170 Krad samples to have slightly
cracked beans, no matting, and good overall appearance.
The samples exposed to higher doses of radiation than
170 Krad showed fewer cracked beans, but at 680 to lAOO
Krad white particles were seen in the bean sauce.

Since the 170 Krad irradiation dose yielded the
tenderest beans with very little detrimental effect,
further investigation of this was made. Table 10 shows
the tenderness results from duplicate experiments of
beans irradiated at O, 42, 170, and 250 Krad. These
particular doses were used to more closely point out
where maximum tenderization of the beans occurs. Again
the maximum tenderization occurred at 170 Krad. At 250
Krad, the tenderization effect appeared to be decreasing
again and causing the beans to toughen compared to the
170 Krad samples. Statistically, the effect of doses
was significant. When the means from each dose were
compared, the O and A2 Krad samples were significantly
different at the 5% level from the samples irradiated
at 170 and 250 Krad; at the 1% level of significance the
O Krad samples were significantly different from all the
other irradiated samples.

As with the last experiment, the cans were again
significantly different. Based on a comparison of means,
the beans from the can 1 samples were significantly less
tender than the can 2 and can 3 samples. Along with this,

the difference between the 2 experiments was significant.

58

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59

The 2 experiments were not significantly different,
however, when only the drained weights were considered
(Table 11).

The pack characteristics are given in Table ll.
Again, the drained weights tended to decrease as the
radiation dose increased. The difference between doses
was significant, and the means of the 0 and 42 Krad
samples were significantly different from the 170 and 250
Krad samples. The mean drained weight of can 1 was
significantly different from that of cans 2 and 3, which
agrees with the last experiment described. The fill
volume of beans in the cans decreased as the irradiation
dose was increased to 170 and 250 Krad. This same effect
was noticed in the amount of liquid absorbed by the beans
after processing, as measured by the percent moisture after
the storage period. The opposite effect was observed with
increasing irradiation dose, when the percent moisture
after soaking was measured. However, these differences in
percent moisture were small. The general appearance of
the beans did not change between the samples given diff-
erent irradiation doses. All the bean samples showed
cracked beans but no matting.

Since tenderness and drained weight continued to
show significant differences among cans, an explanation
and remedy were sought. A possible cause of these vari—
ances may be attributed to the method used to fill the

cans of beans with hot sauce prior to processing. The

 

60

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61

method used was to fill and seal each can separately, in
succession, starting with can 1 of the lowest irradiation
dose samples and then proceeding to can 2, can 3, and
then going to the next higher dose samples, etcetera, to
can 3 of the highest dose samples. By filling the cans
in this manner, can 1 of O Krad samples was always in the
hot sauce the longest time, and therefore was allowed to
cool the greatest amount of time prior to heat processing.
On the other hand, can 3 of the highest irradiation dose
was Just the opposite. To correct this, 2 more experi-
ments like the ones Just described were performed; the
only procedure change was that all the cans of beans were
filled with the hot, sweetened sauce at approximately the
same time and at random. The time between filling the
first can and filling the last was about 1 minute.

Table 12 shows the tenderness results of the beans
that had been covered with the hot, sweetened sauce all
at approximately the same time. The tenderness increased
as the irradiation dose increase. These results were
quite similar to the last experiments using these same
doses, except that here the 250 Krad dose showed Just a
little more tenderness than the 170 Krad dose. Again, the
doses were significantly different. The average tenderness
values for doses showed the O Krad samples significantly
different from all the irradiated samples at 5% level of
significance, and different from the 170 and 250 Krad

doses at the 1% level of significance.

 

62

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63

The difference between cans for the experimental
results shown in Table 12 was only to the 5% level, instead
of the 1% as with the Table 10 results. Thus, it appears
that the method of filling the cans with hot sauce all at
once may have reduced the variance between cans; however,
the error variance was 7 to 8 times as large as before.
Can 1 was again the significantly different one, which
agrees with the results from Table 10. A difference again
appeared between the 2 experiments shown in Table 12, but
this time it was significant only to the 5% level.

Table 13 shows the results from drained weights
taken from each of the cans of beans used in these last
2 experiments. The results for doses were significantly
different, which agrees with the other experiments dis—
cussed previously. At the 5% level of significance,
the O and H2 Krad samples were different from the 170 and
250 Krad samples. At 1% level of significance, the O
Krad samples were significantly different only from the
170 Krad samples, and the H2 Krad samples different from
170 and 250 Krad samples. This revised technique, of
filling the cans all at once with hot sauce, minimized
the differences in drained weights between replicate cans.
However, significant differences were obtained between
duplicate experiments, which has not occurred before,
(Table 11).

Table 13 also shows that the fill volume of beans

in the cans did not vary consistently in one direction

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65

or the other. This was seen to be the case with the mea-
surements of percent moisture after processing and stor—
age too, which indicated that the water uptake of beans
during storage was not greatly affected by the irradiation
doses. The percent moisture of the beans after soaking
increased only slightly with irradiation doses of 170 and
250 Krads. General appearance of the beans after pro-
cessing and storage was similar to that of the last dupli—
cate experiments at these same H irradiation doses.

The beans were cracked but were not matted, except to a
slight degree with the O and M2 Krad doses in the first

of the 2 experiments.

To investigate further the effects of covering the
canned beans with hot, sweetened sauce at different times,
the following experiment was performed in duplicate. The
beans in 2 cans were covered with sweetened sauce at 2OOOF,
but at about 35 minutes apart. This length of time was
approximately how long the first can of beans, in the pre—
viously discussed experiments described in Tables 6 through
11, stood until the last can of each experiment was filled.
They are designated here as cans l and 3. The beans in
can 2 were covered with sweetened sauce at 36°F to find
out what the contrasting effect on the beans was when
unheated sauce was used. Table 14 shows the results of
this experiment after the canned beans were processed and
stored 7 days. In comparing the results between the beans

in cans l and 3, it can be seen that can 3 was slightly

66

more tender, had a higher drained weight, fill volume,
and moisture content after processing and storage.
These results for tenderness and drained weights agree
with the other cans l and 3 mentioned in the previous
experiments. This tends to add further evidence that
filling the cans of beans with hot sweetened sauce at

different times may add to the variability among cans.

TABLE 14. Tendernessl, kg/lOO g product, and pack

characteristics of unirradiated, processed navy beans.
(Cold—water soak, 211x400 cans, measured after 7 days
storage, duplicate experiments).

 

 

 

 

Experiments
1 2
Cans
l 2 3 l 2 3
Tenderness 64.5 54.5 060.0 66.0 53.7 55.2
61.0 58.0 61.5 64.7 53.3 —-——3
Characteristic
Drained weight,
g/can 234.0 249.0 237.0 231.0 257.0 247.0
Fill volume, % 83 87 9O 87 9O 9O
Moisture, %
after soaking 55.2 55.2 55.2 55.6 55.6 55.6
after storage 68.0 69.9 68.4 67.9 71.1 70.0
éTwo lOO—g samples/can.

The beans in cans l and 3 were covered with
sweetened sauce at 2OOOF, with can 1 being covered first
and can 3 covered about 35 minutes later. Can 2 was covered
with swgetened sauce at 36°F at the same time as can 1.

Loss of duplicate sample.

67

The results from Table 14 also show that can 2 is
the most tender, has the highest drained weight and percent
moisture after processing and storage. In addition, the
percent fill of beans in can 2 is similar to can 3. These
results point out that the hot sauce covering the beans
may cause toughening and decreased liquid absorption of
the canned, processed beans, despite the fact that these

beans received a somewhat more severe heat process.

b. Hot—water soak for 1 hour, and a 30-minute processing

time at 2450F.

Table 15 shows the tenderness measurements of canned
navy beans previously soaked in hot, artificially hardened
water (CaSOu) for 1 hour, and heat processed 30 minutes at
2450F. The tenderness of the beans decreased or became
tougher as the irradiation dose increased. This is Just
the opposite effect to that shown by the previously dis-
cussed cold-water soaked beans. Although the beans became
less tender as the irradiation dose increased, they were
still approximately 10 to 25% more tender than the cold-
water soaked beans. When the mean tenderness values
were statistically analyzed, it was found that the values
for 0 and 42 Krad were significantly different at the 5%
level from the 170 and 250 Krad values. At 1% level of
significance, only the 0 Krad value was significantly
different from the 170 and 250 Krad values, and the 42

Krad value was only significantly different from the 250

68

 

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69

Krad value. Another contrasting result different from
most of the cold—water soaked beans was that neither the
cans nor the 2 experiments were significantly different.

Table 16 shows the drained weight results from the
hot-water soaked beans. As the irradiation dose increased,
the drained weight values from canned beans decreased.
This trend was similar to that from the cold-water soaked
beans, but the individual drained weight values were
approximately 10 to 18% higher than those from the cold-
water soaked beans with the same irradiation doses. Sta-
tistical analysis of the differences between the mean
values for each dose, showed that the drained weights from
O to 42 Krad doses were significantly higher than those
from 170 and 250 Krad doses at the 1% level of significance.
There was also a significant difference between the dupli-
cate hot—water soaking experiments. In contrast with the
tenderness results of this experiment, and with the cold-
water experiment, there was a significant difference
between the drained weights for cans. The mean values
for can 1 was significantly different from those of cans
2 and 3.

Table 16 also shows that the percent fill remained
constant, and approximately 10% greater than those values
from the cold—water soaked beans. The percent moisture
after soaking was approximately 5% less than the values
from the cold-water soaked beans. This means that these

hot—water soaked beans had more solids per can than those

 

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71

cans with cold—water soaked beans. For all the experi-
ments compared, each can initially contained 167 g of
soaked beans prior to processing. This greater quantity
of solids in the hot-water soaked beans may have con-
tributed to the increased drained weights, and percent
fill of beans in the cans compared to the cold-water
soaked beans. The percent moisture after processing and
storage was very similar to the cold-water soaked beans.
This explanation, however, can only be part of the answer
for the increased drained weights and fill volume for the
hot-water soaked beans. This 5% less moisture after
soaking, or increase in solids, was only half to one-
third the drained weight increase of the hot—water over
the cold-water soaked beans.

The general appearance of these hot-water soaked
beans after processing and storage was similar to the
cold-water soaked samples. The beans were cracked but
not matted. However, the O and 42 Krad samples had tight

packs, and no noticeable head-space in the can.

c. Temperature of canned beans at 15 minute intervals
after being covered initially with 2000F sweetened

sauce .

The following experiment was performed to determine
the differences in temperature of the canned beans, after
sitting for various periods of time in hot sweetened sauce.

Two soaking methods were used, the hot-water soak and the

72

cold-water soak as described in the methods and materials
section. After soaking the navy beans, 3 167-g samples
from each soaking method were placed into 211 x 400 size
cans, with 2OOOF sweetened sauce covering them and filling
the cans. The cans were sealed at atmospheric pressure,
and a thermometer, inserted through a small hole in the
center of the top of each can, located in the center of
the can. The temperature was recorded for each can at 3
15-minute intervals, as shown in Table 17.

TABLE 17. Temperature, 0F, of unirradiated navy

beans, at 15 minute intervals after being covered with
2000F sweetened sauce, (beans were previously soaked).

 

Soaking Method

 

 

 

 

Cold water Hot water
Time
minutes 0 15 30 45 0 15 30 45
130 118 112 108 156 140 130 123
132 121 115 110 151 136 126 119
130 119 112 108 154 140 130 124
Mean 131 119 113 109 154 139 129 122

 

lThree 211x400 cans/soaking method.

The time interval of O to 30 minutes was used here,
because it represents the maximum range of time between
successively filling the first can and the last can of
beans with the hot, sweetened sauce. By the time the cans

were actually beginning the processing in the retort, 45

73

minutes had passed since filling can 1. This method of
filling the cans of beans with hot, sweetened sauce was
used in the experiments, the results of which are given
in Tables 5 through 11. As seen from Table 17, after

45 minutes the hot-water soaked beans are only 13°F
higher than the cold-water soaked ones. After 15 min—
utes, however, the difference in temperature between

the 2 differently soaked bean samples was 200F. Thus,
the hot—water soaked beans went into the retort for
processing at a higher temperature and received an effec-
tively longer cook time than did the cold—water soaked
beans. This may possibly account for the reason why the
hot-water soaked beans are more tender than the cold—

water soaked beans after processing and storage.

d. Hot—water soak for 1 hour, and variable processing

times at 2450F.

Table 18 shows the tenderness measurements of
unirradiated, navy beans that were given a hot—water
soak for 1 hour, processed at various times at 245°F,
and stored 14 days at about 72oF. As the process (cook)
time increased, so did the tnederness (see Figure 10).
The mean tenderness values were all significantly differ-
ent from each other at the 1% level of significance,
except for the 30 and 35 minute cooks. No significant

difference was found among cans.

74

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75

TABLE 18. Tendernessl, kg/lOO g product, of unirra-

diated navy beans, (hot-water soak), processed at different
times at 2450F , measured after 14 days storage.

 

Process Times, Minutes

 

20 25 30 35 60
63.0 56.0 53.0 48.0 40.5
65.0 56.0 48.5 47.5 43.0
58.5 58.0 48.5 49.0 42.5
62.5 53.0 50.0 49.5 43.0

Mean 62.2 55.7 50.0 48.5 42.2

 

1Two cans at each process time, 2 lOO—g samples/can.
2All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.
Table 19 shows the drained weight values of the
cans of beans for each of the 5 different process times
The drained weights increased as the process (cook) time
increased from 20 to 35 minutes, but then dropped at the
60 minute process time. This trend was also seen in the
present moisture after processing and storage. Although
a difference appeared between the drained weight values
for each process time, this difference was not significant.
However, the drained weight values for the 60 minute pro-
cess time were suspiciously different. Table 19 also
shows that the percent fill did not reach 100% until the
30 minute process time. The percent moisture after soak-
ing was about equal for all the samples, which was

expected here since this represents the amount of moisture

76

uptake prior to the different process times. Since the
drained weight results were not significantly different,
it was somewhat difficult to make conclusions about the
optimum process time to recommend. However, it appears
from the data in Tables 18 and 19 that the 30 minute

process time, recommended by the National Canners Asso-
ciation (1966), would be the minimum.

TABLE 19. Pack characteristics of unirradiated,

navy beans. (Hot-water soak, 211x400 cans, processed at
different times at 2450Fl, measured after 14 days storage.)

 

 

Process Times, Minutes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Characteristic 20 25 3O 35 60
Drained weight, 254.0 268.0 269.0 273.0 292.0
g/can 262.0 265.0 273.0 275.0 189.0
Mean 258.0 266.5 271.0 274.0 240.5
Fill volume, 72 90 90 100 100 100
Moisture, %
after soaking 49.8 49.9 50.0 50.0 49.6
after storage2 68.8 69.9 70.5 70.8 66.5
1

All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.
Average of 2 cans.
The tenderness values from Table 20 agree with the
other hot-water soaked bean values mentioned previously,
and with the 25 and 30 minute processed samples of Table

18. The unirradiated, and 30-minute processed samples

were more tender than the irradiated, and 25-minute

77

processed samples. These differences in tenderness were
significant at the 1% level of significance. In addition,
the differences in tenderness values between cans were
not significant.

TABLE 20. Tendernessl, kg/lOO g product, of_irra-

diated navy be ns, (hot-water soak), processed at different
times at 2450F , measured after 7 days storage.

 

Process Times, Minutes

 

(A ”‘1’ 7.."

 

 

25 3O
Dose, Krad 0 170 0 170
54.2 59.4 53.0 62.7
57.7 57.6 50.6 53.5
52.7 59.9 50.2 54.0
50.2 59.0 47.3 57.6
57.1 60.0 50.9 57.8
55-3 53-8 53-3 55.4
Mean 54.5 59.9 50.9 56.9

 

lThree cans at each dose, for each of the 2 process
times, 2 lOO—g samples/can.

All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.

The values in Table 21 show trends similar to the
results found in Tables 16 and 19. For example, the values
for drained weights and percent moistures after processing
and storage were the lowest for the irradiated samples, and

for the shortest processing time samples. Also, the values

for percent moisture after soaking, but prior to processing

41'-

78

and storage, were slightly higher for the irradiated sam-
ples. Statistical analysis of the drained weight values
showed the unirradiated samples to be significantly higher
than the irradiated samples; the can 3 mean value was
significantly higher than that for can 1; and there was
no significant difference between the values for the 2
process times.

TABLE 21. Pack characteristics of irradiated, navy

beans. (Hot-water soak, 211x400 cans, processed at different
times at 2450F , measured after 7 days storage).

 

Process Times, Minutes

25 3O

 

Dose, Krad Dose, Krad

 

 

 

Characteristic 0 170 0 170
Drained weight, 279.5 260.5 283.0 262.0
g/can 280.0 269.0 284.0 271.0
285.0 273.5 285.0 275.0
Mean 281.5 267.7 284.0 269.3

Fill volume, %2 100 100 100 100

Moisture, %

after soaking 50.1 50.6 50.0 50.5
after storage2 70.4 69.2 70.6 69.3

 

1

All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened

sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.

2Average of 3 cans.

e. Cold-water soak for 1 hour, and a 30 minute processing

time at 2450F.

79

To determine whether or not irradiation could be
used to shorten the cold—water soak time required to help
tenderize navy beans, the following experiment was per—
formed. Two 300-g samples of 1968-crop dry navy beans
were irradiated at 0 and 170 Krad. The 170 Krad dose was
used because the results from Table 12 showed this to
yield the tenderest beans. The 2 bean samples were then
soaked in artificially hardened water (CaSOu) for 1 hour,
instead of 16. After soaking, the beans were canned, pro—
cessed 30 minutes at 245OF and stored for 30 days at
approximately 72oF. Table 22 shows the tenderness re-
sults for these beans. Although the irradiated samples
were a little more tender than the unirradiated samples,
the difference was not significant. When comparing the
mean values with those from Table 12, the 0 and 170 Krad
samples are 15 and 20% less tender than the 16-hour
cold—water soaked samples. Statistical analysis also
showed that the values for cans were not significantly
different either, in contrast with the corresponding

results from 16-hour cold-water soaking.

80

TABLE 22. Tendernessl, kg/100 g product, of irra—
diated and unirradiated navy beans, cold-water soaked 1..
hour (processed 30 min at 245°F)2, measured after 30 days
storage.

 

Dose, Krad

 

0 170

77.2 70.6

73.9 72.1

69.0 63.0

73.1 65.7

74.4 75.1

71.2 66.2

Mean 73.1 68.8

 

lThree cans at each dose, 2 100-g samples/can.

2All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.

Table 23 shows the rest of the results from this
experiment on 1 hour cold-water soaking. The drained
weights were less for the irradiated samples, but the
difference was not significant. The statistical analysis
also showed that the drained weight values between cans
were not significantly different. Table 23 shows the per-
cent fill and percent moisture after processing and storage
to also be less for the irradiated samples. However, the
percent moisture after soaking was greater for the irra—
diated samples. The trends for these above-mentioned
factors were similar to those of the l6-hour cold-water

soaked beans, but the individual values were less.

81

The general appearance of these beans soaked for 1 hour,
showed them to be cracked with no matting, but the sauce
was watery. It appears that the l—hour cold-water soak
method does not produce canned, navy beans with character-
istics as desirable as with the l6-hour cold-water soak.
TABLE 23. Pack characteristics of irradiated and
unirradiated navy beans. (Cold-water soaked 1 hr, 211x400

cans, processed 30 min at 2450Fl, measured after 30 days
storage.)

 

Dose, Krad

 

 

 

 

Characteristic 0 170
Drained weight, 220.0 214.0
g/can 228.0 229.0
238.0 226.0
Mean 228.7 223.2
Fill volume, %2 85 80
Moisture, %
after soaking 46.6 47.1
after storage2 67.3 66.8
1

A11 bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce a5 approximately the same time prior to processing.
Average of 3 cans.

f. Cold—water soak for 16 hours of "Hard Beans," and a

30 minute processing time at 2450F.

Table 24 shows the results of an experiment to soften
"hard" navy beans by use of irradiation, 16—hours, cold-

water soaking, and processing for 30 minutes at 245°F. The

 

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82

"hard" bean samples were received in cans from the Waters
Trading Company, N Richmond, Victoria, Australia with a
letter dated December 22, 1966. The beans were originally
Michigan navy beans. A moisture determination was made

on these beans Just prior to processing which showed them
to contain 12.00% moisture. After processing, the canned
beans were stored at approximately 72°F for 7 days prior
to examination. The beans irradiated at 170 Krad were
slightly more tender than the unirradiated product, how—
ever, this difference was not significant. When these
tenderness values were compared with others in which
l968-crop navy beans were irradiated and processed, they
showed a considerable difference. The "hard" beans were
twice as tough as the l968-crop beans and apparently
irradiation had little softening effect. The only tender-
ness values that were significantly different for these
"hard" beans were the ones between cans. Can 1 was signi-
ficantly less tender, at the 1% level of significance,

than cans 2 and 3.

Table 25 includes the drained weight results of the
canned "hard" beans. The irradiated samples had a lower
drained weight than the unirradiated samples. However,
these differences were not significant. Also, there was
no significant difference between the drained weight values
for cans. The "hard" bean values for drained weight, fill

volume, moisture content after soaking, and after processing

83

TABLE 24. Tendernessl, kg/100 g product, of irradiated
and unirradiated, "hard" navg beans, cold-water soaked 16 hrs
(processed 30 min at 2450F), measured after 7 days storage.

 

Dose, Krad

 

 

 

 

0 170
136.0 123.5
125.0 125.5
115.0 102.5
100.5 108.0
103.0 104.5
103.5 101.0
Mean 113.8 110.8
éThree cans at each dose, 2 lOO-g samples/can.

All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.

TABLE 25. Pack characteristics of irradiated and unirra—
diated, "hard" navy beans. (Cold-water soaked 16 hrs, 211x400
cans, processed 30 min at 2450Fl, measured after 7 days storage.)

 

Dose, Krad

 

 

 

Characteristic 0 170
Drained weight, 213.5 211.5
g/can 225.0 215.0
222.0 218.0
Mean 220.2 214.8

Fill volume, %2 83 83

Moisture, %

after soaking 52.8 52.6
after storage2 64.2 63.1

 

lAll bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce at approximately the same time prior to processing.
Average of 3 cans.

84

and storage were all lower than those values for the 1968-

crop beans (Table 13).

Sensory Evaluation

 

a. Flavor difference between irradiated and unirradiated,

processed navy beans, as evaluated by a sensory panel.

An untrained sensory panel, 15 members of the Food
Science Department of Michigan State University, was used
to determine if navy beans irradiated at 340 Krad had
a different flavor from the unirradiated navy beans. The
dose of 340 Krad was used because at this dose level the
beans had the same tenderness value as unirradiated beans
(Table 8). The purpose here was to eliminate the effect
of tenderness differences which might influence evaluation
of flavor differences. After irradiating the dry bean
samples, both the irradiated and unirradiated samples were
given the 16-hour cold—water soak, canned, processed at
2450F for 30 minutes, then stored 10 days at about 72oF.
Just prior to serving the beans to the sensory panel, the
beans were heated. A triangle difference test was used
and was given twice in succession to the same sensory
panel.

The results from the first triangle test showed that
9 out of the 15 panel members correctly identified the
different sample, while in the second test, only 8 members
correctly identified the different sample. Kramer's tables,

listed by Amerine, Pangborn, and Roessler (1965), was used

85

to determine the totals required for significance for
triangle tests for a normal distribution.

According to the Kramer tables, 9 out of 15 Judg—
ments must be correct for significance at the 5% level.
For 30 Judgments, 17 need to be correct for significant
differentiation at the 1% level. Thus, in the first
test the sensory panel could significantly differentiate
samples irradiated at 340 Krad, but could not for the
second test. When considering both tests together, the
results show that the sensory panel could differentiate
between different samples to the 1% level of significance.
When the total results were statistically evaluated by the
chi-square distribution, the results also showed that the
panel members could significantly differentiate the irra-
diated bean samples by flavor. These statistical analyses
point out the fact that this sensory panel could differ—
entiate the bean samples irradiated at 340 Krad, except
for the second test when evaluated by itself. It also
seemed that some of the people on the panel were more
sensitive than others in detecting the differences, be-
cause 7 members correctly selected the different sample
on both tests, while 5 members missed the correct sample
on both tests. It appeared that 340 Krad may be near the
threshold level for detection of irradiation differences

in canned navy beans.

86

b. Tenderness differences between irradiated and unirra-
diated, processed navy beans, as evaluated by a sensory

panel.

An untrained sensory panel of 16 members of the
Food Science Department of Michigan State University was
used to determine if irradiated navy beans were more tender
than unirradiated navy beans. Doses of 42 and 170 Krad
were used because the previous experiments showed them to
give the tenderest processed beans. In addition, it is
well below the 340 Krad dose that gave a different flavor
to the beans, as determined in the previous flavor evalua-
tion experiment. After irradiation, both the irradiated
and unirradiated samples were given the 16-hour cold-
water soak, canned, processed 30 minutes at 245OF, and
stored 10 days at approximately 72°F. Just prior to
serving the beans to the sensory panel, the beans were
heated. Two ranking tests were given in succession to
the same sensory panel, and the members were asked to rank
the 3 samples according to tenderness only with the most
tender sample given a rank of 1.

Table 26 gives the ranking totals for both tests.
These results were first statistically analyzed by using
the Kramer Ranking Tables listed by Amerine et_§;, (1965).
For 16 replicates and 3 samples, the Kramer Table values

for 5% level of significance are as follows:

87

25 = lowest insignificant rank sum, any treatment.

39 - highest insignificant rank sum, any treatment.
Only in the second test did the 170 Krad samples exceed
39, thus indicating that the sensory panel Judged this
as the tenderest sample. Amerine et_a1, (1965) mentioned,
however, that Kramer's method is not as accurate as the
method where W, the coefficient of concordance is cal-
culated. Thus, the ranking results for the 2 tests were
reanalyzed using the coefficient of concordance. The
data were arranged in an analysis of variance pattern,
and the statistic W calculated. The W value was then
tested for significance by use of the F-distribution.
Results of this statistical analysis on the ranking
totals for both tests show that the Judges do not exhibit
a noticeable degree of agreement in their ranking. Thus,
it appears that this sensory panel does not significantly
think the 170 Krad samples to be the tenderest.

TABLE 26. Ranking totals for tenderness of irra—

diated and unirradiated navy beans , for duplicate ranking
tests by a l6-member sensory panel, (Tenderest = l).

 

 

Dose, Krad

 

0 42 170
Banking Test 1 34 30 32
Ranking Test 2 26 30 40

 

1All samples were given the l6-hr cold-water soak,
canned, processed for 30 min at 245°F, and stored 10 days
prior to testing.

88

Table 27 gives the tenderness values, as measured
on the Instron, of samples of the navy beans used in the
ranking tests. These results show that the 42 and 170 Krad
samples were significantly more tender than the unirradiated
bean samples.

TABLE 27. Tendernessl, kg/lOO g product, of irra—

diated and unirradiated, navy beans, (cold-water soak, pro—
cessed 30 min at 2450F, stored 10 days).2a3

 

Dose, Krad

 

O 42 170

68.1 60.6 64.9

73.3 64.4 61.1

60.8 60.0 57.2

60.0 61.1 55.9

Mean 65.5 61.5 59.8

 

lTwo cans at each dose, 2 lOO-g samples/can.

2All bean samples were covered with the hot, sweetened
sauce a5 approximately the same time prior to processing.

Samples are from the same batch as those used for the
sensory panel, ranking tests for tenderness.

Chemical Analysis

 

a. Determination of protein loss from cold-water soaked

navy beans.

Preliminary tests on the soak water, in which navy
beans had been given a l6-hour cold-water soak, showed
increases in the refractive index for the bean samples

irradiated at 340 to 2700 Krad.v Soak water from samples

89

irradiated at 0, 42, 85, and 170 Krad showed no increases
in refractive index. The refractive index was measured by
an Abbw—56 Refractometer. Because of these results, a
more sensitive measure of possible leaching losses during
the soaking of beans irradiated at 170 Krad was deemed
necessary. Since navy beans contain a high percentage of
protein, (see Appendix D), a test for protein loss was
made.

Six samples each of the following were taken: dry
beans, beans given a l6-hour cold-water soak; and beans
given an irradiation dose of 170 Krad plus a l6—hour cold-
water soak. The 170 Krad dose and the l6-hour cold-water
soak was used, because the previous experiments showed
that navy beans treated in this manner yielded the tender-
est beans with irradiation. All bean samples were dried
to approximately 0% moisture by the method used for
moisture determinations. Afterwards, a KJeldahl nitrogen
determination for crude protein was made on the dried,
powdered bean samples. Table 28 lists the results of
this protein determination. It can be seen from the above
table that no significant quantity of protein was lost
because of the cold-water soaking, not even after the

bean samples were irradiated at 170 Krad.

90

TABLE 28. Protein, %/g product, of navy.beans given
different treatments (6 samples/treatment), determined by
KJeldahl nitrogen determination for crude protein.

 

 

 

Treatments
l6-hr cold- Irradiated at 170 Krads,
Untreated water soak l6—hr cold—water soak
25.75 26.00 25.56
25.75 26.00 26.00
25.75 25.56 25.55
25.75 25.56 25.56
26.19 25.94 26.19
26.13 25.69 26.13
Mean 25.89 25.79 25.83

 

b. Determination of starch loss from cold-water soaked

navy beans.

An analysis for the presence of starch in the soak—
water, after giving navy beans the cold-water soak for
16 hours, was also made. Navy beans contain a large per—
centage of carbohydrate, in addition to protein, so it
seems probable that starch may also be leached out into
the soak water. To detect the presence of soluble starch
in the soak water, the Blue Value Index method was used,
as described by Palnitkar (1967), and Cording, Sullivan,
and Eskew (1959).

Again, samples of navy beans were irradiated at 170
Krad to be tested. The 300-g bean samples were soaked in
artificially hardened water (CaSOu), for 16 hours at

approximately 36oF. Two irradiated samples and 2

91

unirradiated bean samples were soaked separately in 4 times
their weight of the water. After the soaking period, the
beans were disposed of, and the soak water tested. In
addition to this, 3 prepared starch solutions were also
tested. These solutions were prepared with soluble potato
starch to the following approximate concentrations: 0.1,
0.2, and 0.5% by weight. The artificially prepared starch
solutions were used to test the effectiveness of the
iodine solution. Table 29 lists the absorbance readings
recorded from the test solutions. As seen from the table,
no soluble starch was detected in the soak water from
either the 170 Krad irradiated or unirradiated navy beans.
TABLE 29. Absorbance readings from a Spectronic 20
Colorimeter of prepared starch solutions, and of soak water

used to soak irradiated and unirradiated navy beans 16 hrs
at 36oF (2 samples tested per solution).

 

 

Prepared starch Soak water
solutions from irradiated beans (Krads)

0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0 0 170 170

.0132 .0132 .0555 0 0 0 0

.0155 .0132 .0655 0 0 0 0

 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The overall obJective of this research was to deter-
mine whether irradiation of raw, dry navy beans, prior to
soaking and processing, would aid in producing a more tender
product. Different radiation doses and soaking methods
were examined in searching for the best procedure for
radiation tenderization.

Using a l6-hour, cold—water (36°F) soak, irradiation
doses up to 250 Krad increased the tenderness of the pro—
cessed product about 10% over the unirradiated beans, with
the maximum occurring in the range of 170 to 250 Krad. At
doses from 340 to 2700 Krad the beans were less tender.

With a 1—hour, hot-water (180°F) soak, increasing
the irradiation doses resulted in decreasing tenderness
compared to unirradiated beans, and at 170 Krad the tender—
ness was reduced about 7%.

Hot-water soaked beans, whether irradiated or not,
were more tender than cold-water soaked beans, averaging
approximately 27% more tender (Figure 11).

Certain processing details seemed to be the source
of variation, especially in the tenderness of the finished

product, and particularly when the beans were given the

92

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94

cold—water soak. The most pronounced variation found in
these experiments was that among the different cans of
beans presumably treated alike. Actually, the term "cans
of beans" is an incomplete description. In each of the
experiments, the bean cans were filled with beans directly
from the soaking containers. That is, the beans placed
into can 1 always came from the top layer of the soaking
container; can 2 was filled from the middle layer of beans;
and can 3 was always filled from the bottom layer of beans
in the soaking container. Thus, instead of the term "cans
of beans," this perhaps should also be described as "layers
of beans." Statistical analysis of the tenderness results
of processed navy beans, previously given the cold-water
soak, showed the "cans" (or "layers") to be significantly
different; this result contradicts that of Bigelow and
Fitzgerald (1918). However, there was no layer effect if
the beans had previously been given the hot—water soak.

The beans given the cold—water soak generally had the most
tender samples from can 3 (the bottom soak layer); this
tenderness decreased with cans 2 and 1 (the middle and top
soak layers). A possible explanation for this phenomenon
might be that the beans in the bottom soaking layers may
be compressed so much that in trying to expand in size
while absorbing water, some tissue breakdown may occur.
Thus, these beans should be more tender than those from the

top soaking layer, which is under very little compression.

95

Another possible cause of the variations found in
the canned beans may be due to the length of time they sat
covered with hot, sweetened sauce, or to the temperature of
the canned beans Just prior to processing. It was found
that statistically, the differences among cans of beans
(layers) similarly treated were larger when covered with
the hot sauce and each can sealed in succession, than when
all were covered at approximately the same time and the
cans not sealed until all were filled. The time difference
(successively filling and sealing) between the first can
and the last can, in each experiment, was approximately
30 to 35 minutes. The temperature difference between
these cans of beans (first to last) was 18°F on the
average. The tenderness results between the beans from
these cans varied from 2 to 6 kg per 100 g product. These
differences between cans (layers) of beans also appeared
in the drained weights. No significant differences among
layers were found when the cold—water soaked beans were
covered with hot sauce all at approximately the same time.

Canned navy beans were also changed by radiation and
soaking method in other characteristics than those men-
tioned above. At the higher doses of irradiation (680—
2700 Krad) the canned beans became less cracked in appear-
ance, but had white particles of material in the sauce and
adhering to the beans. After soaking, the beans previously
exposed to higher doses of radiation had higher moisture

content. Just the opposite effect occurred after processing

96

and storage, and the fill volume in the cans also decreased
with increasing irradiation dose. Thus, with these high
doses, slack fills in the cans would be one of the several
processing problems introduced.

The hot—water soaking method used also caused
differences compared to the l6—hour cold-water soak. No
significant difference was found for the tenderness values
for cans or layers, or between experiments using the hot-
water soak. This result could possibly be explained by
the fact that the beans soaked only 1 hour instead of 16
hours in cold water. The lower layers of beans would be
compressed for a much shorter time with hot-water soak-
ing. However, hot-water soaking has a detrimental effect;
the moisture content after soaking was about 11% less
than the cold-water soaked samples. Thus, if the same
fill-in weight was used per can, more bean solids would
be used, making it more expensive. However, after pro-
cessing and storage, the hot—water soaked beans had
approximately 3% more moisture, 20% higher drained weight,
and 11% greater can-fill by volume. The general appearance
of these beans was similar to the cold-water soaked beans.

Other investigations on the beans canned in these
experiments uncovered the following information. When a
sensory panel was used to detect flavor and tenderness
differences in irradiated navy beans, after cold-water

soaking, processing and storage, the following was noted:

97

l. The panel could detect a flavor difference
between unirradiated beans and those irra-
diated at 340 Krad (a = 5%).
2. The panel could not detect a tenderness
difference between unirradiated beans and
those irradiated at 42 and 170 Krad
(a = 5%).
Investigation of possible losses of protein and starch from
beans irradiated at 170 Krad, while soaking in cold water
for 16 hours, showed that no losses occurred. In comparing
the range of tenderness values from theSe experiments with
that from the commercial brands tested, a large difference
was noted. Although the different bean samples from each
individual brand had similar tenderness values, the mean
values between brands varied from 33.4 to 84.1 kg/100 g
product. This was an even greater range of values than
that obtained from the different soaking and irradiation
dose experiments.

The overall conclusion from all these results, point
out that canned navy beans, that were unirradiated, and
given a 1-hour hot—water soak prior to processing, yielded
a more desirable product than if irradiation and/or cold—
water soaking was used. Further research on the effects of
cold-water soaking is recommended, however, since this is
an economical method of rehydrating and tenderizing navy

beans.

98

Irradiation of dry beans in storage has been suggested
for insect disinfestation. Larson and Fisher (1938) discuss
the effects of insects (Acanthoscelides obtectus, (Say) and
Callosobruchus maculatus, (F) on beans in storage. Baker,
Taboada, and Wiant (1954) found success in controlling
insect infestation of dry beans by using irradiation from
a Van de Graaff electron accelerator. A dose of 42 Krad of
gamma irradiation could possibly be used for this purpose
without causing undesirable effects in the canned product.
Results from these experiments showed no significant diff-
erences between the unirradiated processed navy beans and

those irradiated at 42 Krad.

REFERENCES

Amerine, M. S., R. M. Pangborn, and E. B. Roessler. 1965.
Principles of Sensory Evaluation of Food. Academic
Press, New York.

Bakker-Arkema, F. W., C. L. Bedford, T. G. Hedrick, and
C. W. Hall. 1966. The development of a feasible
process for making instant precooked powders from
dry beans, peas and lentils. Agricultural
Engineering Dept. and Food Science Dept., Mich.
State Univ. ProJect 740.

Baker, V. H., O. Taboada, and D. E. Wiant. 1954. Some
effects of accelerated electrons or cathode rays
on certain insects and on the wheat and flour they
infest. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Qtr. Bul. 36, 448—461.

Bedford, C. L. 1968. Soaking beans for processing.
Personal communication.

Benne, E. J. 1969. KJeldahl nitrogen determination for
crude protein. Personal communication.

Bigelow, W. D., and F. F. Fitzgerald. 1918. Suggestions
for canning pork and beans. Bul. 15. Research
Laboratory, National Canners Association, Washington,
D. C.

Binder, L. J., and L. B. Rockland. 1964. Use of the
automatic recording shear press in cooking studies
of large dry lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus). Food
Technol. 18, 1071-1074. '—

Bourne, M. C., J. C. Moyer, and D. B. Hand. 1966.
Measurement of food texture by a universal testing
machine. Food Technol. 20, 170-174.

Burr, H. K., S. Kon, and H. J. Morris. 1968. Cooking rates
of dry beans as influenced by moisture content and
temperature and time of storage. Food Technol. 22,

335-338.

99

100

Continental Can Company, Inc. Undated a. The canning of
pork and beans. Canning Memorandum. Rev. No. 11.

Continental Can Company, Inc. Undated b. The canning of
dried kidney beans. Canning Memorandum. Rev. No. 5.

Cooperative Extension Service. 1968. Michigan dry edible
bean problems. Extension Bul. E-629. Mich. State
Univ.

Cording, J. Jr., I. F. Sullivan, and K. Eskew. 1959.
Potato flakes--A new form of dehydrated mashed
potatoes IV. Effects of cooling after processing.
USDA. ARS. 73-25.

Dawson, E. H., J. C. Lamb, E. W. Toepfer, and H. W.
Warren. 1952. Development of rapid methods of
soaking and cooking dry beans. Tech. Bul. 1051.
USDA. Washington, D. C.

Dennison, R. A. 1967. Fruit and Dry Product Irradiation
Processes. In: Radiation Preservation of Foods.
Advances in Chemistry Series 65. Am. Chem. Soc.
Washington, D. C., p. 155.

Doughty, Margaret B. Undated. Beans. Mich. State Univ.
Cooperative Extension Service Booklet. 48-5:
63—80 M-JH.

Evans, R. D. 1947. Radioactivity Units and Standards.
Nucleonics. 1, No. 2, 32-43.

Gloyer, W. O. 1928. Hardshell of beans: Its production
and prevention under storage conditions. Associa—
tion of Official Seed Analysts of North America.
Proceedings of the twentieth annual meetings,

pp- 52-55.

Hackler, L. R., R. L. LaBelle, K. H. Steinkraus, and D. B.
Hand. 1965. Effect of processing on the nutritional
quality of pea beans. 7th Research Conference on Dry
Beans. USDA. ARS., p. 37.

Hamad, N., and J. J. Powers. 1965. Imbibition and pectic

gontent on canned dry-line beans. Food Technol. 19,
L480

Hoff, J. E., and P. E. Nelson. 1965. An investigation of
accellerated water—uptake in dry pea beans. Research
Progress Report 211. Purdue Univ. Ag. Exp. Sta.

101

Kakade, M. L., and R. J. Evans. 1965. Nutritive value.of
different varieties of navy beans. Mich. Ag. Exp.
Sta. Qtr. Bul. 48, pp. 90-91.

Kon, S. 1968. Pectic substances of dry beans and their
possible correlation with cooking time. J. Food

s_c_i_. 33, 437-438.

Larson, A. 0., and C. K. Fisher. 1938. The bean weevil
and the southern cowpea weevil in California.
Tech. Bul. 593. USDA, Washington, D. C.

Makower, B., S. M. Chastain, and E. Nielson. 1946.
Moisture determination in dehydrated vegetables.
Vacuum oven method. Industrial and Engineering
Chem. 38, 725.

Markakis, P., R. C. Nicholas, and B. S. Schweigert. 1965.
Dry Navy Beans. Irradiation preservation of fresh—
water fish and inland fruits and vegetables.

Report No. COOl283-27. U. S. Atomic Energy Comm.
Contract No. (AT-ll-l)-l283, pp. 48-51.

Markakis, P., R. C. Nicholas, and B. S. Schweigert. 1966.
Dry Beans. Irradiation preservation of freshwater
fish and inland fruits and vegetables. Report No.
COOl283-40. U. S. Atomic Energy Comm. Contract
No. (AT-ll—l)—l283, pp. 51—52.

Morris, H. J., and E. R. Wood. 1956. Influence of
moisture content on keeping quality of dry beans.
Food Technol. 10, 225.

 

Muneta, P. 1964. The cooking time of dry beans after
extended storage. Food Technol. 18, 1240—1241.

National Canners Association. 1966. Processes for low—
acid canned foods in metal containers. Bul. 26-L.
Tenth Ed.

Palnitkar, Madhav. 1967. Drying of pea bean slurries in
a horizontal co-current spray dryer. Thesis.
Mich. State Univ.

Proctor, B. E., S. Davidson, 0. J. Malecki, and M. Welch.
1955. A recording strain-gage denture tenderometer
for foods. I. Instrument evaluation and initial
tests. Food Technol. 9, 471-475.

Production and Marketing Administration. 1947. U. S.
Standards for Grades of Canned Dried Beans. 2nd.
issue. USDA, Washington, D. C.

102

Powrie, W. D., and E. Lamberta. 1964. Nutritive value of
proteins in canned navy beans. Food Technol. 18,
111—113.

Rockland, L. B. 1965. Effects of hydration in salt
solutions on cooking rates of lima beans. 7th
Research Conference on Dry Beans. USDA. ARS, p. 44.

Schroeder, C. W. 1962. Dehydrating Vegetables. Patent
No. 3,025,171. U. S. Patent Office, Washington,
D. C.

Snyder, E. G. 1936. Some factors affecting the cooking
quality of the pea and Great Northern types of
dry beans. Nebr. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bul. 85.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1962. Radiation Quantities and
Units. National Bureau of Standards. Handboox
84. Washington, D. C.

U.S. Public Health Service. 1960. Radiological Health
Handbook, Washington, D. 0.

Watt, B. K., and A. L. Merrill. 1963. Composition of
Foods—-raw, processed, prepared. Ag. Handbook
No. 8. USDA, p. 71.

APPENDIX A

Flow diagram for the canning of pork and beans
(Continental Can Company, undated a, p. 14)

 

DICED PORK

 

 

 

 

 

DRIED BEANS

l

CLEANING

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSPECTING

 

 

 

SOAKING

 

 

 

 

 

DESTONING

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SAUCE INGREDIENTS

 

 

1

MIXING

 

 

 

 

 

 

BLANCHING

L

WASHING

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INSPECTING

l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EMPTY CANS_A

 

 

 

 

 

HEATING

 

 

 

 

 

FILLING

 

 

 

CLOSING

 

 

 

 

 

 

CAN WASHING

 

 

 

FILLED CAN WASHING

 

 

J

PROCESSING

 

 

 

 

 

 

COOLING

CASING

 

 

 

 

 

 

103

"— .-,'"——_‘

APPENDIX B

Suggested sauce formulas for canned pork and beans
(Continental Can Company, undated a, p. 3)

Tomato Sauce

 

Tomato Pulp (1.045 sp. g.)
Sugar, White

Corn Syrup (Commercial)
Salt

Starch

Onion Powder

Garlic Powder

Pepper

Mustard

Paprica

Cinnamon

Cloves

Mace

Vinegar, 5%

Water, Quantity sufficient to make

Plain (Sweetened) Sauce

Sugar, White

Sugar, Brown

Corn Syrup (Commercial)

Salt

Starch

Onion Powder

Garlic Powder

Pepper

Mustard

Water, Quantity sufficient to make

104

12-

20
20

15 gal.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
ozs.
oz.

3-1/2 oz.
8 oz.

1

lb.

2/3 oz.
2/3 oz.

1
2

OZ.
qt.

100 gal.

30
25
20
20

lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
oz.

oz.

3-1/2 oz.
8 oz.

100

gal.

APPENDIX C

Processes suggested for dried beans in 4 ranges of sauce formulation
(National Canners Associaticn, 1966)

Beans in Heavy Sauce, with or without porkJ or baked beans

 

initial

 

Dimen— tempcr- Time at
Can Name Siufld azure“ thou F. ZHQO F. 2500 F.

{1(J6c 1". Min. Min. 1.41,].

No. 1 (Picnic) 211 x 400 .00 75 65 55
140 70 60 BO

180 60 50 45

Kitchenette ;07 x 314 100 80 70 6)
119 75 65 60

L J CL) ‘35 )6

No. 300 '00 x '37 1.0 90 80 70
1 U :10 70 (J1)

;30 7O 60 30

10:. 303 50% x 40L 100 95 85 7b
140 85 75 95

L J 7L/ 65 A)‘

No. 30; Cylinder 3&3 / *07 ) l.) 100 90 80
NC 1‘ 70

Jumbo 3‘ r ' J 1 1,- 17‘ 100 )0
i‘O. 2 Cylifider 31! I 4 A I ‘1‘) 3U Eff!
) A J :J 7‘) 4‘

NO. 2‘1: 11721 ' ‘ l .1 i)” ll"; 1 I
c i") 11:, 100 1‘

L ‘1 '[1 ‘35 JI

Na. 10 603 x 70“ 1:0 235 215 :00

1?) £10 190 17n

Bean

"3

s, with 0 without park, in tomato suice containing no added starch and
10 to 20 gallons of tomato puLp (l.055 Sp. gr.) per 100 gallons sauce

No. 2§ & smaller '01 x 411 ) lbs-100 65 45 35
s

No. 10 603 x 700 luv—140 100 75 SD

ieans, with or wi,hnut pork, in tomato sauce containing no added starch and
10 gallons or less of tomato puip (1.04% sp. gr.) per 100 gallons sauce

No. 2; & smaller 401 x 411 ) 100-140 45 3o 20
& smaller )

R.

m
an
e

No. 10 603 x 700 1&0—140 70

”Initial temperature is the average temperature cf can contents at the time the
steam is turned on for the process.

1135

APPENDIX D

Composition of raw, dry, white beans
(Watt and Merrill, 1963)

 

1 pound 100 grams
Food energy, Cal 1542 340
Protein, g 101.2 22.3
Fat, g 7.3 1.6
Carbohydrate, g 278.1 61.3
Calcium, mg 653 144
Phosphorus, mg 1928 425
Iron, mg 35.4 7.8
Sodium, mg 86 19
Potassium, mg 5425 1196
Vitamin A, IU 0 0
Thiamine, mg 2.96 0.65
Riboflavin, mg 1.02 0.22
Niacin, mg 10.80 2.38

Ascorbic acid —_— -_

106

APPENDIX E

Analysis of variance of tenderness values From Table 12.

 

Source D. Mean square Fl
Dose, D 3 114.6 6.5**
Experiments, E 1 94.9 5.4*
Cans, c 2 77.1 4.4*
Interactions:

D X E 3 7 41 2.8

D X C 6 32.1 12.1**

E X C 2 6.78 2.6

D X E X C 6 11.5 4.3**
Error 24 2.65 --—

 

lInteractions used to test main effects.

Analysis of variance of drained weight values from Table 13.

 

 

Source D.F. Mean square Fl
Dose, D 3 83.9 7.2**
Experiments, E 1 263.3 22.6**
Cans, C 2 25.8 2.2
Interactions:

D X E 3 7.15 0.71

D X C 6 18.7 1.9

E X C 2 1.97 0.20

D X E X C (Error) 6 10.1 --—

l

107

Interactions used to test main effects.

APPENDIX F

Analysis of variance of tenderness values from Table 15.

 

Source D.F. Mean square Fl
Dose, D 3 42.0 ll.l**
Experiments, E l 5.81 1.5
Cans, C 2 4.86 1.3
Interactions:

D X E 3 7.49 3.7*

D X C 6 5.06 2.5*

E x c 2 0.99 0.49

D X E X C 6 1.60 0.79
Error 24 2.02 ———

 

lInteractions used to test main effects.

Analysis of variance of drained weight values from Table 16.

 

 

Source D.F. Mean square Fl
Dose, D 3 482.5 482.5 38.9**
Experiments, E 1 184.3 l4.9**
Cans, C 2 91.3 7.4**
Interactions:

D X E 3 9.98 2.1

D X C 6 16.1 3.3

E X C 2 27.6 5 7*

D X E X C (Error) 6 4.8 --—
l

Interactions used to test main effects.

108