W K. W 1 \ \Ktlulk‘dflfl t l _—’_ .l— — _____’__ __—_’__. __—.—’ ’ I - (—a é] — ‘— __’—— — #4 __J—— __’__._ __f—— (4—,- \ ‘ MM Hog—x Ito-b CID—‘01 3:5; I 22%: . ERLE“? {3i L ”S E aQ‘L"\L§: 313.43. E‘L’aF‘S'flL‘N {2'}! 56.3}? an) 5"" itiiECoi‘é $13134 STA‘E'E mxzmn‘v LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT THE PERCEPTI N OF VIOLENCE AS A FUNCTION OF AGE AND SEX This study was undertaken to explore the differential effects of sex role socialization on the perception of vio- lence, and the relation between age and violence perception. Since girls learn to be less overtly aggressive than boys, they should perceive less violence than boys; and since social-role learning is a gradual process, there should be a relation between age and violence perception. Perception of violence was measured in the binocular rivalry situation with a modified stereOSCOpe. A "violent" picture was tachistosc0pically presented to one eye simul- taneously with a "non-violent" picture shown to the other. Six such pairs of slides were shown twice in random order to each subject. The "violence” score for each subject was based on the number of violent pictures seen in this bino- cular rivalry situation. Subjects were fifteen males and fifteen females from each the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, and llth grades, and college freshmen. Results confirmed both hypotheses. Males perceived significantly more violence, and the increase of violence perception was linearly related to age in both sexes. Cl ll May/“7L TIE PERCEPTION OF VIOLENCE AS A FUNCTION OF AGE AND SEX By :flfi' ‘f 1' . I 'w’ I Marv“Moore A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 196h C7 'AK‘;‘&5>_€‘O ~12; | 13 Lost TABLE INTRODUCTION . . . . . . PROCEDURE . . . . . . . RESULTS . . . . . . . . DISCUSSI N . . . . . . . SUP-IMARY . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . APPENDIX I . . . . . . . APPENDIX II . . . . . . OF CONTENTS Page 13 16 19 20 22 23 Table 1. Summary Analysis of Variance of Transformed LIST OF TABLES Violence Scores for Both Sexes Test for Linear Trend in Males Test for Linear Trend in Females Stereogram pair number 1 used in the 2. 3. Figure l. EXperiment . . 2. The Perception of Violence as a Function of Age and Sex LIST OF FIGURES (graph) Page . 13 . 15 . 15 Page . 10 0 1L} ACKNOWLEDGNENTS The author wishes to eXpress his gratitude to the members of his thesis committee for the time and labor they so willingly gave him in the completion of this study. To Dr. Charles Hanley, Chairman of the committee, Dr. Bertram Karon, and Dr. Paul Bakan, go many thanks for making this study a worthwhile learning eXperience. In addition, the author wishes to thank Dr. Hans Toch for the use of his Engel stereosc0pe--without which the study could not have been attempted. The object of this study is twofold: to compare the relative effects of sex role socialization on the percep- tion of Violence, and to eXplore the perception of violence as a function of age. Violence perception is measured in the binocular rivalry situation with an Engel (1958) stereo- SCOpe. Binocular rivalry exists when a subject encounters two visual fields simultaneously presented one to each eye. Rivalry occurs as a reSponse to one or the other of the com- peting visual fields, and to only one at a time. Binocular fusion is a unitary response to the combination of the two fields (Woodworth and Schlossberg, 1954). Scientists studying binocular processes were not the only persons interested in the stereOSCOpe; thus Toch (1961) writes: Long before the advent of television, a small, innocent looking ineXpensive device consisting of two prisms, a movable slide holder and a long wooden shaft, served the same purpose as does the Magic Screen today. Our grandparents might even have legi- timately worried about the "influence of the stereo- SCOpe on children," because many youngsters of two generations or so ago Spent long hours watching in fascination as two seemingly identical pictures-- one viewed with the left eye and the other with the right--appeared to merge into a convincingly three- dimensional landscape or bridge or building or Sparse- ly attired girl. Of course, a close examination would reveal that the two pictures in the stereosc0pe were not really completely identical, but that one is slightly shifted in relation to the other. In this fashion, the stereosc0pe dUplicated the process whereby we ordinarily attain perspective by combining the slightly different "flat" images obtained by the left and right eyes. C And further adds: The same stereOSCOpe which amused our progenitors by creating three dimensions out of two has recently made a comeback in a different role--as a psycholog- ical research tool. We have discovered that we can use the stereOSCOpe for-~amoung other things--guading the impact of past eXperience or personal needs on perception. Several recent eXperimenters have simultaneously pre- sented meaningful figures to both eyes in the prism stereo- sc0pe. Work of this sort started a decade ago with a se- ries of eXperiments by Edward Engel. In one study Engel (1956) found that a more familiar figure (an upright face) will predominate in binocular rivalry over a less familiar figure (an inverted face). In another study, Engel (1958) used a pair of photographs of two different peOple; he placed one photo in one frame of the stereOSCOpe and the second in the other frame. The two faces were similar in size and position of facial features, and stimulated ap- proximately corresponding points on the two retinas. Ex- cellent fusion of the two dissimilar faces was obtained in this situation. Engel found several individual differences in the binocular outcome of his eXperimental situation: "weighting" of one face over the other, left- or right- eye dominant responses, blending or fusion with neither face dominating, or vertical overlapping and/or superim- position of the two distinct faces. The "binocular face" was "usually reported as more attractive than either of the monocular faces" (1958, p. 55). Instead of using photographs, Hastorf and Myro (1959) presented their subjects with postage stamps (faces of George and Martha Washington, and John Adams). The pairs of stamps in the stereOSCOpe were seen in the same manner as Engel's slides--upright vs. inverted and two dissimilar faces--and the results confirmed all of Engel's findings. Engel's studies have led to a variety of other eXper- iments using the stereOSCOpe technique. Beloff and Beloff (1959) found that when persons construct a "composite" (fused) face out of two different photographs, the result is most pleasing to them when one of the pictures is their own. This nicely supplements Engel's finding regarding the attractiveness of the "binocular face." Precautions were taken to dismiss from the study any subject who rec- ognized his own picture in the eXperimental situation. In a cross-cultural study, Bagby (1957) paired a typ- ically "Mexican" scene (such as_a bullfight) with a com- parable "American" scene (such as a baseball game) and presented the pairs stereOSCOpically to Mexican and Amer- ican subjects. Cultural familiarity seemed to determine the slide a subject saw; Mexicans tended to see the Mex— ican pictures, while Americans more often reported the American scenes. The explanation Bagby offers is that: . . .the Transactional school. . .regards per- ception as being fundamentally determined by previous, rather than present eXperience. . .the role of mean- ing is accorded a central position in the perceptual processes. . .Thus, in the binocular rivalry situ- ation, those impingements possessing a more immediate first-person meaning would be ex ected to predominate in preceptual awareness (p. 334.'" Pettigrew, Allport, and Barnett (1958) used the stereo- sc0pe to investigate racial prejudice and identification in South Africa. Different photographs of both sexes and every ethnic group in South Africa (four in all) consti- tuted the stereograms. The stimuli appeared in counter- balanced order, each observer seeing each possible pair- ing of the two-sex, four-race photos. The authors found that: 1. When the stereogram pair consisted of two differ- ent persons of the same ethnic grOUp (and sex), subjects most accurately identified members of their own group, and that 2. When the stereogram pair consisted of two persons of different ethnic groups, highly "prejudiced" subjects (Afrikaans-Speaking EurOpeans) more often failed to fuse the pair, while less prejudiced subjects (the other ethnic groups) more oftenfhsed the racially mixed slides. The Afrikaans-Speaking whites were considered moat 'pre- judiced" on prima facie grounds: To maintain white supremacy it seems functionally useful for EurOpeans to regard all non-EurOpeans as "blacks," since in this direction the ”menace" lies. Intermediate perceptions (fusions) would, so to Speak, simply distract one from the main racial threat. In view of the more intense convictions of Afrikaners (on the average) in favor or white supremacy it comes as no surprise that their tendency toward perceptual bifurcation is more marked. . .(1958, p. 278). Reynolds (1962) also studied prejudice with the stereo- SCOpe with white American subjects. He divided subjects into "high" and "low" prejudice groups according their scores on a modified Adorno Ethnocentricism scale. Contrary to Pettigrew, Alport, and Barnett's (1958) finding, Reynolds reported no significant differences between "high" and "low prejudiced" subjects in the number of times they fused or failed to fuse a negro and a white face in the stereosc0pe. Toch and Schulte (1961) presented a "violent" stereo- gram to one eye and a "non-violent" stereogram to the other. Subjects with three years of Police Administration training saw significantly more of the violent scenes than a group of liberal arts students and a group just entering the police training program. Rather than believe the persons di5posed toward violence enter Police Administration, the authors suggest that readiness to preceive is in some man- ner a function of training. While violent scenes are un- usual for most peOple, they become familiar to advanced Police Administration students. Toch and Schulte note: . . .familiar meaning connotations determine perception under non-Optimal conditions. . .A momen- tary exposure of rival fields in a stereOSCOpe pre- sents a perceptual task in which one set of meaning must be elaborated at the eXpense of another. If the fields are mutually exclusive (so that they can- not "fuse," and if neither field exerts itself through structural advantages. . .familiarity clearly becomes the only remaining basis of choice." (p. 392). Shelly and Toch (1962) investigated readiness to per- ceive violence in a grOUp of youthful offenders and found I! a widely varying distribution of scores of perceived vi- olent" scenes. The elevensubjects who saw the most vi- olence were matched with a group of low and normal scorers of the same age and race. Over a period of several weeks seven out of the eleven ”high violence" perceivers did not make satisfactory adjustment to the detention camp life (two boys "walked away" from the camp--a relatively rare occurence; five others were transferred to prison or re- formatory because of disciplinary reasons). Only one of the control subjects failed to make an adequate adjust- ment during this time. The authors concluded that the tendency to perceive a relatively great amount of vio- lence in the stereOSCOpe may be diagnostic of a tendency to behave in a troublesome manner. Berg and Toch (1962) presented inmates with pictures featuring drives other than aggression (violence), such as oral and sexual satisfaction; each pair of stereosc0pe slides contained a blatant and "socialized" form of the drive being expressed. Berg and Toch confirmed Shelly and Toch's use of the stereOSCOpe as a diagnostic indi- cator of impulsive behavior; and they were also able to discriminate between inmates previously classified as Vimpulsive" or "neurotic" on personality measures. Im- pulsive inmates saw significantly more slides with bla- tant drive eXpression than did neurotic prisoners. The authors suggest that their research explored "two posi- tions along a perceptual dimension which ranges from 'extremely socialized' and 'controlled' through ’com- pletely unsocialized' or 'weakly controlled' (1962, p. 15)." The perceptual score, in other words, reflects the extent to which impulses assert themselves in the subjects. The studies described above tested implications of the general hypothesis that Specific past experience vauired under particular conditions or training sen- sitize a person to related content in the binocular ri- valry situation. The present study investigates in the binocular rivalry situation: 1. the effects of differential socialization of the sexes on the perception of violence, and 2. the relation of age to the perception of violence. Clearly, males and females in Western culture learn different and specified roles. Broom and Selsnick (1955) state, for example, that "all societies distinguish bet- ween the roles of men and women. In Western society. . . the female is regarded as non-agressive and passive, the male as aggressive and active." Interesting evidence for the assertion that American males are more aggressive and active is given by MacFarlane et. al. (1954) in an intensive develOpmental study on the frequency of behavior problems of normal children. MacFarlane and her associates found that consistently larger percentages of boys than girls between the ages of seven and fourteen scored higher on the frequency of the following problems: overactivity, destructiveness, selfishness in sharing, ex- cessive demands for attention, negativism, and the number V of temper tantrums; likewise boys scored consistently lower in frequency of excessive emotional dependence, shyness, and physical timidity. One can conclude from MacFarlane's data that males are, indeed, more active and less inhibited than females in the expression of aggression. Furthermore, the socialization of sex roles is a grad- ual and continual process from childhood to adulthood; the American youngster does not learn the social eXpression of his drives in a day. It then follows that sex role training should sensitize a person to related content in the bi- nocular rivalry situation, and that the amount of sensi- tization should vary in some way with age. This study is therefore an investigation of the following two hypotheses regarding the perception of violence. Hypothesis 1 When presented with a paired series of violent/ non-violent stereograms in the binocular rivalry sit- uation, males will see more of the violent slides than females of the same age. Hypothesis 2 When presented with a paired series of violent/ non-violent stereograms in the binocular rivalry sit- uation, different age grOUps will perceive different amounts of violence. \O PROCEDURE Subje2£§_ The subjects came from two sources. From three schools in the Waverly School District (a middle class suburban area near Lansing, Michigan) fifteen boys and fifteen girls were drawn from five grades (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, and llth--ages 8, 10, 12, IQ, 16 respectively); fifteen males and fifteen females were obtained from 18 year old Freshmen enrolled in Introductory Psychology classes at Michigan State University. Apparatus The apparatus was a modified stereOSCOpe designed by Engel (1956). In the present eXperiemnt light intensity was maintained at .2 candles/ft.2 in both fields. An inter- val timer attached to the stereOSCOpe permitted control of the eXposure time of stimulus figures, 15 seconds eXposures being used throughout the Study. Stimulus Figures Toch and Schulte's (1961) pairs of slides were used. Each "violent" slide was matched with a "non-violent" slide correSponding to it in size and outline, and covering rough- ly the same part of the visual field. Content of the stereo- gram pairs was as follows: Mailman - knifed man. Man with suitcase — hanged man. Farmer pushing plow - man with gun standing over dead person. . Nan standing at micrOphone - man shooting self in head. Man at drill press - man knifing another man. . Man showing another man a picture - man shooting another man. 5' \ohaH O\U\ 10 See Figure l for an example. Figure l. Stereogram pair number 1 used in this eXperiment. EXperimental Procedure Subjects of both sexes in all six groups saw the six pairs of violent/non-violent slides twice. On the second viewing the slide presented first on the right Side was changed to the left, and vice versa. Since Toch (1961) has Shown that eye dominance is present in most subjects and that it apparently cannot be changed or trained, re- versing the right-left position on the second showing con- trols for eye dominance. Thus each eye was eXposed to all the possible figures. Order of presentation was randomized for SEER subject to control for any series effects. One might question whether the subjects reported what they actually saw. As a check on the veridicality of the subjects' reSponses, a pair of "lie slides" (two identical pictures of blatant violence) was presented after the twelve pairs of violent/non-violent slides. If subjects do not faithfully report their perceptions, they should give a non-violent description of the violent scene. Only a few subjects in all age groups failed to give an accurate ~ 11 description of the "lie slides"; their scores were not used in the analysis. Before showing the slides to a subject the eXperimenter adjusted the slide holder for Optimal fusion. Subjects who needed glasses wore them. The eXperimenter dismissed a few subjects who had forgotten their glasses, as well as subjects who planned to obtain glasses because of a known visual prob- lem. After adjusting the stereOSCOpe for Optimal fusion, the eXperimenter gave subjects the following instructions: When I put the tOp down look into the eyepiece with both eyes Open. You will see a picture flash on for a very short time. After you see the picture look away from the eyepiece, then tell me all you can about each picture; describe whatever you see. There are no wrong answers. If at any point an inattentive subject stated that a pair of Slides "just didn’t make sense," he was told to "look care- fully" and allowed a second trial. This seldom happened. Verbatim reSponses were scored according to the stand- ards below; Slide 1 is used for the example in every scor— ing category:, POINTS DESCRIPTION 2 Clearly the violent stereogram is described by the subject. e.g. "A man with a knife in his back." 1 Fusion is described with a sensible percept including violent content (a compromise re- Sponse). e.g. "A mailman with a knife in his back.” 1 Clearly the violent stereogram is described but not in violent terms (a compromise re- Sponse). e.g. “A man with arms out in front and a stick out the back." POINTS DESCRIPTION 0 Clearly the non-violent stereogram is des- cribed by the subject. e.g. "A mailman with pouch and letter in his hand." 0 Fusion is described with a sensible or in- comprehensible percept but not including violent content. e.g. "A man running with his arms going in all directions." Thus a subject could obtain a score from O (violence never reported) to 2” (violent slide reported on all 12 trials). In fact, actual scores ranged from O to 11. Since the data being analyzed was judgments of S's reSponses rather than 3'5 actual perceptions, the study has to reckon with the problem of scorer reliability. Two persons independently scored all reSponses; Pearson r be- tween their scores was .98. 13 RESULTS All subjects received a "violence" score according to the standards given above. These raw scores were trans- formed logrithmically (base 10) to get rid of the corre- lation between grade means and variances.1 Figure 2 shows the mean violence scores for each grade tested. There is clearly a difference between sexes at every grade; the amount of violence perceived increases for both sexes as age increases. Summary Analysis of Variance results with transformed scores appear in Table 1.2 Table 2 and 3 show trend anal- yses for the sexes. A first order equation fits the means for both sexes; that is, the linear trend is significant at the .01 level. Thus, the develOpmental change bearing on Hypothesis 2 is, indeed, simple and clearcut; with age comes a linear increase in perception of violence. Table 1. Analysis of Variance of Transformed Scores. SUM OF MEAN SOURCE d.f. SQUARES SQUARE F RATIO p Grades 5 2.5303 .5060 6.8010 ‘<.01 Sex 1 1.1881 .05u2 15.9690 <;01 Grades x Sex 5 .1371 .0274 .3682 >.25 Within 168 12.5015 .07UU Total 189 16.3570 l . . . Means and variances for raw scores are in Appendix I; means and variances for transformed scores are in Appendix II. 2Use of raw scores gives the same results. 1h .omn use New mo nonaozzh m we cocoaoub mo :owumoonom one .N onamfih mounnw :oESOOAh cation 53 Sum a: new tum i.. mm4¢ZMH mmddz mouoom OOCOHOH> UOBAOMmEOAB OHMOH ado: Table 2. SOURCE d.f. Grades 5 Linear regression (1) Deviations (4) Within 8b Total 89 Table 3. SOURCE d.f. Grades 5 Linear regression (1) Deviations (b) Within 8h Total 89 Test for Linear Trend SUM OF SQUARES 1.u3ue 7.5905 SUM OF SQUARES 1.2325 1.0639 .1686 6.3A55 7.5781 in Males. NBA)? SQUARE Test for Linear Trend in Females. MEAN SQUARE .2465 1.0639 .0b22 .0755 F. RATIO 3.92 14.78h2 1.2030 F. RATIO 3.26 13.0913 .5589 15 (.01 (.01 >.25 (.01 (.01 )525 In the binocular rivalry situation the oldest subjects fuse the two dissimilar stereograms as often as the youngest ones. on the number of fusions scored "0"; cant difference. All Freshmen and third grade subjects were compared There was no signifi- 16 DISCUSSION Both eXperimental hypotheses were confirmed. In the binocular rivalry situation males perceived significantly more violence than females over the grades sampled (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, llth, and Freshmen), and the increase in violence perception was demonstrated by statistically significant linear trends for both sexes. Let us now eXplore possible eXplanations for these results. If we present one picture to a person's left eye, and another to his right, for a very short time--just long enough for him to see one picture clearly-~he will perceive Picture A (violent content), Picture B (non-violent content), or Picture AB (a fusion with either violent or non-violent content predominating). Why then, under these circumstan- ces do the males in this GXperiment consistently report more percepts with predominantly violent content? We may assume that something in the males' perceptual orientation toward the world makes him relatively more reSponsive than females to stimuli of violent content. One eXplanation for this "something" may be that fewer defensive inhibitions are given by boysi sex role training than by girls'-—inhibitions which usually protect against perception of material including hostile, anti-social im- pulses. Advocates of this "perceptual defense" position could well point to the fact that no subjects reported see- ing even half of the twelve possible violence slides. 17 However, the data can lead to another eXplanation. Most middle class Americans of both sexes are infrequently eXposed to extreme anti-social conduct. "AS a consequence, most peOple may have come to assign a low probability to Open violence in their eXpectation of reality. They may have formed the conception that violence is unusual, whereas more routinely eXperienced themes are likely to recur. In ambiguous situations (e the perceptual eXperiments dis- cussed in the introduction of this paper) such prognoses become relevant. Given a choice of interpretation (in the binocular rivalry situation), the most commonly eXperienced occurence becomes the best 'bet'" (Toch and Schulte, p. 392, 1961). In other words, relative familiarity with violence is the major determinant in resolving the binocular rivalry Likewise, a familiarity hypothesis also eXplains the consistent sex differences found in this study. No matter how frequently males and females are eXposed to extreme violence or portrayals of such, it is socially more accept- able for males to be "familiar" with violence than for fe— males. That is, overt hostility and aggression are more a part of the role "being a boy" than the role "being a girl." Now consider the develOpmental trends. Why under the circumstances of this eXperiment does perception of violence regularly increase as a function of age in both sexes? We already know that violence perception over a period of time can sometimes make persons sensitive to situations they must 18 know about to function effectively. In the study by Toch and Schulte (1961) subjects with three years of Police Ad- ministration training saw significantly more violent slides than a matched group of liberal arts students and a group of students just entering the police training program. If the relatively short but emphatic contact with extreme violence during the police training prOgram can increase violence per- ception, the less frequent but cumulative contact with violence which the average middle class American has over a longer period of time should have the same effect. "Contact with violence" may be actual or via portrayals such as movies, television, and comic books present. No matter how fre- quently most persons encounter extreme violence (in any form), it is logical to conclude that they will each year be more familiar with violence than at the end of the pre- vious year. Familiarity with violence seems to be the simplest eXplanation. 19 SU Bil-IARY This study was undertaken to eXplore the differential effects of sex role socialization on the perception of vio- lence, and the relation between age and violence perception. Since girls learn to be less overtly aggressive than boys, they should perceive less violence than boys; and since social-role learning is a gradual process, there should be a relation between age and violence perception. Perception of violence was measured in the binocular rivalry situation with a modified stereosc0pe. A I"violent" picture was tachistosc0pically presented to one eye simul- taneously with a "non-violent" picture shown to the other. Six such pairs of slides were shown twice in random order to each subject. The "violence" score for each subject was based on the number of violent pictures seen in this bino- cular rivalry Situation. Subjects were fifteen males and fifteen females from each the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, and llth grades, and college Freshmen. I Results confirmed both hypotheses. Males perceived significantly more violence, and the increase of violence perception was linearly related to age in both sexes. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allport, F., Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, New York: Wiley, 1955. Bagby, J., "A Cross-cultural Study of Perceptual Predominance in Binocular Rivalry," J. Abnorm. SOC. PSYChop 19599 5n: 33‘3”. Beloff, H., and Beloff, J., "Unconscious Self-evaluation Using a StereOSCOpe," J. Abnorm. Soc. ngch., 1959, 59. 275-278. Berg, S. D., and Toch, H. B., "'Impulsive' and 'Nearotic' Inmates: A Study in Personality and Perception," 1963, In Press. Breese, B. B., "Binocular Rivalry," l6, #10‘4150 Psyph. Rev., 1909, Broom, L., and Selznick, P., Sociolog , Row, Peterson, and Company, 1955. Edwards, A., EXperimental Design in Psychological Research, Revised Edition, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Engel, B., "Binocular Fusion of Dissimilar Figures," J. Psych., 1958. #6. 53—57. Engel, E., "Binocular Methods in Psychological Research," in Egplorations in Transactional Psychology, Edited by F. P. Kilpatrick, New York: New York University Press, 1961. Engel, E., "The Role of Content in Binocular Resolution," Amer. J. Psyph., 1956, 69, 87-91. Hastorf, A. H., and Myro, G., "The Effect of Meaning on Binocular Rivalry," Amer. J. Psych., 1959, 2, 393- M00. Helmholtz, H., Optique Physiologigue, Translated from German by E. Jouval and N. T. Klein, Paris: Hasson and Fils, 1867. Ittelson, W. H. and Seidenburg, B., "The Perception of Faces: A Further Study of the Engel Effect." J. Psych., 1962. 53. 2&7—255. 21 MacFarlane, Allen, and Honzik, A DevelOpmental Study of the Behavior Problems of Normal Children Between Twenty-one Months and Fourteen Years, University of California Press, 1953. Pettigrew, T. F., Allport, G. W., and Barnett, B., "Binocular Resolution and Perception of Race in South Africa," Brit, J. Psyph., 1958, #9, 265-278. Reynolds, D., "An Investigation Into Some Perceptual Correlates of Prejudice," M.A. Thesis, 1962, Michigan State University. Shelly, L. V., and Toch, H. H., "The Perception of Violence as an Indicator of Adjustment in In- stitutionalized Offenders," J. Crim. Law, and P01. 501., 1962, 53, 463-469. Toch, H. H., "The StereOSCOpe: A New Frontier In Psychological Research," A Reprint from the Research Newsletter, Editor, Don M. Gottfredson, Ph.D., A Quarterly Publication of the California Department of Corrections, September, 1961-- December, 1961, Vol 3, Nos. 3-9. Toch, H. H., "Can Eye Dominance Be Trained?" Percep. Motor Skills, 1960, 11, 31-3u. Toch, H. H. and Schulte, W. H., "Readiness to Perceive Violence as a Result of Police Training." Brit. J. PSECho' 19619 52, 389-3930 Woodworth, R. S., and Schlossberg, H., Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1953. APPENDIX I MEANS AND VARIANCES FOR Grade E 3rd 2.4 5th 3.87 7th 3.2 9th 4.67 11th 3.87 Freshmen 6.8 H.83 9.55 8.6 10.38 4.55 8.46 RAW SCORES Females x 52 1.73 5.07 2.13 2.98 1.80 2.74 2.53 5.98 3.13 2.41 9.55 3.87 22 APPENDIX II MEANS'AND VARIANCES FOR Males Grade E 52 3rd .4510 .0761 5th .6066 .0802 7th .5370 .07u6 9th .6590 .1128 llth .6302 .0662 Freshmen .8619 .0298 TRANSFORMED DATA Females r 52 .3090 .11ue .4256 .0726 .3692 .0700 .uuo7 .1086 .5768 .0052 .6996 .0352 M” L ‘ a— i‘i’i‘ " M'TITI)))I7ILEJ)))[it'fljlltfliljflflflflffl'flfflim