THE ENTERN’ATiONAL csvn. SERVICE A Biographies! Sfudy of fhe Top Functionaries of the Unifed Naficns Secretarial? Thesis far the Degm a? M A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSETY Luis Manueco-Jenkins I964 THESIS LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L C I V I L S E R V I C E A BIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE TOP FUNCTIONARIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS SECRETARIAT by Luis Mafiueco—Jenkins This study outlines the development of the international civil service, focusing on the United Nations Secretariat and concentrating on its major officials. The central task of this thesis has been to collect and analyze biographical data on the top Secretariat functionaries, in the hOpe of contributing to an understanding of the types of personnel appointed to the highest level of the leading international organization, and, thus, of the types of personnel likely to reach reSponsible high positions within the international civil service under contemporary conditions. Between 19uo and 1964, a total of forty-three officials have been appointed to positions having the rank of Under- Secretary. Biographical data on each were drawn primarily from United Nations publications; international and national biographic directories; information obtained from embassies and information agencies; books and articles written by and about the officials here considered; and The New York Times. Luis Mafiueco-Jenkins Each person was considered in terms of (1) national origin; (2) educational background; (3) private employment before entering the United Nations; (4) government or pub- lic service; (5) united Nations positions held before, and after, appointment to Under-Secretary status, and (6) the reasons for termination of employment at the Secretariat. The data show that quite a high level of formal educa- tion is almost universal among those who have achieved top positions in the Secretariat. Experience at a high level in diplomacy, public administration, and other forms of government service was also found very frequently. Previous participation in United Nations activities also has been frequent among Under-Secretaries. Knowledge of the United Nations' official languages is, and will continue to be, considered essential. With the growing realization that global responsibili- ties are best discharged by officials with global outlooks and interests, it seems likely that emphasis will also be placed upon such ambiguously measurable characteristics as cross-cultural educational experience, international travel, a broad awareness of world affairs, and (perhaps most impor- tant of all) the possession of an international outlook and of a responsible loyalty to the ideals of the United Nations. T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L C I V I L S E R V I C E A Biographical Study of the TOp Functionaries of the United Nations Secretariat BY Luis Mafiueco-Jenkins A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Political Science 196a P R E F A C E Few studies have dealt with the United Nations as a social system and those that have done so concentrate on the Security Council or on the General Assembly. Since it is easy to equate the work of the Secretariat with the acti- vities of the Secretary-General, the background, character— istics, and functions of the Secretariat as a whole have so far remained largely unexamined. This thesis will there- fore focus not only on the Secretary-General, but on the tOp echelon of his assistants. If, after Parsons, one defines a social system as a system of action, then the fact that the Secretariat is so often ignored becomes the more surprising since it is through the action and the work of the staff of the Secretariat that the Organization's social and economic---and at times its political---goals are furthered. The Secretariat is divided into major units, the heads of which have the rank of Under-Secretary and are directly responsible to the Secretary—General. It is on these tOp officials that this study will concentrate. This thesis makes three principal assumptions: that the international civil service plays an increasingly im- portant part in shaping contemporary international relations; that the United Nations may be considered the most influential 11 iii of all international organizations in existence today; and that the methods and standards of personnel selection at the top level now prevailing in the United Nations are not likely to be greatly changed very soon. The fact that no analysis of the biographies of the tOp echelon of the United Nations Secretariat has been pub- lished increases the relevance of this study to the general problems of international order in contemporary society. The main task of this thesis, then, is to collect and analyze biographical data about the top Secretariat functionaries, in the hOpe of contributing to an understanding of the types' of personnel appointed to the highest level of the leading international organization and, thus, of the types of per- sonnel likely to reach responsible high positions within the international civil service under contemporary conditions. Besides describing the tOp functionaries selected for analysis, this study covers two other major areas. The first chapter traces the development of the international civil service from its earliest days to the period of the League of Nations. The second outlines the different approaches to administration of each of the three Secretaries-General of the United Nations, focusing on the organizational struc- ture of the top echelon under each of them. The third chapter contains biographical data on the forty officials who have held rank equivalent to that of Under-Secretary from the Organization's inception to the present. Each person will be considered in terms of iv (1) national origin; (2) educational background; (3) private employment; (h) government or public service; (5) any United Nations positions held before, and after, appointment to Under-Secretary status; and (6) the reasons for termination of employment at the Secretariat. The fourth chapter con- sists largely of conclusions which emerge from an analysis of the data. A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S My deep gratitude goes to Dr. Bruce L. Smith,- chairman of my thesis committee, to whom I am par- ticularly indebted for assistance in completing this project. It was under his guidance that this study originated, under his encouragement that it was expanded into a master's thesis, and under his inspiration that it was drawn to its conclusion. Dr. Wesley R. Fishel and Dr. Baljit Singh also read the entire manuscript and made a number of valu- able suggestions that were properly incorporated. Dr. David A. Booth also contributed to this study. None of them, of course, is to be held responsible for any of the conclusions here reached. The Department of Political Science helped make possible my research trip to the United Nations Head- quarters in December 1963. Special recognition is due my wife-~-for continued reassurance, helpful understanding, and enduring typing competence. T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S Page PREFACE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 1i LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O V'ii Chapter I. THE ORIGINS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL SERVICE 0 O O O O O I O O O O 0 O 0 O O O 1 II. THE SECRETARIAT OF THE UNITED NATIONS . . . . 32 III. BIOGRAPHICAL DATA ON THE TOP FUNCTIONARIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS SECRETARIAT, 1946-64 . 80 IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 132 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . vi L I S T O F T A B L E S Table Page 1. U.N. Under-Secretaries: Distribution by Country of Origin, 1946-64. . . . . . . . 135 2. U.N. Under-Secretaries: Geographical Distribution, 1946, 1955, and 1964. . . . 137 3. United Nations Secretariat: TOp Level Officers, 1946-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4. United Nations Secretariat: Top Level Officer‘s, 1955"'6Ll o o o o o o o o o o o o 1144 5. Previous Public Administrative Experience of the 43 U.N. Officials with Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964 . . . . . . . . . 148 6. Previous Public Administrative Experience of the 43 U.N. Officials with Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964, by Individuals . 150 7. Colleges and Universities Attended by the 43 U.N. Officials of Under-Secretary Rank, to 1964 c o o o o o o e o o o o o c 151 8. Distribution of U.N. Officials of Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964, by Regional Origins and Principal Occupations . . . . 153 vii 10. 11. 12. viii U.N. Officials of Under-Secretary Rank, to 1964, by Principal Occupation and Last Office Previous to Appointment. . . . . Distribution of U.N. Officials of Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964, by Reasons for Itaving Office. . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of U.N. Officials of Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964, by Post- Secretariat Occupations . . . . . . . Distribution of U. N. Officials of Under- Secretary Rank, to 1964, According to Period in Office. . . . . . . . . U.N. Officials of Under-Secretary Rank, to 1964, Length of Tenure of Office and Reasons for Leaving . . . . . . . 154 157 157 158 CHAPTER I THE ORIGINS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL SERVICE The international civil service, created to meet the demands associated with the growing interdependence among nations, is a relatively recent phenomenon. While some na- tional civil services may be traced back to a distant past, the concept of an independent international civil service did not reach maturity until the early decades of the twen- tieth century. The Early Period The roots of the international civil service, however, are found in antiquity. Treaties between rulers in ancient Egypt and the consular and diplomatic institutions of the Graeco-Roman world are regarded as the first steps toward international administration. The Amphictyonic Council, a congress of delegates from Greek city-states, while "national 2 rather than international" and "less political than reli- gious,"1 has been described as one of the earliest examples of international administration.2 A strong civil service contributed significantly to the power of the Roman and Chinese empires; conscientious peacekeepers and tax collec- tors were important elements of the Pax Romans and the Pax Sinica. From the eighth to the seventeenth centuries, the desire for unity among civilized men in the West and for promoting allegiance to a common law was reflected in the repeated efforts to build world empires.3 These efforts were mainly unsuccessful, largely because of the separatist impact of feudalism. During the feudal centuries, the civil service was reduced to the personal household staffs of mon- archs and lords, under which "no distinction was made be- tween policy and administration.“4 ICarlton J. H. Hayes, "The Historical Background," The League of Nations: The Principle and the Practice, ed. Stephen Pierce Duggan (Boston: AtIantic Monthly Press, 1919), p. 20. For a description of the Amphic- tyonic Council, see chap. I, "Ancient Greek Leagues", in Elizabeth York, Leagues of Nations: Ancient, Medi- eval and Modern (London: ’Swarthmore Press, 1928). With reference to the Council, she concludes that "in the far-off days of ancient Greece we find the original germ of the fruitful idea of a League of Nations." (p. 8). 2Norman Hill, International Organization (New York: Harper & Broffiers, 1952), p. 35. 3Hayes, op. cit., p. 21. “Sidney Bailey, The Secretariat of the United Nations (New York: Carnegie Endowment for InternationalIPeace, 1962), p. 16. 3 Prior to the rise of the nation-state system, diplomacy was conducted by ambassadors appointed for particular occa- sions and "it was not until the late seventeenth century that permanent missions...became a customary practice among states."1 Bilateral diplomacy became widespread "when the unity of Christendom was broken up by the consolidation of inde- pendent states recognizing no political superior."2 The in- crease in the number of units of government occasioned a growing realization that both interests and conflicts were interdependent, and international conferences were now called to discuss problems and to find solutions on a multilateral basis. _ The historic conference at Westphalia in l648---"the first full-dress international conference of post-medieval times"3---marked the end of the Thirty Years' War, estab- lished the principle of territorial jurisdiction, and thus set the foundations of the modern international society.’4 Other conferences, such as the one at Carlowitz in 1698 and the one at Utretcht in 1713, were held to terminate wars and lNorman J. Padelford and George A. Lincoln, The Dynam- ics of International Politics (New York: Macmil an, ), p. 3H2. 2Alfred Zimmern, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law: 1918-1935 (London: MacmilIan and'Co., 1939), p. 13. 3Ibid., p. 33. “Hans Morgenthau, Politics Amon Nations (3rd ed.; New York: Alfred A. KnOpP, 1961), p. EW7. a to settle peace claims, but none was as significant as that of Westphalia, which laid the foundation of the modern state system. Henceforth, conferences, or "congresses" as the more important conferences were called, became an accepted mode of international diplomacy.1 During the eighteenth century, however, multi-nation conferences dealt for the most part with political matters and met only sporadically. No formal attempts at interna- tional administration were made. The Modernizing Period Early in the nineteenth century the Napoleonic Wars shook Europe to its roots; eleven EurOpean states had joined into three different coalitions against Napoleon, but each had disintegrated before the French armies. Therefore, when the Congress of Vienna assembled in 1814 nearly every state in EurOpe had claims against France. All major powers, thir- ty-six German states, plus minor principalities and the Vati— can combined to send more than 200 delegations to Vienna to settle disputes and record their claims while also searching for an enduring peace.2 1Other conferences held during the eighteenth century included those at Cambray in 1721, at Soissons in 1728, at Fockchany and Bucharest in 1772, at Teschen in 1779, and at Rastadt in 1797. For a more complete list of important conferences see: Norman L. Hill, The Public International Conference (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1929): P- 4- 2Gerard J. Mangone, A Short History of International Organization (New York: McGraweflill Bodk Co., 1954), pp. 34-35. 5 The Congress of Vienna "was not only concerned with get- ting rid of the arch enemy of EurOpe, but also was interested in the slave trade and in the internationalization of rivers."1 By extending its consideration to social and economic matters as well as political matters, the Congress of Vienna became the first modern international conference. The Congress of Vienna established the Concert of EurOpe, a system of arrangements and coalitions among the Great Powers, "which carried the Continent, without a major war, through the great political developments and the still greater eco- rxnnc transformation of the century between 1815 and 1914."2 Under the Concert system, provision was made for periodic meetings of the great powers to consult upon their common in- terests and to consider what measures should be taken "for the repose and prosperity of Nations, and for the mainte- nance of the Peace of EurOpe."3 1Hill, The Public International Conference, p. 5. 221mmern, op. cit., p. 75. 3The full article VI of the Treaty of Alliance and Friendship between Great Britain, Austria, Ruséia,_and’* Pfussia signed inIParis on 20 Nbvember'lBlS'reads: fiTb TacIIIEate and to secure the execution of the present Treaty, and to consolidate the connections which at the present time so closely unite the Four Sovereigns for the happi- ness of the world, the High Contracting Parties have agreed to renew their meetings at fixed periods, whether under the immediate auspices of the Sovereigns themselves, or by the respective Ministers, for the purpose of consulting upon their common interests, and for the consideration of the measures which at each of those periods shall be con- sidered the most salutary for the repose and prosperity of Nations and for the maintenance of the Peace of Europe." quoted in Mangone, op. cit., p. 64. 6 Under this provision, several conferences were held, includ- ing those at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, at Opava in 1820, at Ljubliana in 1821, and at Verona in 1822. Other important Concert meetings were held in Paris in 1856, in London in 1871, in Berlin in 1878, and at Algeciras in 1906. Through these periodic consultations the Concert system "undertook to deal by collective action with current problems ranging from the regulation of international traf- fic...to the carving up of Africa."1 In addition, "impor- tant progress was made in develOping the techniques and creating the psychological prerequisites of successful mul- tilateral negotiation,"2 as demonstrated at the Hague Con- ferences. Two International Peace Conferences were held at The Hague in 1899 and in 1907. They were called peace confer- ences "not because they terminated wars (They were actually convoked in time of peac37'but on account of their ultimate aim of replacing international friction by international co- Operation."3 In contrast with previous meetings, the Hague Conferences were devoted "to building a peaceful system and preventing or controlling war in general rather than to 1Inis L. Claude, Jr., Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organizatlon (2d ecf. rev.; New York: Random Hduse, 19637, p. 26. 2Ibld. 3Hlll, The Public International Conference, p. 9. 7 maintaining peace in a particular crisis or liquidating a Specific war."1 Under the Convention of 1907, signed by the fifty-four participant nations, three methods of peaceful settlement were recommended: good offices and mediation, international commissions of inquiry, and arbitration. Among its most significant achievements was the creation of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. In addition to military representatives, delegations included "experts in interna- tional arbitration."2 The need for a system different from the prevalent one (under which the preparation for interna- tional conferences was left to a single government and under' which when a conference adjourned no agency was left behind to carry out its decisions) was recognized by the Second Hague Conference. One of the 22225 approved by the confer- ence recommended a Third Peace Conference and the creation of a preparatory committee to help in its organization.3 1Claude, op. cit., p. 33. 2Hill, The Public International Conference, p. 39. 3"Finally, the conference recommends to the powers‘ the assembly of a Third Peace Conference, which might be held within a period correSponding to that which has elapsed since the preceding conference, at a date to be fixed by common agreement among the powers, and it calls their attention to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations being conducted with the neces- sary authority and eXpedition. In order to attain this ob- ject, the conference considers that it would be very desir- able that, some two years before the probable date of the meeting, a preparatory committee should be charged by the governments with the task of collecting the various pro- posals to be submitted to the conference, of ascertaining what subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international 8 The general acceptance of the idea of periodic and system- atic conferences to deal with international affairs was "perhaps the most significant contribution made at The Hague."1 Thus, by pointing the way to further international agreement and c00peration, the Hague Conferences "prepared the ground for the later League of Nations and the Permanent Court of International Justice."2 Another major development in international organization was the creation of public international unions. Under the impact of the Industrial Revolution, nation states grew more numerous, complex and interdependent. As they began to ex- perience common problems in health, sanitation, trade, trans- port and communications, the need for international functional organizations became apparent. The occasional ad hoc confer- ences, called to discuss specific items and dissolved once agreement on them was reached, proved inadequate to meet the expanding problems of industrial societies. As a result, the concept of a permanent international association developed. regulation, and of preparing a programme which the government should decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined by the countries interested. This com- mittee should further be intrusted with the task of pro- posing a system of organization and procedure for the con- ference itself." Texts of the Peace Conferences at The Ha e, 1899 and 1907, ed} James Brown Scott (Boaton: nn & Co., 1908), pp. 139-140. 1Manley 0. Hudson, Pro ress in International Organiza- tion (Stanford, Calif.: SEanford University Press, 1932), Do 13. 28y1vester John Hemleben, Plans for World Peace through Six Centuries (Chicago, 111.: ’The Uhiveréity oTChicago Press, I943), p. 134. 9 A number of governmental, as well as private, international organizations were established as nations and societies re- cognized that their problems had an international character. The international river commissions were the earliest to be organized and to represent a type of international ad- ministration.1 The Central Rhine Commission, founded in 1804, was charged with the task of guaranteeing safe passage to all nations for commercial purposes, an important assign- ment considering the history of the region. The Congress of Vienna reasserted the administrative powers of the Rhine Com- mission and granted it considerable regulatory powers. A A similar commission was established for the Danube in 1856, and was entrusted with far-reaching powers of direct inter- national administration. Other river commissions, reflecting the trend toward international administration, were those organized for the Elbe in 1821, the Douro in 1835, the P0 in 1849, and the Pruth in 1886.2 Due to the world-wide impact of its task, the Universal Postal Union, established in 1874, is probably the best known of the international unions. The UPU is of special impor- tance because it marked the first "complete, permanent administrative union which separated the diplomatic agreement 1Norman Hill, International Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C01, 1931), p. 10. 2Mangone, op. cit., p. 70. 10 from the administrative regulations of the agency."1 Some of the nonpolitical international unions created organizational measures of fundamental importance to inter- national administration. For instance, the Bureau of the International Telegraphic Union, established in 1868, was "the prototype of the secretariat, the vital core of any modern international organization."2 The expansion of industrial interests brought about the creation of a number of international commissions to deal with economic matters, including the Bureau of Weights and Measures, the Bureau for the Publication of Customs Duties, and the Union for the Protection of Industrial PrOperty. Private groups also formed international associations dedicated to a variety of tasks. The better known are the World's Alliance of Young Men's Christian Associations, founded in 1885; the International Red Cross, founded in 1863, and the International Chamber of Commerce, founded in 1919. Between 1840 and the beginning of the First World War approximately 400 permanent international associations were created.3 A number of them have had considerable influence. 1Ibid., p. 78. A more complete study may be found in: John Fairfield Sly, The Genesis of the Universal Pos— tal Union: A Study in the Beginnin s of Internatidnal Or anization (New York: Carnegie fidowment Tor International eace, 2Claude, op. cit., p. 38. 3C. K. Webster, The League of Nations in Theory and Practice (London: Allen‘&ithin, 19337, p. 26. 11 For instance, the Red Cross-sponsored convention calling for the neutralization of medical units in the field led to "humanizetion" of warfare during the two major world wars. Moreover, the efforts of some of the private unions contri- buted to the establishment of governmental organizations in related fields. The International Association for the Legal Protection of Labor, for example, was the direct forerunner of the International Labor Organization. Throughout the nineteenth century, then, governmental and private organizations were established in the fields of agriculture, commerce, health, communications, and technical. and economic matters. Others were founded to pursue religious and humanitarian goals. Most had small secretariats serving as centers of action. Among the major contributions of the international associations were the emergence of an embryonic body of inter- national civil servants and the valuable experience gained in the handling of "the myriad of problems of language, documen— tation, internal organization, and procedure of large-scale "1 The international associations international gatherings. served as agents of international understanding and cooper- ation, and probably helped to strengthen the concept of world interdependence more than any of the other two motivating forces: "The Concert stood for compromise; the Hague stood for regulation; the public international unions 1Claude, op. cit., p. 38. 12 stood for cooperation."1 Created because of the growing interdependence among nations, the international organizations themselves were both a cause and effect of ever-increasing interdependence. The League Period The progress experienced by international associations during the nineteenth century, particularly in terms of the separation of administration from diplomacy and the acceptance of the concept of permanent staffs, did much to prepare the way for the type of international civil service to be estab- lished under the League of Nations. However, it was not until 1919 that a complete system was formulated for a genuine international civil service: "a true international civil service on a significant scale and based on modern public administrative science became a reality only with the estab- lishment of the League of Nations Secretariat...."2 The League of Nations was to be a global institution whose primary purpose would be the maintenance of peace throughout the world. Political concepts, such as the all- important one of power and the very delicate one of sover- eignty, determined the heartbeat of the League. The desire for collective security was at the root of its creation. As an instrument to maintain peace and to provide security, the League was a failure. Helplessly, it witnessed the Japanese 11b1d., p. no. 2Tien-Chen Young, International Civil Service: Principles and Problems IBrussels:International Institute oT‘Adminis- trative Sciences, 1958), p. 10. 13 invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Mussolini's conquest of EthiOpia in 1935, the Nazi reoccupation of the Rhineland, and Hitler's march into Austria in 1938 and into Czechoslovakia in 1939. Later that year came the Soviet Union's invasion of Finland and the German invasion of Poland. Even its staunchest supporters agree that, if evaluated solely on its political activity, the League was a failure: It must be admitted that the chief purpose for which the League was created was the maintenance of peace, and within twenty years of its inauguration we have been plunged into a major warlwhich is in itself the climax of several other wars. But if the League failed in maintaining the peace, it undoubtedly succeeded in one area of lasting importance: the establishment of the first genuine international civil service. "It was not for lack of executive efficiency that the League system failed," Ranshofen-Wertheimer asserts in his authoritative study of the League. He adds that the experience of the Secretariat afforded conclusive proof that international administration is possible and that it can be highly effective; that an international civil service can be created which compares favorably with the best civil services in the world. The League has shown that it is possible to establish an integrated body of international officials, loyal to the inter- national agency and ready to discharge faithfuély the international obligations incumbent upon them. 1Viscount Cecil (Lord Robert Cecil), A Great Egperiment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1941), p. 321. 2Egon F. Ranshofen-Wertheimer, The International Secre- tgriat: A Great Egperiment in International AdminIStrafion (washifigton: Garnegie*End6wment T6? InternafIOnal Peace, 1945), pp. 427-428. 14 Similarly, F. P. Walters, a historian of the League, who himself was a top member of the Secretariat, concludes that the creation of a secretariat international in its structure, its spirit, and its personnel was "without doubt one of the most important events in the history of international politics" and that it was important "not only in itself, but as the indisputable proof of possibilities which had hitherto been confidently denied."1 Up to this time, the secretarial work involved in the conduct of international conferences had been entrusted to the civil servants of the countries in which they had met. The creation of an international civil service, permanent and with specific and significant responsibilities, was a distinct novelty and therefore one of the most original * 2 products of the activities of the League. According to the Covenant, the Secretariat, established as one of the three principal organs of the League, was to consist of "a Secretary-General and such secretaries and staff as may required". The Covenant was silent regarding character and composition, but the first Secretary-General, Sir James Eric Drummond, insisted from the beginning that the Secretariat be truly international and that its members 1F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), p. 76. 2William E. Rappard, The Geneva Experiment (London: Oxford University Press, 1931), p. 582 15 develop a primary allegiance to the League. This was a significant innovation, for the employees of international associations had previously been seconded by their govern- ments, and thus often retained their responsibility to their home governments. In contrast, Sir Eric set out to create an independent and international secretariat, which in time became the most ambitious international secretariat to be established until that time. Due to Sir Eric's foresight "the Secretariat was a working organization when the Covenant came into force."1 It soon became apparent that a genuine international civil service would have to be Open to nationals of all Member States2 and that, once appointed, Secretariat members could no longer be expected by their governments to place national interests above their international responsibilities.3 Lord Balfour, the chief British delegate and first President of the Council, in his report on the Secretariat 1Dennis P. Myers, Handbook of the League of Nations (Boston: World Peace Foundation,’l935), p. 49. 2While a majority of the members of the Secretariat always were nationals of the great powers, Sir Eric reported that by 1931 there were "forty-three nationalities in the Secretariat." Sir Eric Drummond, "The Secretariat of the League of Nations," Public Administration, IX (April 1931), P- 235. 3Recalling that most professional diplomats took it for granted that an international secretatiat could never be "united, loyal, and efficient," Walters reports that Sir Maurice Hankey, who "by sheer administrative efficiency had become in fact, though not in name, the Secretary—General of 16 ‘0 set forth the fundamental principles 0: international administration when he stated: ...Evident1y, no one nation or group of nations ought to have a monopoly in providing the material for this international institution. I emphasize the word 'international', because the members of the Secretar- iat once appointed are no longer the servants of the country of which they are citizens, but become for the time being the servants only of the League of Nations. Their duties are not national but international. The Balfour Report, undoubtedly drafted under Sir Eric's prodding and direction,2 was adopted by the League Council in 1920. In brief, it stated that the two recognized essential principles of an international civil service were. its international composition and its international reSponsibilities. A number of precedents in administrative matters had been established by the governmental and private inter- the peace Conference," and who had been offered the top post of the League of Nations, had formally proposed that "the work should be entrusted, under the supervision of the Secretary-General, to nine National Secretaries, one from each Council state, who would have their own staffs and would perform in turn the office of Secretary of the Council." (Walters, op. cit., p. 76.) Another respected historian of the League writes that "had Sir Maurice Hankey become Secretary-General the staff of the League would probably have consisted of detached national units; co-ordinated together, it is true, but encouraged to retain their national basis." (Webster, op. cit., p. 94). 1League of Nations, "Staff of the Secretariat: Report presented by the British Representative, A. J. Balfour," Official Journal, Vol. I, 1920, p. 137. 2"It was he [Sir Eric who drafted the famous memorandum of Lord Balfour, which 1a d down that the Secretariat should be an international body and not a mere collection of national groups." Webster, op. cit., p. 9“. 17 national unions which, as outlined above, had spread into technical and nonpolitical fields. For the most part, however, the Secretariat had to break new ground and institute new methods as the League's responsibilities and activities expanded.' Moreover, while the Secretariat's tasks included the regular ones of servicing meetings, conducting research and analysis, publishing reports and keeping records, there were in addition some political areas where it could exert influence. Here the Secretariat was pioneering, since earlier international unions and organizations had had their activities restricted to nonpolitical areas. Secretariat officials remained on their Jobs even while the Council and the Assembly were not in session. Their strategic position helped them acquire a familiarity with all aSpects of the League's policies, practices, and problems. Thus, they were often able to affect policy determination. Sir Eric himself, whose self—restraining role not once allowed him to address the Assembly, played important behind-the-scenes roles in the decision-making process.1 1"His political activity was subtle, indirect, inconspicuous---so much so that it not surprisingly gave the false impression of vacuity. In his formal relations with League organs, the Secretary-General was inarticulate in the extreme; in his public role, he was retiring and uninspiring; it was only in his diplomatic 'behind-the-scenes' character that the Secretary- General of the League was a potent political force." Stephen M. Schwebel, The Secretary-General of the United Nations: His Political Powers and? Practice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard *UhIVersity ‘Press, 1952), p. 6. 18 Two major influences, then, helped shape the Secretariat during its formative first decade and illustrated the potentialities of the roles that might be played by future Secretaries-General of the League and, later, of the United Nations. The first was Sir Eric's personality and the second was the British administrative system whose teachings he reflected. Sir Eric's personality allowed him to earn the confidence of Member States; he has been described as a model of tact, exceedingly resourceful in difficul- ties, absolutely fair and impartial.... He was no orator at a meeting, but in committee could express his view, when asked to do so, most persuasively. Above all, he acquired the confidence of all nation- alities. They were certain that his Judgement, usually excellent, would be quite unaffected by national prejudice.1 This in part mirrored the British concept, which had deve10ped during the nineteenth century, of a permanent civil service based on efficiency and competence and impartiality. One of the most significant aspects of the League Secretariat--- its reputation for international impartiality---was a direct result of the combined influence of Sir Eric's personality and background. By 1929, when the Tenth Assembly met, it was observed that the Secretariat "had established its reputation more rapidly and more solidly than any other organ 2 of the League." Sir Eric retired in June 1933 and was succeeded by Joseph Avenol, a Frenchman who had been second in command 1Cecil, op. cit., p. 90. 2Walters, op. cit., p. hl9. 19 for several years. Under Avenol, there was a faint attempt to modify the system and structure of the Secretariat. The British administrative system, in contrast with the highly centralized French type,1 has been described as one "in which the work comes up from below."2 His efforts for admin- istrative reform were for the most part unsuccessful. But he was a master of administrative finance and under his guidance the Secretariat "was freed, in that respect, from the endless anxieties by which it had been obstructed and beset."3 It was through his efforts that "the magnificent Palais des Nations was completed."u On the other hand, . his attempt to regroup the League "on the basis of technical cooperation has been much criticized on grounds of facilitating the demise of the League as a political force."5 In addition, Avenol engaged publicly in politically controversial matters and consequently often met with the disapproval of Member States. In the midst of a bitter political controversy as to his relations with the Nazi and Fascist governments, Avenol resigned in 19hO after what has been rated "the most painful episode in the League's history."6 1For a comparative study see: William A. Robson (ed.), The Civil Service in Britain and France (London: The Hogarth Press, 1956). 2Edward J. Phelan, Yes and Albert Thomas (London: The Crescent Press Ltd., ‘1193L/), p. 66. 3Walters, Op. cit., p. 560. 4 5Ibid., p. 216. Schwebel, op. cit., p. 218. 6Ranshofen-Wertheimer, _p. cit., p. 381. In evaluating 20 While stating that Avenol was "a man of high ability" who'did his best to follow the steps of his predecessor," one of his Deputy Secretaries-General points out that "he did not win the trust and liking either of the delegations or of the staff.”1 In evaluating Avenol, Walters concludes that: His leadership of the Secretariat had been marred by great faults, especially in the last years. He had not kept himself free from the infection of ideological prejudice: his sympathy with the reac- tionary forces in his own country had made him legs than half-hearted in regard to the League itself. Sean Lester of Ireland, one of the two Deputy Secre- taries-General, was recognized as Acting Secretary-General upon Avenol's resignation. Lester concentrated on maintain- ing "the continuity of each of the technical and social services of the Secretariat, in such a way that their work could be restarted after the war with the minimum of loss and interruption."3 In 19u6, at its final meeting the Assembly "voiced its gratitude to Lester and formally nominated him as the third and last Secretary-General."u this episode, the author concludes: "Suffice it to state--- and it can be stated without fear of contradiction on the part of anybody familiar with the internal events during those fatal weeks---that the leadership did not prove equal to the test." p. 381. A more complete analysis may be found in: Schwebel, o . cit., "Notes on the resignation of Joseph Avenol," pp. 2IE-2EH. 1Walters, op. cit., p. 560. gggig., pp. 809-810. 3Ibig,, p. 810. “IEEQJ’ p. 815. 21 In discussing the influence of leadership upon the international Secretariat mention must be made of Albert Thomas, the first Director of the International Labor Office, which "was in fact a part of the League."1 The ILO was subordinated to the League mostly in reSpect to administration, but nevertheless possessed a large degree of autonomy. As the years passed, the two organizations became more and more distinct, with the character of the Director reinforcing the tendency to autonomy. A fight— ing Socialist politician,2 Thomas exemplified the strong leader: in his view, to him "fell of necessity the task of leadership, the task of initiative, the task of tak- ing all those measures which might be necessary to defend the Organization."3 This begins to indicate the contrast between the personalities, and their conception of ‘their offices, of Sir Eric and Thomas. While Sir Eric looked upon his task as "technical and advisory," Thomas considered himself "an international statesman," and whereas the Secretary-General "avoided 1Ibid., p. 19u. 2"...at #1 he had already behind him many years of poli- tical conflict, had held important cabinet office during the war, and was looked upon by many as a future Prime Minister of France...He possessed every endowment for such a career--- fierce energy, intellectual power, eloquence and debating skill, and a passionate devotion to the cause of social Jus- tice." Ibid., p. 195. 3Phelan, op. cit., p. 253. \o 22 taking any step not previously sanctioned by Council and Assembly or clearly entrusted tO him under the Covenant," the Director of the ILO "took the initiative in most of the important questions."1 In addition, where Sir Eric gave the "widest possible initiative to the departmental heads of the Secretariat," Thomas imposed on his staff "a strictly centralized system, supervising and often re- 2 The record also writing every document or letter..." shun that Sir Eric made "no attempt tO be a personal leader: he asked for loyalty to the League, and to the Secretariat as one Of its essential institutions, not to himself."3 On the other hand, the loyalty of the ILO staff was "highly personalized."" It has been suggested that one Of the most significant facts in the history of international organization is that the International Labor Office survived the war while the League Of Nations did not.5 Phelan, an advocate of strong leadership by the international executive and an associate 1Ranshofen-Wertheimer, Op. cit., p. 389. 2Walters, op. cit., p. 196. 3Ibid., p. 559. "When Thomas died in 1932, the loyalty of the ILO staff "had become sufficiently deep to survive the change Of lead- ership and became depersonalized. It was transferred to the Office." Ranshofen-Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 389. 5Of some relevance here is the fact that "the Labour Organization remained in most respects aloof from the poli- tical convulsions by which the League was shaken and fin- ally destroyed." Walters, Op. cit., p. 192. 23 Of Thomas from the early days of the ILO, holds that "the history Of the League might have been entirely different if Drummond and Thomas had changed places."1 In this connec- tion it must be remembered that the two organizations were geared for different purposes. Sir Eric himself, commenting on Thomas' leadership, asserted: "It is quite, quite cer- tain that Albert Thomas in my Job would have been forced to resign. They wouldn't have stood for it. He would have tried---and failed.”2 A brief review Of the top echelon of the Secretariat may be helpful in understanding how the League precedent has influenced the United Nations Secretariat, particularly in regard tO the method of selecting tOp-level Officials. The tOp echelon of the Secretariat was known as the High Directorate3 and included the Secretary-General, the Deputy Secretary-General, and the Under Secretaries-General. In his classic study Of the Secretariat of the League, Ranshofen-Wertheimer outlines the functions and responsibil- ities of the tOp Officials. He points out that "everything that is done in the Secretariat is done under his [the Secretary-General'p7'direction and in his name" and that all authority ”not actually exercised by him within the 1Quoted by Schwebel, O . cit., p. 210. Thomas had once declared: "The day that I am reduced to the status of Sir Eric, I will resign." Ibid., p. 3. 2Ibid. 3From the French, haute direction. 2h administration is delegated and can be revoked by him at will."1 The Deputy Secretary-General2 concerned himself "es- pecially with the financial and economic work" but "in spite of supervisory functions" his role "bore in practice a striking resemblance to that Of the American Vice-Presi- dent."3 The most important function Of the Under-Secretaries "seemed that of being present, tO indicate thereby the ex- istence Of normal relations between the League and their country of origin and its willingness to collaborate at Geneva." Thus, their primary tasks were "advisory and re- presentative." Later, however, they were "entrusted with direct administrative responsibilities."4 The very frequent changes in membership of the League and the prevalent practice of the Member States Of recal- ling their nationals from the Secretariat upon leaving the League, makes it difficult to follow the exact composition of the High Directorate. There were, for example, four Under-Secretaries in 1919, three after the United States 1Ranshofen-Wertheimer, Op. cit., p. 53. 2This position was first established in 1922. When the first Deputy Secretary-General was promoted to the post of Secretary-General, "the role Of the Deputy assumed greater practical importance than it possessed under Sir Eric Drummond.” Ibid., p. 55. . 3Thus, "the Deputy's Official position was considerably higher than his responsibilities." Ibid. "Ibid., p. 57. 25 national withdrew in 1920, and two after the transforma- tion Of one Of these posts into that of a second Deputy Secretary-General. In 1932, by Assembly resolution, there were to be two Deputy Secretaries-General and four Under- Secretaries.1 The confusing welter Of changes can be illustrated by listing the top Officials Of the League and their periods in Office. The original members Of the High Directorate included Sir Eric as the Secretary-General and the following as Under-Secretaries: Raymond Fosdick of the United States, Jean Monnet Of France, Dionisio Anzilotti Of Italy, and Inazo Nitobe of Japan.2 After the definite establishment Of the post Of Deputy Secretary-General, the group included, besides Sir Eric, the following: Joseph Avenol Of France as the Deputy Secretary-General and Bernardo D. Attolico Of Italy and Yotaro Sugimura of Japan3 as Under-Secretaries. In 1927, Attolico was replaced by another Italian, the Mar- quis Pauluci di Calboli Barone. When Germany Joined the League later that year, a new post Of Under-Secretary was 1Ibid., p. on. 2Fosdick, who withdrew in 1920, had been the chief civilian adviser to the U.S. Commander-in-Chief in France; Monnet was the head of the French supply organization in London when he Joined the Secretariat; Anzilotti was an eminent international lawyer who later became President of the Hague Court; Nitobe was "well-known as an educational leader, and a courageous Spokesman for the liberal movement in Japan." Walters, Op. cit., p. 78. 3Appointed to succeed his compatriot, Nitobe, in 1926. Ranshofen-Wertheimer, op. cit., p. 62. 26 created and a German, Albert Dufour-Feronce, was appointed. In 1932, in accordance with the Assembly's resolution, the group included Sir Eric, with Avenol and Pablo de Azcarate Of Spain as Deputy Secretaries-General, and the four Under- Secretaries: Yotaro Sugimura Of Japan, Ernest Trendelenburg Of Germany who had replaced Dufour-Feronce, Massimo Pilotti of Italy who had succeeded the Marquis di Calboli Barone, and F. P. Walters Of England. When Japan and Germany with— drew from the League in 1933, their nationals resigned and the posts they vacated were not filled. When the U.S.S.R. Joined the League in 1934, a Soviet citizen, Marcel Rosenberg, was appointed to Join Pilotti and Walters as one of the Under- Secretaries. Avenol had by then been appointed Secretary- General and Azcarate was the lone Deputy Secretary-General. Pilotti resigned when Italy withdrew from the League in 1937. That same year, when Azcarate was appointed Spanish Ambassa- dor to the Court Of St. James, Sean Lester of Ireland was appointed to succeed him as Deputy Secretary-General. Vladi- mir SOkOline, who had been appointed Under—Secretary to re- place his compatriot, Rosenberg, resigned when the U.S.S.R. was expelled in 1939. Thus in 1939, the Secretary-General was French, the two Deputy Secretaries-General were British and Irish, and there was only one Under-Secretary, a Greek national. After l9h3, there was only Lester as Acting Secretary-General.l 1Ranshofen-Wertheimer, Op, git., pp. 61, 65, 67, pp assim.; Schwebel, op.cit., p. 216, et passim.; Walters, op. cit., pp. 78, 5563558) et passim. 27 If any pattern can be found amidst these changes, it may be the tendency to appoint nationals Of the Members of the Council to high Secretariat positions and to replace an outgoing official with a national Of the same country. At least up to 1933, if there had been any changes, "a French- man had been succeeded by a Frenchman, a German by a German, an Italian by an Italian, a Japanese by a Japanese."1 Al- though there was no acknowledge rule to this effect, "an unwritten right had grown up which the great powers were not prepared to renounce."2 Each Of the great powers insis- ted "not as a matter Of principle but as a practical neces-‘ sity that one Of its nationals should occupy a high-ranking post."3 For instance, Sir Eric himself admitted that "one Of the conditions Of Germany's entry into the league was that one Of her nationals should be given the post Of Under Secretary-General."u A group of former Secretariat Officials, meeting in l9uu tO compile the lessons they had learned through their League experience, evaluated the existence Of Under Secretaries-General as "a frank compromise between political necessity and administrative efficiency" and re- ported that "a prOposal for their abolition was reJected 11bid., p. 556. 2Ibid. 3Ibid. "Drummond, op, cit., p. 230. 28 solely because it raised 'too many political difficulties'."1 The smaller nations resented the Under-Secretaryships "as diplomatic posts whose holders were in the service Of ."2 Instead their governments rather than of the League... of abolishing such posts, the Assembly resolved in 1932 that "while each permanent Member should have the right to see one Of its nationals enJoying the title and pay Of an Under Secretary-General," these Officials were "to be in charge of Sections Zfidministrative subdivisiong7'and thus fully integrated into the structure Of the Secretariat."3 By increasing the administrative responsibilities Of the Under-Secretaries, this measure presumably diluted their political representative character. From the organizing days Of the Secretariat Sir Eric had been aware that each Of the great powers "would expect to see one of its nationals appointed in the rank immedi- ately below himself."u Walters reports that "to this extent his hands were already tied," but adds that it is probable that Sir Eric would in any case "have taken this course in order to ensure easy intercourse between the Secretariat and the countries whose OOOperation with the League was of 1Royal Institute of International Affairs, The Inter- national Secretariat Of the Future (London: OxfordIUni- versity Press, 19u4), pp. 30-31. 2Walters, Op. cit., p. 556. 3Ibid., p. 557. "Ibid., p. 76. 29 special importance."1 This is a particularly important point, in that the Secretary-General might have welcomed the requests by the great powers tO have their nationals as high Officials in the Secretariat. Sir Eric himself reported later that it was believed that "it would be of real advantage to the Sec- retariat to be able tO secure the services of prOminent peo- ple from countries whose interests were world wide...."2 Moreover, while admitting criticism Of the "de facto, though not de Jure, monOpoly of the higher posts by the Great Powers," Sir Eric asserted that "the existing system has worked well and given satisfactory results."3 Thus, while historical - evidence reveals that the highest Secretariat positions were in fact reserved for nationals Of Members of the Council, this practice may not necessarily have been adopted entirely on the basis Of political expediency nor brought about solely as a result of the pressure by the great powers on the Secre- tary-General. Furthermore, the Secretary-General "was left an entirely free hand as to the rest Of the organization and the appoint- ment Of the members Of the staff."u Indeed, the maJor con— tribution made by Sir Eric and in turn by the League to international administration was that for the rest Of the libid. 2Drummond, op. cit., p. 229. 3Ibid. . "Ibid., p. 230. 3O Secretariat "he set himself firmly against all pressures from Official sources seeking to impose particular candi- dates."1 While he consulted the various governments when- ever necessary, he "retained the choice in his own hands and did his best to ensure that all those he appointed should be not only well qualified for the special work they would have to do, but also devoted to the purposes of the League."2 The League Of Nations ended not with a gang but with a hardly audible whimper. When the League was Officially terminated on 18 April 1946, the world took no notice of this historic event. There was general agreement that the‘ League had been a failure, and failures are not buried with honors. Though the League was Officially dead, it left more than a heritage Of buildings and properties. As will be shown in the next chapter, it also left a sizeable and im- portant legacy. The Secretariat contributed substance to the League, providing the stability and continuity required for orderly discussion and negotiation Of international affairs in an increasingly interdependent world. Although the League may be said to have failed in the political arena, the Secre- tariat was indeed successful in laying a foundation for the United Nations to build upon. Perhaps less tangibly but certainly more importantly, the Secretariat left a legacy 1Walters, Op. cit., p. 76. 2Ibid. 31 Of hOpe, pointing to a future in which dedicated international civil servants may be able to contribute more influentially to the causes Of world peace, Of international cooperation, and Of global understanding. In praising Sir Eric Drummond as the principal architect Of the League Secretariat, Trygve Lie, the first Secretary- General of the United Nations, asserted: His decision to create the first truly international secretariat was a decision Of profound significance--- surely one Of the most important and promising polit-~ ical developments of the twentieth century. 1Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1954), p. 31. C H A P T E R I I THE SECRETARIAT OF THE UNITED NATIONS The United Nations is today called upon to Operate in a world markedly different from that which gave it birth. While the world in which the United Nations discharges its duties is more complex than that Of the League of Nations,1 the experience Of the League has been of great value to its successor in world organization. The institutional heritage Of the United Nations, largely derived from the League of Nations, included a number of lasting principles and endur- ing concepts. The League's failure was certainly not conclu- sive; its sizeable legacy to international relations and administration covered wide and important areas. Its most significant contribution has perhaps been in respect tO the Secretariat Of the United Nations. 1In the words of the second Secretary-General Of the United Nations to his staff: "we must work harder and hope for less than those who built the League....We are expected to succeed where our predecessors failed. We remember their selfleasness and courage, but we know that even more may be required of us, if only in order to save what they achieved...." Wilder Foote (ed.), Servant Of Peace: A Selection of the Speeches and Statements Of DgngammarakJOld* INéw York: Hirper'& Row, I962), pp. 30:3I} 32 33 The Legacy Of the League The United Nations is clearly a direct successor Of the League of Nations. When the founders met in 1945 to draft the Charter of the United Nations, they had behind them a generation Of experience which pointed to a number of constitutional and administrative requirements for a success- ful international organization. Some aspects of the League system were retained for lack Of better substitutes, but the concept Of the Secretariat was incorporated into the Charter because it had proved notably successful.1 The League ex- perience proved that the task of creating an efficient in- ternational civil service was not impossible.2 Just as importantly, it demonstrated that national and international 1As outlined in the previous chapter, the idea of an international secretariat with a permanent staff independent and immune from control by Member States was accepted within a decade of the establishment of the League. The first Secretary-General of the United Nations was later to recog- nize that "the League Of Nations had set us a standard in international administration which it would not be easy to match." Lie, op. cit., p. 43. 2This may be considered the most important part Of its legacy. "In a long perspective the principle Of a central permanent international civil service, imperfectly as it was applied, may prove to be the outstanding contribution Of the League of Nations to history." C. Wilfred Jenks, "Some Problems Of an International Civil Service," Public Ad- ministration Review, III (Spring 1943), p. 98. 34 loyalties are not necessarily contradictory.1 The interna- tional loyalty required for an international secretariat has been defined by Sir Eric Drummond and some Of his League associates as "the conviction that the higher interests of one's own country are served best by the promotion Of security and welfare everywhere."2 Upon this concept---basic to a permanent, independent international secretariat, as pioneered and developed by the League---the Secretariat Of the United Nations was built. The legacy Of the League Secretariat is clearly marked in the Charter Of the United Nations. The Secretariat is' established in Article 7 as one Of the six principal organs of the United Nations.3 The Charter provisions dealing 1"The experience of the League teaches one lesson which should be cherished by all future international organiza- tions: that there is such a thing as international loyalty and that this is indIspensable to the success Of an interna- tional secretariat." Frank G. Bordeau, "International Civil Service: The Secretariat Of the League Of Nations," Pioneers in World Order, ed. by Harriet Eager Davis (New York: COIumBia University Press, 194 ), p. 81. 2Royal Institute Of International Affairs, The Inter- national Secretariat of the Future, p. 18. A similar con- cept was expressid‘By“the second Secretary-General of the United Nations in an address to a meeting Of both Houses of Parliament in London in 1958. The United Nations, Ham- marskJOld said, "is here because Of centuries of past strug- gle. It is the logical and natural development from lines of thought and aspiration going far back into all corners Of the earth since a few men first began to think about the decency and the dignity of other men. Now the lines between national and international policy have begun to blur. What is in the national interest, when truly seen, merges natur- ally Ifito’the internatibnil’intereSt." (Italics mine.)" Fbote, op. cit., p.’l74. 3Together with the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and 35 specifically with the Secretariat are contained in Chapter XV. The Principal characteristics and responsibilites Of the Secretariat are outlined in fourteen brief sentences in Articles 97 to 101. A review of these articles will help indicate the influence of the League precedent upon the Secretariat. Charter Provisions In Article 97, the Charter follows the League precedent in stating that "the Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary- General and such staff as the Organization may require." The Secretary-General is to be appointed "by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council." While the procedure for appointing the Secretary-General was adopted from the League precedent, neither the Covenant nor the Char— ter specifies the length Of his term of Office.1 Article 97 the International Court of Justice. All Member States belong to the General Assembly, where each state has one vote. Eleven countries compose the membership Of the Security Council with five (the Republic of China, the Union of Soviet Socialist Re- publics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire- land, and the United States Of America) holding permanent membership. The memberships Of the other six countries rotate. 1In 1946 the General Assembly adopted a resolution provid— ing that the first Secretary-General should be appointed for five years, and eligible for a second five-year term. The General Assembly and the Council reserve the right "to modify the term of Office Of future Secretaries-General in the light of experience..." Leland M. Goodrich and Edvard Hambro, Char- ter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (2d ed. rev.; Bostbn: World Peace Foundation, 1949), p. 493. 36 concludes with the provision that the Secretary-General "shall be the chief administrative Officer Of the Organization." In broad language, Article 98 indicates that the Secretary—General "shall act in that capacity in all meetings" Of the Assembly and the Councils and "shall perform such other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs." The first part Of this provision is similar to that contained in Article 6 of the Covenant, but the second part is a significant addition from which the Secretary-General has derived increased authority. The right granted to the Secretary-General in Article 99 "goes beyond any power previously acconkd to the head of an "1 The chief source Of the Secre- international organization. tary-General's political powers, Article 99 declares that he "may bring to the attention of the Security Council any mat- ter which in his Opinion may threaten the maintenance Of international peace and security." The Secretary-General Of the League could call a meeting Of the Council only "when asked to do so by a member."2 Thus while the role Of the Secretary-General as the administrator of the United Nations derives from that Of his counterpart in the League, it "has clearly assumed greater importance and scOpe under the pro- visions of the Charter...which, both expressly and by impli4 1Report of the Preparatory Commission Of the United Nations, Doc. PC/20, 23 December 1945, p. 87, QuOted in GoodrIch and Hambro, Op. cit., p. 502. 2Ibid. 37 cation, gives the Secretary-General greater power and seems to expect more constructive leadership from him.”1 Although the Covenant did not specifiy that the Secreta- riat was to consist Of anything more than a permanent group Of national contingents, under Sir Eric's leadership the decision was made that the Secretariat should be genuinely international. This principle Of international responsibility which the League Secretariat had adOpted in practice was incorporated in the Charter under Article 100. Indeed, this article "follows almost verbatim the League regulations on "2 independence and international responsibiltiy. The full~ text Of Articl 100, Of central importance to the Secretariat, reads: 1. In the performance Of their duties the Secretary- General and the staff shall not seek or recieve in- structions from any government or from any other au- thority external to the Organization. They shall refrain from any action which might reflect on their position as international officials responsible only to the Organization. 2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the exclusively international character of the responsibilities Of the Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge Of their reaponsibilities. Its first paragraph is obviously addressed to the members of the Secretariat, who are tO promise not to seek or accept 1Goodrich, "From League of Nations to United Nations," p. 13. 2As HammarskJold pointed out in his famous lecture at Oxford University, 30 may 1961. Foote, op. cit., p' 3330 38 instructions from the outside. Its second paragraph is a clear reminder to all Member States that they must respect the "exclusively international" character of the responsibil- Iities Of the Secretary-General and the staff.1 The principle Of the independence Of the Secretariat embodied in Article 100 is further buttressed by Article 105, which provides that Officials of the Organization shall enJoy "such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the independent exercise Of their functions in connection with the Organization." (Italics added.) In summary, then, Artich 100 is intended tO create and preserve a genuine international civil service; it provides for the independence and, therefore, increases the effectiveness Of the Secre- tariat. The following article, Article 101, grants to the 1The United States Secretary of State reported to the President that "the intent at San Francisco was to make it perfectly clear that the nationals of member states serv- ing on the staff Of the Secretariat could not, in any sense Of the word, be considered as agents Of their governments." Re ort to the President on the Results Of the San Francisco Con erence’by the Chairman of the United Statés DeIégation, Department of State Publication 2349 (1945), p. 150. The provisions Of Article 100 are reinforced by the Staff Regulations; under Regulation 1.9, Secretariat staff members are to subscribe to the following oath or declaration: "I solemnly swear (undertake, affirm, promise) to exercise in all loyalty, discretion and conscience the functions en- trusted to me as an international civil servant Of the United Nations, to discharge these functions and regulate my conduct with the interests Of the United Nations only in View, and not to seek or accept instructions in regard to the performance Of my duties from any government or other authority external to the Organization. 39 Secretary-General the power Of appointing all the staff, provides for a unified Secretariat, and outlines the criteria for employment in the Secretariat. Under the Covenant, the staff Of the Secretariat was appointed by the Secretary- General "with the approval of the Council.” In the United Nations, the Secretary-General appoints all staff members under broad regulations established by the General Assembly. This provision stresses the administrative authority of the Secretary-General, who is the only elected Official in the Secretariat. The second paragraph Of Article 101 provides for "appropriate staffs to be permanently assigned" to the' Councils and other organs, while clearly declaring that all such staffs are part Of a unified Secretariat. The separate staffs are organized in such a way that each may serve any organ which might require its services.1 This administrative provision is intended to emphasize the fact that all organs served by the Secretariat share the common task of promoting the purposes Of the Organization. The paramount criteria for appointment, as stated in the third paragraph of Article 101, are "the highest standards Of efficiency, competence, and integrity." As already noted, from the League experience the founders of the United Nations were able to draw a formula for international loyalty which 1There is one exception: since the Security Council has exclusive powers to deal with military and enforcement measures, the Special units of the Secretariat concerned with these measures serve the Security Council exclusively. Goodrich and Hambro, op. cit., p. 509. 40 had been tested in practice. An adJoining clause in Article 101 stipulates that "due regard shall be paid to the impor- tance Of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical basis as possible." The twin principles of competence and geogra- phical distribution, then, are explicitly contained in the Charter. In concluding this brief review Of Chapter XV, it may be said that the Charter affirmed many of the principles already accepted as a result Of the League's experience, particularly with regard to the concpet Of an independent and international civil service. Taken as a whole, Chapter XV provides for a' civil service Of an exclusively international character responsible, through the Secretary-General, tO the whole community Of member nations but independent from national pressures. As outlined in the previous pages, the Charter is very specific concerning the Juridical independence Of the Secretary-General and the staff. All their responsi- bilities are repeatedly declared to be "not national but international." In particular, the core Of Chapter XV is an emphasis upon the independence and the standards of the Secretariat.1 The concept of an independent international 1Answering his own question as to why the independence and the standards of the Secretariat are so important, Hammar- skJold once declared: "Countries are arming in order to be able to negotiate from a position Of strength. The Secretariat tOO has to negotiate, not only in its own interest, but for the cause Of peace and a peaceful development Of our world. The weight we carry is not determined by physical force or the num- ber Of people who form the constituency. It is based solely on trust in our impartiality, our experience and knowledge, our maturity Of Judgement." In "Message for UN Staff Day," 4 De- cember 1953. Foote, Op. cit., p. 32. 41 secretariat, first developed in the League Of Nations and carried further in the United Nations, highlights one Of the maJor changes in the history Of diplomatic techniques:‘ the introduction of the relatively autonomous multilateral ele- ment. This new approach does not substitute for bilateral diplomacy; it does tend to supplement it, particularly in those areas where bilateral contacts and negotiations have proved insufficient. Indeed, the multilateral diplomacy symbolized by the United Nations seems best suited to the needs and problems of a world characterized by a high level of interdependence. Functions and ReSponsibilities The Secretariat represents the United Nations and the ideals of the Organization independently Of the special in— terests Of any individual members. Perhaps its most impor- tant duty is to represent the collective ideal, the principles and the aims Of the United Nations. The Secretariat has been defined as "the only place where problems, programs and policies can be consistently viewed in United Nations terms."1 Moreover, it has been suggested that it is the Secretariat, more than any other organ, which transforms the United Nations from "a series of periodic meetings of Assembly and Councils into a permanent and cohesive organization."2 The Secretariat 1Goodrich and Hambro, Op. cit., p. 494. 2United Nations Secretariat (New York: Carnegie Endow- ment for International Péace, 1960), p. 8. #2 undoubtedly provides the international core of the Organi— zation, as distinct from the national character of the dele— gates who make up the Assembly and the Councils. The Secretariat provides a wide range of services to the United Nations. Its contributions are mainly on two levels: the day-to-day tasks in each of the several fields in which it Operates and the broad functions it performs as one of the principal organs of the Organization. The fundamental function of the Secretariat is service to the General Assembly, the Councils, and the committees and commissions set up by these organs, as well as meetings of various regional bodies, wherever they may be held. In 1963 the Secretariat serviced 3,303 meetings.1 Besides the administering of its own inter- nal economy, the tasks of the Secretariat include research, analysis, publishing, liason functions, and field work "ranging from policing armistice arrangements to conducting mass immunization campaigns for children."2 In economic and social affairs, including such varied matters as human rights and the work of the Statistical Office, the Secretariat has carried out significant tasks. Growing emphasis has been placed on assistance to governments seeking to accelerate the economic and social development of their countries. The Secretariat also plays an important discretionary llt has been estimated that "each hour of international debate requires nearly four hundred Secretariat hours of work in arrangement, translation, and documentation." Claude, 32, 333,, p. 201. 21bid. 43 roles in choice of means and degrees when carrying out mandates from United Nations organs. Another broad function of the Secretariat is coordination, including not only the work of all the principal organs and their sub-divisions but also the Specialized Agencies.l On occasion, the Secretariat also relates the long list of non-governmental international organizations to the work of the United Nations. In addition, it carries out some special finuctions requiring technicians such as "legal counselors, economists, demographers, and most important of all and always in the senior posts, negotiators who can deal with representatives of governments and who need to possess some diplomatic ability."2 Because of the world situation and because of the growing prominence of the United Nations, the magnitude of the responsibilties of the Secretariat has tended to increase. As its functions became more widespread, the number of Secre- tariat members rose from 2,000 in 1946 to 1h,OOO in 1963. On the whole, the Secretariat has proved to be a dynamic insti- tution whose evolution has been marked by a liberal interpreta- tion of its responsibilities, by a dynamic adaptation to the 1The Specialized Agencies include the following: Interna— tional Labor Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza- tion, World Health Organization, International DevelOpment Association, International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment, International Monetary Fund, International Civil Aviation Organization, Universal Postal Union, International Telecom- munication Union, World Meteorological Organization, and Inter- Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization. 2Walter R. Crocker, "Some Notes on the United Nations Secretariat," International Organization, III (1959), p. 601. an needs of the time, and by growth of its capabilities, under the guidance of three Secretaries-General. The Role of the Secretary-General The Secretary-General of the United Nations has been described as ”the direct and immediate descendant of the Secretary-General of the League of Nations."1 The League Covenant, however, gave the Secretary-General a limited role in the maintenance of international peace, certainly one of the major responsibilities of the Organization. Particularly with regard to the functions and authority of the Secretary- General, the United Nations Charter broke new ground. In the drafting of the Charter, there appeared to have been "general agreement among the participating governments that the chief administrative officer of the 0rganization---whatever his title might be---should be given a more important political role than his League predecessor."2 The Charter provides that the Secretary-General shall report annually to the General Assembly on the work of the Organization and empowers him to bring before the Security Council on his own initiative any matter which in his Judgement threatens international peace and security. His administrative strength is unquestioned. In fact, the powers of the Secretary-General are so extensive 1Schwebel, op. cit., p. 3. 2Leland M. Goodrich, "The Political Role of the Sec- retary-General," International Organization, XVI (1962), pp. 720-721. 45 that it has been suggested he may well be considered one of the principal organs of the United Nations.1 The role of the Secretary-General is largely determined by the character of the United Nations itself.2 The United Nations is not a world government. It is an organization created by a Charter which has the effect of a treaty ratified by its members. In simple terms, the United Nations is an association of sovereign states which have pledged themselves to maintain international peace and security and to cooperate in establishing political, economic, and social conditions under which this task may best be achieved. Furthermore, the United Nations is at once an organ for negotiation and an executive organ with practical functions. In theory and in practice, the Secretary-General is the chief administrative officer of the Organization. His role, however, is not limited to that of an administrative head supervising a con- ference staff. Indeed, the character and magnitude of his role reflect the purposes, principles, sc0pe and programs of action of the United Nations. Appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council, thus technically ensuring him support by a majority of Member States including all the permanent 1Hans Kelsen, The Law of the United Nations, pp. 136-137, cited by Schwebel, op. cit., p.’ub. 2This account is largely drawn from a discussion by Andrew Cordier [Ekecutive Assistant to the Secretary—Generag7 on "The Role of the Secretary-General" found in Annual Review of United Nations Affairs 1960-61 (New York: New York Univer- sity Press, 1962), pp. l-lu. 46 members of the Security Council, the Secretary-General is to coordinate all United Nations organs, to see that the deci- sions taken by these organs are prOperly executed, and to chan- nel communications between Member States and the Organization. Upon him more than upon any other individual falls the res- ponsibilty of seeing that the United Nations as a whole function effectively. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is undoubt- edly eXpected to provide a more dynamic leadership than his League counterpart was able to provide. The political role of the Secretary-General as an international statesman is made unmistakably clear in the Charter, particularly in Arti- cle 99, which was apparently based more upon Albert Thomas' example of a strong executive than on that provided by Sir Eric Drummond. In response to developing needs, the position of the Secretary-General of the United Nations has led to increasingly widespread diplomatic and political activities. As the spokesman for the United Nations policies agreed upon by most of the world's nations and on the basis of his poli- tical powers granted in the Charter and through Security Council resolutions, he is often regarded as potentially one of the world's most influential diplomats. The subtle elements of prestige and status add to his stature. Each successful United Nations operation increases the prestige and authority of the Organization and, particularly, of the Secretary-General. Through his visits to Member States he may engage in frank conversations with top government officials with a view.to #7 presenting and advancing United Nations policies. His visits to crisis spots may lessen tension and gain support for con- structive steps in the implementation of United Nations pro- grams. The uniqueness of his office also enables him to con- duct peace-keeping operations no head of state would be likely to perform successfully. Within the Organization itself, his powers are also ex- tensive. He participates in policy-making through several of his specified reSponsibilities. Through his annual re- ports to the General Assembly, as well as in behind-the- scenes negotiations and in public statements, he may focus' attention on selected problems and suggest possible solutions. Moreover, he is in "a unique position to interpret the Char- ter"1 and has done so in his Introductions to his annual reports. His other written reports circulated as documents indicate his policy approach to matters under review. His direct contacts with delegations may be influential. The suggestions he may make through any one of these media are very likely to affect significantly policies still being formulated . Everything done in the Secretariat is carried out under the direction and in the name of the Secretary-General. His right to appoint, "without exception, all members of the Sec- retariat in complete freedom from the pressure of member 1Cordier, Op. cit., p. 6. #8 governments”1 is probably his most important privilege in matters of staff administration.2 His role as the coordina- tor of the principal organs and of the Specialized Agencies is certainly more than a simple administrative one. His responsibility for the preparation of the budget is a power- ful one. The combination of these powers and his strate- gic position as the chief permanent officer of the Organiza- tion contribute to make the Secretary—General the only offi- cial who can claim to represent all of the organs and all of the members of the United Nations. He has certainly become the central character--to some extent even the symbol-~of the leading international institution in the world today. Finally, it may be observed that the end products of most debates in the United Nations are resolutions, often placing a mandate upon the Secretary-General. One of his most significant duties is the implementation of these reso- lutions. They often are compromise resolutions and are usu- ally expressed in general terms. The latitude he is there— by granted may be very great. The tasks thus entrusted to him "are mostly of such a character that, with the composi— tion of an international Secretariat and of the group of his 1Frederick Honig, ”The International Civil Service: Basic Problems and Contemporary Difficulties," International Affairs, xxx (April 195A), p. 177. 2This privilege, of course, reflects the fact that "a point of capital importance in maintaining the independence of the international civil service lies in the provision that appointment power should be invested exclusively in the Chief Administrative Officer of an international organization, not subject to political pressure." Young, op. cit., p. 228. U9 closest collaborators...he must carry out the work on a fairly personal basis."1 With the active support and actual parti- cipation of his staff, particularly of his tOp assistants,2 the Secretary-General may then be said to be at the axis of the multilateral diplomacy which is possibly the United Na- tions' major contribution to international cooperation. The numbers and titles of the immediate subordinates of the Secretary-General---the officials whose biographies constitute the main part of this study---have fluctuated under each of the three Secretaries-General. The manner of their selection was discussed at length at San Francisco.3‘ The Sponsoring Governments (China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States) suggested that four or five top officials be elected by the General Assembly to as- sist the Secretary-General. They were to be appointed for three-year terms, with one acting as an alternate to the Secretary-General and the others serving each of the three Councils and the Assembly. Anticipating that the office of the Secretary-General would become a politically important one, the Sponsoring Governments Openly indicated their desire to 1Hammarskjold in address at University of Chicago Law School, 1 May 1960. Foote, Op. cit., p. 259. 2The potential importance of these top assistants was recognized by the Preparatory Commission: "his choice of staff-~more particularly of higher staff-~and his leadership will largely determine the character and efficiency of the Secretariat as a whole." PC/20/1945, p. 86. 3UNCIO, Doc. 1155, 1/2/7u, (2). 50 have the tOp posts Of the Secretariat considered as politi- cal positions to be reserved for them. They sponsored an amendment providing for elected Deputy Secretaries-General. The smaller nations defeated this prOposal, arguing that the authority Of the Secretary-General was bound to be seriously undermined if any of his subordinates were selected in the same manner as he.1 In addition, those Opposing the amend- ment did not want the nomination of staff members politi- cally controlled. They stressed the need and desire "to have all the members of the staff from the top down behave and feel like international civil servants."2 The Secretary- General, therefore, was given the power to determine the num- ber of his tOp assistants, their terms Of office, and the responsibilities to be assigned to them. National and International Civil Services While some similarities may be found between national bureaucracies and the international civil service, "possibly none that are entirely salutary,"3 there are essential dif- ferences which combine to increase the administrative diffi- culties involved. The major difference is that they main- tain different relationships to the organs which dictate their policies and to which they are responsible. The powers 1Goodrich and Hambro, op. cit., p. #98. 21b1do, p. “990 3Peter Lengyel, "Some Trends in the International Civil Service," International Organization, XIII (1959), p. 53h. 51 of the Secretary-General are not comparable to those of a chief executive such as a President or a Prime Minister. The international civil service deals with treaties, not laws; it sex-m a community of nations, not a territorially delineated unit. In addition, "it Operates within the frame- work Of loosely-worded resolutions adopted at periodic con- ferences and not in response to precise instructions from a permanent executive"; moreover, it is geographically dis- persed "as few national civil services are, so that coordina- tion and communication are particularly important and diffi- cult."1 or related importance is the fact that the assigns ments of the Secretariat are Often in a state of flux requiring a maximun of flexibility in organization. The formulation of appropriate standards of qualification involves particular difficulties, since candidates must be recruited from a variety of national backgrounds. As the first Secretary-General was soon terdiscover, in establishing an international administrative pattern it is essential to achieve a synthesis of various Opposing national concepts of adminis- tration. The fact that the Secretariat is made up of nationals drawn from countries at different stages of development and of experience in administration complicates the task of deveIOp- ing the desired international administrative synthesis. For instance, the American approach to work on a "scientific" basis often runs into EurOpean complaints that the "human 11bid. 52 element" is not sufficiently considered.1 An additional contrast is found in the fact that from American adminis- trative practice of the United Nations "has derived a tradition calling for a high degree of specialization" while a Euro- pean tradition has called for "a high degree of permanence of employment and professional flexibility."2 Perhaps the central administrative goal is the transformation Of national professionals, from whatever country, into effective members Of the international civil service. While the question "of giving up one's-nationality is not involved and the interna- tional civil servant is asked to maintain relations with his native culture,"2 the national accent and experience may introduce an element Of division. Therefore one of the prin- cipal tasks of the Secretary-General is to find ways "to overscore the divisive influences and try to create a unity in which the diversity of the national backgrounds of the members of the administration is fully respected and pre- served."3 Due to the nature of their duties a proper balance of nationalities and backgrounds is more vital with regard to the Secretary-General's top assistants than among any 1Robert Kaplan, "Some Problems in the Administration of an International Secretariat," _Columbia Journal of International Affairs (Spring 1948), p. H0? 2Svensi Bjorklund, "Training for International Civil Service," Columbia Journal of International Affairs (Spring 1948), p.21. 3Hammarskjold in address to American Political Science Association, 11 September 1953. Foote, op. cit., p. 36. 53 other members of the Secretariat.1 Their duties, it must be remembered, "are not those of the traditional civil servant but call for high qualities of constructive statesmanship."2 Besides the difficulties involved in the deveIOpment of an international administrative standard, then, there are problems dealing with the formulation of personnel policies and procedures appropriate to the international character of the Secretariat. In broad terms, the suggested basic charactersitics for an international civil servant include: (1) unquestionable professional competence, (2) impartiality, and (3) international loyalty.3 While he must be competent enough in his own field, the international civil servant must count on a broad background to help insure a balanced judgement. This capacity for understanding and cooperation implies certain substantive qualifications such as language proficiency and international and cross-cultural experience. Finally, though the international civil servant is expected to retain his national sentiments, he is required to sub- ordinate them to his international duties.’4 1"The key problem is that of building up an adequate 'adminstrative class' to fill the posts which involve in- fluence upon policy....The essentail qualities can be sim- ply listed as integrity, conviction, courage, inagination, drive, and technical grasp---in that order." Jenks, Op. cit., p0 95a 2Ibid., p. 9A. 3Bjorklund, op. cit., PP. lU-23. “The classic statement on the required international outlook has been provided by Jenks: "A lack of attachment to one's country does not constitute an international outlook. A superior indifference to the emotions and prejudices of 54 The Secretaries-General This section will concentrate on the approaches to administration and to the organizational structure at the top level under each of the Secretaries-General. Three men have held the post of Secretary-General Of the United Nations; all have been drawn from small nations. The first was Trygve Lie, the Foreign Minister of Norway, who was appointed to a five-year term in 1946 and re-elected for three more years in 1951. In 1952, however, he announced his intention to resign as soon as his successor could be selected. Dag Hammarskjold, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Sweden, was appointed in 1953 and re-elected for a second five-year term in 1957. He died in a plane accident in 1961 while on an Official mission in the Congo. U Thant, Burma's Ambassador to the United Nations, was appointed Acting Secretary-General to complete Hammarskjold's unexpired term. In 1962, Thant was elected Secretary-General to serve until 1966. those whose world is bounded by the frontiers Of a single state does not constitute an international outlook. A blurred indistinctness of attitude towards all questions, proceeding from a freedom of prejudice born of lack Of vi- tality, does not constitute an international outlook. The international outlook required Of the international civil servant is an awareness made instinctive by habit of the needs, emotions and prejudices of the peOples of differently- circumstanced countries, as they are felt and expressed by the peOples concerned, accompanied by a capacity for weigh- ing these frequently imponderable elements in a judicial manner before reaching any decision to which they are rele- vant." Jenks, op. cit., 105. 55 Trygve Lie Trygve Halvdan Lie1 was born on 16 July 1896 in Oslo, Norway. He was educated at Oslo University, where he obtained a law degree in 1919. For thirteen years he served as legal adviser to the Norwegian trade unions. He was appointed Norway's Foreign Minister in 1941 and in that capacity led his country's delegation to the United Nations organizing conference held in San Francisco in 1945. There he was Chair- man Of the Commission drafting the Security Council provi- sions of the Charter. Lie went to London as the Chairman of the Norwegian delegation to the First General Assembly, which elected him the first Secretary-General of the United Nations on 1 February 1946. Lie adOpted a cautious approach to administration. For the most part he followed the plans for the structure of the Secretariat formulated by the Preparatory Commission and accepted by the General Assembly. His first task was to fill the table of organization with which he was presented upon his election. Lie recalls that "the instructions were so detailed that they limited my freedom of action."2 8 1For a more complete biographical outline, see infra, p. 3. 2Lie, op. cit., p. 43. When the League of Nations came into operat on, e Secretariat had already been organized under the leadership and insight of Sir Eric Drummond, su ra, p. 15. In contrast, when Lie was appointed the United Regions was already "a going concern which had to be serviced con- tinuously, and with no delay..." Ibid., pp. 43-44. 56 As originally established in 1946, the Secretariat consisted of an Executive Office of the Secretary-General and eight major departments. These departments were: (1) Security Council Affairs, (2) Economic Affairs, (3) So- cial Affairs, (4) Trusteeship and Information from Non-Self- Governing Territories, (5) Public Information, (6) Adminis- trative and Financial Services, (7) Conference and General Services, and (8) the Legal Department. The first four departments were related organically to the Councils, while the other four were organized along functional lines.1 Each was headed by an Assistant Secretary-General, appointed for a five-year term. Lie considered the choice of the Assistant Secretaries- "2 He soon discovered that General to be his "first concern. the permanent members Of the Security Council had agreed to request and see that one of the tOp posts was allotted to a national of each Of them. While strictly speaking this Big Five understanding was not binding on the Secretary- 1The Preparatory Commission had several alternatives when discussing plans for the organization of the Secretariat. The main ones were the "organic" theory, under which separate units of the Secretariat would be assigned to each of the various UN organs, and the "functional" theory, according to which the Secretariat would be set up on the basis of the main kinds of work to be performed. The recommended structure represented a compromise between these two theories. Carne- gie Endowment for International Peace, United Nations Secre- tariat, p. 14. 2Lie, op. cit., p. 45. 57 General, Lie "welcomed the understanding as a sign of good will and confidence between East and West."1 Of the eight original Assistant Secretaries-General, five were in London either as delegates to the General Assembly or as committee members of the Preparatory Commis- sion. Three had been associated with the League of Nations.2 The eight were appointed by Lie from candidates submitted to him by Member States at his request.3 Nationals of the following countries were appointed to head the maJor de— partments as follows: a U.S.S.R. Security Council Affairs United Kingdom Economic Affairs France Social Affairs China Trusteeship Czechoslovakia Legal Department Chile Public Information The Netherlands Conference and General Services United States Administrative and Financial Services5 Thus, five of the eight were from Europe, one from Asia, one 1Lie, OE. cit., p. 45. 2Has, Kerno, and Pelt; see infra, pp. 103, 108, 119. 3"I felt it was both necessary and desirable to secure nominations from the governments, particularly for positions of fige rank of Assistant Secretary-General." Lie, op. cit., p. . “In Lie's interpretation, "that the Soviet Union wanted one of its nationals to fulfill the premier Assistant Sec- retaryship could be taken as another indication of serious Soviet interest in the United Nations..." Ibid., p. #5. 5It has been suggested that the United States asked for this post, concerned with the internal administration rather than with the external projection of the Secretariat, because "they thought that the administrative tail would wag the dog." In Lie's view, however, this may better be explained as a United States effort "to reassure the other delegates against the impression that the United Nations would be an 'American show'." Ibid., p. “7. 58 from North America, and one from Latin America. During Lie's tenure, when a national of one of the permanent members of the Security Council departed, he was replaced by a national of the same country. Lie said his understanding of the Big Five agreement was "that it was meant to apply for the five years which I should serve as Secretary-General" and that it "would not necessarily apply after that."1 In this con- nection, it is important to recall that the Secretary-General did have the final choice as to the actual selection of those to be appointed Assistant Secretaried-General. To bring about a broader geographical distribution, in 1949 Lie ap- pointed an Indian2 to replace the Assistant Secretary—General for Conference and General Services, a Dutch national. In 1952, when a Czechoslovakian national, head of the Legal De- partment, retired, a Greek Jurist3 was appointed to succeed him. In addition, although his post turned out to be only a temporary one, an Australian civil servant“ was appointed in 1948 as a ninth Assistant Secretary-General to coordinate internal matters. Lie regarded the Assistant Secretaries-General as "my official 'cabinet', available for advice on all matters--- 11b1d., p. 46. 2See La11, infra, p. 110. 3See Staerpoulos. infra, p. 124. “See Jackson, infra, p. 105. 59 not least questions relating to their respective 'home areas'."1 Lie's 'cabinet' usually met twice a week. Its emphasis has been described as highly specialized: "it is more a question of reporting the work of the departments than of evolving genral policy."2 Moreover, "there is policy discussion, but no voting, and the Secretary-General, like the [U.SJ President, takes sole responsibility for all decisions."3 From the beginning, Lie delegated to his immediate sub- ordinates broad administrative authority, and as he came to emphasize his political responsibilities, he eventually delegated most of his administrative duties.“ He had first approached his administrative tasks with confidence. With his background as Norway's Minister of Trade and Industries and later of Supply and Shipping, he felt that he "knew ad- ministration--to the extent, at any rate, that national 1Lie, op. cit., p. 51. 2Schwebel, The Secretary-General of the United Nations, p. 131. 3Ibid. “Schwebel, author of one of the most comprehensive re- ports on Lie's tenure as Secretary-General, points out that Lie "formally delegated to the Assistant Secretary-General in charge of Administrative and Financial Services virtually all of the administrative job." Ibid., p. 129. In contrast, the League's Secretaries-General Had devoted considerable attention to internal affairs and administrative matters. In 1951, Sir Eric replied to Schwebel's query: "I do not feel able to make any comparison between my methods of ap- proach and those of Mr. Trygve Lie. It must be remembered that the atmosphere of the League and of the United Nations are completely incomparable." Ibid., p. 271, n79. 6O administration bears upon international."1 He was soon to find out that the difficulties of international administra- tion exceed the difficulties of national bureaucracies many times. The question of international loyalty--certain1y not an issue in national bureaucracies--as a crucial element of the Secretariat has brought the United Nations into direct clash with the policies of certain Member States which, guarding national loyalties and interests, view international loyalty with some misgivings. During Lie's period of office one of the most serious attacks upon the Organization was in fact based on the United States' investigations into the loyal- ties of its nationals employed in the Secretariat. Indeed, this unfortunate deve10pment2 has been described as "the greatest crisis in the history of the international secre- tariat."3 Pressure was applied on the Secretary-General demanding the firing of United States nationals who had admitted past membership in the Communist Party. In deal- ing with this crisis, Lie insisted on retaining final control 1Lie, op. cit., p. 43. 2An evaluatory article concludes that "besides causing a great loss of prestige to the United Nations, the whole incident of loyalty investigations into American members of the United Nations personnel also greatly hurt the cause of the United States, both in the United Nations amongst other delegations, and abroad." David A. Booth, "The United Nations, the United States, and the International Civil Service," Revue Internationale des Sciences Administratives xxx, (1955). p. 742. 3Mangene, 0p. cit., p. 207. 61 over personnel policy while at the same time recognizing the necessity of regaining United States confidence in the administration of the Secretariat.1 Another influential Member State with which Lie's poli- cies seriously clashed was the Soviet Union. For a number of reasons, including his stand on United Nations actions in Korea, the Soviet Union had levelled a concentrated attack upon Lie, culminating in a flat refusal to recognize him as Secretary-General upon the beginning of his extended term in February 1951. After that date all Soviet communications with the United Nations were addressed not to the Secretary- General but only to the Secretariat. The effectiveness of the office of the Secretary-General thus sharply decreased, Lie announced to the General Assembly in November 1952 his decision to resign. His successor was finally selected the following March and on 7 April 1953, after seven years and two months in office, Trygve Lie delivered his farewell address as the first Secretary-General of the United Nations. In expressing his views on the role of the Secretary- General, Lie had once declared: "The Secretary-General must be a diplomat, a...politica11y minded man, and he must un- derstand his duty to keep the Organization together...He must be ready to compromise, and at the same time he must 10n the problem of allegiance, and for a summary of this incident, see Mangone, o . cit., pp. 202-211. For Lie's views, see Chapter XXI, "The Communist Issue in the Secretariat," Lie, op. cit., pp. 386-405. 62 never lose sight of the Charter's ideals...It is not an easy Job."1 Dag Hammarskjold "You are taking over the world's most impossible Job." Such were Lie's greetings upon welcoming his successor, who arrived in New York in April 1953. Dag HJalmar Agne Carl HammarskJold2 was born on 29 July 1905 in Jonkoping in south-central Sweden, the fourth son of Sweden's World War I Prime Minister. He was educated at Upsala University, where he earned a Bachelor of Laws in 1930. Three years later he received his doctorate in economics from the University of Stockholm. After a successful career in government finance, he was appointed to the Foreign Office in 19u7. He became Deputy Foreign Minister in 1951. His first contact with the United Nations was as a delegate; he was Vice-Chairman of the Swedish delegation to the 1951 General Assembly and Acting Chairman of his country's delegation to the 1952 General Assembly. Although a respected Swedish civil servant, Hammarskjold was little known to the world in 1953. He is reported to have been selected mainly because the big powers expected him to be an efficient and unobtrusive administrator who would avoid a 1Quoted in Schwebel, The Secretary-General of the United Nations, p. 56. E32For a more complete biographical outline, see infra, p. 2. 63 politically controversial role.1 His first year in office was indeed devoted to administrative responsibilities--- "to taking hold of the Organization and to restoring the morale of the Secretariat."2 He was, however, to be more than simply an administrator. He became an international statesman, multiplying the stature and the influence of his office. On the whole, his period in office was marked by dynamism in administration, by energetic interpretation of his functions, by positive overtures in promoting wel- fare around the world, and by successful efforts to bring about compromise solutions of dangerous issues. When Hammarskjold first took office, staff morale in the Secretariat was at a low point, partly because its original idealism has been decimated by frustration but largely because of the United States loyalty investigations. His predecessor had even allowed FBI investigations to be conducted at United Nations headquarters. One of Hammarskjold's first moves was 1"A sort of confidential clerk"---as he remarked to an interviewer at the time. Cited in Joseph P. Lash, "Dag Hammarskjold's Conception of His Office," 'International Organization, XVI (Summer 1962), p. 542. Hammarskjold's civil service ideal was in fact reflected in his statement to the press upon arrival in New York: "In my new official capacity the private man will disappear and the international public servant will take his place. The public servant is there in order to assist, so to say from the inside, those who take the decisions which frame history. He should--- as I see it---1isten, analyze and learn to understand fully the forces at work and the interests at stake, so that he will be able to give the right advice when the situation calls for it." Foote, op. cit., p. 27. ueLash, "Dag Hammarskjold's Conception of His Office," p. 5 2. 64 to order United States agents off the premises.1 He then set out to raise staff members' morale by defending their inde- pendence from outside pressures, by becoming easily accessible to them, and by increasing the importance of their role. He publicly stated that "within the limits set by government action and government cooperation," the United Nations "de- pends on what the Secretariat makes of it."2 By repeatedly stressing the role of the Secretariat---"the international priesthood," as he often referred to it---Hammarskjold was successful in raising the stature and importance, and thus the morale and output, of the Secretariat. In his first official communication with a United Nations organ, Hammarskjold declared that he would defer action on Lie's proposals for the reorganization of the Secretariat.3 While he agreed that the top-level organization was not wholly satisfactory, he proceeded to reorganize it in a direction 1Their presence, he commented to friends, was "intoler- able, absolutely intolerable." Ibid., p. #9. 2In his address at the University of California United Nations Convocation, 25 June 1945. Foote, op. cit., p. 93. 3Several years after he had been in office, Lie con- cluded that the number of his top assistants "might be reduced to three (or four) provided they were of the highest caliber and could be selected freely by the Secretary-General according to his needs---and without having to please every- one." He prOposed to the General Assembly that the eight Assistant Secretaries-General be replaced by three Deputy Secretaries-General, each to head a maJor grou of departments. (GAOR: 7th. Sess., Annexes, Agenda item 69, A/g214, 7 October 1952.) However, he resigned before implementing his proposals for the restructuring of the top level of the Secretariat. 65 opposite to that prOposed by his predecessor.1 His maJor reorganization plan was announced in August 1954 to take ef- fect on 1 January 1955. It abolished the post of Assistant Secretary-General and superseded the assignment of the top posts agreed upon in 1945 by the permanent members of the Security Council. Under his 1955 reorganization of the Secretariat, Ham- marskJold abolished the Department of Administrative and Financial Services and divided the Department of Conference and General Services into a Department of Conference Services and an Office for General Services. He also consolidated the two top grades within the Secretariat---those of Assistant Secretary-General and of Principal Director---into one rank, that of“UndenSecretary. Seven officials were thus elevated to this rank. In addition, Hammarskjold created new positions for two Under-Secretaries without Portfolio2 to undertake special assignments and to serve as his maJor advisers. As a result, there were fifteen Under-Secretaries in 1955.3 Besides the two without Portfolio, they included the following 1The two differed in their attitudes towards administra- tion. "I never loved administrative details," Lie later wrote Lie, 0 . cit., p. 43. "Hammarskjold, unlike Lie, was interested in adenIstration and wished to bring the administrative units under his own personal supervision." Bailey, op. cit., p. 71. 2Later to be called Under-Secretaries for Special Polit- ical Affairs. While the two officials originally appointed were nationals from the Soviet Union and from the United States, these positions have not necessarily been reserved for the two super-powers. 3The number of officials with the rank of Under—Secretary increased steadily during Hammarskjold's tenure. By 1961, when Hammarskjold died, there were 25 officials with such a 66 Under-Secretaries with essentially administrative duties as heads of principal deparments: (l) for Political and Security Council Affairs; (2) for Economic and Social Affairs; (3) for Trusteeship and Information from Non-Self-Governing Territo- ries; (4) for Public Information; (5) for Conference Services; (6) Legal Counsel; (7) Executive Assistant to the Secretary- General; (8) Controller; (9) Director of Personnel; (10) Di- rector, Office of General Services; (11) Director General, Technical Assistance Administration; (12) Executive Director, United Nations International Emergency Children's Fund; and (13) Executive Chairman, Technical Assistance Board. From 1955 to the end of HammarskJold's tenure, the Under-Secretaries were nationals of the following countries: Without Portfolio.......................United States1 without Portfolio.............U.s.s.R.? U.K.§ India“ Political and Security Council...Yugoslavia? U.S.S.R.6 rank. There seemed to be a clear distinction in stature be- tween those at Headquarters and those stationed elsewhere. Those in the last category included the Direcotr of the United Nations Office in Geneva, the Executive Secretaries of the four regional economic commissions, and representatives on special field missions. For a omplete listing of all Under- Secretaries, see infra, pp. 85-87. 1See Bunche, infra, p. 94. 2See Tchernychev, infra, p. 127, and Dobrynin, infra, p. 98. 3See Trevelyan, infra, p. 128. “See Narasimhan, infra, p. 115. SSee Protitch, infra, p. 121. 6 See Dobrynin, infra, p. 98, and Arkadev, infra, p. 92. 67 Economic and Social Affairs......................France1 Trusteeship..........................Chile? Yugoslavia3 4 Public Information.. ..... Pakistan, South Africa?srazil6 Conference Services...............................China7 8 Legal Counsel...................... ...... ........Greece Executive Assistant..... ..... .............United States9 Controller.................................New Zealand10 11 Personnel........United Kingdom, United States}2 U.K.13 14 16 General Services.........................United States Technical Assistance Administration....Canada}5 Panama UNICEF...................................United Statesl7 Technical Assistance Board ..... .........United Kingdom18 UN Special Fund..........................United States19 The next maJor reorganization proposal originated with the Soviet Union. Displeased with HammarskJold's performance as Secretary-General and in sharp disagreement with some of 1See 38cc 5See 7See gsee 11See 13See 15See 17See Hamilton, infra, p.100. de Seynes, infra, p.97. 2See Cohen, infra, p.95. Protitch, infra, p.121. ”See Bokhari, infra, p.93. Katzin, infra, p.106. 6See Tavares de Sa, infra, p.126. Hoo, infra, p.103. 8See Stavropoulos, infra, p.124. Cordier, infra, p.96. 10See Turner, infra, p.129. Robertson, infra, p.122. 128ee McDiarmid, infra, p.113. 1nSee Vaughan, infra, p.130. Keenleyside, infra, p.107. 16See Heurtematte, infra, p.101. Pate, infra, p.118 18See Owen, infra, p.117. 19(Established in 1959); see Hoffman, infra, p.102. 68 his decisions and recommendations, particularly in regard to the Congo crisis, the Soviet Union in 1960 insisted that the Secretary-General be replaced by three executive officers.1 Under the Soviet prOposal, each would be selected to represent the three groups of states (socialist, Western, and neutral- ist) into which the world was siad by the U.S.S.R.'s delegation to be divided. This proposal, known as the "troika", never became popular in the General Assembly and "evoked virtually no support outside fie Soviet bloc."2 A month later President Sékou Touré of Guinea presented the "sub-troika" proposal, which had first been advanced by President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Under this proposal, the Secretary-General would not be replaced bfizwould be assisted by a group of three Assistant Secretaries-General to be selected "in accordance with the proposals made by the countries representing the three main political trends in the United Nations."3 They were not to lAddressing the General Assembly, Chairman of the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministers Nikita Khrushchev declared: "We consider it advisable to set up, in the place of the Secretary-General who is at present the interpreter and executor of the decisions of the General Assembly and the Security Council, a collective executive organ of the United Nations consisting of three per- sons each of whom would represent a certain group of States. That would provide a definite guarantee that the work of the United Nations executive organ would not be carried on to the detriment of any one of these groups of States. The United Nations executive organ would then be a genuinely democratic organ; it would really guard the interests of all States mem- bers of the United NationS...." GAOR: 15th Sess., 869th Ple- nary Mtg., 23 September 1960, para. 285. 2Bailey, Op. cit., p. 76. 3GAOR: 15th Sess., 896th Plenary Mtg., 10 October 1960, para. 80. 69 be merely assistants to the Secretary-General but official representatives with clearly defined authority, whose opinions he could not dismiss lightly. The two proposals reflected the recognition of the Secretariat's role and involvement in political matters. If put into effect, however, such prOposals would have seriously undermined the authority and independence of the Secretary- General, if not the effectiveness of the Secretariat. Al- though the Secretary-General can and does take political stands, he may do so only on an international and impartial basis, not in subordination to any country or group of countries. Hammarskjold believed he should express with. "full frankness" his views in regard to issues before the Organization, but that his conclusions "must be completely detached from any national interest or policy and based sclely on the principles and ideals to which the governments have adhered as Members of the U.N."1 In response to the remark by Khrushchev that "while there are neutral countries, there are no neutral men," Hammarskjold pointed out that such a belief challenged the "basic tenets in the philosophy of both the League of Nations and the United Nations." He added that if the innovations in international life represented by such organizations-~51 particular the introduction of "Joint per- manent organs, employing a neutral civil service, and the use of such organs for executive purposes on behalf of all the hlLaSh, "Dag Hammarskjold's Conception of His Office," Po 5 3. 70 members of the organization"---were found to be based on a false assumption because "no man can be neutral", the result would be that "we would be thrown back to 1919, and a searching re-appraisal would become necessary."1 Firmly believing in the existence of international civil servants, Hammarskjold insisted on retaining his sixteen Under-Secretaries stationed at Headquarters, but indicated a willingness to have five of them---to be selected by him on a broad geographical basis---to serve as his special advisors on political matters. He emphasized his desire to have them selected on a geographical or regional basis, rather than a mere political one.2 In 1960, the Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions, a permanent committee established by the General Assembly, recommended "the desirability of having another over-all review of the organization of the Secretar- iat."3 It was pointed out that the membership of the Organ- ization, as well as the volume and scOpe of the activities of the Secretariat, had increased significantly since the previous survey of the Secretariat in 1954-55. Accordingly, the General Assembly requested the Secretary-General to appoint a Committee of Experts to work with him in a survey and review of the organization of the Secretariat with a view to making pertinent recommendations. The Committee of Experts submitted 1UN Doc., A/4794, 30 June 1961, paras. 6-20. 2GAOR: 14th Sess., 1959, Suppl. No. 7 (a/4170), para 41. 71 its final report to HammarskJold in June 1961. In his last Annual Report on the work of the Organization, Hammarskjold wryly underscored that "the Committee of Experts was unable to agree on any single proposal as regards the organization at the tOp level."1 The committee had been divided on most of the major issues it considered. Hammarskjold pointed out that the Soviet expert had restated the declarations made by Khrushchev at the General Assembly. Three members "favoured the maintenance of the present structure at the Under-Secretary level but suggested that political questions be handled by three Deputy Secretaries-General."2 This was a reflection of the sub-troika proposal. Other members suggested "the grouping of Secretariat activities into eight organizational units, each to be headed by a top-level official."3 The Secretary-General was not bound by the recommendations of the Committee of EXperts, and Hammarskjold's preference was to have five instead of two Under-Secretaries for Special Polit- ical Affairs. The five "would be fully integrated in the work of the whole group of Under-Secretaries at Headquarters." He felt they "should be interchangeable and any of them should be available for ad hoc assignments of a political or diplo- matic character."u Fully recognizing the preponderance of 1GAOR: 16th Sess., Supplement No. 1, A/4800, Chapter VI, "Administrative and Budgetary Question," pp. 177-178. 2Ibid. 3Ibid. "Ibid. 72 Western nationals within the top level of the Secretariat, Hammarskjold was thus formulating his second maJor reorgan- ization in an attempt to institute a more representative system.1 He died before he could put this plan into effect.2 U Thant The eldest of four sons of a prOSperous landowner, U Thant3 was born on 22 January 1909 at Pantanaw, Burma. He was educated at the National High School and at the University College in Rangoon. His early years were spent 1Joseph P. Lash, Da Hammarskjold: Custodian of the Brushfire Peace (Garden gity,New YOrk: Doubleday—& co.,. 2When Hammarskjold died he was on a peace mission, flying to engage in cease-fire talks with Katanga's President Moise Tshombe. The General Assembly's Sixteenth Session was to Open the day after his death, and his "Introduction to the Secretary-General's Report on the Work of the Organization" is now considered his political testament. (GAOR: 16th Sess., Suppl. No. 2, A/4800). The world reacted as if a statesman of the first magnitude had died. The President of the United States rushed to New York to assure the Organiza- tion of his country's continued support. However, as in the case of Lie, the Soviet Union dissented; for some time the Soviets had refused to recognize Hammarskjold as Secretary- General. Upon his tragic death, the members Of the Security Council issued the following statement: "Mr. HammarskJold's death is a great loss to the Secretariat, to the United Nations and to all member states. Secretary-General Hammarskjold was an outstanding leader in recent years in strengthening world peace. His extraordinary diplomatic skill has helped carry the United Nations through many crises and has developed the organization into an important instrument in building a peace- ful world community." The Soviet Union's representative refused to support the Counnl. members' statement, on the grounds that "the Soviet Union is known not to have recognized Mr. Hammarskjold as an official of the United Nations and does not share the appraisal of his political activites which is contained in the communique." The New York Times, 19 Sep- tember 1961, p. 16. 3For a more complete biographical outline, see infra, p.84. 73 .in educational and information work; he was also active as a free-lance Journalist. In 1947 he was appointed Burma's Press Director. On several occasions, he served as Advisor to the Prime Minister and in that capacity attended several international conferences. In 1957 he became his country's Ambassador to the United Nations, a post he held until his election as Acting Secretary-General in November 1961. The reorganization at the tOp level of the Secretariat was one of the first maJor issues he encountered. At the same time, both East and West attempted to influence him in his choice of political advisors. The Soviet Union insisted on three top aides, chosen to represent the world's three main political groups and whose advice the Secretary-General would be obliged to follow. The United States, on the other hand, based its recommendation on the plan prOposed by Hammarskjold. It suggested that five Under-Secretaries be selected, having advisory roles in political affairs in addition to their administrative responsibilities. Other countries argued that there should be four such Officials and, since the Secretary-General came from Asia, that the four should come reapectively, from Africa, Latin, America, Eastern EurOpe, and North America. Asian representatives were quick to point out that the Secretary-General would not "re- present" Asia and thus reasoned that if regions were to be re- presented, Asia---with half of the total population of the world---would also have to be represented independently among 74 the principal advisors.1 Several Western EurOpean nations, objecting to being left out, wanted the number increased to six. The Soviet Union then countered with a prOposal of seven in order to ensure one such post for a national of another Soveit bloc country.2 On November 1961, Thant announced in his acceptance address that he intended to invite a limited number of persons to act as his principal advisors. He indicated that his paramount consideration would be to secure the highest stand- ards of efficiency, competence, and integrity, and that he would pay due regard to the importance of wide geographical distribution. On 29 December 1961, Thant revealed that under his reorganization of the tOp level of the Secretariat he would select eight Under-Secretaries to serve as his principal advisors. At the time there were sixteen officials Of Under- Secretary rank at Headquarters and fifteen stationed elsewhere. Those chosen by Thant to serve as his top advisors were selected on a wide geographical basis and included nationals of Brazil, Czechoslovakia, France, India, Nigeria, The Soviet Union, the United Arab Republic, and the United States. The number chosalrecalls the fact that Lie also had eight prin- cipal advisors in his "cabinet". HOwever, of Lie's eight, five were nationals of the permanent members of the Security lC.V. Narasimhan, "Administrative Changes in the Secre- tariat," Annual Review of United Nations Affairs 1961-62 (New York: New‘YOrk University Press,‘1963), p.72. 2Bailey, op. cit., pp. 78-79. 75 Council. In contrast, only three nationals of permanent members were among those selected by Thant to serve as his principal advisors. A related fact of some significance is Thant's statement, upon announcing the selection Of his top advisors, that he was reserving the right to consult them collectively, individually, or not at all.1 To emphasize the fact that the eight principal advisors are not a "cabinet", Thant holds concurrent and regular Friday morning meetings---similar to those Hammarskjold used to have---with all the Under-Secretaries. One of the eight tOp advisors reports that Thant has been "particularly eager to dispel the notion that there is a hierarchy of Under-Secretaries, the principal advisers and the not—so-principal advisers."2 He reports that the principal advisors have "very few special perquisites" and that the Secretary-General "has been at pains to emphasize that, in departmental affairs, every Under- Secretary is a principal adviser."3 The perennial argument on the prOper geographical dis— tribution has been intensified under Thant, particularly by the demands Of the Soviet Union to gain "adequate" representa- tion in the Secretariat. Thant has admitted that the Soviets remain well below the number and range of posts in the Secre- tariat to which they are entitled. Under the present formula, 1United Nations Doc. SG/1102, 29 December 1961. 2Narasimhan, Op. cit., p. 3. 3Ibid., pp. 3-4. 76 the Soviet Union could have nationals in 140 posts at the professional level outside of language and other categories 1 During 1961, the not under geographical distribution. number of Soviet nationls in the Secretariat was increased by 50%, rising from forty to Sixty staff members. None- theless, there is still a difference of eighty between the "quota" Of 140 and the sixty on the Secretariat staff. Factors explaining the low number of Soviet citizens in the Secretariat include a number of Soviet practices which hamper recruitment. For instance, the Soviet Union has always insisted that the United Nations select candidates for appointment in the Secretariat from lists submitted by Moscow instead Of permitting direct recruitment. A second factor working against an increase in the number of Soviet nationals in the Secretariat is the Soviet practice Of recalling its citizens after they have served with the United Nations for only a year or two.2 An additional fact helping explain lIbide 9 ppe 5-6. 2Professor Goodrich, an authority on the United Nations and a member of the Committee of Experts on the Organization Of the Secretariat, observes that the U.S.S.R.'s demand "that more Soviet nationals be employed is a reasonalbe one; the difficulty arises when it comes to implementation. By denying the whole conception of international career service, by seeking to place its nationals in what it regards as key policy positions, by denying the possibility Of free recruitment, by insisting that all appointments be made from persons prOposed and approved by the government for short terms, and by taking the position that its nationals refuse fixed-term career appointments, the Soviet Union makes the task of the Secretary- General in meeting its request for increased participation of its nationals extremely difficult, if not impossible." Leland M. Goodrich, "Geographical Distribution of the Staff Of the Sec- retariat," International Ogganization, XVI (Summer 1962), p. 481. 77 the low number of Soviet citizens in the Secretariat is sim- ply that "in the past, the U.S.S.R. was not interested in filling the posts."1 The Soviet Union is not the only country with a smaller number of nationals in the Secretariat than it should have if a proper geographical distribution of posts is to be achieved. Several countries in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa are also under-represented. Under Thant, measures have been taken to answer their demands to have more of their nationals in the Secretariat. In October 1962, the Secretary-General reported that twenty-six Africans had been added to the. staff since his period in Office began a year earlier. The same report indicated that, "by coincidence", the Eastern EurOpean countries had picked up a total Of twenty-seven posts at the same time that the Western EurOpean and North American total was cut by twenty-seven.2 This report served to under- score the fact that in order to reach a prOportionate geograph- ical distribution those countries which have been over-repre- sented in the past will have their quotas reduced to permit the appointment of additional nationals from under-represented Member States. Thus compounded, the question of a "proper" geographical distribution is likely to continue to plague the United Nations for some time---not only in terms of Soviet protests but also due to the increasing demands of the new emerging nations. lNarasimhan, op. cit., p. 6. 10 1 2The New York Times, 26 October 1962, 2:5; 30 October 1962, .78 Since U Thant assumed the top post in the Secretariat, the major departments have been headed by nationals of the following Member States: Special Political Affairs...............United States1 Special Political Affairs...India? U.A.R.; Yugoslavian Political and Security Council ............... U.S.S.R.5 Economic and Social Affairs ......... ...........France6 Trusteeship.................. ..... Yugoslavia? Nigeria8 Public Information.. ........ ........... ........ Brazil9 Conference ServiceS.... ........ .. ..... Czechoslovakia10 Legal Counsel...0.00.00...00....OOOOOOOCOOOOOOGreecell Personne1.. ....................... ....United Kingdom12 General Services.......................Un1ted Statesl3 Controller....... ......... . ....... . ...... New Zealand14 Technical Assistance Administration............Ch1na15 UNICEF. ....... . ..... ..... ...... ........United States16 Technical Assistance Board............United Kingdom17 1See Bunche, infra, p.94. 23cc Narasimhan, igEgg, p.115. 3See Loutfi, infra, p.110. "See Protitch, $2231, p.121. 5See Kiselev, infra, p.109 and Suslov, gpgpp, p.125. 6See de Seynes, infra, p.97. 7See Protitch, $3233, p.121. 8See Amachree, infra, p.90. 9See Tavares de Sa, 1333:, p.126. 10See Nosek, infra, p.116. 11See Stavropoulos, ipfgg, p.124. 12See MacFarquhar, infra, p.114. 13See Vaughan, infra, p.130. 1"See Turner, infra, p.129. 15See HOO, infra, p.103. 16See Pate, infra, p.118. 17See Owen, infra, p.117. 79 Special Fund.......... ....... ....United States1 , Panama2 Industrial Development... ..... O.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOUOAOROB In all, forty-three Officials have been appointed to serve at Headquarters with the rank of Under-Secretary or its equivalent since 1946. All are directly responsible to the Secretary-General, whose role as the chief administra- .tive officer of the United Nations was described above. Each of the three Secretaries-General has organized the top echelon of the Secretariat differently. The number of Under-Secretaries has increased steadily, partly due to the increased demands placed upon the Secretariat but also as a means to secure a more proportionate geographical distribution of the top Offices. Each of these Under-Secretaries will be considered individually in the next chapter. 1See Hoffman, infra, p. 102. 2Post of Associate Managing Director, Special Fund, established in January 1962. See Heurtematte, infra, p. 101. 3Post of Commissioner for Industrial DevelOpment estab- lished in August 1963. See Abdel-Rahman, infra, p. 89. C H A P T E R I I I BIOGRAPHICAL DATA ON THE TOP FUNCTIONARIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS SECRETARIAT, 1946 to 1964 The biographical data presented in this chapter are drawn primarily from the following sources: (1) United Na- tions publications, including documents and official press re- leases; (2) international and national biographical directories; (3) foreign embassies and information agencies; (4) books and articles written by and about the officials here considered; and (5) The New York Times. All sources are listed in the Bibliography. A number Of difficulties were encountered in assembling these data. Most United Nations publications make only brief mention of Secretariat Officials. Many national biographical directories do not list Secretariat members, perhaps because they are not always nationally prominent, or perhaps out of reSpect for their international character. Although most for- eign embassies replied to the writer's requests for biograph- ical data, only a few provided the information requested. The names of several Officials considered in this snidy were spelled differently in different sources, thus complicating the research. Fortunately, The New York Times proved very helpful, and much of the information presented below was se- cured through its columns. 80 81 The Secretaries-General National of 1. Hammarskjold, Dag Hajlmar Agne Carl Sweden Served 10 April 1953 to 18 September 1961 2. Lie, Trygve Halvdan Norway Served 2 February 1946 to 9 April 1953 3. Thant, U Burma Served 3 November 1961 - 82 HAMMARSKJOLD, Dag Hjalmar Age Carl Swedish civil servant Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: 29 July 1905 in Jonkoping, Sweden. Upsala University, B.A. in history Of French literature, social philosophy and politi- cal economy, with honors, 1925; "filosofic licenciat" in economics, 1928; Bachelor of Laws, 1930. Stockholm University, Ph.D. in economics, 1933. Assistant Professor in political economy, Stockholm University, 1933-34. Secretary, National Bank of Sweden, 1935-36; Permanent Under-Secretary, Ministry of Finance 1936-45; ' Chairman Of the National Bank's Board, 1941-48; Adviser to the Cabinet, 1945-47; Under-Secretary, Foreign Office, 1947-49; Secretary-General, Foreign Office, 1949-51' Minister without Portfolio, 1951; Deupty Foreign Minister, 1951-53. Delegate to the 1947 Paris Conference when Mar- shall Plan machinery was established; to the 1948 Paris Conference of the Organization for European Economic COOperation; to UNISCAN, established to promote economic co- Operation between the United Kingdom and Scandinavian countries. Appointed Secretary-General on 7 April 1953. Elected to a second five-year term in September 1957. Died in plane accident in Niola, Rhodesia on 18 September 1961. 83 ILIE, Trygve Halvdan Norwegian politician ‘Born: Educated: Employment: .Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: 16 July 1896 in Oslo, Norway. Oslo University, law degree, 1919. Assistant to the Secretary of Labor Party, 1919-22; Legal Adviser, Norwegian Trade Union Federation, 1922-1935. Minister of Justice, 1935-39; Minister Of Trade and Industries, 1939; Minister of Supply and Ship ing, 1939-40; Acting Foreign Minister, l9 0; Foreign Minister, 1941-46. Chairman, delegation to UNCIO, San Francisco, 1945: Chairman, delegation to First General Assembly, London, 1946 Chairman, Security Council Commission, UNCIO; Elected first Secretary-General of the UN in January 1946, installed on 2 February 1946; The General Assembly continued Lie in office for a further three years from 1 February 1951. Resigned in November 1952, welcomed Hammarskjold in April 1953. Appointed Governor of Oslo and Akershus, 1953-63; Minister Of the Department of Industries, 1963; Minister of the Department of Commerce, 1964. 'THANT, U TBorn: Educated: Government service: UN service: an Burmese diplomat 22 January 1909 in Pantanaw, Burma. University College, Rangoon. Headmaster, National High School, 1931-46, (he succeeded Thakin Nu, later to become U Nu, Premier Of Burma); Secretary, Burma's Education Reorganization Committee under Japanese occupation govern— ment, 1942; Burma's Press Director, 1947- Director Of Broadcasting, 1948; Secretary, Ministry of Information, 1949; Secretary for Projects in the Office of the Prime Minister, 1953; . Executive Secretary, Burma's Economic and Social Board, 1955: Permanent Representative, UN, 1957-61. Traveled as Adviser to the Prime Minister to missions to Thailand and Indonesia, 1951; First Colombo Conference, Colombo,Ceylon, 1951' Second Colomb Conference, Bogor, Indonesia,l954; Asian-African Conference, Bandung, 1955; Third Colombo Conference, New Delhi, 1956; Asian Socialist Conference, Bombay, 1956; Belgrade Conference of Non-Aligned Nations, 1961. Appointed Acting Secretary-General on 3 November 1961 to complete the unexpired term of Hammar- skJold; Elected Secretary-General on 30 November 1962, to serve until 3 November 1966. 85 The Under-Secretaries Group I Officials appointed to Headquarters positions with Under-Secretary rank or its equivalent \Om-xloxm-trerI—J r4 +4 H H' F3 F4 +4 i4 14 H u) CD -4 Cl U1 4: to to 14 0 between 1946 and 1964 Name Abdel-Rahman, Ibrahim Helmi Amachree, Godfrey Kio Jaja Andersen, Hans Christian Arkadyev, Georgi Petrovich Bokhari, Ahmed Shah Bunche, Ralph Johnson Cohen, Benjamin Cordier, Andrew Wellington de Seynes, Philippe Dobrynin, Anatoly Fedorovich Georges-Picot, Guillaume Hamilton, William Aitken Brown Heurtematte, Roberto Manuel Hoffman, Paul Gray HOO, Victor Chi-Tsai Hutson, John B. Jackson, Robert Gillman Allen Katzin, Alfred George Keenleyside, Hugh Llewellyn Country U.A.R. Nigeria Denmark U.S.S.R. Pakistan U.S.A. Chile U.S.A. France U.S.S.R. France U.K. Panama U.S.A. China U.S.A. Australia South Africa Canada Page 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 2o. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 86 Name Kerno, Ivan Stephen Kiselev, Evgeny Dmitrievich La11, Shamaldharee Laugier, Henri Loutfi, Omar McDiarmid, John MacFarquhar, Sir Alexander Narasimhan, Chakravarthi V. Nosek, Jiri Owen, Arthur David Kemp Pate, Maurice Pelt, Adrian Price, Byron Protitch, Dragoslav Robertson, John Archibald Campbell Sobolev, Arkady Aleksandrovich Staerpoulos, Constantin Anghelos Suslov, Vladimir P. Tavares de Sa, Hernane Tchernychev, Ilya Semenovich Trevelyan, Sir Humphrey Turner, Bruce Vaughan, David B. Zinchenko, Konstantin Emilianovich Country Czechoslovakia U.S.S.R. India France U.A.R. U.S.A. U.K. India Czechoslovakia U.K. U.S.A. The Netherlands U.S.A. Yugoslavia U.K. U.S.S.R. Greece U.S.S.R. Brazil U.S.S.R. U.K. New Zealand U.S.A. U.S.S.R. Page 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 122 123 124 ’ 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 87 Group II Officials of Under-Secretary rank at established offices overseas: I. Gardiner, Robert K. A. (Ghana); Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for Africa 2. Mayobre, Jose Antonio (Venezuela); Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for Latin America 3. Nyun, U (Burma); Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East 4. Spinelli, Pier P. (Italy); Under-Secretary, Director of the EurOpean Office Of the United Nations .5. Velebit, Vladimir (Yugoslavia); Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for Europe Group III Officials Of Under-Secretary rank in charge of missions, or special assignments (as of 1 August 1963) 1. Azfar, Muhammed (Pakistan); Special Representative of the SG, UN Mission in Mogadiscio, Somalia 2. Bull, Odd (Norway); Chief Of Staff, UN Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine 3. Davis, John H. (U.S.); Commissioner-General, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees 4. Dorsinville, Max H. (Haiti); Officer-in-Charge, UN Operations in Congo 5. Graham, Frank P. (U.S.); UN Representative, India and Pakistan 6. Kaldager, Christian (Norway); Commander, UN Force in Congo . Gyani, P. S. (India); Commander, UN Emergency Force . Prebisch, Raul (Argentina); Secretary-General, UN Conference on Trade and Development 9. Schnyder, Felix (Switzerland); UN High Commissioner for Refugees 10. von Horn, Carl Carlsson (Sweden); Commander, UN Yemem Observation Mission Officials on this a e not included in the fort -thre analyzed individuaIl§ in this study. y e 88 The following forty-three pages contain biographical composites on each of the Secretariat Officials who have been appointed to serve at Headquarters with the rank of Under-Secretary since the United Nations was established in 1946. 89 ABDEL-RAHMAN, Ibrahim Helmi (Egyptian educator and administrator) _g9mmissioner for Industrial Development Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: 1919 in Egypt Cairo University, Faculty of Science, 1938; London and Edinburgh universities, post-gradu- ate studies; Cambridge University, Ph.D., 1941 Leiden University. Professor, astronomy and astrophysics, Cairo University, 1942-54 Secretary-General, First Central Planning and Coordination Committee, 1952-54 ‘ Secretary-, Council of Ministers, 1954-59, Director, Egyptian Atomic Commission, 1955; Head of Technical Staff, National Planning Com- mittee, 1957; Director, Institute of National Planning, 1960-63 Established the Egyptian Atomic Energy Commission; Headed U.A.R. delegation to the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna; Participated in UN Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, 1955; Established the central science council which in 1962 gave rise to the Ministry Of Sci- entific Research in U.A.R.; Responsible for the preparation of the first five- year development plan (1960-65) now underway in U.A.R; Headed U.A.R. delegation to UN Conference on New Sources of Energy, Rome, 1961, and to UN Con- ference on the Application of Science and Tech- nology for the Benefit of the Less DevelOped Areas, Geneva, 1963. Member of UN expert committee on compensatory fin- ancing; Member of UN Special Fund expert team which con- sidered the establishment of Latin American Development Institute in Santiago, Chile. Appointed to present post in June 1963. 9O AMACHREE, Godfrey Kio JaJa (Nigerian attorney) Under-Secretary for Trusteeship and Information from Non- Self-Governing;Territories Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: 27 February 1918 in Buguma, Nigeria Government College, Umuahia King's College, Lagos Higher College, Yaba University College, University of London Pembroke College, Cambridge University Gray's Inn, London Q.C. (Queen's Counsel), LL.B.; Barrister-at-Law Nigerian Legal Department, 1949-55 Senior Crown Counsel, 1955 ' Acting Legal Secretary, South Cameroons, 1955 Acting Solicitor-General, Federation of Nigeria, 1957 Solicitor-General and Permanent Secretary, Federal Ministry of Justice, 1958-62 As Solicitor-General, Amachree was the principal legal adviser to the Government of Nigeria and represented the Crown in all civil litigations. As Permanent Secretary, he was responsible for all administrative matters pertaining to the Ministry. Under-Secretary in Charge of UN Civilian Operations in the Congo, from 1962 until appointed to present post in July 1963. 91 ANDERSEN, Hans Christian (Danish government budget expert) Controller, Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Post—UN positions: 1955 25 October 1906 in Frederiksberg, Denmark COpenhagen University, LL.B., 1931 Denmark Insurance Co., 1925-30 Insurance Society of Denmark, 1932-#2 Legal Adviser, Danish Ministry of Finance, 1932-42 Bureau of Budget and Secretariat for Ministry of Finance, 1938-42 Chief, Budget and National Debt Department, 1942-h6 Principal Director, Bureau of Finance, 1946-54 Appointed Controller effective 1 January 1955, resigned 3 February 1955. With Denmark Insurance Co.. 1956, Managing Director since 1962 Pension8and Annuity Institute, Chairman since 195 Board for the COpenhagen Insurance Society, Vice-Chairman since 1959. 92 ARKADYEV, Georgi Petrovich (Soviet diplomat) Under-Secretary for Political and Security Council Affairs, 1960-62 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: Remarks : In 1905 Economic Institute, Moscow Publishing and pedagogical activities, 1919-36 Joined Soviet diplomatic service, 1936 Head, Law Department, PeOple's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs, 1939- 44 Head, Economic Department, 194k- 47 Deputy Political Adviser, Soviet Military Ad- ministration, Germany, 19h7- M9 Counsellor, Soviet diplomatic mission to East Germany, 19h9- 51 Head, Fourth EurOpean Department, Foreign Minis- try, 1951-52 Head, U.S.A. Department, Foreign Ministry, 1952-53 Ambassador to Norway, 1954-56 Deputy Permanent Delegate to UN, 1956-60 Appointed Under-Secretary on 11 May 1960, resigned on 1 March 1962 Head, Department of International Economic Organizations, Soviet Foreign Ministry, since 1962. Arkadyev resigned due to the illness of his wife, but he had been criticized severely for passing notes to the Soviet delegate during a Security Council debate. 93 § BOKHARI, Ahmed Shah (Pakistani diplomat) 'Under-Secretary for Public Information, 1955-58 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Remarks : 1 October 1898 in Peshawar, India Punjab University, Lahore, M.A. Cambridege University, B.A. (honors) and M.A. (with first class honors) Elected senior scholar of Emmanuel College, Cambridge Professor of English Literature, National College, Lahore; Principal, 1947-5O Director-General, All- India Radio, during war years. 1939- 45 Head, India Goodwill Mission to Afghanistan, 19h2 Co-chairman, Commonwealth Broadcasting Conference, London, l9h5 Head, Pakistan Delegation, India Partition Negotiations, London, 19h? Head, Pakistan Delegation, International High Frequency8 Broadcasting Conference, Mexico City, Head, Pakistan Delegation,. Commonwealth Rela- tions Conference, Toronto, 1949 Pakistan representative, General Assembly, 1949 Permanent representative, General Assembly,l950-55 Served as political adviser to Hammarskjold on 195# trip to Peking Appointed to direct all UN information services in 1955 Became one of HammarskJold's closest advisers Died of a heart attack on 5 December 1958. Author of numerous short stories, plays and poems in Urdu and Persian Translated into Urdu and produced plays by Shaw and Shakespeare Was among those considered for Secretary-General in 1953 Upon his death an editorial of The New York Times praised him as a "citizen of:the world.... The world today is poorer for the passing of a man who gave us a better insight into what good things are possible in a better future." 94 BUNCHE, Ralph Johnson ( U.S. political scientist) 'tJdnder-Secretary for Special Political Affairs since 1952, Iamorn: Educated: Employment : Government service: UN service: Remarks : 7 August 1904 in Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A. University of California, Los Angeles, B.A. (cum laude), 1927 Harvard UniVersity, M.A., 1928; Ph.D., in government, 1934 Post-doctoral work, Northwestern University, London School of Economics, and University of Captetown, South Africa, 1936-37 Assistant in PoliticaI'Science, U.C.L.A., 1925-27 Howard University, instructor, 1928-29; assistant professor, 1929-33; assistant to the President, 1930-31; associate professor. 1933-38; pro- fessor, 1938-50; head of Political Science Department, 1929-50 Office of Strategic Services, British Empire Section, 1941-44 Deputy Chief, Near East-Africa Section, 1943 Chief, Africa Section, June 1943-January 1944 With Department of State, 1944-47 Assistant Secretary, U.S. delegation, Dumbarton Oaks, 1944 Advisez, U.S. delegation, UNCIO, San Francisco, 19 5 Adviser, U.S. delegation, UN Executive Committee, London, 1945 Adviseg,6 U.S. delegation, General Assembly, London, 19 Director, Trusteeship Department, 1946-48 Principal Director, Trusteeship Department,1948-54 Appointed to present post effective 1 January 1955. Has attended numerous international conferences, One of Hammarskjold's closet advisers, Succeeded Count Bernadotte as mediator of the Palestine crisis Awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 1950 Described as "a superb negotiator with an inti- mate knowledge of Africa and the Middle East" In charge of Congo civilian operations, 1963 The grandson of a slave, Bunche collaborated with Myrdal in An American Dilemma, 1944. 95 C OHEN, Benjamin ( Chilean diplomat) IEInder-Secretary for Trusteeship, 1955-57 JEBorn: Educated: Employment : Government 8 ervice : {111 service: I>c>st-UN service: Remarks : 18 March 1896 in Concepcion, Chile University of Chile, Ph.D., 1912 Georgetown University, M.S. (magna cum laude) 1927 Journalist specializing in international affairs, Editor of several Chilean dailies, 1911-22 Member of the Faculty, Georgetown University, 1927- 32 Entered diplomatic service as Press Attache, 1922 Secretary, Chilean Embassy, Washington, 1923-27 Charge d'Affaires, Chilean Embassy, Washington, 1932-33 - Charge d'Affaires on special mission to the govern- ments of Paraguay and Bolivia, 1933-34 Acting Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Santiago, 1934-36 Minister Resident, Foreign Office, 1936-39 Ambassador to Bolivia, 1939-45 Ambassador to Venezuela, 1945 Head, Information Section, Executive Committee . and Preparatory Commission, London, 1945-46 Chief, Information Planning Section, General Assembly, London, 1946 Assistant Secretary-General, Public Information, 1946-54 Appointed Under-Secretary for Trusteeship ef- fective 1 January 1955, resigned on 6 March 1957 Resigned in 1957 to become Executive Secretary of the World Federation of UN Associations Chilean Ambassador to the UN, 1958-60. Proficient in Spanish, English, French, Italian, Portuguese, and "has notions of Russian and German." Died of cancer on 12 March 1960. 96 CORDIER, Andrew Wellington (U.S. political scientist) ‘Under-Secretary for General Assembly Affairs, 1961-62 ZBorn: fEducated: Employment: Government service: IJN service: IPost-UN a ervice: Remarks : 3 March 1901 in Canton, Ohio, U.S.A. Manchester College, Indiana, B.A., 1922 University of Chicago, M.A., 1923; Ph.D., 1926 Research, Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, 1930-31 Study and travel, EurOpe, 1938-39; South America, 1941 Teacher, Greentown Hightown High School, Ohio, 1919-21 Chairman, Department of History and Political Science, Manchester College, 1927-44 Lecturer, social sciences, Indiana University, 1927-44 . Expert on international security, State Depart- ment, 1944-46 ' Technical expert, U.S. delegation to UNCIO, San Francisco, 1945 Chief, General Assembly Section, UN Preparatory Commission, 1945 Assistant to Executive Secretary, Preparatory Commission Assistant to President of First General Assembly, London, 1946 Executive Assistant to the Secretary-General, 1946-61 Appointed Under-Secretary for General Assembly Affairs in June 1961 Resigned in February 1962 Adviser, State Department, 1962-- Dean, School of International Relations, Columbia University, 1962--. Served as adviser to all Presidents of the General Assembly, 1946-61 . Was the official closest to the Secretary-General Shared the confidences of both Lie and Hammar- skJold Had maJor responsibility for coordination of UN programs and activities Also performed trouble-shooter assignments, went to Middle East in 1958 and to Congo in 1961 Resigned to facilitate the reorganization of the staff to give it wider geographic range. 97 de SEYNES, Philippe (French economist) ‘(Jnder-Secretary for Economic and Social Affairs since 1955 :EBorn: 4 January 1910 in Paris, France iEZducated: Faculty of Letters and Law, Paris, Licence en droit at lettres, Diplome d'etudes superieures de droit, Diplome de L'Ecole libre des sci- ences politiques C§overnment Clerk, Ministry of Finance, 1935-39 sservice: Assistant to the Inspection of Finance, 1939-45 Member, French Mission to Germany, later Assis- tant Secretary-General, Allied Reparations Agency, Brussels, 1945-49 Financial Adviser, French delegation to UN, 1949-54 On staff of Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1954 IIN service: Appointed to present post effective 1 January 1955. 98 IDOBRYNIN, Anatoly Fedorovich (Soviet diplomat) ‘Under-Secretary for Security Council Affairs, 1958-60 Born: Educated: (Government service: IJN service: I>ost-UN s ervice: Remarks : 16 November 1919 Graduated from a technical college before the outbreak of World War II Holds an M.S. in history Entered Soviet diplomatic service, 1944 With Soviet Embassy in Washington, 1952-54 As Minister-Counselor, Washington, 1954-55 Counselor with rank of Ambassador, Foreign Ministry, 1955 Member, Soviet delegation to London Conference on Suez Canal, 1956 Adviser to Soviet Delegation, UN, 1956 Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, appointed in July 1957 Under-Secretary for Security Council Affairs, appointed in 1958 to serve until 1 June 1963 Recalled in February 1960 to the Foreign Ministry Became head of the American Department, concerned with the entire Western Hemisphere Counselor, Soviet delegation at Big Four Confer- ence in Paris, 1960 Attendgd the Kennedy-Khrushchev meeting in Vienna, 19 1 Appointed to present post of U.S.S.R. Ambassador to the U.S. on 1 December 1963. Little is known about his early life or educa- tion It is reported that he is a Ukranian During the war he served as an engineer at an aircraft plant Although he is a member of the Communist Party, he has held no high party positions Accompanied HammarskJold in 1959 meeting with Khrushchev in the Crimea He speaks fluent English. 99 G EORGES-PIC OT, Guillaume ( French diplomat) lkssistant Secretary-General for the Department of Social 21nd Economic Affairs, 1951-54 Born: Educated: C30vernment 23ervice: ‘LIN service: I?ost-UN 3 ervice: 10 August 1898 at Etretat (Seine-Inf.),France University of Paris, Licencie en droit Attache, 1924 Secretary to Embassy, 1925-27 First Secretary, 1928, French Embassy, Moscow Clerk, Central Administration, Paris, 1930-33 Secretary, French Embassy, Sofia, 1933 Assistant Consul, Bangkok, 1934 First Secretary, Peking, 1937-39 First Secretary, Mexico City 1940 Secretary-General, Tunis, 1940 Counselor, Washin ton, 1941 (called back by Vichy in 1942 Head, givil Service of French Mission, Washington, 19 2 Sub-maflager of the Commissioner's Office, Algeria, 19 3 On Special mission to China, 1944 On special mission to U.S., 1945 Minister Plenipotentiary, Tirana, 1946 Ambassador, Venezuela, 1946-48 Ambassador, Argentina, 1948-51 Assistant Secretary-General in charge of Depart- ment of Social Affairs, appointed September 1951 Appointed to head concurrently Department of Eco- nomic Affairs beginning in 1952 In Hammarskjold's 1955 reorganization both depart- ments were consolidated and another Frenchman was appointed to head them Ambassador, Mexico, 1954-56 Permanent Representative, UN, January 1957 to May 1959 Resigned from Foreign Service Became first President of the Union Internationale de Gestion dt d'Investissments Also President of the Compagnie Industrielle Maritime Vice-President of the Societe d'Investissments Metropolitains and of the Societe des Plan- tations Reunies de Mimot He is President of the French Association for the UN, the French Committee for World Struggle Against Hunger, and of the Conseil Superieur des Francais de l'etranger. 100 IiAMILTON, William Aitken Brown (British civil servant) IDirector of Personnel, 1959-62 IBorn: Educated: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: 3 June 1909 at Aberdeenshire, Scotland Aberdeen University, M.A. in classics (first class honors) Administrative Civil Service, Board of Educa- tion, 1931-35 Principal, 1936 Joint Secretary, Athlone Committee on Nursing Services, 1937-39 Ministry of Food, 1939-44 Assistant Secretary, 1943 Ministry of Education, 1944-49 Directzg of Establishments and Under-Secretary, 19 Director of Establishments and Assistant Under- Secretary of State, 1949 Appointed Director of Personnel on 6 February 1959 His successor, another Briton, was appointed on 23 April 1962 Assistant Secretary of State, Commonwealth Relations Office since 1962. IIZEURTEMATTE , 101 Roberto Manuel ( Panamanian industrialist) .szsociate Managing Director, Special Fund, since 1962 IEyorn: Educated: Private C areer: Government 8 ervice: IJIQ service: In 1908 Yale University Commercial, financial, industrial and livestock activities in Panama, 1931-59 Alternate Governor from Panama of Inter- national Monetary Fund and International Bank, 1947 Governor of International Bank, 1951-54 Governor of International Monetary Fund, 1951-59 Ambassador to U.S. and Permanent Representative of Panama to O.A.S., 1951-54 Controller General of Panama, 1954-58 Commissioner for Technical Assistance, 1959-62 Associgte Managing Director, Special Fund, since 19 2. 102 HOFFMAN, Paul Grey (U.S. industrialist and administrator) Managing Director, Special Fund,_since 1959 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Remarks: 26 April 1891 in Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. University of Chicago, 1908-09 (Honorary degrees from several universities includin U.C.L.A., Columbia, Harvard, and Yale? Began as automobile salesman for the Stude- baker Corp., in Los Angeles, 1911 Sales manager, 1915 District manager, 1917 Purchased Los Angeles retail branch, 1919 Vice-President, 1925-33 President, 1935-38 Chairman of the Board, 1953 Chairman of the Board, Studebaker-Packard Corp., 1954-56 Administrator Economic Cooperation Administra- tion, 1948-50 Member, U.S. delegation, General Assembly, 1956-57 Appointed to head Special Fund when it was estab- lished by General Assembly in 1959. Has served as President and Trustee of the Ford Foundation Is Director of several corporations, including New York Life Insurance Co., Time, Inc., United Air Lines, Inc., and Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. 103 H00, Victor Chi-Tsai (Chinese diplomat) Commissioner for Technical Assistance since 1962 Born: 16 November 1894 in Washington, D.C., where father served in Chinese legation Educated: Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, Paris, Laureate, 1915 Faculty of Law, University of Paris, Licencie en droit, 1916 Docteur en droit, political and economic sci- ences, 1918 Government Assistant Secretary, Chinese delegation, Paris service: Peace Conference, 1918-19 Member, permanent delegation to League of Nations, 1920-22 - Section Chief, Chinese legation Berlin, 1923-24 Charge d'Affaires, Berline, 1924-25 Section Chief and later Assistant Director, Treaty Department, Foreign Ministry, 1926-28 Director, Department of Asiatic Affairs, For- eign Ministry, 1930-31 Director, Permanent Office of delegation to League of Nations, 1932-42 Charge d'Affaires, Switzerland, 1932-33 Minister at Berne, 1933-42 Vice-Minister, Foreign Ministry, 1942-45 Secretary-General, delegation to UNCIO, 1945 UN service: Chairman, Economic and Social Committee, Pre- paratory Commission, London, 1946 Assistant Secretary-General for Trusteeship, 1946-54 Under-Secretary for Conference Services, 1955-61 Appointed to present post in 1962. Remarks: Has seniority in UN service, speaks all five official languages. As Chinese delegate, attended numerous international conferences. 104 HUTSON, John B. (U.S. agricultural economist) Assistant Secretary-General for Administrative and Financial Services, 1946-47 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: Remarks: In 1890 in Murray, Kentucky, U.S.A. Western Kentucky State Teachers College Bowling Green University University of Kentucky, B.A. 1917 University of Wisconsin, M.S. Columbia University, Ph.D., 1930 Teaching, 1909-1913 Research in economics and tobacco, 1919-3O Entered government service, with Department of Agriculture, in 1921 Chief, Tobacco Section, Agricultural Adjustment Administration, 1933-36 Assistant Administrator, A.A.A., 1936-4O Adviser,6 International Sugar Conference, London, 193 Deputy Commissioner for Agriculture, National Defense Advisory Commission, 1940-41 President, Commodity Credit Corporation, 1941-45 Director of Food Production, War Food Adminis- tration, 1943-45 Under-Secretary of Agriculture, July 1945 to March 1946 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General for Adminis- trative and Financial Services in April 1946 Resigned in March 1947 President, Tobacco Associates, Inc., 1947 until his death on 5 May 1964. Widely regarded as an expert on international agricultural problems Participated in a number of agricultural con- ferences in Europe and South America Headed U.S. delegation to the third Inter- American Agricultural Conference, Caracas,l945 As President of Tobacco Associates, an organiza- tion representing the interests of tobacco growers from Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, he traveled throughout the world and was meeting with tobacco industry officials from Western EurOpe at the time of his death in Brussels. 105 JACKSON, Sir Robert Gillman Allen (Australian civil servant) Assistant Secretary-General for General Coordination, 1948 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: Remarks: In 1911 Privately, and at Mentone Grammer School, Vic- toia, Australia Royal Australian Navy, 1929-37 Transferred to Malta and Royal Navy, 1937-40 Chief Staff Officer to the Governor and Com- mander in Chief, Malta, 1940 Commander, Defence Committee, and Officer in Charge, Coordinated Supply Scheme, 1941 Director General, Middle East Supply Centre and Principal Assistant, United Kingdom Minister of State, 1942-45 On loan to Allied Forces Headquarters for special duties with Chief Commanding Officer in Greece, 1944-us _ Transferred to His Majesty's Treasury, 1945 In charge of UN Relief and Rehabilitation Ad- ministration Operations, EurOpe, 1945 Senior Deputy Director General, UNRRA, 1945-47 Supervised transfer of UNRRA residual functions to World Health Organization and Food and Agricultural Organization, 1947 Assisted in establishment of International Refugee Organization and International Child- ren's Emergency Fund, 1947 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General for Gen- eral Coordination in February 1948, served until August 1948. His Majesty's Treasury for duties with Lord President of the Council, 1949 Permanent Secretary, Ministry of National De- velopment, Australia, 1950-52 (Married author Barbara Ward on 16 November 1950) Adviser to Governments of India and Pakistan on Development Plans, 1952 Chairman of Preparatory Commission, Volta River Multi-purpose Project, Gold Coast, 1953-56 Chairman, Development Commission, Ghana, 1956-61 Special International Consultant on economic development to Ghana Government and Special Adviser to UN Special Fund, since 1961. His appointment as Assistant Secretary-General was for a trial period. In August Lie informed him that the new post could not be fitted into the Secretariat's structure. 106 KATZIN, Alfred George (South African industrialist) Acting Head, Public Information, 1959 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: 1 February 1906 in Captetown, South Africa. Diocesan College, Rondebish, Capetown, 1916-24 Engaged in industrial and commercial activities in South Africa, 1925-39 Active duty, first in the South African and later in the British Army, in East Africa, Egypt, Middle East, North Africa, Italy, and the Balkans, 1940-45 - Deputy Director-General for fiances and admin- istration, EurOpean region, UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, 1945 Chief, executive office, UNRRA, 1946-47 Special Assistant of the Secretary-General, 1948-49 Coordinator, UNICEF, 1949 Personal Representative of the Secretary- General to the UN Commission, the Unified Command, and the Republic of Korea, Korea, 1950 Director, Bureau of Personnel, 1954 Appointed Acting Head, Public Information, upon Bokhari's death in December 1958, retained that post until appointment of Tavares de Sa in May 1960 Served as Executive Secretary of the United Nations Conference on the Application of Science and Technology for the Benefit of Less DevelOped Areas, in 1962 Retired on 1 July 1963, for health reasons. 107 KEENLEYSIDE, Hugh Llewellyn (Canadian diplomat) Director General, Technical Assistance Administration, 1955-58 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: 'UN service: 7 July 1898 in Toronto, Canada University of British Columbia, B.A., 1920 Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetss, M.A., 1921; Ph.D., 1923 Univerzity of British Columbia, Doctor of Laws, 19 5 Lecturer in History at various U.S. universities and at University of British Columbia, 1923-27 Served with Canadian Field Artillery and 2nd Canadian Tank Batallion in First World.War With Canadian diplomatic service, l928-h7: Third Sgcretary, Department of External Affairs, 192 Second Secretary, 1929, and First Secretary, 1929-36, at Canadian Legion, Tokio Chairman, Board of Review investigating illegal entgy of Orientals into British Columbia, 193 Secretary, Inter-Department Committee handling Royal Tour, 1939 Member, Canadian-U.S. Joint Economic Committee, lQhO-hu Acting Chairman, Canada-U.S. Permanent Joint Board of Defence, l9h4 Ambassador to Mexico, 19h4-45 Member, Canadian delegation, UN, 1946 Deputy Minister of Mines and Resources and Commissioner of the North-West Territories, 19h7-SO Head, Canadian delegatinn to the first UN Scientific Conference on Conservation and Utiliization of Resources, Lake Success, 19 9 Deputy Minister of Resources and Development, January to October 1950 Director, Technical Assistance Administration, 1950-55 Director-General, with rank of Under-Secretary, TAA: 1955-58 Director, Office of Public Administration, 1959- 108 KERNO, Ivan Stephen (Czechoslovakian diplomat) Assistant Secretary-General in Charge of the Department of Legal Affairs, 1946-52 . Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Remarks: 26 September 1891 in MyJara, Czechoslovakia University of Paris, Doctor Juris, 1919 University of Prague, Doctorate in political science, 1919 University of Paris, degree of Barrister and Judge, 1920 Adviser and member, Czechoslovak delegation to Peace Conference, Paris, 1919-2O First Secretary, Czechoslovak Legation, Paris, 1920-21 Czechoslovak Representative, Permanent Court of Justice, The Hague, 1923 Member, Political Section, League of Nations, 1928- 39 Member of the Cabinet of the Secretary-General, LN: 1930‘33 Minister to the Netherlands, 193h-38 Chief, Political Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Prague, 1938 (when the Germans occupied Czechoslovakis, he escaped with his family and remained in hiding in occupied France for almost five years, where he was active as a member of the Resistance) Member, Czechoslovak delegation, UNCIO, 1945 Permanent Representative, UN, London, 1946 Appointed Assistant Secretary- -General in charge of the Department of Legal Affairs on 4 March l9h6 Retired on 26 September 1952, his sixty-first birthday Named Chairman of the Review Board of the UN, 1952-56 Upon his retirement in 1952, Kerno announced he would remain in the United States and would acquire U.S. citizenship He remained active in legal circles as an expert in international law until his death in New York on 15 April 1961. 109 KISELEV, Evgeny Dmitrievich (Soviet diplomat) Under-Secretary for Security Council Affairs, 1962-63 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Remarks: 28 July 1908 in Solikamsk, U.S.S.R. Moscow Institute of National Economy Engineer-economist in the mining industry in the Urals Entered diplomatic service in 1937 Consul General, Konigsberg Consul General, New York Political adviser with rank of Minister and High Commissioner on the Allied Commission in Austria, 1945 Head, Department of Balkan Countries, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 19u8-u9 Ambassador to Hungary, 1949- 54 Head, Protocol De artment, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 195 -55 Ambassador to Egypt, 1955-59 Head, Near East Department, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 1959-62 Appointed effective 15 March 1962 to succeed Arkadyev; died of heart ailment in New York on 17 April 1963 Kiselev was Soviet Ambassador in Cairo during the Suez crisis and conveyed word of support to Nasser, including the offer of Soviet combat volunteers. The crisis ended, under U.S. and U.S.S.R. pressure, before any volunteers arrived In February 1959, Kiselev signed agreement on aid to U.A.R. on construction of Aswan Dam. 110 LALL, Shamaldharee (Indian civil servant) Assistant Secretary-General for Conference and General Services, 1950-54 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: October 1894 in Bhagalpur, Bihar, India. St. Xavier's College, Calcutta Scottish Church College, Calcutta Exeter College, Oxford, B.A. (with honors), 1917 1.0.8. examination, England, 1918 Probationer, I.C.S., England, 1919 Joined service in Provinces of Bihar and Orissa, India, in 1920 Sub-director, district and settlement work, 1920-24 Under-Secretary, Financial Department, Govern- ment of Bihar and Orissa, 192h-25 Department of Industries and Labor, Government of India, 1925-28 Secretary and Adviser, Indian delegation, 10th Session, I.L.O., 1926 Deputy Secretary, 1928, and Joint Secretary, Royal Commission on Labor in India, 1929-32 District Magistrate and Collector, Bihar, 1932 Director of Industries, Bihar and Orissa, 1933-34 Secretary, Education and DevelOpment Department, 1935-38 Acting High Commander in U.K. for India, 1938-43 Joint Secretary, De artment of Labor, Indian Government, 19a Additional Secretary, 1945 Secretary, Ministry of Labor,-l946-49 Served as Indian representative at various international conferences and on the governing body of the I.L.O., and as its Chairman, 1949-50 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General in 1950, drOpped when Hammarskjold's reorganization plan went into effect 1 January 1955 Chairman, Air Transport Council, Government of India, 1955-~- LAUGIER, Henri 111 (French scientist) Assistant Secretary—General in charge of the Department of Social Affairs, 19h6-51 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: 5 August 1888 at Mane, Basses-Alpes, France Faculty of Medicine and Science, University of Paris, docteur en medicine et docteur en sciences Holds high French university diploma: the aggregation de science Professor of the Physiology of work, National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, University of Paris, 1929-38 Director, National Center of Scientific Research, 1938-A0 Professor of Physiology, University of Montreal, 1940-A3 ' Rector of the Academy in Algiers, 1943-44 Also taught at Universities of Sao Paulo, Lima, and Mexico City A founder of the New School for Social Research, New York Director, Cultural Relations, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 19hh-46 Chairman, French delegation to UNESCO Conference, London, 19h5 Appointed first Assistant Secretary-General to head Department of Social Affairs effective A March 19h6 Resigned on 14 April 1951 Returned to his Chair as Professor of Physiology at the Sorbonne Is now listed as "ancien Recteur d'universite". LOUTFI, Omar 112 (Egyptian lawyer and diplomat) Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, 1962-63 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Remarks: In Cairo, Egypt in 1908 Faculty of Law, Cairo University Joined Ministry of Justice as state attorney, 1930 Appointed Judge, 1944 Assistant Counselor, Egyptian State Council (citizens' court of ap eals on actions against the government , 1946 Legal Counselor, Egypt's delegation, UN, 19h9-53 Head, Department of International Organizations and Legal Affairs, Foreign Ministry, 1953-55 Representative to UN, 1954 Permanent Representative of Egypt to UN, 1955-58 Permanent Representative of U.A.R. to UN, 1958-61 Legal Adviser, UN Mission to Libya (helped draft its first constitution), 1950 Appointed Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs effective 1 January 1962 Appointed to take over temporarily the Depart— ment of Security Council Affairs, April 1953 Died of a heart attack at Headquarters on 17 May 1963 In 1953, he was one of the Egyptian delegates who helped negotiate the 1954 British- Egyptian treaty under which the British agreed to leave their Suez Canal base In 1956, he represented his country in the Suez debate in the Security Council, arising from the entry of British, French, and Israeli forces into Egypt after President Nasser had seized the Canal. As Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, he had principal responsibilities for developments in the field of disarmament, where his legal background was of special value He was one of the aides who accompanied Thant to Cuba during the Caribbean crisis of 1962. 113 MCDIARMID, John (U.S. political scientist) Acting Director of Personnel, 1957-59 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: 11 August 1911 in Beckley, W. Va., U.S.A. Texas Christian University, M.A. in political science and history, 1932 University of Chicago, Ph. D. in public admin- istration and political science, 1936 Instructor in Government, Texas Christian University, 1932- 33 Instr uc‘gor8 in Politics, Princeton University, 193 -38 Assistant Professor of Public Administration, University of Southern California, 1938- #2 Associate Professor of Political Science, U. S. C., 1945- 46 Research Assistant, National Resources Board, Washington, 1935 With U.S. Civil Service Commission, 1942-45 Civil Service Representative, War Agencies, 1942-43 Assistant Chief, Examination and Personnel Utilization Division, 1943-45 Consultant, Bureau of Personnel, 1946 Assistant Chief, Ap ointments and Staff Relations Division, 1946- B9 Chief, Policy Training and Examinations Division, 1949-53 Deputy Director, Personnel, 1954-57 Acting Director of Personnel, from late 1957 to early 1959 Senior Director, Technical Assistance Board, since 1959. 114 MacFARQUHAR, Alexander (British civil servant) Director of Personnel, since 1962. Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: 6 November 1903 in Scotland Aberdeen University, M.A. (first class honors, classics) Cambridge University Entered Indian Civil Service in 1926 Deputy Commissioner, Ferozepore, 1930-33 Deputy Commissioner, Amritsar, 1933-36 Settlement Officer, Amritsar, 1936-40 Deputy Secretary to the Government of India, 1941-M2 Deputy Director-General, Directorate-General of Supply, India, 1943-M5 Director-General, Disposal, 1946-M7 Commerce and Education Secretary, Government of Pakistan, 19u7-51 Resident Representative of UN Technical Assistance Board, Pakistan, 1952-55 Regional Representative of Technical Assistance Board to Far East, Bangkok, 1955-60 Special Adviser to Secretary-General for. Civilian Affairs in the Congo, 1960-62 Appointed Director of Personnel in 1962. 115 NARASIMHAN, Chakravarthi V. (Indian civil servant) Under-Secretary for General Assembly Affairs, since 1962 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: In 1915 in Srirangam, India University of Madras Oxford University Entered 1.0.8. in 1936 Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, 1950 Chief, Land Reclamation, Central Tractor Organization, 1951-53 Member, Economic Affairs Department, Ministry of Finance, 1953-56 Coordinator of Foreign Assistance, Colombo Plan. 1955 Executive Secretary, UN Economic Commission for Asia and Far East, 1957-58 Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, 1959-bl Under-Secretary for General Assembly Affairs and Chef de Cabinet, since 1962. NOSEK, Jiri 116 (Czechoslovakian diplomat) Under-Secretary for Conference Services, since 1962 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Remarks: In 1911 in Cercany, Czechoslovakia Graduate School of Economics and Political Science, Prague Adviser to Czechoslovak delegation, UN, 1947 Alternate Representative, GA, l9h8-49 Acting Permanent Representative, GA, 1950-53 Permanent Representative, with rank of Ambassador, UN, 1953-54 Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prague, 1955-56 Ambassador to India and Ceylon, 1956-59 Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prague,‘ 1959-61 Appointed Under-Secretary for Conference Services, effective 18 January 1962 Has attended every session of the UN General Assembly since 19u7 Has served as Chairman of three of the Assem- bly's main Committees: Second, Third, and Fifth. 117 OWEN, Arthur David Kemp (British economist and diplomat) Executive Chairman, Technical Assistance Administration, since I952“' Born: 26 November 1904 in Pontypool, South Wales. Educated: Leeds University Employment: Assistant Lecturer, Economics, Huddersfield Technical College, 1926—29 Stevenson Lecturer in Citizenship, Glasgow University, 1937-40 Government service: Secretary, Social Division, Political and Economic Planning, 1933-36 Co-Director, Pilgrim Trust Unemployment Inquiry, 1936-37 Director, Political and Economic Planning, 1940-41 Personnal Assistant to Sir Stafford Cripps, Lord Privy Seal, 1942 Member, Cripps Mission to India, 1942 Ministry of Aircraft Production, 1942-43 Officer in Charge of League of Nations Affairs, Foreign Office Reconstruction Department, 1943- 5 Foreign Office Observer, I.L.O. Conference, Philadelphia, 1944 Member, British Delegation, Dumbarton Oaks Conference, 1944 Member, British Delegation, UNCIO, 1945 Deputy Executive Secretari, Preparatory Commission for UN, 19 5 UN service: Executive Assistant to the Secretary-General, from February to April, 1946 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General in charge of the Department of Economic Affairs in March 1946 Chairman, Technical Assistance Board, 1949-52 Executive Chairman, Technical Assistance Administration, since 1952. 118 PATE, Maurice (U.S. businessman) Executive Director, UNICEF, since 1947 Born: 14 October 1894 in Pender, Nebraska, U.S.A. Educated: Princeton University, B.A., 1915 Employment: Financial and sales work, Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, in Poland, 1922-27 Import and banking business, own firm, 1927-35 Investment banker and director, natural gas and machine tool companies, New York, 1935-39 Government service: Assistant Director, American Relief Administra- tion, Poland, 1919-22 President, Commission for Polish Relief, 1939-41 Director, American Red Cross Relief to Prisoners of War, 1941-46 ' Accompanied Herbert Hoover on world-wide food surveys, 1946 UN service: Appointed Executive Director of the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund in January 1947 His office was given Under-Secretary status in 1955. PELT, Adrian 119 (Dutch diplomat) Assistant Secretary-General for Conference and General Services, 1946—49 Born: Educated: Employment: League of Nations service: Government services: UN service: Post-UN service: 8 May 1892 near Amsterdam, Holland Ecole libre des Sciences politiques, Paris, 1916-l9 Journalist, Amsterdam, 1909-15 London correspondent, 1915-16 Paris correspondent, 1916-l9 Foreign sub-editor of Dutch newspaper, 1919-2O Member, Information Section, LN Secretariat, Geneva, 1920-23 Assigned to the League's High Commission for the financial reconstruction of Austria, 1922-24 Assigned to on-the-spot mission to study Danube navigation, 1925 Assigned to the High Commissioner for the set- tlement of refugees in Greece, 1926 Represented the Secretary-General at League's Epidemiological Office meeting in Bandung, Java, Deputy Secretary-General, Lord Lytton's mission, to inquire into Mukden incident in Manchuria, 1932 Director, Information Secion, 1933-4O Reorganized League's Information Office in Bombay, 1936 Resigned upon Nazi invasion of the Netherlands to work for his own Government Head, Netherlands Information Bureau, London, 1940-45 Member, Netherlands Delegation, UNCIO, 1945 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General in charge of Department of Conference and General Services in February 1946 UN Commissioner to Libya, 1950-52 Director, UN European Office, Geneva, 1952-58 Secretary-General, World Federation of UN Associations, 1958-63; President, since 1963. PRICE, Byron 120 (U.S. Journalist) Assistant Secretary-General for Administrative and Financial Services, 1947-54 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: 25 March 1891 in Topeka, Indiana, U.S.A. Wabash College, B.A., 1912 Harvard University, M.A., 1946 In newspaper work, Crawfordsville and Indiana- polis, 1902-12 Reporter and editor, United Press Association, Chicago, 1912 With Associated Press, 1912-41: News Editor, Washington Bureau, 1922-27 Chief, Washington Bureau, 1927-37 Executive News Editor, Associated Press, 1937-41 Vice-Piesident, Motion Picture Association, 19 5 Chairman of the Board, Motion Picture Producers Association, 1946-47 U.S. Director of Censorship, 1941-45 Appointed on 19 February 1947 to succeed Hutson as Assistant Secretary-General for Admin- istrative and Financial Services Retired on 27 January 1954. 121 PROTITCH, Dragoslav (Yugoslav diplomat) Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, since 1963 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: In 1902 Belgrade University, LL.B. Brussels Free University, D.Sc. Financial attache, Yugoslav Legation, Brussels, 1923-26 Attache,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Belgrade, 1926-28 Secretary to Yugoslav Legation, Vienna, 1928-29 Secretary to Yugoslav Legation, London, 1929-33 First Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Belgrade, 1933-35 Director of Cabinet of Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1936-38 ' Counsellor, Foreign Ministry, Belgrade, 1938-40 Counsellor, Yugoslav Legation, Athens, 1940-41 Counsellor, Yugoslav Legation, Cairo, 1941-42 Counsellor, Yugoslav Legation, London and Charge d'affaires of Yugoslavia to The Netherlands, 1942-46 Also Participated in many international con- ferences: with Yugoslav Delegation to League of Nations, 1927 and 1928 With Yugoslav Delegation to Conferences of Little Entente and Balkan Entente, in 1933, 34. 36. 37, and 38 As representative of Yugoslavia to Allied Con- ference of Ministers of Education, 1944-45 And aquugoslav delegate to UNESCO Conference, 19 5 Director, Administrative and General Division, Department of Security Council Affairs, 19 6-55 Was Acting Head of the Department in 1952-53 Under-Secretary for Security Council Affairs, 1955-57 Under-Secretary for Trusteeship, 1957-62 Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, since 20 June 1963. 122 ROBERTSON, John Archibald Campbell (British civil servant) Director of Personnel, 1954-57 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: 21 November 1912 St. John's College, Cambridge (first class honors) Administrative class, Home Civil Service, 1935 India Office, 1935-36 Private Secretary to Financial Secretary, 1939-40 Private Secretary to Permanent Secretary, 1943-45 Assistant Secretary, Treasury, 1945-48 Home Civil Service, Commonwealth Fund Fellow, 1949-50 Under-Secretary, Treasury, 1951-54 Appointzd Director of Personnel on 13 December 195 Resigned in 1957 Director, Organizations and Methods, Treasury, since 1958. 123 SOBOLEV, Arkady Aleksandrovich (Soviet diplomat) Assistant Secretary-General for Security Council Affairs, 1946-48 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: In 1903 in St. Petersburg, now Leningrad, U.S.S.R. Electrotechnical Institute, Leningrad, gradu- ated in 1930 Research work in connection with the develop- ment of power plant equipment, 1930-39 Entered diplomatic service in 1939 as Secre- tary, Soviet Foreign Ministry Membera Soviet diplomatic mission, Bulgaria, 19 O Counselor with rank of Minister, Soviet Embassy, London, 1942-44 Special envoy, Dumbarton Oaks Conference, 1944 Member, Soviet Delegation, Potsdam, 1945 Chief, Political Section, Soviet Military Mis- sion, Berlin, 1945 Appointed Assistant Secretary-General for Se- curity Council Affairs on 17 February 1946 Left for Moscow in January 1949 on leave of absence because of illness in his family, Resigned for the same reason on 26 March 1949 Director, American Department, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 1949-51 Ambassador to Poland, 1951-53 Director, American Department, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 1954 Deputy Permanent Representative, UN, 1954 Permanent Representative, UN, 1955-6O Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Foreign Ministry, since 1960. 124 STAVROPOULOS, Constantin Anghelos (Greek Jurist) Legal Counsel, with Under-Secretary rank, since 1955 Born: Educated: Employment: Government service: UN service: 15 August 1905 in Athens, Greece University of Athens, Faculty of Law, diploma with honors, 1928 London School of Economics Private legal practice, 1919-33 and 1936-39 Secretary-General and Acting Governor-General of Epirus, 1933-36 Legal Adviser, Royal Greek Embassy, London, 1941-46 President Greek Maritime Court in Great Britain, 19u2-46 _ Greek Representative, UN War Crimes Commission, 1943-46 Legal Adviser, Greek Delegation to UN Preparatory Commission, 1946 Legal Adviser, Greek Delegation, GA, London, 1946 Legal Counselor, Department of Legal Affairs, 1946-49 Deputy Director, Division of Development and Codification of International Law, 1949 Seniorugegal Adviser, UN Palestine Commission, 19 Principal Secretary, UN Commission for the Uni- fication and Rehabilitation of Korea, and Personel Representative of the Secretary- General, 1950-51 Principal Director and Acting Head, Department of Legal Affairs, 1952-55 Appointed Legal Counsel with status equivalent to Under—Secretary, effective on 1 January 1955. 125 SUSLOV, Vladimir (Soviet diplomat) Under-Secretary for Political and Security Council Affairs, since #1963 Born: In 1923 Educated: Moscow State Institute of Foreign Relations, graduated in 1948 Government First Secretary, Soviet Delegation, UN, 1953-55 service: Adviser, International Organizations Department, Soviet Foreign Ministry, 1955-57 Adviser on political questions, Soviet Dele- gation, UN, 1957-61 Senior Assistant, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Moscow, 1961-o3 UN service: Appointed on 21 May 1903 to succeed Kiselev who died on 17 April 1963. 126 TAVARES DE SA, Hernane (Brazilian educator and Journalist) Under-Secretary for Public Information, since 1960 Born: 7 January 1911 in Natal, state of Rio Grande de Norte, Brazil Educated: Colegio Salesiano, Recife In Italy and the United States University of Louvain, Belgium, M.D. (with honors) in 1935 Employment: Professor of Genetics and Biology, University of Sao Paulo, 1938-43 Surveyed higher education systems in the U.S., sponsored by Institute of International Education, in 1942 Special Adivser, U.S. Office of Coordinator of Inter-America Affairs (Nelson Rockefeller), 1943-44 Professor, School of Journalism, Catholic Uni- versity of Rio de Janeiro, 1952-57 Editor-in-Chief, Visao (Brazilian weekly news magazine), 1957-60. Joined the Secretariat of the Organization of American States as Head of the Public Rela- tions Division in 1948 During 1950 and 1951, he was Special Assistant to the Secretary-General of the 0.A.S. He has lectured at more than 100 U.S. universi- ties, represented Brazil at numerous in- ternational conferences, and served with the Joint U.S.-Brazilian Economic Develop- ment Commission UN service: Appointed Under-Secretary for Public Information on 10 May 1960. 127 TCHERNYCHEV, Ilya Semenovich (Soviet diplomat) Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, 1955-57 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: Post-UN service: Remarks: In August 1912, near Taskhent, U.S.S.R. Moscow University, degree in History, 1940 Entered Foreign Service, 1940 Attache, Soviet Embassy, Berlin, 1940-41 With Europe and Middle East Section, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1941-44 Soviet Embassy, Stockholm, first with rank of Counsellor, then in charge of the Mission as Minister, 1944-47 Deputy Chief, Tass, 1947-52 Under-Secretary for Security Council Affairs, 1953-54 ‘ Appointed Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, effective 1 January 1955 Resigned in 1957 Deputy Chief, U.S.S.R. Foreign Cultural Rela- tions Committee, 1957-62 In February 1962, he was appointed Soviet Ambassador to Brazil to re-establish the diplomatic mission that had been closed when relations were broken in 1947 On 22 October 1963, while swimming off Barra de Tijuca beach near Rio de Janeiro, he suffered a fatal heart attack. For his first Under-Secretary appointments, Hammarskjold, with whom he had played tennis frequently in Stockholm, selected Tchernychev from a list of three candidates submitted by the Soviet Union. 128 TREVELYAN, Sir Humphrey (British civil servant and diplomat) Under-Secretary for Special Political Affairs, 1957-58 Born: Educated: Government service: 'UN service: Post—UN service: 27 November 1905 Cambridge University Entered Indian Civil Service, 1929 Indian Political Service, 1932-47 Political agent of the Indian States, Washing- ton, 1944 Joint Secretary to Government of India in External Affairs Department, 1946 Retired from Indian Political Service and entered Foreign Service, 1947 Counsellor at Baghdad, 1948 Economic and Financial Adviser, U.K. High Commissioner for Germany, 1951-53 Charge d'Affairs in Peking, 1953-55 Ambassador to Egypt, 1955-56 Appointed Under-Secretary for Special Polit- ical Affairs on 14 December 1957 Resigned on 27 December 1958 Ambassador to Iraq, 1958-61 Deputy Under-Secretary of State, Foreign Office, 1962 Ambassador to the U.S.S.R., since 1962. 129 TURNER, Bruce (New Zealand civil servant) Controller, with Under-Secretary rank, since 1955 Born: In 1914 Educated: University College in Arts and Commerce, Canter- bury, New Zealand Government On staff of the Minister of Finance and Deputy service: Prime Minister of New Zealand, 1936-41 Secretary, New Zealand Trade and Lend Lease Mission to the U.S., 1941 Staff, New Zealand Legation, Washington, 1942-46 Delegate and Adviser, New Zealand Delegation, UNCIO, 1945 UN service: With Secretariat since 1946 Executive Officer, Department for Administrative and Financial Services, 1952-55 Appointed Controller, effective 1 July 1955, to succeed Andersen, who had resigned earlier that year. 130 VAUGHAN, David (U.S. government administrator) Director, Office of General Services, since 1955 Born: 6 August 1910 in Louisa, Kentucky, U.S.A. Educated: New York University, 1930-34 American University, 1935-36 Columbus Law School, 1931-38 Employment: With Irving Trust Co., 1928-35 Government Assistant Director of Finance, Farm Security service: Administration, 1935-39 Director of Personnel, Surplus Marketing Ad- ministration, 1939-40 Assistant Administrator, Foreign Economic Ad- ministration, 1942-44 UN service: Director of Administrative Management, UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, 1944-45 Principal Director, Department of Conference and General Services, 1946-49 Acting Head, Conference and General Services, 1949-50 Principal Director, 1950-55 Appointed Director, Office of General Services, with Under-Secretary rank, effective 1 January 1955. 131 ZINCHENKO, Konstantin Emelianovitch (Soviet diplomat) Assistant Secretary-General for Security Council Affairs, 1949—53 Born: Educated: Government service: UN service: In 1909 in Yeisk, Krasnodar Region, Russia Mining Academy in Moscow, 1931 Further study of technical sciences, 1931-38 Entered foreign service in 1940 Counselor, Soviet Embassy, London, 1942-44 Successively: Head, Press Bureau, Soviet Foreign Ministry Second European Division and Latin American Division, Foreign Ministry, 1945-48 First Counselor, Permanent Delegation, UN, 1948-49 Appointed on 28 April 1949 to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Sobolev Left for Moscow on home leave in June 1952 In December 1952 the U.S. announced it had notified its Embassy in Moscow not to permit the return of Zinchenko's personal assistant, Nikolai Skvortsov, who was accused of espionage Zinchenkc's home leave was first extended to a long "sick leave" Later, several weeks after his name had been taken off the UN payroll, his resignation was presented and accepted on 26 May 1953. C H A P T E R I V S U M M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S This concluding chapter summarizes the biographical data presented in the preceding chapter, outlines the trends such data suggest respecting the top echelon of the Secretariat of the United Nations, and presents a number of general proposi- tions based upon the patterns found. Although as a pioneer survey this study is perforce largely descriptive in character, a series of theoretical statements are here presented as hypotheses that need fur- ther exploration and that could be tested empirically by future students of international administration. These nec- essarily tentative propositions are based not only on the data collected for this study, but also upon certain political sci- entists' writings and upon a number of interviews with high- ranking members of the Secretariat. The Secretaries-General Since the Secretary-General heads and represents the entire United Nations Secretariat, it is apprOpriate to begin by considering the three incumbents of that office. All' received university educations; two earned law degrees. All three were fluent in the two United Nations "working" 1angu~ ages (English and French). Each had served his country in either the foreign or civil service before achieving the top 132 133 United Nations post. Each had previously participated in General Assembly meetings, serving as chairman of his coun- try's delegations. All were eleected only after considerable debate and lengthy consideration of other candidates by the Security Council, where each of the Permanent Members has veto power. Thus, the limited data available to date would indicate that the principal characteristics of Secretaries— General include: (1) membership in own national elite; (2) university education and degrees; (3)government or diplomatic eXperience of relatively non-controversial nature; (4) pre- vious participation in United Nations activities; and (5) the "right" geographical and political affiliation to secure the approval or, at least, avoid the disapproval of the top Security Council Powers. In addition, if speculation be permitted, one may hy- pothesize that providing the United Nations continues its activities in an even greater variety of international areas, an important quality for candidacy will be extreme diplomatic skill and capacity for intensive work under pressure. More- over, a reputation for forcefulness will probably continue to be considered detrimental. Finally, it seems highly prob~ able that future Secretaries-General will continue to come from nations not closely allied with either of the two Super- Powers. The Under-Secretaries The officials directly responsible to the Secretary- General are the Under-Secretaries. In 1964, there were 134 thirty-four such officials, divided into three groups: (1) those at Headquarters; (11) those at established offices overseas; and (III) those in charge of missions or special assignments. The following statements are based primarily upon analysis of data concerning Group I, which has included since 1946 a total of forty-three officials. Increase in numbers is perhaps the first observable feature at the Under-Secretary level in the Secretariat. In 1946, there were eight Under-Secretaries (they were then known as Assistant Secretaries-General). When Hammarskjold's major reorganization plan went into effect in 1955, the num- ber of Under-Secretaries almost doubled; fifteen officials were given Under-Secretary rank. By 1964, the number of Under—Secretaries had doubled again to a total of thirty—four. Thus, the present number represents more than four times the original figure of eight. Although in theory the Secretary-General has a great deal of freedom in appointing members of the Secretariat, political realities and the Charter have imposed restrictions on his appointive power, particularly with regard to the top echelon. One of the elements contributing to the increase in the num- ber of Under-Secretaries has been the proliferation of United Nations activities, with the corresponding increase in Secre- tariat responsibility, specialization, and involvement. A second element has been the increase in membership of the Or- ganization and the accompanying demands for a broader geograph- ical distribution of Secretariat posts. 135 The number of nationalities included in the Secretariat has increased steadily, keeping pace wan the growth in member- ship of the Organization. For instance, in 1960 there were eighty-two Member States, and seventy-two nationalities in the Secretariat. Early in 1963, the number of Member States had increased to 111, and the number of nationalities in the Secretariat to ninety-eight. A breakdown of the forty-three officials by major regions reveals that the geographical distribution has been broadened continuously under each of the three Secretaries-General. Dur- ing the period under study here, from 1946 to 1964, a total of twenty-one countries have contributed to the Secretariat's tOp echelon, as indicated in the table below. TABLE 1 U.N. UNDER-SECRETARIES: DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1946—64 United States........8 China..............l U.S.S.R......... ..... 7 Denmark............l United Kingdom.......5 Greece.............l France ......... . ..... 5 The Netherlands....1 Czechoslovakia.......2 New Zealand........l India................2 Nigeria............1 U.A.R................2 Panama.............l Australia............l Pakistan...........l Brazil... ........ ....1 South Africa.......1 Canada...............1 Yugoslavia.........l Chile................l Total =1E3 Several elements help to exfimdn the fact that the two Super-Powers head the list in Table 1: (1) the Soviet Union's practice of permitting her nationals to hold Secretariat ap- pointments for only about two years, with the resulting 136 larger turnover; (2) the United States' size, role as host country, and established bureaucratic tradition, enabling her to make a large contribution of officials for administrative posts in several major agencies whose heads have been given Under-Secretary rank; and (3) the obviously dominant positions in world affairs enjoyed by the two Super—Powers. An analysis of the geographical distribution at the Under—Secretary level at nine-year intervals illustrates the Secretary—Generals' attempts to recruit members for the top echelon on a widening geographical basis, largely in response to the demands and pressure of those nations considering themselves underrepresented. For official purposes, the United Nations divides the world into seven major regions: Africa; Asia and the Far East; Eastern Europe; Western EurOpe; Latin America; Middle East; and North America and the Carib- bean. The seventh region includes Canada, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United States. These seven regions will be used in Table 2 below to illustrate the progress made in achieving a more wideWpread regional composition at the top echelon of the Secretariat. The following major findings emerge from Table 2. In 1946, none of the Under-Secretaries came from Africa or the Middle East. The same was true in 1955; however, the number of officials from Asia and the Far East had by then increased from one to three. 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MO UHELMHQOEN .99CoE mCHonHog 099 00C0H009 959 .mmmH spaCCah CH CoHHOCpcoo copCHoaaa mHHaCHmHCo 003 .mqu 00CH0 00C0CHm no Cwopsm 29 09» mo CouoopHQ HaQHOCHCm C009 009 093 .xCuECoa mo C00900C¢m .xCaC mpapopoomcpouCD C0>Hw mHHdHOHmmo 003 COHpHmoC 0H9 9099 mmmH HHucs 90C 003 9H .90>0309 mmzmH 00CH0 mpHomaao 0H9» CH mCH>C00 C009 009 C0H0Coom .mmmH szh Hm 0>H900090 00H000< OHEoCoom no 9C05 upCaQ0Q 099 C00CC 00odHQ 003 <me mo 9C0E9CHoqam HHpCC 000m mCH90< 003 CHmpax mammH 909E0009 m Co 00H0 HCdCCOmm .002Hnso 00 00:0 00 :OHsHmos monzHocH .mmmH cH coanHQapmu OOHCCQN .mmmH CH 09H009< HaoHuHHom HaH00um Com 390909000-C0UCD on 00mC090 0H9HEH :0-mmmH .xZHm sm ambridge U. ; ( Copenhagen U. (LL.B.) Moscow Economic Institute Punjab U., Lahore (M.A.); Cambridge U. (B.A., honors; M.A., first class honors) UCLA (B.A., cum laude); Harvard U.(M.A., Ph.D.) U. of Chile (Ph.D.); Georgetown U. (M.S., magna cum laude) Manchester C., Indiana (B.A.), of Chicago M.A., Ph.D.) U. of Paris (Licencie en droit, diplome d'etudes superieures en droit) A technological college (M.A., history) U. of Paris (Licencie en droit) Aberdeen U. (M.A., first class honors) Yale U. U. of Chicago (No earned degree) U. of Paris (Licencie en droit, Docteur en droit) U. of Kentucky (B.A.); U. of Wisconsin (M.A.); Columbia U. (Ph.D.) Privately educated Diocesan C., Capetown U. of British Columbia (B. A. ); Clark U., Mass. (M. A., Ph. D. ) U. of Paris; U. of Prague (Ph.D.) 22. 23. 2H. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 37. 38. 39. MO. 41. #2. 21. Kiselev T A B L E #- _. _._~— Lall Laugier Loutfi McDiarmid MacFarquhar Narasimhan Nosek Owen Pate Pelt Price Protitch Robertson . Sobolev Staerpoulos Suslov Tavares de Sa Tchernychev Trevelyan Turner Vaughni . Zinchenko 152 7-Continued M -._.—_——_ _. ~———.————- .. — “-_._..—— .__.- -——4—r Moscow Institute of National Economy St. Xavier's C., Calcutta; Oxford (B.A., with honors) U. Of Paris (Docteur en medicine et docteur en sciences) Cairo U. (LL.B.) Texas Christian U. (M.A.); U.of Chicago (PhD.) Aberdeen U. (M.A., first class honors); Cambridge U. U. of Madras; Oxford U. Graduate School of Political Science, Prague Leeds U. Princeton U. (B.A.) Ecole libre des sciences politiques, Paris Wabash C. (B.A.); Harvard (M.A.) Belgrade U. (LL.B.); Brussels U. (D.Sc.) Cambridge U. (B.A., first class honors) Electrotechnical Institute, Leningrad Athens U. (Law diploma, with honors); Lon- don School of Economics . Moscow State Institute of Foreign Relations Colegio Salesiano, Recife; U. Belgium (M.D., with honors) of Louvain, Moscow U. Cambridge U. University C., Canterbury, New Zealand NYU, American U., Columbus Law School Mining Academy of Moscow 153 5. Principal previous occupations. While the varied professional interests and activities of the Under-Secretaries make it difficult to classify concisely their principal occu- pations before Joining the Secretariat, it is possible to clas- sify them loosely according to four major categories. In Table 8 the forty-three officials are distributed according to the following principal occupations: (l) diplomats; (2) civil servants; (3) educators; and (h) industrialists. The table lists the number of officials contributed to each major professional category by maJor regions or nations. TABLE 8 DISTRIBUTION OF U.N. OFFICIALS 0F UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 1964, BY REGIONAL ORIGINS AND PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS Q) (I) m 9. a m I: <1) 0 O o +> p s p a r1 w 5 5 L m m +2 m [d o w m 0? - E m 3 I: C C <3 .9 c 'U . p p w c o o co m m c t: a rd m E +2 . +2 p *1 - g m o E -H to m m +> id 'H +> L O Q 0 <1) Cd (U . .C o a) O D D 3 L21 .4 D U E-' 94 Diplomats 5 - 7 2 3 l l l 20 46.4 Civil Servants 7 3 - 3 - - - - 13 30.3 Educators - 3 - l - l 1 - 6 13.9 Industrialists l 2 - - - 1 - _ u 9.4 Totals 13 8 7 6 3 3 2 I 43 100.0 isu T A B L E 9 U.N. OFFICIALS OF UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 1964, BY PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION AND LAST OFFICE PREVIOUS TO APPOINTMENT W Name PO* Position held immediately previous to Under-Secretary appointment 1. Abdel—Rahman Director, National Planning, U.A.R. 2. Amachree S Officer l/b UN Operations, Congo 3. Andersen S Director, Finance Bureau, UN 4. Arkadyev Soviet delegate, UN 5. Bokhari Pakistani delegate, UN 6. Bunche Adviser, U.S., London, 19A6 7. Cohen Head, Information Section, PC, l9u6 8. Cordier Head GA Section, PC, l9h6 9. de Seynes S Adviser, French delegation, UN 10. Dobrynin Adviser, Soviet delegation, UN 11. Georges-Picot French Ambassador, Argentina 12. Hamilton S Asst. Under-Sec. of State, U.K. 13. Heurtematte Controller General, Panama 1A. Hoffman Member, U.S. delegation, UN . 15. Hoo Head, ECOSOC Section, PC, 19A6 l6. Hutson S Under-Secretary, Agriculture, U.S. 17. Jackson S Director General, UNRRA 18. Katzin Director, Personnel, UN 19. Keenleyside Director, TAA, UN 20. Kerno Czechoslovakian delegate, London, l9u6 2l. Kiselev Head, Near East, USSR Foreign Ministry 22. Lall S Secretary, Ministry of Labor, India 23. Laugier Director, Cultural Relations, France 24. Loutfi Head, U.A.R. delegation, GA 25. McDiarmid 26. MacFarquhar 27. Narasimhan 28. Nosek 29. Owen 30. Pate 31. Pelt 32. Price 33. Protitch 3A. Robertson 35. Sobolev 36. Stravopoulos 37. Suslov 38. Tavares de Sa 39. Tchernychev MO. Trevelyan Al. Turner A2. Vaughan A3. Zinchenko UOQUUWUOUOUOUHQUOOMUWOUUOHOOUHHOUUQWUWUUOOF} (DU) 0) U) U) U) (DC/J Deputy Director, Personnel, UN Adviser to S-G in Congo, UN Executive Secretary, ECAFE Deputy Foreign Minister, Yugoslavia Exec. Asst. to Secretary-General, UN Director, Red Cross Relief Dutch delegation, GA, 1946 Chairman, Motion Picture Association Director, Security Council Dept., UN Under-Secretary, Treasury, U.K. Soviet Military Mission, Berlin Director, Legal Affairs Dept., UN Assistant, Minister Foreign Affairs Editor-in-Chief, Visao Deputy Chief, Tass British Ambassador, Egypt Exec. Officer, Administrative Services Director, Conference & General Services Counselor, USSR delegation, UN *Principal Occupation: E-Educator, CS-Civil Servant, D-Diplomat, I-Industrialist. 155 Tables 8 and 9 show that of the forty-three Under- Secretaries thirty-three, or 76.7%, had careers in government service—--either as diplomats or as civil servants. Each of the ten officials from the Soviet "bloc" (seven from the Soviet Union and three from Eastern Europe) who has been appointed Under—Secretary has been a member of the Foreign Service. While the Soviet "bloc” thus scored 100% in the category of diplomats, the United States' nationals thus far appointed Under—Secretaries have included not a single member of the Foreign Service. One theory of international admin- istration holds that members of a Foreign Service, obliged by their occupation to appear very nationalistic in outlook, encounter additional difficulties in serving as international civil servants. It seems likely that for the immediate future, most of the new Under-Secretaries will be drawn from the four major categories now prevalent. The number of civil servants--- particularly of those experiencing service in international or quasi-international agencies---probab1y will grow. For the most part, of course, the newer nations do not have established Foreign Services from which to draw potential Secretariat members. Therefore, their candidates will most likely come from among other elements of their educated elites, such as the intelligentsia, those who have participated in the world-wide activities of the United Nations agencies, and low- ranking members of their delegations to the General Assembly. Since high-ranking members of delegations to the Assembly already enjoy great prestige and high status---not to mention 156 considerable influence in government and United Nations policy---they may not be interested in Secretariat positions, unless their natural inclination be toward the international civil service. 6. Language skills. Each of the Under-Secretaries was fluent in at least two of the United Nations' five official languages. One (Hoo) was fluent in all five and another (Cohen) was proficient in Spanish, English, French, Italian, and Portuguese. Future Under-Secretaries may be expected to have the ability to speak, Write and understand at least the two "working" languages and one of the other three official languages. It is even possible that a candidate otherwise qualified may fail to be appointed largely for lack of language ability. 7. Reasons for leaving office. Twenty-five of the forty—three Under-Secretaries have left office during the period under study here. Most of them resigned, though three were transferred within the United Nations system and two were dropped when reorganization plans were put into effedt. TABLE 10 DISTRIBUTION OF U.N. OFFICIALS OF UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 1964, BY REASONS FOR LEAVING OFFICE h Total Resigned Transferred Dropped Retired Died Number No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 25 14 56.0 3 12.0 2 8.0 3 12.0 3 12.0 157 Table 10 indicates that three Under-Secretaries died in office. Three others retired. The fourteen who resigned con- stitute 56.0% of the twenty-five who have left office since 1946. The table below indicates the types of activity which these fourteen entered upon departure from the Secretariat. TABLE 11 DISTRIBUTION OF U.N. OFFICIALS OF UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 196A, BY POST-SECRETARIAT OCCUPATION W: I: I m Foreign Civil Private UN-related Total Service Service Business Activities Education Number No . % No . 76 No . 96 No . % No . % 1A 7 50.0 2 1A.3 2 14.3 1 7.1 2 14.3 8. Length of tenure of office. Sixteen (64.0%) of the twenty-five who have left office served for periods between one and three years. While one (Andersen) served for only one month, another (Cohen) held the rank of Under-Secretary for more than ten years. The longest tenure is held by one of the incumbents (H00), who has held Under-Secretary status since he was originally appointed in 19A6. TABLE 12 DISTRIBUTION OF U.N. OFFICIALS 0F UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 1964, ACCORDING TO PERIOD IN OFFICE _=:======= Less than More than Total one year 1-3 years 3-5 years five years Number No. % No. % No. % No. % 25 2 8.0 16 54.0 3 12.0 H 16.0 158 As indicated in Table 13, the five Soviet nationals who were Under-Secretaries and resigned returned to the Soviet Foreign Office. Of the two United States nationals who re- signed, one entered private business and the other returned to educational activities. U.N. OFFICIALS OF UNDER-SECRETARY RANK, TO 196“: TABLE 13 LENGTH OF TENURE OF OFFICE AND REASON FOR LEAVING Name Yrs.1 R2 Next Position Held Andersen 1 mo. R With Denmark Insurance Co. Arkadyev 2 R Counselor, Soviet F.O. Bokhari 3 Died in Office . Cohen 10 R Exec. Sec., World Fed. UN Assns. Cordier 6 R Dean, Columbia School Intl. Affrs. Dobrynin 3 R Head, American Dept., Soviet F.O. Georges-Picot 3 R French Ambassador to Mexico Hamilton 3 R British Asst. Secretary of State Hutson l R Pres., Tobacco Associates Inc. Jackson 6 mo. D With His Majesty's Treasury Katzin l Retired Keenleyside 3 T Dir., UN Office of Public Admin. Kerno 6 Retired Kiselev l Died in office Lall A D Chmn., India Air Transport Council Laugier 5 R Professor of Physiology, Paris Loutfi l Died in office McDiarmid l R Sr. Dir., Technical Assistance Bd. Pelt 3 T UN Commissioner to Libya Price 6 Retired Robertson 3 R Dir., Organizations, H.M. Treasury Sobolev 3 R Head, American Dept.. Soviet F.O. Tchernychev 4 R Chief, F.O. Cultural Relations Trevelyan l R H.M. Ambassador to Iraq Zinchenko 3 R Soviet F.O. 1Approximate figures given. 2The reasons for leaving office are: R-Resigned; D-Dis- missed; and T-Transferred, besides Retirement and Death in Office. 159 9. Summary. The data show that higher education has been a maJor requirement to achieve a tOp position in the Secretariat. Experience at a high level in diplomacy, public administration and other forms of governnmnuzserviCe was also found to have been valuable. Previous participation in United Nations activities also has been frequent among Under- Secretaries. Knowledge of official languages is, and will continue to be, essential. With the growing realization that global responsibilities are best discharged by officials with global outlooks and interests, it seems likely that, in addition to the charac- teristics already listed, emphasis will be placed upon such hard-to-measure characteristics as cross-cultural educational experience, international travel, a broad awareness of world affairs, and perhaps most important of all, the possession of an international outlook and of a responsible loyalty to the ideals of the United Nations. To conclude with a final hypothetical formulation: If present trends continue, the Secretariat's top levels will be selected mainly from those with diplomatic and international experience, and are likely to come in increasing prOportions from the emergirg nations. Furthermore, it may be surmised from the data collected for this study that were a world polit- ical elite ever to be formed, many of the administrators, at least, within its membership might be drawn from among those who had had high-level experience within the United Nations. 160 The officials here studied and their successors would cer- tainly seem, in view of the contacts and the experiences inherent in their offices, to be good prospects for member- ship in such a supra-national elite. S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y Reference American Men of Science: The Social and Behavioral Sciences. 10th ed. Tempe, Arizona: The Jacques Cattell Press, Inc., 1962. The Asia Who' 8 Who. 3rd ed. Hong Kong: Pan-Asia Newspaper Alliance, Z196g7. BiOgraphic Directory of_the U. S. S. R. New York: Scarecrow Press, Inc.,.1958. The Canadian Who's Who. Vol. IX. Toronto: Trans-Canada Press, 1963. Current Biorra h . New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 2T955-I9657. 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