ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE EDUCATIONAL OPINIONS OF SELECTED TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS by William B° Lee Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to investigate the educational opinions of selected teachers and administrators: (a) to determine the importance that they attach to the educational activities recom- mended by the AASA Commission on Imperatives in Education and contained in the publication Imperatives in Education,1 and (b) to examine the re— lationships between these opinions and the respondent's educational de- gree, position in the school, and years of educational experience. A review of the literature showed that new educational ideas are seldom adopted by public schools and that the successful innovations are those which have had the support and active involvement of teachers and administrators, Their opinions of the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are, therefore, of vital importanceo Method of Investigation and Analysis It was decided to use the individual, structured interview as a method of gathering datao The interview contained 3h items, 22 of which were based on activities recommended in Imperatives in Education and Which also had the support of educational authoritieso The other 12 items were included to increase the variety of topics covered, but the results were ties in one : sirable, deg; U“ to teachers and a $.41 d O ‘D O 9. .1? William B° Lee results were not analyzedo Interviewees were asked to place each of the educational activi- ties in one of the following response categories: imperative, very de- sirable, desirable, permissible, and undesirable. One hundred and forty—nine interviews were actually held with teachers and administrators in five Michigan cities: Dearborn, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Saginaw. The interviewees were from a cross- section of schools, representing all grade levels in the elementary schools and the different subject matter areas in the secondary schools° Findings 1. Only two of the 22 educational activities were Judged as imperative by a majority of the respondents; both of these concerned reading. 2. The three highest ranking activities had the following common char- acteristics: (a) emphasized the intellectual aspect of growth, (b) represented inward expansion of the schools, and (c) were con- cerned with lower teacher-pupil ratios° 3. Seventeen of the 22 selected activities were regarded as "at least very desirable" (a combination of the "imperative" and "very de- sirable" responses)° Three of the five activities not achieving this rating were concerned with vocational education: h. No activity was considered "undesirable" by a majority of the re- spondentso For only two items was the percentage of "undesirable" responses more than 3%: 1h% for "pre-kindergarten programs for all children" and 9% for "providing breakfasts for culturally disad- vantaged childreno" 5. Activities concerning the culturally disadvantaged were viewed much more favorably by respondents with at least a Master's degree; i \ ecucatlc: aCthlle (3\ chse.::. tcrs the; Generally 55111131511“- Of the ei_ C”! W ‘Me v: 0‘ ‘er ( o ‘ grow“. 1. ’“J'Sin ~ a e E a. ‘ O . 38.518 p. F. " R ..e are“, \E‘ 1 ~ - (7) tr! ..1 Members Super: .o Draft cf in Ed: 535283. S‘*~~‘ 5.33, ‘v ‘ ‘v | 9116 f‘ Appendix Ao Members of the Commission on Imperatives in Education . . . o . o . o . . . . . . B; Superintendents of the five Michigan school systems and principals of the twenty-one schools which cooperated in the study . . Ce Draft of Professor Clyde Campbell's letter to the five superintendents of schools . De Form on which answers were recorded by the investigator o o a . o . . o o o . . EU Draft of letter to the five superintendents of school from the investigator after inter- views were held 0 o o . o . . o . . F0 Draft of letter to the twenty—one principals LIST OF APPENDICES from the investigator after interviews were held a page 165 166 167 168 169 170 cmmmi INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem It was the purpose of this study (1) to determine the importance which public school educators attached to the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education,1 and (2) to show the relationship between their opinions and such factors as educational degree, amount of public school experience and the educational position helde Importance of the Studg A new set of demands is being made on the public schools by a soc1ety becoming increasingly urbanized and industrialized and whose rate of change is accelerating, A larger percentage of youth must be educated; new and complicated skills must be taught to those entering the world of work and periodic retraining provided for those already part of the labor force; and the school is being asked to assume some of the functions tra- ditionally belonging to the familyo Many of these new responsibilities were pointed out in a recent report of the AASA Commission on Imperatives which identified nine im- peratives, "points at which the educational program must be revised and k 1American Association of School Administrators, Imperatives in Educatign, A Report Prepared by the Commission on Imperatives in Educa— tion (Washington, Docoz. American Association of School Administrators, 1966): Cited hereafter as AASA Imperativeso | O _. “ .. . L I. 1 l a. .C _ . r4. ”I ‘a >.. .o .D o w .l ~I. no. e. m.» or. t e ”A o v . . 9U . g .11 C» «v r . c a in I. . . r“ mu . . 9w -u rho .9“ .L .Q a an 9\ ..I& .e o u w. e Tu . s .3 . . vL. .fl.- . A ufii If“ ‘ . H'I ‘ w —u . .A Q L,“ n" O» 0(- u' . ¢ WK .1 II p“ 9|» ul .5 . c .3 5» 3 q . 5. .Nu e .0. P . .o on “A . 0" A!“ Phb Pa 0“ n- YA :u 2 reshaped to meet the needs of the times."2 It stressed the inadequacy of the present school programs to meet these new challenges. Without innovations, new approaches and new emphases in the. educational program, the school will fall short of achieving the high purposes they are expected to achieve.3 It would be erroneous to assume that because different programs are vitally needed that they will be adopted, for public schools react slowly and imperfectly to change. While this is true of all social in- stitutions, it is especially noticeable in public schools. Part of the explanation lies in the fact that schools are domesticated organizations and "like the domesticated animal, . . . are fed and cared for."h Their eXistence is guaranteed and does not depend on their adapting to new conditions. Teachers also resist new ideas and even when research establishes the efficacy of innovations they are reluctant to accept them. Teacher reaction to the new curriculum studies exemplifies this traito Within the fields of science, mathematics and foreign languages, teams of speCialists have revised the basic approach to the learning of their disciplines; new teaching materials have been created, and teachers have been given instructions in the use of them. Still, their impact, after a decade of effort, is partial and disappointinge 21bidy, p. i. ijidf, p. h, “Richard O“ Carlson, "EnVironmental Constraints and Organiza- tional Consequences: The Public School and its Clients," Behavorial Sc1ence and Educational Administration, Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the Ihational Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965), p. 266. 5Francis F. Chase, "School Change in Perspective," The Changing Anmnmican School, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the 'tudy of Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 2T7“: 3 The stressing of the barriers to educational innovations has two purposes. First, it was meant to dispel any tendency to believe that if an educational program is urgently needed, that its adoption is assured; any new educational activity, regardless of how worthy, faces formidable obstacles in vying for entry into the public schools. Secondly, the predictable difficulties render all the more pressing the search for common elements upon which successful innovations are basedo A strong consensus exists among those responsible for inaugurat— ing new programs6 that a necessary ingredient for their success if the agreement and support of the teachers and administrators directly con- cerned. Without this active involvement, there is little hope that new programs will be adopted. Knowledge of the educational opinions of teachers and adminis- trators is, then, essential to those concerned with educational innova— tions. What are the Opinions of public school educators toward the edu— cational activities deemed so crucial and urgent by the Commission? The importance of this study lies in attempting to answer that question and in the belief that these findings will be of use to those in leader- ship roles charged with educational innovations. 6J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Focus on Chapge; Guide to Better Schools (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1961—637, p. 125. 6National Education Association, Innovations For Time to Teach, ed. Malcolm M. Provus (Washington, D.C.: ProJect Time to Teach, Dept. of Classror' Teachers, 1966), p. vi. 6Carl L. Marburger, "Considerations for Educational Planning," Education in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press, 1963), p. 307. 6Harold Alberty, "Designing Programs to Meet the Common Needs Of Youth," Adapting the Secondary_School Program to the Needs of Youth, Fifty-second Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 139. l. The educe are cons: 3 The educa are more cators v1 3: The educa are more room tea:: a The Gina's: are more by 91625;: i _ ~ A” Elite ‘ :31:er Flt Ei';:&9..h__ A ., “ ”all. ‘ige ~\ - \Vatfl J ”In. .3. 3.4"”- 'Hypotheses l. The educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are considered imperative by public school educators. 2. The educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are more likely to be regarded as imperative by public school edu- cators with advanced degrees. 3. The educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are more likely to be regarded as imperative by elementary class- room teachers than by secondary classroom teachers. h. The educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are more likely to be regarded as imperative by administrators than by elementary classroom teachers. 5. The educational activities described in Imperatives in Education are more likely to be regarded as imperative by public school edu— cators with little educational experience. Definition of Terms Educational Activityy-any enterprise or program whose purpose it is, directly or indirectly, to aid learning. Imperative-—"absolute necessity; urgent; compellingo"7 Public Schools--those educational institutions containing the "educa- tional programs by the state, by counties, by school districts, etc., for the pupils in elementary and secondary schools; . . . (Sometimes used in contrast with private and parochial education, and sometimes to differentiate elementary and secondary education from higher edu- 8 cation. 7Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, Col- .Lege Edition (New York: The World Publishing 00., 1957-65), p. 728. 1 8Dictionary_of Education, ed. Carl V. Cood (New York: Mc—Graw“ Hill Book Co., Inc., 1915);, p. 320. y . S~erfln a 3“; 'v , ‘el A \a Q ‘~ 7 n L““°e ‘k‘ B‘s: _I s cm n‘*e~ Q n 3 of r-- ¢ \V— twLb ~. fi ‘AC"" \_ (C; A" . ~.; 1‘ ‘. ~ 92‘. “:5 c. o “'r “J ‘v 15» ~ ‘A l ~~ ‘4 -_. nV Q t C s e‘ v‘ Q “ t CI“ .““~‘ “H \ ~. ot‘. e,‘?. .1“; k ‘A_ K‘ ‘ U \ ‘. sVVSQ- ‘4 s:: H “‘ C1 '- \\ . P. : 5». Ki». 5: ‘U Y\ ‘1'? av s \l ‘ t‘C" “ " A C ' n V“ ‘ ' \ ’ . .D U‘, n. .. " “(A ‘H , s.\~~ . \: ch‘ ‘ ~cz.‘~ I " ' ‘ c H. F) "* d' l ‘l. (I; 5 Public school educator-~administrators, elementary classroom teachers and secondary classroom teachers certified by the state and whose major reSponsibilities are in the public schools. Excluded are (1) members of boards of education and (2) university personnel whose responsibility might be in providing consultant services to the school district or classroom instruction to the teachers and admin- istrators. Advanced degree-—Master's degree or above. Educational experience--number of years spent in either as a teacher or as an administrator or a combination of the two. Elementary classroom teacher—-referring to personnel in a school spend— ing at least 80% of their time in instruction. Excluded from the study were (I) helping teachers and (2) teachers of special subjects, i.e , art, music, remedial reading. Secondary classroom teacher--referring to the personnel in a school spending at least 80% of their time in instruction. This included those teachers spending one period a day in counseling, attendance duties, or serving as department head, but would exclude them if the responsibility required more than one teaching period per day. Type of Study This is a descriptive study or survey which is defined as "a pro- cess for learning pertinent information about an existing situation."9 Van Dalen declares that this type of research is especially suit- able fOr educational problems. Before much progress can be made in solving problems, men must possess accurate descriptions of the phenomena with which they 9Barnes, Fred P., Research for the Practitioner in Education, A IReport to the Department of Elementary School Principals, National Educa- ‘tion Association (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 196h), p. 67. work. Ii as in 01 To solve riculum, ask thes' status cl ing cond. descript; 18 their identify that apps The researzh ls e without, a lnfcmt; of lfldl V1 ch‘c‘sracte: The p L exuzatignu pr “5" Point of .f ELY, Of Ci,“ Cat n Q unai exIJQI‘ 6 work. Hence, the early developments in educational research, as in other fields, have been made in the area of description. , TO solve problems about children, school administration, cur- riculum, or the teaching of arithmetic, descriptive researchers ask these initial questions: What exists-~what is the present status of these phenomena? Determining the nature of prevail- ing conditions, practices, and attitudes-~seeking accurate descriptions of activities, objects, processes, and persons-- is their Objective. They depict current status and sometimes identify relationships that exist among phenomena or trends that appear to be developing.10 The valuable information that can be gathered from this kind of research is emphasized by Withey: Without a survey, responsible persons may be ignorant of public information, public wishes and attitudes, the current behavior of individuals, the perceived seriousness Of a problem or other characteristics that should be made known to policy makers. The purpose of the present study is to investigate a critical educational problem and to determine the extent of its seriousness. Pub- lic school teachers and administrators will be interviewed to determine their point of view; an attempt will be made to ascertain the influence,. if any, Of educational degree, position in the school, and years of edu- cational experience, on their opinions. This will provide the type of factual data deemed so essential by Van Dalen to educational problem solving. Descriptive studies that Obtain accurate facts about existing conditions or detect significant relationships between current phenomena and interpret the meaning of the data provide educa- tors with practical and immediately useful information. Factual information about existing status enables members of the profes- sion to make more intelligent plans about future courses of ac- tion and helps them interpret educational prOblems more effec- tively to the public. Pertinent data regarding the present scene may focus attention upon needs that otherwise would remain unnoticed. They may also reveal developments, conditions, or lODeo'bold Van Dalen, Understanding Educational Reagprch: An In\troduction (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1962), p. 18h. 11Stephen B. Withey, "Survey Research Methods," Encyclopedia of gflflflgational Research, ed. Chester W. Harris (New York: The Macmillan Coo ’ 1960), Do 11‘1‘70 a Q . N trends L1. v n. a to pre _w 3 .na. 0 t1 \ , o 5.5;." B ,. 553.3 .0 . svsl A V a A: we “1.... up ; -“—'\~_ ‘ H A ‘u.‘ r. f». ”C 3» 3 as. “Nag F.» rhva Y“ \a . J hr. .Fw PM pa \ .— JA,» ..5\\ w . s 7 trends that will conv1nce citizens to keep pace with others or to prepare for probable future events. Since existing educa- tional conditions, processes, practices, and programs are con- stantly changing, there is always a need for up-tO-date des- criptions of what is taking place. Barnes estimates that a descriptive study has value beyond that Of facts: The survey frequently becomes more than a mere fact-finding de— vice. It may result in important hypotheses 9r conclusions that help to solve current problems, and it may provide basic infor— mation for comparison studies and for identifying trends.13 Limitations of the Study l. The study was limited to the public school systems in the five most populous cities in Michigan, exclusive of the Detroit metropolitan area: Dearborn, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Saginaw.1h It was thought that in the public schools of these cities could be found Opinions representative of both large and small school systems. 2. Within these five school systems the study was limited to a sampling of lh9 teachers and administrators in 21 schools. Organization of the TheSis In Chapter II the background Of the problem is presented and the literature is reViewed in Chapter III. Chapter IV describes how the sur- vey was planned and conducted and in Chapter V the selected educational activities are classified and the procedure of examining the hypotheses Set forth. Each of the next three chapters contains a portion of the ¥ laDeobold VanDalen, Op. cit , p. 212. l3Fred P. Barnes, Op. Cit , p. 67. 1.“Their population according to the 1960 census was Dearborn, l12,007; Flint, 196,9h0; Grand Rapids, 202,379; Lansing, 113,058; and Saginaw, 98,265. The World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1966, ed. Lumen H. Long (1966), p. 3DS-h6. y~ e. gu~~uu results of the study by educational tOpic: Cb sic: VI Educational ActiVities Concerning the Culturally Disadvantaged Lr.ptsr Vii Activities Concerning Vocational Education Chapter VIII General Educational Activities Chapte‘ IX, the final chapter, summarizes the study and presents its conrlu31ons. CHAPTER II BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM This study was concerned with the specific problem of determin- ing the importance which public school educators attached to selected educational activities contained in Imperatives in Education and, as such, had its roots in three general areas: (1) educational goals and actiVities, (2) the place and importance of decision-making in educa— tion, and (3) the impact of professional negotiations on educational de- cision-making. Each of these tOpics is, of course, a complicated problem in itself, so no attempt is made to present a comprehensive exposition of it. Only that information is included which is pertinent to the pres- ent study and aids in the understanding of it. Imperatives in Education and Educational Goals Appointed in 196%, and composed of eight educators representing a variety Of leadership responsibilities in the educational profession, (See Appendix A) the AASA Commission on Imperatives in Education was: Charged with the responsibility for identifying and stating in clear and concise fashion major educational imperatives that must be at the forefront as curriculum are modified, instructional methods revised and organizational patterns reshaped to meet the educational needs of this country in one of its most dynamic periods. Two years later the publication appeared containing the Commission's re- port which identified nine imperatives: lAASA Imperatives, p. i. 10’” To make urban life rewarding and satisfying. To prepare people for the world of work. To discover and nurture creative talent. To strengthen the moral fabric of society. To deal constructively with psychological tensions. To keep democracy working. To make intelligent use of natural resources. To make the best use of leisure time. 2 To work with other people of the world for human betterment. Although disclaiming to be educational goals, the imperatives are in fact Just that. Cunningham notes: "Although labeled imperatives, they are in effect goals for schools, national in scope."3 In the formulating educational goals, the role of the educational " system is advisory; Ostrom states . . . growing professional competence will expand the range of alternatives and opportunities that may be con- sidered in the development of educational programs"h for "the goals to be served cannot be specified solely on the ground of professional compe- tence."S Lieberman Observes that the responsibility for determining goals and purposes Of education belongs to society as a whole. "Ultimately the determination of the broad purposes of education is one for our entire society to make."6 The wishes of society are made known through its po- litical system to which the decision is entrusted. Ostrom explains "The specification of the enforceable purposes or objectives of a society is 2Ibid0’ P0 10 3American Association of School Administrators, Federal Policygin the Public Schools (washington, D.C.: American Association of School Ad- ministrators, October, 1966), p. h6. hVincent Ostrom, "Education and Politics," Social Forces Influ— encing_American Education, Sixtieth Yearbook Of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961). p. 37. 5 Ibid. , p. 37. 6Myron Lieberman, The Future of Public Education (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1960), p. 19. mic by its tics proges- :1s;oa is .‘IL. ‘ . r ‘.".V ‘ ~ He. 5“». SA . . " ‘9. . .‘ oh""¢~du‘ Q. 5 Pto'._.‘ :- U V q- s..--Q‘S ...' - 3‘. U““::a‘S t;‘. .I"o~ va-MQ- 535115 u. been . \r- ‘ “-m as: de: 1 5344361 s .. LJ“t1L1;.. 6793 if ‘I 11.4, hung t‘. 1.- O J». "u ‘ a d.‘ \ y ‘ 1" e,‘: 4 '\ e‘r‘“y i, 5" Vd’e \ x 'd as. _ ‘u l . P v‘ "a the t S . 9» '2 "‘ 5:.4 \iss_ e.‘ \‘1‘ & h ‘V 1 «U 11 made by its political system."7 To the extent that Imperatives in Educa:_ 3igg_pr0poses educational goals it is consultative for that type of de— cision is made by the political system. In the United States the process of setting educational goals is neither simple nor clear—cut, especially because of the lack of central- ized political and educational systems. As the representatives of the '1 political system school board members, state legislators and federal Officials make societal education decisions"8 but in addition to those Officials there are a multitude of extrawlegal forces determining educa— tional goals. Seen from the point of view of formal structure, control is local and decentralized, in the hands of school boards of which there are now about 25,000. The diversity of school boards is described by Hechinger: They vary in size of membership, the ways in which they are ap- pointed or elected, and in the degree of actual control they exercise Over the schools within their jurisdiction. They may directly interfere with the day-tO-day Operation of the schools or they may be nothing more than a rubber stamp for the school superintendent and his professional staff. They may represent the people of their community, if the community is sufficiently school-minded to bother to vote. They may represent the ruling politicians, if they are appointed by the regime in power or even if they are elected along party lines. According to Hechinger the extent to which school boards establish their own instructional standards or are obliged to follow minimum state cri- teria depends "on the legislative pattern and the political whims of the "10 fifty states. He calls the resulting situation anarchic and similar 7Ostrom, Op._git., p. 37. 8National Education Association, Schools for the Sixties, A Re- port on the Project on Instruction (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963). p. 13. 9Fred Hechinger, Thg_Big Red Schoolhouse (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & 06., Inc., 1959-62), p. 161. lolbid., p. 161 to the chao: observers fee I education tc Cren or the prime : the cducatic: remarks: Yet one c local Con Mexican in sc0pe [120118 the mat 12 to the chaos growing out of extreme individualism in economics. "Many observers fear that extreme laissez faire has already pushed.American education to the brink of its own great depression."11 Cremin chooses to interpret American education from the viewpoint of the primacy of national rather than local forces. In referring to the educational powers of state governments and local school boards, he remarks: Yet one can grant all this and still talk about a folklore of local control, for the influences that have decisively shaped American education in our time have been not local but national in scope and character.12 Among the national influences formal in character he includes the United States Congress, U. 8. Office of Education, Department of Defense, the Supreme Court and an education-minded president. Equally important, he contends, are informal influences: Professional organizations, regional accrediting associations, philanthroPic foundations, the leading graduate faculties of education, textbook publishers, testing programs, committee re- ports, commission statements, analyses by influential individuals --all exercise a profbundly important nationalizing influence.13 National forces must not be interpreted to mean a national voice and least of all a single national voice. Two recent inquiries1h have been made, one in 1961 and the other in 1965, with the purpose of at- tempting to determine "Who is speaking for or who is being heard on edu- cation today?"15 The conclusions reached by the authors are strikingly 11mm. , p. 162 1ZLEwrence A. Cremin, The Genius of American Education (New York: Random House, 1965), p. 95. 13Ibid., p. 98. 1hLindley J. Stiles, "Who Speaks for Education?" Nations Schools, 67 (May, 1961), pp. 65-69 and Donald w. Robinson, "How Sinister is the Educational Establishment?" Saturday Review, January 16, 1965, pp. 56-58. 15 Stiles, op. cit., p. 66. , : ‘v- ‘. . 2‘ an—nou4... V r.n '. ~E. .D .. . ‘r A‘ Vac . 'ID "I w M“..;. d‘.‘ . ‘ a" arid A f "I. cu» .U.‘ v. “A )5- ‘ v .. .. ...,.. L..‘V . O. ,._ ‘ . ’ ‘ but I.'\-: Q . ‘ ‘ I ' A .. vy hung A \- - :‘flht‘fig r, 4 . ' §t~.u‘ Q‘A‘ ..‘ .._.~ . \P P: ~ 0" fv~~b V. r-.,.‘:. ‘ a 1" “it ' flu» IQ»M .1. ”MT: ‘. “‘41,, 1 “9 w- "(s Fern-as. l ‘v.e r O {a F' W similar. Stiles observes: Remarkable agreement prevailed among this unofficial jury of6 parts that while many may try, no one speaks for education.1 ex— In an investigation conducted five years later, Robinson reports: In general the twenty-four respondents concur with Conant that there is no one author1ty center, but a welter of them, some- times acting in concert, sometimes in conflict and confusion.17 With this background of state and local control accompanied by the multiple and often countervailing formal and informal national forces and the lack of a s1ngle clear voice of the educational profession, one might expect that a formulation of educational goals such as contained in Impera— tives in Education would be contentious; yet there is no evidence to indi— cate that it was. Lieberman asserts that educational goals are not contro- versial and that there is substantial agreement concerning the broad pur— poses of American education despite the lack of an authoritative formula— tion of them. It is true that no statement of the broad purposes of education has been accepted by the American peOple as a whole, but this does no mean that there is widespread disagreement about these purposes. He insists that ". . . disagreement over educational purposes is neither the pervasive nor the all-important problem that it is often thought to ."19 and concludes that "there is widespread agreement on the broad "20 be . . purposes of education. The selection of educational goals, then, although complicated, oftentimes confusing and beyond the sphere of special competence of the l6Ibid., p. 67. 17Robinson, 0p. cit., p. 56. 18Lieberman, 0p. cit., p. 17. 191b1d., p. 20. 20Ibid.,1u 17° educational fleet dif lb educational system is an issue on which there is a large measure of ac- cord. Imperatives in Education and Educational Activities General consensus on educational goals does not insure agreement on activities to achieve those goals. Lieberman observes that educational disputes are more likely to be over means than ends. Disagreement over the inclusion of a subject may simply re- flect differing estimates of its usefulness in achieving an agreed-upon purpose.21 The choice of educational programs tends to generate more diaputes than the selection of goals. It is at this point--the point of professional translation of broad purposes into a coherent educational programs-that we have some of our major unsolved problems. Thus, the educational programs recommended in Imperatives in Education, unlike the goals set forth, can be expected to be controversial. In conceding that the educator has no special competence to set educational goals, it is, however, claimed that he has unique qualifica- tions to make decisions concerning educational activities. Classifying educational activities as a species of the genus intermediate objectives, Lieberman explains "It is important to recognize that intermediate objec- tives should be set by the professions, not by the public."23 Using slightly different terminology, the authors of the NEA Project on Instruc- tion reach a similar conclusion: in recognizing society's prerogative to set educational goals they nevertheless reserve for educators the right to make decisions concerning educational activities. ‘6’ 21 id., p. 20. 22 5‘ id., p. 20. 23 '6’ idO’ p0 2&0 Close t; eisions sake ins It s rsfessmna; 639 test 515.. the intent n: “my itsei: . The‘ ”Batches. $1 8;: ‘Chlld-Ce: EStIEr Eh; 1n learn:: when the;: psteLtlal; Centergdo: EatLOn tC 182k cf re veloglhg I. t x . iiect&_. 5; “.2h 5 s: ." «v, a. steer Vat-1‘ ’“TCSe ‘58 l“ :‘I';‘ n ui"'es 1'] r L”: a(:&:‘ 'r-~ a ‘QL a,‘ q. Stals ‘ \\\‘ 2a 1‘311. 25‘ ‘.A vgr‘r " :3 an ‘i‘ S't the C I 75, ‘ let“ 15 Close to the students, teachers make daily instructional de- cisions. At a more remote lev 1, teachers and administrators make institutional decisions.2 It must not be assumed that in limiting the decision making of professional educators to educational activities that it becomes incon- sequential; on the contrary, it rather“ designates an area of the greatest significance. As Goodlad persuasively argues, it is neither the intent nor the goal of the activity which is important, but the ac- tivity itself. . . . The actual function of anything is what it is used for, regardless of what humans may intend it to be at any given time. Schools have been used for the provision of dental care (child—centered?) when their function was proclaimed as subject- matter mastery. Schools have been used for intense competition in learning to spell a selected group of words (subject-centered?) when their function was proclaimed to be development of the unique potentialities of the child at his own rate of speed (child- centered2). Teachers who passionately extol the school's obli- gation to promote human variability (child-centered?) protest the lack of readiness for grade-level work (subject-centered?) in the entering group. Teachers who see the school's function as de- velOping the 3 R's (subject-centered?) engineer reading programs wherein every child advances at his own rate of speed (childs centered?). Obviously, there is much inconsistency between in- tellectual commitment to the ideal and theeyariety of functions which a school serves at any given moment. In other words, he who selects the activity, in effect, determines the purpose. The implications of the foregoing discussion as applied in Im:_ peratives in Education which contains both educational goals and proposed educational activities are: (1) that decisions concerning the nine imperatives as educational goals are societal ones to be made by the political system. 2hNational Education Association, Schools for the Sixties, p. 13. 25John I. Goodlad, "Individual Differences and Vertical Organiza- tion of the School," Individualizing Instruction, Sixty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 212. (2) the tie sys . (3) the C02? (‘4) the" act; thC: l6 (2) that decisions concerning the proposed educational acti- ties lie within the special competence of the educational system. (3) that the educational activities are more liable to be controversial than are the educational goals. (h) that the consequences of decisions concerning educational activities are of equal or of more significance than those concerning educational goals. Decision Making in Education In concluding that decisions concerning educational activities are important, controversial and within the sphere of professional edu- cators, the problem far from being solved has only been identified. The '26 question now to be considered is, "Who shall make decisions?‘ which according to Dill is one of the three basic prdblems in decision-making. Decision-making itself is currently considered to be a crucial issue in education although its recognition as such is of recent date. "27 in the 63rd In the Opening paragraph of his article "Decision Making NSSE Yearbook Dill notes that in the previous NSSE yearbook dealing with theories of administration, the topic was disregarded while at the pres- ent time "Decision—making even for those who doubt its centrality to the theory and practice of administration has become too important to ig- _j"“ nore."28 Its relevance is stressed by Griffiths: The key concept in this discussion is that of directing and controlling the decision-making process. It is not only 26WilliamR. Dill, "Decision-making," Behavioral Science and Edus Sggional Administration, Sixty-third Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: National Society for the Study Of'Education, l96h), p. 203. 27Ibid., p. 199° 28Ibid., p. 200 central functic~ in that terpretv 33“!" ‘ :‘t‘anb— ’7‘ &.::- ‘. :‘av “uQ ‘b ‘a “g of I“ \ ..\__ l =‘1a‘ ~lta:_ tu :- 1? central in the same sense that it is more important than other functions, as some writers have indicated; it is also central in that all other functions of administration can best be in- terpreted in terms of the decision—making process. Despite its importance, knowledge about educational decision- making is meagre. Dill in "lamenting the paucity of basic work on de- 30 cision-making in educational organizations" asserts: Laboratory groups, business firms, and government administra- tive agencies differ in important respects from schools, col- leges and universities. Most of what we know about decision- making we have learned by looking at problems and processes in the former settings. Justification of and encouragement for a unified professional ap- proach to decisionumaking abounds in educational literature. The Educa- tional Policies Commission in its publication "The Unique Role of the Superintendent of Schools" proclaims: Teachers should play a major role in initiating and formulating administrative and policy decisions. In the interest of the advancement of education, the staff should seek a role and the superintendent should welcome it. Tompkins in his study of democratic administration advocates sharing of responsibility: . . sharing in the discussion of problems, sharing in the edu— cational planning, sharing in the responsibility for deciding policy, sharing in the achievements of the organization, so that ultimately every responsibility of school organization and opera- tion was shared by the coworkers.3 Evidence from many sources attest to the desire on the part of €?Daniel E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory (New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959), pp. 7h-750 3ODill, op. cit., p. 205. 311bid., p. 205. 32Educational Policies Commission, The Unique Role of the Super- intendent of Schools (washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1965), pp. 21-22. 33Ellsworth Tompkins, "What are Good Techniques in Achieving 3Democratic.Administration of the High School?" National Association of Secondary Schools Principals Bulletin 33 (April, 1939), p. 217. teachers to reporting tie a change dur sire for ac: Teas. Vho cites tl'.’ hese 8t equa11y 1 tion, 0V5 to Part1: to be qu; Fina- as" states: TDEy have ThEe fessional 13?; l ;.. 5“ ‘e: Pro‘m‘ 18 teachers to participate in making educational decisions. Seeger in 1955 reporting the results of a twenty-year study of teachers' attitudes notes a change during that period of time "from subservient acceptance to de- sire for active and democratic participation in curriculum andpolicy."3h Teacher willingness to participate is corroborated.by Boardman who cites the studies of the Research Division of the REA. These studies have shown that while administrators divide nearly equally concerning teachers desire to participate in administra- tion, over 90% of the high school teachers indicate their desire to participate. The evidence concerning the teachers' desire seems to be quite conclusive.3S Finally, Dill in reporting the results of Levin and his students states: They have found in experiments and field studies that many groups (such as teachers) in organizations want more chance to partici- pate in maging decisions that affect their activities and oppor- tunities.3 The extent to which the theoretical acceptance of a unified pro- fessional approach is reflected in actual practice is a major educational issue. Provus Observes "teachers have seldom had the chance to take part n37 in determining how practice can be improved at the local level. Pro-, gram proposals for federal funds have been criticized by Lou McGuinness of the U. S. Office of Education for not involving classroom teachers in the planning. A bitter commentary on this is to be found in an editorial of the American Teacher: 3hEarl W. Anderson and Elfreda M.Rushor, "Staff-~Characteristics," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, ed. Chester W. Harris (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), p. 1359. The study was reported in this article. 35Charles W. Boardman, "What are Good Techniques in Achieving Democratic Administration of the High School," National Association of Secondagy School Principals Bulletin, 33 (April, 19h9), pp. 208-209. 36 Dill, op. cit., p. 213. 37National Education Association, Innovations for Time to Teach, ed. Malcolm M. Provus (Washington, D.C.: Project Time to Teach, Dept. of C1assroom.Teachers, 1966), p. iv. As noted prcgrazs cracy, w fornulat: work. " O n‘ A k Synvc U _ . - ‘45.. -- . ’h ctq .“e e‘ . O .3 “P (‘D ’ l U) (D :r' m 19 As noted earlier, most of the present federally aided school programs have been developed by the official school bureau- cracy, with the result that teachers have had no part in their formulation and feel little or no commitment to making them work. Teachers are often suspicious of the motives of the school bureaucracy and skeptical of the bureaucracy's under- standing of teaching problems. Yet the success of our educa- tional endeavor depends absolutely on the commitment which teachers can bring to it. The alienation of teachers from the new programs can best be overcome by involving them as a ggoup in the preparation and implementation of the programs. The plight of the teacher from this viewpoint is summarized by Anne Mitchell: In the educational hierarchy, he is low man on the totem pole. In the power structure, he is the one without power. In the line of order, he is the one who takes orders from everyone else. He has little chance to exercise creativity, to show intelligence, or to use democratic procedures. He has no say in the important decisions affecting the schools. The educa- tional system in America today is a vertical hierarchy and the teacher 15 at the bottom.39 Despite its advocacy by leading educators and policy-making or- ganizations and teacher willingness, joint decision—making, according to many critics, is not widespread. Professional Negotiations and Educational Decision—Makipg, Any study investigating the opinions of public school educators must take into account the revolutionary impact of professional nego- tiations on decision-making relationships. In theory, the school boards and their agent had, prior to col- lective bargaining, what could be called inherent management pre— rogatives or management rights to manage the school system. They decided what the school programs would be and the superintendent carried out their decisions. There was unilateral decision-making. 38American Teacher, September, 1966, p. 18. 39Anne Mitchell, "The Crux of the Matter," Saturday Review, January 15, 1966, p. 66. cision-nakir. befcre prcfe school w; dcubt t: Ministra: Personne . A . P 4 ‘ Neav‘ Pre~ 20 In the absence of collective negotiations the teachers are involved in the decisiBn-making process at the pleasure of the school administrators. O -. ‘ - The following two statements, both of which endorse joint de- cision-making, illustrate the basis and the nature of decision-making before professional negotiations. The desire of the principal to share the management of the school with the teachers, pupils and the patrons is without doubt the single and most important factor in democratic ad- mdnistration. To put it another way, the capacity of the personnel and patrons to decide in the formulation of the school policy is proportionate to the democratic environment willed [italics not in the original] by the principal."1 Moreover, teachers are entitled to the knowledge that they are being consulted {italics not in the original] and are in contact with the central management of the school system. 2 Contrast the above statements with the uncompromising declaration of David Selden, Assistant to the A.F.T. president, who considers teacher participation to be neither consultative nor at the discretion of the principal. When it comes to school policies affecting teaching, the AFT insists [italics not in the original] that teachers be involved as a matter of professional right--not just because the princi— pal is a "good guy" or because he is skilled in the techniques of group dynamics. Raold Campbell cautions against assuming that this militance is confined to the A.F.T. . . Teachers have become militant; whether represented by NEA or AFT affiliates, teachers are demanding that they be heard. Teachers are insisting that they determine who shall represent them in the bargaining process and it is clear that h 0Daniel H. Kruger, "The Teacher in the Decision-Making Process," September, 1966. (Mimeographed.) "lTompkins, 0p. cit., p. 218. l‘2Educational Policies Commission, The Unique Role of the Super- intendent of Schools (Washington, D.C.: N.E.A., 1965) p. 22. "3David Selden, "Principals-~The Real Men in the Middle," American Teacher, September, 1966, p. 13. .. o ‘ ~ i;~4 ..‘ h .., I. . .t.._.-., .. 'ra _ _ _ ‘ '3 a L.- -...,. ... .. U .- . 1. ‘\ z... -4 3,, _‘ ._ 2"ng ~"‘-_ _ b~§i-. “q..‘!‘ _ r-~-. _ ‘ . I s ‘ ,p .....,. 5-.» a . C'- .l‘ ‘ e,. . _ . _' ' ... - . .,,_ ““‘ . ‘l I- ... “ II. I— “ -.c.'.‘_._ . .. '1 ..~_,‘ "a b . ' . \- r ‘ '., ,. _‘~ . ."---.L . '1 :_.- ._- _ A. \.‘ .. C ck "l_q .\ . v “.4.“ .. .‘ I“ I“ ~.‘- 1. ‘L ‘v- ,’- 1. . "'.-~'. . u . ' : ;. ‘-' . L. Q"-. t. r . ., “V ' A‘A“‘ . . ‘ L's I .L l$ "u \ n ‘L. . ._.‘ 1. ‘».' 1‘ H“ .- H. ‘I .‘ a. HT:- ‘ ‘I~-y , A... ‘4': 3 . ~ C- a ‘v '.n.. “- ' r: ..~ I . .c ..~‘ “ Ct: '—; i. ‘- \\‘~ H ‘I. 'J ‘1 -. “~. ‘ L . .‘ a \ .\ 4 21 teachers themselves are going to have a greater voice than ever before in the determination of school policy. Paternal- ism on the part of superintendefits and boards, no matter how ‘beneficient, will no longer do. A The position of the principal, as well as that of the teacher, is being modified by professional negotiations although the new outlines are as yet unclear. Kruger claims that "joint decision-making will also ~ ~ L D h change the role of the pr1nc1pal," 5 and predicts "he may well become a - . o v "’46 better manager as well as a better educationalist. He further en- visions the principal becoming a key figure who "will become more in- volved in decision-making because he will be in a better position than the top administrator to know how the agreement is working out in day- to-day m*tters."h7 More pessimistic is McGuinness, who after reviewing prOposals f '3.) r federal funds saw little evidence of the involvement of either -eachers or princ1pals. According to the American Teacher, t He (McGuinness) offered a five—p01nt program for insuring better use of federal funds. The first step would be the involvement of the classroom teacher in planning programs for federal aid. The second, he said, would be involvement of principals and aSSistant principals, who, are now as left out as teachers. Selden in an article entitled "Principals—-The Real Men in the ' k1 ' r-n 3:): die depicts the principals as being caught in a power squeeze be- J tween the superintendent and the teachers. Many of the collective bargaining demanis of teachers can be satisfied only through gaining a share of the power held ’h d . - - . 'v In ~ ; ,- - n rasld r. Campbell, "Is the school Superintendent Obsolete!" -35_*:_§_&P£§__ October. 1966. p. 55 "SKruger, 923 CLE , p. 29. b'( h. . 6mm.- . p. 29 ., h? . American Teacher, September by pri ticipa themse papers have b Mu tions on t raises the trial work or profess: “ministry In "“3898 01 may “Ce; 22 by principals. Thus principals, who do not normally par- ticipate in a'bargaining process, not infrequently find ‘themselves reading about the negotiations in the news- . papers and learning that the superintendent and the board have bargained away principal prerogatives. 9 Much controversy exists about the impact of profcssional negotiap tions on the quality of education. The Educational Policies Commission raises the question as to "whether methods which have served the indus- trial worker well are appropriate fOr teachers"50 and cites the danger of professional disunity. "Promoting a cleavage between teachers and administrators can be all but catastrophic to the quality of a school."51 In taking issue with the above statements, Kruger points out ad- vantages of professional negotiations to the school district which genup inely accepts it. The Joint making of decisions is viewed as being mutually ad- vantageous. It represents a democratizing of school adminis- tration through the involvement of the teachers in the formup lation of the educational program. This is not a new idea. As early as 1938 the Educational Policies Commission spelled out a philosOphy for involvement of the total school staff in developing the school program. Although the movement is still new and its full impact not yet felt, it seems certain that professional negotiations are producing fundamental modifications in decision-making relationships among teachers, principals and superintendents which must be considered when attempting to understand their Opinions toward educational activities. h9Selden, op. cit., p. 13. 50Educational Policies Commission, The Public Interest in How Teachers Organize (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1961;), p. 1. 5J'Ibid. , p. h. 52Kruger, Op. cit., pp. 10—11 tzcal systc process he pref 551cm. reversxal em. and '71 2 "I- ck. . it" E‘I‘1Q._ me ‘~a.‘ DrfiV—" ,_‘ d~-¢D.\,n—.lc:. 23 Educational goals are set by society and discerned by the poli— tical system and there is usually little disagreement over them; in this process the educational system plays a consultative and advisory role. The selection of educational activities, the area in which the professional educator exercises his special competencies, is usually con- troversial. Imperatives in Education contains both a set of educational goals and proposals for numerous educational activities. Although teacher participation in joint decision-making has long been accepted in the literature, according to many critics, it has never been widespread in practice. Professional negotiations, by making teachers more militant and by redefining the role of the principal, are altering decision-making in public education. n3 l .U e actln ~b a. ‘Q 9» r“. FV . a,“ El: ~ “1 EC‘ n \ul ~Kv 9k“ d. I], l e Qavq‘, Va“. 9‘ fiv ecuzav * ‘mier t: .Ltrm ‘ CHAPTER III REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter reviews the literature pertaining to educational activities recommended by the AASA Commission on Imperatives in Educa- tion and shows the extent to which these activities are supported by authorities in the specific field concerned. This chapter is divided into three sections, each of which corresponds to a later chapter in which the findings are presented: (1) educational activities concern— ing the culturally disadvantaged, (2) activities concerning vocational education, and (3) general educational activities (those not falling under the first two topics). Educational Activities Concerning the Culturally Disadvantaged Introduction A culturally disadvantaged person has omissions and deficiences in his background. . . . So that in comparison with the "typical" individual in the culture under consideration he has had little oppor— tunity to acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed for successful functioning in society.1 Minority groups have a disproportionate share of the culturally disad- vantaged. Ginzberg explains why: . Members of minority groups tend to come from environ- ments which failed to provide the range of opportunities LDonald Ross Green, James A. Jordan, W. J. Bridgeman, and Clay V. Brittain, Black Belt Schools: Bgyond Desegregation (Atlanta: Southern Regional Council, November, 19557, p. 17. 2h ‘ r \ avails pia ces in the 5" ~v‘ \ 25 available in the communities in which they settle, and this places them at a further disadvantage both in schools and in the labor market.2 Not possessing the necessary information, skills, and attitudes, the culturally disadvantaged youngster is handicapped when entering the typi- cal middle class school. If the educational enterprise is simply an extension of the middle-class home, then it follows that only middle-class children will tend to do well in it.3 The barriers encountered in these schools and his minimal chances of suc- cess in them occur at a time in which subsistence in American society de- pends on an increasing amount of education. "A central factor in the I H entire problem of education and cultural deprivation,’ states Bloom, is the rapidly changing economy and Job-distribution system which requires more and better education for the entire population." While the culturally disadvantaged youngster in most cases has the right to attend the public schools, equality of access to education is no longer sufficient in today's urbanized society. To be meaningful, equality must signify ". . . that the educational system shall not be organized in such a way as to favor children who are socialized in one rather than another part of the social structure." This new concept of equality requires compensatory education, Eli Ginzberg, "Social and Economic Trends," Vocational Educa— tion, Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965). p. 28. 3Richard A. Cloward and James A. Jones, "Social Class: Educa- tional Attitudes and Participation," Education in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press, 1963), p. 19%. hBenJamin S. Bloom, Allison Davison and Robert Hess, Compensa- tory Education for Cultural Deprivation (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1965), p. S. 5 Cloward and Jones, op. cit., pp. 193-19h. providing services. What crise: which devel: Compensatc means that cation, c The im dren 1'} than a‘ indiv‘l; the in: negro E Sane cj In muted. t. thEIT def; 26 providing the culturally disadvantaged youngster with special educational services. What is needed“now to-solve our current as well as future crises in education is a system of compensatory education which can prevent or overcome earlier deficiences in the development of each individual. Compensatory education implies a higher per pupil expenditure and it also means that these youngsters would receive a superior, not an "equal" edu- cation. Conant approves: The improvement of the education of elementary school chil- dren in Negro slums by the expenditure of much more money “ than at present should have top priority. In terms of the individual attention provided in teaching the basic skills, the instruction in the first few grades of a school in a Negro slum should be better than in other schools in the same city. 7 (Italics the author' a). In recognizing a special obligation toward the culturally disad- vantaged, the task of the public schools then becomes to compensate for their deficiencies by providing individualized instruction, furnishing more and varied services and by spending more money per child; in short, the objective is to give the culturally disadvantaged youngster a super- 'ior education which will enable him to be successful_in school and will qualify him for the world of work. The urgency of the undertaking is underlined.by the Commission. It is imperative that-~appropriate compensatory experiences 'be provided for those children whose cultural inheritancg is not likely to foster the emergence of desireable talent. 6Bloom, Davison and Hess, op. cit., p. 6. ,yJames B. Conant, Slums and suburbs (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), p. 127. 8AASA, Imperatives, p. h8. I... _ Q l.- .. I. § r.. . a w r. . .h H . 4.. .. . 3; v. . s . . ... ‘. .. .re a. o . 1 —_— o. .C .u f . T :. : V. v. 0L .e ‘v \v .6 .A e. e .h — .. é. .. .Q 9 . 0-. .7“ a... .... «L . .... -._ xi. .u. v . f - u a . . < n» v.— v... .n x. .. .u. 1 2,: .u . .. | . .. .... . a. . - - _ a‘x u 0 . - .\‘ m\.~ . . _ . . Q . . . . ‘ . v. .y . . s . .n‘ are a . . .. .. .. u. r: .. 1 .. .. n... a f we. . a . . .. ..~ cc :3 S. a. .1. kn. ._J .1 x y. .3 u. 4‘ . .1 “a e. .t 3 o. .. e. _ w L. S. .7“ . . an L. pa. .3 v: .v a . pl. .vk v. C. ‘ .. a 1,. .. 2 9. -J‘ a wk Lu to so. .a 12 .. .C t \ .s s. _ .e .. i e x a. x a: .1 y. u p . I. . \ &|...e 2T , . . ‘ - T ‘ BESEEEQE-1géill1gfiucazl29. gthe child is almost Pi" .4 The primacy of early years for edu axiomatic in education and the particular contribution of Bloom in his author) ative study Staoility and Change in Hunag Characteristig§_was to marshal cyldence in support of it. After rewiewing most of the major T longztuilnal studies conducted in the ’nlted States and abroad, he con- C It is 19,:5 difficult for the individual and for the society to brings aoout a particular type of development early in the his t:»ry of an individual tharl it is at a later point in his history. A statement of the Educational Policies C«nm;s ion summarizes the to y D ' ,‘ for early education. Research shows clearly that the first four or five years of a child's life are the period of most rapid grOWth in physical and mental characteristics ard of gleatest susceptibility to enrlronmental influences. Co wequently, it is in the early years that deprivations are most disastrous in their effects. They c.an be compensated for only with greatest difficulty in later years, and then probably not in full. Furthermore, it appears that it is harder to modify harmful learnings than to a: quire new ones. inally, experience indicates that ex- posure to a wide varlety of actiVities and of social and mental interactions with children and adults greatly enhances a Chili's abi li t-y to learn.10 rm: t au . critics conclude twat programs of p: e—klnd_.g1rt n e11“ cation must be offered to take advanta age of these decisive early year LA} "N-r sexy sc.hool programs for children (ages or A) from lower class , . . , , , , , . ll . homes can prowlde intellectual stimulation at a CTKClal point,” Observe heuialln 3. Bloom, c*1c“1.yv'wi fl’n33 1' H1m n (1 . _"1: 1”5 (New York . JC1.n Wiley & Sons, lnc., 190%), p. 250. 10 Eduta.tional Pollcies Comm1551on of the Natlvnal Edu:at1~n Auflw" elation and the Ameilcan As;:C1.atlon of Sch -ol Administrators, ” ppor tur1Ty for Early Chlldhic.d Educati; n, Egi.£§3£§§ly Vol. 55. no, 8 \thcm0“', ljbé) , p 8. ll 7. . ,- l (‘Ial O'Cfr-ij‘LL National Education Assoc1ation, £33; atL n in a L1aug15 v1-ty, -—— wy——--- Progcct on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Washington, D C.: National Education Assoc1ation, 1963), p. 85. 6"- hV"lr 5.. d“~.‘ R LCD-1.21155- dren Wit [1 U) (D C) "4 (f r9 (‘0 Pt (II ‘11 $5 {1' l 9‘ \."~. 7’ «‘11 1. a; . by t; ‘4 ‘1 r . ht‘e 'f t for ‘ 2 Y UA" ‘kOQ‘ L :f'F\ . ‘ -‘ . .'_‘ x. "s. T“ A ‘ I‘Q‘x _ ‘ v ,p . \V“&L -'. .1 28 the authors of the NEA Project on Instruction. The Educational Policies Commission stresses that this should be available to disadvantaged chil- dren without costo So that every child can have a fair start in the regular ele— mentary school program, nursery and kindergarten education for disadvantaged children should be available everywhere at public expense° Bloom also concurs on the necessity of these programs for the culturally disadvantagedo Nursery schools and kindergartens should be organized to pro- vide culturally deprived children with the conditions for their intellectual develOpment and the learning-to-learn stimulation which is found in the most favorable home environment.1 There is impressive professional support for the Commission's recommendation of an early start for culturally disadvantaged youngsters. The preschool period is also the time to attempt to compensate for cultural deficiencies-—deficiences which have significance in Job chanceo Activities in nursery school, prekindergarten and kindergarten have great importance.1 Providing Breakfasts_and Lunches Few would argue w1th Bloom's assertion that parents should pro- v1de for their own children and not be dependent on governmental or so- cial agencies. In our society parents take pride in "providing for their own children" and the permanent "taking over" of such functions by the school or the community can have an adverse effect on the parents' sense of adequacy. Insofar as possible, provision for children should be made by their parents.1 i2National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators, American Education and the Search for Egual Op— portunity, The Educational Policies Commission (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1965), p. 8. 13Bloom, Davison and Hess, Opt cit., p. 17. lbAASA, imperatives, p. 25. l5Bloom, Davison and Hess, op. cito, p. 9. 4‘ ii I I i; | _ III e s... .n. r. a. .ru i. .. c .. _ 2.. ‘a .7 .3 ~.. .s .u .._ .1 E if. .L x .\ lb La. :15 .L Y. Y. «L C I S I. .1 .ru .5 ha 0 e 3 En e C c. 3. .4 :1. 7 By r} T e e S l r A ...v . . . C Ci . . .1. Lu «4 an E S ‘ l l 1.‘ l f .1 .5 .1 E .3. . . E e . o p O V S n c S .3 O C .1 C C n» r. Wu L“ T. 1; s C e . ‘1 e C a.» 9a .3 r“ 0. F e T. a? e 1.. r Lu Y. 1; ‘l e "v O 5 . u S a . i :0 l 0 .. h 8 p +» C C .C to e r a d .4; u. .o u s y t A.» a r a .Q «r .. 0.. »U r. r. ZN .r.. ct a» .. as aw be .nd by A» A . c S Q «v L... .v t .3 .9. w u. F. t.» e r 2.. c . s v 29 This consensus, however, leaves unanswered the question of what to do if the parents default on their responsibilities. "The physical needs of the children mg§t_be met," insists Bloom, "and that no child should be expected to learn under conditions likely to nullify the ef- 1."l6 forts of the teacher and the schoo The Commission stresses the im— portance of the child's physical needs being met: If he is continually hungry, tired, cold, and in rags, his or- ganism is unconsciously more absorbed with this physiological level of his own needs than with his affectional relations with others.17 The implications of the above reasoning are clear: the school must provide warm meals for children not receiving them at home. . . . Each child should be assured of an adequate breakfast to help him begin the learning tasks of the day. Each child should also be assured of a mid—day meal° If these meals cannot be provided by the home, they should be provided by the school or the community in such a way that no child feels a sense of shame or special distinction.18 School-Community Coordinator (Home COunselor) "A firm working alliance between the school and the home must be "19 declares the Commission, and this view has wide sup-port established, among educational leaders. The follow-up conference of the 1960 "White House Conference on Children and Youth" which met to examine hundreds of the recommendations of the first conference found "eight recommendations to have such central importance for elementary education as to comprise l6Ibid., p. 9. 17AASA, Imperatives, p. 80. 18Bloom, Davison, and Hess, op. cit., p. 10. l9AASA, Imperatives, p. 169. [222.8 C I— . An End‘- 1' r ex Q 4‘. l1...“ 1 fN “ e w a 5 O; (a A. C .r.. .1 C a J i t .. u- t» e 3 .. .1 .3 T Q. n .5 e e r ‘5 e $ 1 ~ . . a C .1“ n t .2 a .3 a. .. .. : s. .. a . .u u S u . . a e» .C s» l s. p 9. A e a C. n pi. e .. P. .3 a. .... a. Q. .. C C. 5 .na .. .c a . . .Q 1 . . . . .. .. .3 .4 :1— us. . a F. A s ca. . .r- .1 “.4 . a As x . $ - .ns. 1. z o» T. B» a» c y a. — c \Ou. oAW Mm .u.‘ in 3. ‘s any r. «:4 . a 2.1 \l . 3.9 tr. r...\ I fi 3O "20 an honor roll. The second of these stressed the importance of harmo- nious home and community relationships. . . . that schools work more closely with parents and community groups in determining the goals and potentialitis for good schools, and that educational planning and action be a coordi- nated effort, using all existing and potential community re- sources. Amicable school-community relationships face exceptional obstacles in culturally disadvantaged areas. In disorganized areas, where parents and youth are often alien- ated from the school, teachers and administrators have neither the time nor the skills to reduce quickly and successfully the barriers between their school and their community and to build the working patterns of contact and communication required.22 " emphasizes Bloom, "must be made to strengthen the relation between the home and the school."23 Despite these problems "every effort, In culturally disadvantaged areas many leading educators recom- mend a Special liaison person whose main function would be to encourage, and maintain, warm and friendly relations beween the school and the com- munity. One particular approach the school should take in depressed areas is the assignment of a trained community organization person to work with the parents of school children. dOCarl L. Byerly, "A School Curriculum for Prevention and Remedi- ation of Deviancy," Social Deviancy Among Youth, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1966), p. 3. 21U0 S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Edu— cation, Implications for Elementary Education. Follow—up on the 1960 White House Conference on Children and Youth by the Elementary School Section, Division of State and Local Schools (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1961), p. h. 22Carl L. Marburger, "School-Community Relations and Maladjusted Youth, " Social Deviancy‘AangiYouth, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, l966), pp. 267- 268. 23Bloom,-Davison and Hess, op. cit., pp. 26-27. 2hMel Ravitz, "The Role of the School in the Urban Setting," Edu- cation in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers Col- lege Press, 1963), p. 17. A hcze to ho; parent dren, a caticn They {: patent A . an. the F? .3! reccmzenia: Y‘fl“§¢‘ ‘ M51 [“9154’." J 31 A home visitor is required to relate the school and the home, to hold or facilitate individual and group conferences with parents to held parents secure needed services for their chil- dren, and to help plan programs and opportunities for the edu- cation of parents. 5 They [schools in culturally disadvantaged areas] need a com- petent liaison person to interpreg the school to the community and the community to the school.2 The consensus of Specialists in the field support the Commission's recommendation for "school community coordinators who help parents become positively oriented toward education and the schools."27 Guidance Counselors Guidance counselors for elementary schools in culturally disad- vantaged areas‘are justified by many of the same reasons supporting the position of the home counselor: broken homes and an alienated youth ex— periencing difficulty in school. While in suburban schools most counsel- ing is concerned with post high school education, The urban schools now view guidance in terms of dealing with special problems, such as the school dropout (the early school- leaver), the Juvenile delinquent, and those segments of our28 youth which it is fashionable nowadays to call "alienated." As a result of this need "increased guidance and counseling services are "29 found mushrooming in many depressed area schools, reports Passow. The 25Helen K. Mackintosh, Lillian Gore and Gertrude M. Lewis, Educat- ingLDisadvantaged Children Under Six, Disadvantaged Children, Series No. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education Research and Development, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1965), pp. 18-19. 26Marburger, op. cit., p. 268 27AASA, Imperatives, p. 9h. 28Norman A. Sprinthall and David V. Tiedeman, "Guidance and the Pupil," The Changinngmerican School, Sixty-Fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 61. 29A. Harry Passow, "Education in Depressed Areas," Education in Dgpressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press, 1963), p. 338. Comission level as we "1:11 the c, teachers it {Curd in a 32 Commission strongly recommends " . . . adequate guidance at an elementary level as well as the secondary level,"30 to help meet the needs of these culturally disadvantaged youngsters. Smaller Classes A lower teacher-pupil ratio is necessary when working with cul- turally disadvantaged children. The Commission observes that successful programs have "class size that will permit individualization of instruc- "31 tion. This recommendation is heartily endorsed by educators working with the culturally disadvantaged. "Through putting specially trained "32 teachers into relatively small classes .' is one of the ways to pro- vide the culturally disadvantaged youngster with a better start in school. The NEA Project on Instruction uses almost identical language in describ~ ing successful programs in slum areas. "These programs use specially "33 prepared teachers in relatively small classes. Similar sentiments are found in a recent publication of the United States Office of Education describing promising practices in compensatory education. Many administrators are adjusting the formula used for assign- ment of teachers to provide a lower-than-average teacher-pupil ratio for all or part of the day in schools dealing with large numbers of disadvantaged children.3h 29A. Harry Passow, "Education in Depressed Areas," Education in Depressed.Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press 1963), p. 3&8. 3OAASA, Imperatives, p. 9h. 31AASA, Imperatives, p. 9%. 32Robert J. Havighurst, "Urban Development and the Educational System," Education in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press, 1963). P. 36. 33National Education Association, Education in a Changing So- ciety, Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Wash- ington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1963), p. 85. 3hMackintosh, Gore and Lewis, op. cit., p. 29. Tr‘p,A(-l-.~~‘ AAA-A ‘1‘4‘ ‘1 "‘ (o E f. <: 33 Activities Concerning Vocational Education Introduction While compensatory education is a relatively new develOpment, vo- cational education can trace its roots to earliest mankind. "In the prog- ress of the human race," observes Barlow in the Opening sentence of the 6hth NSSE Yearbook, Vocational Education, "the vocational education of man has been a consistent and identifiable element. Vocational education has been part of the foundation of man's creative and progressive development."35 A rural economy, however, did not require, indeed could not absorb, a large number of skilled or educated workers. "The illiterate peasant working in great numbers was needed to grow food, hew wood, and draw 36 water." So, vocational education, like all education, was confined to a few. In an industrialized society where the worker "has need for the n37 skills of the knowledgeable technician and where the economy can no longer assimilate the unskilled worker, the role of the school must be reversed. It can no longer select only the most talented to be trained, but must expand its responsibilities to the quasi-totality of youth, who must be induced to remain in school. "Our current problem is a much more refined one--" explains Wayland, "how to keep the student at the upper 35Melvin L. Barlow, "A Platform for Vocational Education in the Future," Vocational Education, Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National So- ciety for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965), pp. 285-286. 36Harold G. Shane, "The School and Individual Differences," Indi- vidualizingglnstructign, Sixty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), Pa ’45.. 37;p;g., p. hS. secsnaany l eqicvment V U he have §T€SSlC ness r; nature A sazr- £33.53; 9 GI tn.; C 110: ; a a ‘1? I. I C . l l ( III- ‘a?‘e n ‘,l vna &» "Jn 0“ O - 3h "38 secondary level from dropping out of school. The relationship of un— employment to high school graduation and, even more dramatically, to Job training, is pointed out by Wilhelms. We have more youth unemployed than we had during the great de- pression——over a million out of school, out of work. Jobless- ness runs about five times as high among men under 21 as amont mature married men, and the situation may well get worse. The record is better for high school graduates than for drop-outs (though the graduates are having their troubles, too), and it is spectacularly different for those who have had competent Job training. Present programs of vocational education have been severely criti- cized by many educators. Conant places vocational education among the ten . . . . h . most critical problems fac1ng American education. 0 InadequaCles of vo— cational education are documented by Arnold in a recent NASSP Bulletin. A sample study of vocational education offered in six states found that only seven per cent of secondary school students, or those of secondary school age, had an opportunity for vo- cational education leading to gainful employment. 1 Still, even where opportunities are available for vocational edu- cation, the youth needing it the most do not enroll. Barlow reports: In the public schools where vocational education was avail- able, many students were denied access to thesE programs by subject—matter prejudices of school personnel. 2 38Sloan R. Wayland, "Old Problems, New Faces, and New Standards," Education in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College Press, 1963). p. 60. 39Fred T. Wilhelms, "Vocational Education--What Are the Big Ques- tions?" The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (May, 1965), p. L. hoJames Bryant Conant, Shaping Educational Policy (New York: McGraw~Hill Book Co., Inc. 196u), p. 26. thalter M. Arnold, "Developing a Total, Balanced Program of V0- cational and Technical Education," The Bulletin of the National Associa— tion of Secondary School Principals (May, 1955), p. 1&8. l*2Barlow, op. cit., pp. h-S. e S‘.‘ V: m .l‘ Cam’ssm Lei .L c’ “J 14 I 3 3 as . .u .3 l we. r. o my 0 1; F o» Y. r $o E r. a o .1. Wl L F. .3 .C v»; a... Zn 1 cc to .n... 44 a o 2.. TA +.o .6 1m x r e v. . a . . 3 M». 1a“ A» .V w 4" v». r. «L L o w a . a u . v o l t e r . e -o ~ . . o . . fl V‘IH P 6 T‘ S a M h ‘1‘ AM» a L «by. “l 4‘,“ 9 . uh Wu. nabs 35 The offering of a traditional academic program to those for whom it is "’43 0 ". . . neither meaningful nor productive . . . is denounced by the Commission. Also objecting to the vocational—academic dichotomy with undue emphasis on the latter is Grant Venn, Associate Commissioner of the U.S. Office of Education. For the sake of the national welfare of each individual with a potential contribution to it, "academic" and "vocational" education must no lfifiger remain separate and unequal structures within the schools. Vocational education must be revitalized for the school-age youngster and be expanded to all of those in the community having need. The school dropouts, the young person with less ability, the displaced older person, the person who is concerned about changing his occupation, or——more nearly-—capitalizing on all of his talents and aptitudes; all must be included. A total, balanceE vocational education program should cope with every problem. 5 In unmistakable agreement with the foregoing discussion are these strongly worded pronouncements of the Commission. Opportunities for technical afid vocational training must be greatly extended and updated. 6 It is imperative that general education at all levels be strengthened; that vocational education be related more re- alistically to a rapidly changing world of work; and that much more time, skill and money be devoted to vocational guidance in schools at all levels and through agencies and institutions in the community, ‘ h3AASA, Imperatives, p. 26. hh"Vocational Education: For One and All," Education USA Wash— ington Monitor (Washington, D.C.: National School Public Relations As- sociation, October 13, 1966), p. hl. l‘SArnold, 0p. cit., p. lh9. l‘6AASA, Imperatives, p. 66. W Ibid. , p. 23. h s I. 5 . I. ‘ ~ s.‘5 ‘Arv ‘5‘ J 'L‘ a .¢~ ‘h‘ L.‘ 36 Work~3tudy Programs Some of the many variations of work-study programs for the public schools are described by Schreiber. A work-experience program at the secondary-school level is a program in which the pupil is released from classes or school during part of the day, or a whole day, to work. The work may be done in school or out of schoo; it may be for pay or with- out pay; it may or may not carry course credit toward gradua— tion. In some cases, study and work may be closely related, while in others the school 'imply makes it possible for those ué who want to work to do so. The Commission recommended three work—study programs: (1) for low achievers, (2) for average and above average students, and (3) in- schocl work experiences. For Low Achievers.—-"Traditional academic education," affirms the Commission, is neither meaningful nor productive for a substantial "’49 ¢ . . num‘er of young people. Under these c1rcumstances, it is not sur— prising that their achievement is low. Conant endorses a work-study program for these students. Increased attention ought to be paid in both slums and suburbs to develOping meaningful courses for pupils with less than av- erage abilities. To this end consideration should be given by every school and community to the expansion of work—study pro- grams for slow students.5 Many of these students are potential drOp—outs and Arnold af- firms the need to provide meaningful curricula for them. "We must meet the great and critical need," he emphasizes, "for a wide variety of occupational training programs for high-school—age youth of less- "8Daniel Schreiber, "Work Experience Programs," Social Deviancy Among Youth, Sixty—fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Educa- tion, 1966), p. 282. h9 AASA, Imperatives, p. 26. 50James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), p. 127. . l‘ | . a . a H r“ In » \ .F» u.» o a ‘V vs. PM or“ Ola his - a» ..-. K4 1 NC «(a _ C S : ..c C ml 5 .. Ti 1 S S (a 9» .i «L r . e n w. l "J .1“ . e a o C C . a t "v .i n- ww r. : ea a. r. n.“ "K .0 x. ..J e 8 p: a e I .o e e l .t C .1. C ma 9 C a I. F . an .3 r S . «l .C v. S C . x Cu K C. u u "I m . .C t e C r“ a . e S .. s. a ~6 S w o. . a . rm. t» . ... is as .a . . 5 . A c o p. v. Lu . . w“ .no no: " why . a ”a a 5L e . FIN . n,‘ 37 "51 than-average ability. Work-study programs are apprOpriate for another group not achiev- ing well in the typical school, the culturally disadvantaged. "School- based work experience programs," points out Schreiber, "are second-chance opportunities for maladjusted, alienated youth to become a part of the "52 mainstream of American life. Bloom, too, endorses this type of pro- gram. "For these youth, there should be work—study plans in which students "53 can learn in relation to the work. For Average and Above Average Students.—-Work-study programs should not be limited to the low achiever and the culturally disadvantaged. The majority of students terminate their formal education after high school " insists Venn, "prepare and seek employment; therefore, "the schools must, the non-college-bound for the transition from school to work."Sh The Com- mission stresses the importance of work experiences for all. Some time during the last six years of schoolwork, young peOple must prepare for their initial working experience. Thirty-five percent of their waking hours will be spent at making a living. No other par§_of man's activities so completely influence his way of life. 9 The initiative for organizing these programs lies with the schools. lThe schools should give credit for work experience and stimulate business and industry to assist in such programs. In-School Work Experiences.--Most work experience programs are in cooperation with local industry and take place, in part, off the school 51Arnold, op. cit., p. 151. 52Schreiber, op. cit., p. 313. 53Bloom, Davison and Hess, op. cit., p. 38. 5""Vocational Education: For One and All," 0p. cit., p. bl. 55 56 AASA, Imperatives, p. 23. Ibid., p. 26. 38 grounds. Yet this need not be the case. The school itself can become a laboratory. Classroom, library, audiovisual headquarters, cafeteria and traffic control can provide experiences the encourage younngeople to be dependable and accurate and to use good Judgment. Some of this work might be for pay, but most often it would provide an Opportunity for the student to render service to the school and commu— nity. "This will lead," believes Havighurst, "to a commitment to social 58 welfare and a faith in the improvability of society." These programs, affirms the Commission, form an important part of the education of youth. Young people must be given opportunities to develop the leader- ship abilities and sense the satisfactions that come from par- ticipation in community service programs.59 Exploratory Experiences Three of the activities recommended by the Commission concerned exploratory eXperiences: career planning at the junior high level and industrial arts and home economics in the elementary school. Career P1anning.——The lack of a career planning program in the junior high school is one of the major concerns of Grant Venn, Associate Commissioner of Education. "Although 30% of the nation's young drOp out of school before completing the 10th grade," he reports, "there are no concentrated programs beamed at the 12-15 age group which might serve 60 as preventatives." To meet this problem he proposes "broad occupational orientation 57Ibid., p. 26. 58Robert J. Havighurst, "Social Deviancy Among Youth: Types and Significahces," Social Deviancy Amonngouth, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1966), p. 75. 59 6O AASA, Imperatives, p. 172. "Vocational Education: For One and All," Education USA op. cit , p. hl. {55:8 r. b o ~. .1 rRVt‘ 1'" '— '- C ' &‘0.- ‘4 ya )1. g V: as. a $15 ‘r—av U. 6.“.. r L. 9-» .. . ~‘_ c‘u ‘wm.‘ r V.- ‘F n a. \; 41 SC 3- d -rd 6 . c a o .. .u F... «\U e 39 programs . . . for all junior high pupils to acquaint them.with the op- portunities available."61 The Commission, too, believes that a career planning prOgram should be offered before the senior high school. . . . at the end of junior high school, grade 9, when senior high school subjects should be chosen in light of vocational goals. 2 Elementary Industrial Arts and Home Economics.--E1ementary school pupils seldom have.the opportunity for exploratory experiences in either industrial arts or home economics. Herrick observes "home and manual arts are conspicuous by their absence in the daily educational programs of many schools."63 He exhibits concern over these deficiences, asking "whether we can afford to allow boys and girls to grow up in a modern world of technology and science with as little experience in these impor- tant areas of general education as is indicated by the time schedules of most schools."6" These activities should play an important part in the child's education. The authors of the NBA Project on Instruction describe the merits of an exploratory program in industrial arts in the elementary school. Such exploration leads some pupils to an informed decision to enter a specialized vocational education program in the high school; and it helps others find satisfying leisure-time ac- tivities in later life. Modern industrial arts programs stress experiences that help students gain understanding of the techno- logical society in which they live. In the elementary school pupils engage in construction activities involving the use of 61Ibid. , p. 1&1. 62AASA, Imperatives, p. 33. 63Virgil E. Herrick, "Elementary Education--Programs," Encyclo- pedia of Educational Research, ed. Chester W. Harris (New York: The Mac- millan Co., 1960), p. h32. 6"Ibid., p. h32. MO simple, easily manipulated tools and materials. These activi~ ties are freguently tied into other parts of the elementary curriculum. Also recommended is home economics and the approach is similar. In the elementary school, home economics materials, like those from industrial arts, are merged with other aspects of the 6 curriculum rather than being taught as a separate subject. The Commission strongly endorses the inclusion of these actiVi- ties in the elementary school curriculum. The elementary school should provide some opportunity for pupil diaplay of interests other than those related to gen- eral academic or college preparatory subjects. Art, draw- ing, industrial arts, 8nd homemaking offer excellent ex- ploratory experiences. 7 Adult Vocational Education Two themes recurring throughout Imperatives in Education are that today's youth will have to be retrained several times during their work- ing careers and that the public schools should assume primary responsi- bility for this retraining. Some of the Commission's most forceful state- ments concern these new responsibilities. In the broadest definition of its usefulness to society, there- fore, it is imperative that the school be organized to help the worker make successful career changes and to assist youngppeople in preparing for the world of work.057 The worker who does not keep abreast through training and edu- cation soon falls by the wayside. He must anticipate new de- mands on his talents and prepare for them to avoid becoming expendable. It is imperative that the school be ready to as: sist him and to lead the way in meeting_new manpower needs.by 65 on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1963.), p. 115. b6lbid. , p. 116 67 AASA, Imperatives, p. 25. 68AASA, Imperatives, p. 22 69 pp}, p. 21. National Education Association, Dec1uipg7Wi-t To Teach, Project y. ha t\ ..n 8:328 658 LEW VCCEILCSE :"V"\ ‘K'» ‘i- .“ I I. vs. we. 6 Q..\ I. r\ K. -o. l “ .2 . . .ru D.. S H e C Lu t 7| 7 Ra Ra t l .bl. p $1. “a 5 r. n t r at . . ma S .1 A» t 0 s A. a f u A \h a. A 0K . « h». N6 ‘4» . A 4,1. . d 01‘ .Wou .Mbu h C hl Vocational Counseling.—-Offering vocational guidance services to young adults is one way of helping the worker keep abreast of a changing job market; this was proposed by Conant in Slums and Suburbs. To my mind, guidance officers, especially in large cities, ought to be given the responsibility for following the post- high school careers of youth from the time they leave school until they are twenty-one years of age. Since compulsory attendance usually ends at age sixteen, this means responsi- bility for the guidance of youth ages sixteen to twenty-pge who are out of school and either employed or unemployed. These new responsibilities will mean additional personnel and, of course, will cost more money. "The expense is necessary," insists Conant, " for vocational and educational guidance must be a continuing process to help assure a smooth transition from school to the world of work."71 Keller supports this idea and describes how these follow-up services might function. The school sets up in its guidance program a consultation of- fice for graduates, conducted in the evening, where former students can be counseled in ways of securing advancement, of finding other and better jobs, on subjects and places for further study, and on relationships with fellow workers. Retraining the Young Adult.--Retraining the worker with obsolete skills is another facet of the problem. "The schools must take leader- ship in maintaining training and retraining programs for adults,"73 af- firms the Commission. Arnold, too, believes this to be a responsibility of the public schools, although the type of institution could vary. At the post-secondary level there must be vocational programs for the student who would continue his occupational training 70James B. Conant, op. cit., p. 39. 71Ibid., p. 39. 72 Franklin J. Keller, "Vocational and Educational Guidance," Vocational Education, Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965), p. 15h. 73AASA, Imperatives, p. 166. 1D ‘1' iv; ‘85. ‘0‘. and othel b ~39 4.. \. e‘HCE ’\ a .. "‘x tifflfi 5 \ 3": ~ , '7. an U' ‘ a. we“. ‘51 Valo- \i -J :‘x A2 or elect a new occupational training program. These are offered through vocational—technical schools, junior col— leges, community colleges, technical institutions, and h—year colleges. Som high schools, too, offer a post— high-school program. Both activities of adult education, vocational counseling and retraining programs, received the strong endorsement of the Commission and other leading educators. General Educational Activities This section, unlike the previous two, has no unifying theme, the common characteristic bf these activities being that they pertain to neither the culturally disadvantaged nor to vocational education. Expanded Counseling Services The demand for expanded counseling services was created by the same social and economic pressures necessitating compensatory education and improved programs of vocational education, a society insisting on more education and requiring frequent job retraining. To face these com- plex societal problems, the student needs information, advice, and counsel which can be supplied by a counselor. The expansion of guidance services has been caused both by the desire on the part of more youth for post-high-school education, and more recently, by a recognition of the special educational problems which confront our urban schools.7 Despite this expansion, the supply of counselors more than doubled be- tween 1959 and 19611,76 counseling services are still inadequate. .L; 'L-Arnold, op. cit., p. 151. 75Norman A. Sprinthall and David V. Tiedman, "Guidance and the Pupil,"‘The Changing American”school, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 60. 76Ibid., p. 59. .5. *h 6V ;;g in 2:1 ..e 1 4-1131 26 such . t‘ v 5?.» . Q r: V‘. SChcrl h3 The Commission concurs that "counseling and other supporting educational services must be provided to meet the needs of each student"77 and calls for "adequate guidance at the elementary school level as well as at the secondary school level."78 Elementary Counseling.--The Commission strongly endorses counsel- ing in the elementary school. It is imperative . . . a functioning program of guidance and counseling begin in the elementary school and focus upon the identification and measurement of potential abilities and the assessment of barriers that hinder the full development of such abilities.77 ; At this level, the function of the counselor would be to supple- ment the efforts of the classroom teacher. The concept of guidance in the elementary school can be sum- marized by saying that the classroom teacher is central to the practice of guidance and counseling at the elementary-schoo level but may well be supplemented by a guidance counselor. O Conant, too, believes that counseling services should be available to all elementary schools. "In a satisfactory school system, the counseling 81 should start in the elementary school." Expanded Secondary Counseling,--Unlike the elementary school where counseling is a new service, it has long been accepted in the secondary school. The controversy concerns the number of pupils for which a coun- selor is expected to be responsible. The Commission asserts "little can be accomplished if from hOO to 500 pupils have to compete for his (the 77AASA, Imperatives, p. 169. 781bid., p. 9h. 79Ibid., p. h8. 80Warren G. Findley, "Student Personnel Work--Elementary and Secondary," EncyclOpedia of Educational Research, ed. Chester W. Harris (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), p. 1&27. 81James B. Conant, The American High School Today (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 196k), p. 51. counselor selor lca .. .315 178120 what gene hh counselor‘s) attention and time."82 Conant recommends a reduced coun- selor load. "There should be one full-time counselor (or guidance of— ficer) for every two hundred fifty to three hundred pupils in the high "83 school. The Commission concurs with this proposal, declaring: "If this recommendation were adopted, it would be a marked improvement over what generally prevails, but even this ratio should be reduced."8" Remedial Reading H "There is no question among educators and laymen, declares the NEA Project on Instruction, "that reading instruction must be given the 85 highest order or priority." Sexton states it in a slightly different manner: "Reading is phg_basic skill. It is the skill from which almost all academic learning flows."86 Success in school depends almost en- tirely on the student's ability to comprehend written material. There is a large measure of agreement also that assistance in reading is most effective when the child is young. "The earlier the slow readers are spotted and remedial measures instituted, the better,"87 concludes Conant. However, this does not imply special help should not be offered in the secondary school. Conant continues: "Concern with improving the reading of the pupils, particularly the slow reader, must 82AASA, Imperatives, p. 36. 83Conant, op. cit., p. 51. 8hAASA, Imperatives, p. 36. 85National Education Association, Deciding What To Teach. Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1963). p. 121. 86Sexton, Patricia Cayo, Education and Income (New York: Viking Press, Inc., 1961—6h), p. 256. 87James B. Conant, Slums and suburbs (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), p. 28. 1+5 ~ _ "88 continue well beyond the elementary school. Regardless of the grade level, then, "corrective and remedial help must be available to pupils who need it."89 In obvious agreement with the above statements, the Commission proposes "remedial programs for older children [post-kindergarten] to further develop and strengthen basic skills90 and calls for "class size that will permit individualization of instruction."91 Physical Examinations Good health aids the child in accomplishing his many school tasks and any healtl deficiency hinders learning. Few would argue with Ravitz that in areas where many children "come from home situations that are de— plorable, where the primary need is for services of a nurse, a dentist, 92 a dietician," school learning is hardly possible. Under these circum— stances it is unrealistic to attem t "to focus their attention on ancient , ”93 history or on the multiplication tables, or on nouns and verbs. A reasonable minimum health requirement, according to Bloom, would be that: Each child should be given apprOpriate and frequent physical examinations by nurses, doctors and dentists to determine special needs with respect to fiatigue, disease, and dental, visual, and hearing problems.9 881oig., p. 28. 89National Education Association, Deciding What To Teach, p. lhl. 90AASA, Imperatives, p. 9h. 91Ibid., p. 9h. 92Mel Ravitz, "The Role of the School in the Urban Setting," Edu— cation in Depressed Areas, ed. A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers Col— 93 Ibid., p. 16. 9"Benjamin S. Bloom, Allison Davison and Robert Hess, Compensatory Education for Cultural Deprivation (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1965), pp. 10~ll. ”F.“ n...- .oAAD “‘ -‘r-‘flq 5‘ -u&-ut Ll- ys-‘r‘n‘ p. Suv¢o=¢U4 . w.» n ~ may, \ Pp." Ev- d bbd—o-A-a‘l tcat ‘ .1] Ugrvr ‘ "L' “‘“J Ax... . ‘ . Snug.‘_‘ “9““ li'. agt' :, V n‘,‘ ‘m‘filb, I €“c~+- .. §.\‘-‘" Afi-‘l V...‘ "v& ‘ s s; P'Av- a ~~4Leru ' ‘ “el' 11?- .;_ '7‘; ‘.3e .‘ u, A. “Cl C. ‘ .I1.' ‘k‘J r . “u V. "A. N IF “WE?“ _ 'A ". ‘L.Qf“n ’ .17». h6 This normally should be an obligation of the parents and not involve the school; however, if the parents do not meet these obligations and the child is deprived of these vital health services, who should assume re— sponsibility? "If these health services cannot be provided by the par- ents," declares Bloom, "it is the responsibility of the school and the "95 community to see that they are taken care of. Keller, too, concurs that while care of the child's health is a parental obligation, "in those many instances of parental neglect the school must step in, its task should be one of elementary diagnosis followed by referral to other pub- lic agencies."96 The Commission approves, assering that in cases of parental de— fault, the school must arrange for "adequate physical examinations with effective procedures for referrals leading to remediation of the de- fects "97 Community Education The community school concept is not a new one, having deep roots in both theory and practice in American education.98 Recently, however, concern for the education of the culturally disadvantaged has given it a new impetus. The community-school concept——using the school plant for coordinated community services with programming from early 95 96Franklin J. Keller, "Vocational and Educational Guidance," Kg: cational Education, Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965), p. 152. 9TAASA, Imperatives, p. 9h. Ibid., p. 11. 98For a clear explanation of the evaluation of the community school concept, see The Community School and Its Administration, Vol. II, Number h, December, 1963. 57 morning to late evening, 7 days a week, 12 months a year-- is exten ing into depressed areas more and more.99 In these areas, the school can become the hub of the community and can prOVide opportunities for "the involvement of the indigenous pOpulation . . . .-. - _ _ 100 in meaningful activities and leadership training. The expanded community role of the school need not be limited to depressed areas. In describing the schools of tomorrow, Trump predicts: Similarly, citizens will make greater use of the schools' faCilities, as education, gradually discarding its various terminal pelnts, assumes its true nature as a continuous process. There will be more adult education programs.101 The CommisSJon approves of this increased use of school facili- ties, "The schools must remain open until the late hours of the evening _ . 108 and throughout the summer months." Freakinderggrten for All Children ..-.-——_ ——.——.-——-_—~._.—. The Commission contends that because society is becoming increas- ingly complex and urbanized, education must begin earlier. "The instruc- tions; program must be exteniei downward to include kindergarten and pre- 103 _ _ ” The Educational PoliCies CommiSSion inSists kindergartenjage children. that the opportunity for premkindergarten education must be made available for all social groups. A. Harry Passow, "Education in Depressed Areas," Education in EELEEEEiémfliiiia ed. A. Harry Passow (new York: Teachers College Press, 1963;. pp. 316—315?° 100” ll ‘ 1 , n. . . . . . earl L. Marburger, Scnool~temmunity Relations and Maladjusted Youth, Spiral_2eviancy Amonngouth, Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: Rational Soc1ety for the Study of Education, 1966), p. 276 lOl . . . _- J. Loyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Focus on Change: Guide to §§E£S£_§SEEELE (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1961—63), p. 00. logAASA, Imperatives, p. 172 103A ll ASA, Imperatives, p. 165. .: .. an E {NU .r“ .h\ J: r“ e . t t. l c. a r. C t r me "i .u 9 xi .0. a .6 a. . .rn a e... n- M vg‘i‘ ‘ w- . 3‘ “‘rs o ‘N ‘9‘ 50:" vy. v.‘ h8 Early education has long been available to the well-to-do, and it is commendable that governments are now acting on the need to make it available to some of the poor. Bug the large middle group should have the same Opportunities.lo Its most recent publication is more precise. "All children should have the opportunity to go to school at public expense beginning at the age of four."105 Summary In this chapter the literature pertaining to the educational ac- tivities recommended by the AASA Commission on Imperatives in Education was reViewed and it was shown that these activities have the support of educational authorities in the specialized fields. The discussion was diVided into three sections according to the nature of the activity: (1) educational activities concerning the culturally disadvantaged, (2) activities concerning vocational education, and (3) general educational activities. 10”Educational Policies Commission of the National Education As- sociation and American Association of School Administrators, "Universal Opportunity for Early Childhood Education," NEA Journal, Vol. 55, No. 8 (November, 1966), p. 8. 105 Ibid., p. 8. CHAPTER IV PLANNING AND CONDUCTING THE SURVEY This chapter describes the way in which the study was planned and conducted. The characteristics of the questionnaire and the inter— view for collecting the data are examined and the reasons given for selecting the individual, structured interview. The manner in which the instrument was developed and pretested is explained. The latter part of the chapter recounts how the reapondents were chosen and depicts a typical interview. The Individual Structured Interview Either a questionnaire or an interview would be appropriate for a survey and each has its advantages and drawbacks. A larger number of people can be included in a questionnaire, but the rate of non-response (which is about 60%1) presents a problem. One can never be certain that those answering the questionnaire are similar to those who did not answer and this element of bias cannot be eliminated. The interview does not have this defect, as nearly all of those contacted actually become respondents. It is less complicated to give information orally than in written form, and fewer people object to do— ing so. Another advantage is that questions can be asked and any pos- sible misunderstanding clarified. Good summarizes the many superiorities 1Stephen B. Withey, "Survey Research Methods," Encyclopedia of Educational Research, ed. Chester W. Harris (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1960), p. iHLB. A9 50 of the interview over the questionnaire. A resourceful interviewer with insight may produce certain favorable results not possible in the self-administering situation of the questionnaire, where the mistakes of the respondent have a quality of finality. For example, the interviewer may . . . explain or amplify a given question, probe for clarification of an ambiguous answer or elabora— tion of a cryptic report, or even persuade the res ondent to answer a question that he would otherwise skip. Once the interview had been selected, the next choice was between the individual and the group interview. A group interview is quite simi- lar to a questionnaire, the only exception being that the items are given orally rather than being read by the interviewer. Talking to many people at the same time is more expeditious, but the benefits of personal con- tact are lost. It is for this reason that Most interviews are conducted in a private setting with one person at a time so that the subject will feel free to ex- press himself fully and truthfully.3 The introductory remarks, the items and the re3ponse categories are the same for all respondents. This element of control makes more meaningful the comparison of answers among the different respondents. Still another advantage of the structured interview is the facil- ' ity with which responses can be recorded. As categories are established, note taking is unnecessary and the recording can be done naturally and unobtrusively. The many superiorities of the individual structured interview warranted its selection as a method of determining the educational opinions of the teachers and administrators included in this study. 2Carter V. Good, Introduction to Educational Research (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959), p. 208. 3Deobold VanDalen, Understanding Educational Research: An Introduction (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., Inc., 19625. p. 259. 51 Developing and Pre-Testing_the Instrument The development of the instrument to collect the data constituted one of the most critical phases of the study. Careful preparation of questions for the interview is fully as important as has been emphasized in preparing the questionnaire. A well-conducted interview is not Just a haphazard series of questions and answers or a pleasant conversation. The first task was to establish guidelines to aid in selecting a limited number of activities from the hundreds endorsed in Lgpgrgtixes, in Education. To be included in the survey, it was decided that each item should be: (1) clearly an activity rather than a goal so that the de- cision would lie within the competence of the educational system; (2) as specific as possible, thereby reducing the chance of conflicting interpretations; (3) of general interest, one about which teachers and adminis- trators would be informed and likely to have an opinion; and (h) supported by specialists in the specific educational area. The instrument was not yet ready for utilization, even with con- tent thoughtfully selected and questions carefully fOrmulated. One inevitably discovers that the best-designed series of questions still includes ambiguities. For this reason it is a standard practice to pretest any instrument with a number of respondents so that these errors can be eliminated so far as is possible.5 A second purpose of pretesting is to establish "fixed alterna- tives among which one may select an answer"6 that offer a suitable range h— hGood, op. cit., p. 215. SWithey, Op. cit., pp. lhh8-h9. 6Ibid., p. lhh8 52 of responses appropriate for the questions. A common compromise is to conduct open and depth interviews with a few subjects as an initial step. By this means one obtains the typical frames of reference held by the type of pe0ple being studied.7 Thus trial interviews served the dual purpose of allowing vague and con- fusing questions to be clarified and in permitting the categories of re— sponses to be determined. Thirty trial interviews were actually conducted, primarily with educators of the Carman School District near Flint, but also with several graduate students at Michigan State University. These interviews were similar to those eventually held, differing only by interviewee comments on procedure, questions and response categories. In several instances valuable comparisons were made by using different questions and alternate response categories with the same respondents. During the trial interviews many revisions were made: some ac— tivities deleted, others added, sentences rephrased, and vague or ambigu- ous words replaced. Finally, 3h questions remained, 22 of which were based on activities recommended in Imperatives in Education. The addi- tional twelve items were inserted to increase the variety of topics covered and to prevent the emphasis on the culturally disadvantaged and vocational education from becoming apparent; the re3ponses to them were not analyzed as part of the study (See Table l for the complete list of the 3b educational activities). The response categories were frequently revised during the trial interviews. Finally, five were established, allowing four gradations of affirmative responses and one negative: Imperative, Very Desirable, De- sirable, Permissible, and Undesirable. 71bid. , p. we. Ix" !‘ *3. *4. *5. *6. *7. *9. *l0. *ll. 12. *l3. *l4. 53 Table l The thirty-four educational activities of the public schools included in the survey Section l Public schools in general Teaching reading. Providing free textbooks for all students. Arranging for physical examinations with referrals to doctors. Providing 'free hot lunches for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home. - Providing free hot breakfasts for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home. ‘ Remaining open evenings and summer for community education activities. Providing smaller classes for culturally disadvantaged students. Teaching arithmetic. Providing a Special school-community coordinator (home counselor) in culturally disadvantaged areas. In cooperation with other community agencies, providing vocational counseling for all youth up to the age of 2l . In cooperation with other community agencies, helping to retrain the young adult for a changing labor market. ' ' Section 2 Elementary education Sponsoring field trips to local points of interest (elementary education). Providing guidance counselors in all schools (elementary education). Providing guidance counselors for schools in culturally disadvantaged areas (elementary education). *Educational activities selected from Imperatives in Education. W5. 46. W7. W9. 10. Tl. 22. ll t24. 2i it 71 R. Sp01 Star CDth CDth educ (Dife chik (life educ Prov] (elen Pr0vl SPOHS PlOVl cater SPons PrOVll Pl’Ovi‘ 200-: ow0r in hi *15. *16. *17. 18. *19. *20. *21. 22. 23. *24 . 25 . *26 . *27. 28. *29 . 51: Table l -- Continued Sponsoring summer programs of compensatory education, such as Head Start (elementary education). Offering exploratory experiences in industrial arts (elementary education). Offering exploratory experiences in home economics (elementary education). Sponsoring little league baseball teams (elementary education). Offering a pro-kindergarten program for culturally disadvantaged children (elementary education). Offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children (elementary education). Providing small classes for those needing special help in reading (elementary education). Section 3 Secondary education Providing driver education in senior high (secondary education). Sponsoring student government (secondary education). Providing in-school work experiences, such as in the library and in the cafeteria (secondary education) Sponsoring a city-wide science fair (secondary education). Providing special classes in remedial reading (secondary education). Providing expanded counseling services, for example, a counseling load of 200-300 (secondary education). Sponsoring maiorettes (secondary education). In c00peration with local businessmen, offering direct work experiences in a work-study program for low achievers who probably would not have been in high school ten years ago (secondary education). *Educational activities selected from Imperatives in Education. *30. 31. 32. 33. *34. Table l -- Continued in cooperation with local businessmen, offering direct work experiences in a work-study program for average and above average students (secondary education). Participating in statewide band and orchestra festival (secondary education). Teaching consumer economics (secondary education). Sponsoring interscholastic athletics in senior high (secondary education). Offering an exploratory career planning program at about grade 9 (secondary education). *Educational activities selected from Imperatives in Education. -576... It is significant to note that while the questions and the re- sponse categories were being repeatedly modified during the first twenty interviews, no suggestions for improvement were made during the last ten. This confirmed to the investigator that the questions had become suffi- ciently clear and the choice of responses adequate. Conducting the Survey, The Participants The initial contact with the five school systems cooperating in the study (see Appendix B) was made by a letter from Dr. Clyde Campbell to each superintendent (see Appendix C). One week later the investigator called the superintendent of schools and made an appointment to explain the purpose and procedure of the study. During this meeting it was ar- ranged to interview, at a later date, about 30 randomly selected teachers and administrators from representative schools in the city. In four or five of the cooperating school systems educators were interviewed in four representative schools: (1) two elementary schools, one where the students were achieve ing below the city average and the other where they were achieving above the city average; and (2) two secondary schools, one Junior high school and one senior high school, both average in terms of student achievement. In Saginaw; as there were three distinct and separate levels of student achievement, an additional elementary school was added. In each elementary school one teacher was selected at random from each grade level; secondary school teachers were randomly chosen from the different subject matter areas; in addition, the superintendent of the school system and the principal of the cooperating school were 57 interviewed. Table 2 shows the elementary teacher respondents by grade level and city; Table 3 indicates the secondary teacher respondents by city and subject taught; and Table h contains the administrative re- spondents by city and position. In the two largest school systems, Flint and Grand Rapids, the Central Office requested the principal of the cooperating school to ar- range the interview schedule. In the other three systems, the Central Office contacted the school, but arrangements were made by the investi- gator. The actual interviews took place during April and May, 1966, on days convenient for the school systems. They averaged about 20 minutes in length and in most cases teachers and administrators from two schools were interviewed during a single day. In nine of the eleven elementary schools, interviews were held during school hours, with the principal or a helping teacher replacing the teacher during the time of the interview. In the other two schools, they were conducted before and after school and during lunch periods. In the secondary schools, the time coincided with the conference period of the teacher. The place of the interview differed according to the facilities available, although in each case privacy was assured where the reapondent could frankly express his views. For superintendents and principals, it was in their offices, and teacher interviews were usually held in a con- ference room, the teachers' lounge, or an empty office. The Interview During the first part of the interview, its purpose was explained and relevant personal data was obtained from the respondent (see Appen- dix D for interview form). Then the respondent was given a stacked pile of 3h 3"x5" cards, on each of which was written one of the 3D educational '58 oo .23 a a N. .2 a 3:6 3 :23 mm. m... m: m. m: M. 28.0 £5 0— N N N N N 35.0 it”. o— N N N N N opoemv £50”. I N N N m N opon 22... o N N N _ N opEO pcOoom o— N N N N N mop—:0 3:“. Emmofltmpocmv Bocrmom 9:30.. madam macaw ES“. Eofloob Ewan... opEO . :3 £23. 1.» 3th £95.. ovoem pco >30 s3 rcopcoamoe cor—oofl boacoEEo ban... of “_o 3an.“ of mo comzmanoU N o30._. 59 Mm .20... bapcouom Wm .23 o o _ 8:6 3 ES Aco:0oapm .00.;5. .5 6.3.2 8.24 .0233... 5020033 mmocfinm .t<. sofO 9...:me .0_oom ooco.um 3:089:02 amonmco. c930“. _ _ _ szoem 094. .2..an 30cmm0m 0530.. mwiombcoemu 2:”. 503.80 v.22“. xx. .20... . . 3:5 6:02 Sufism m.oo.._0m :9... 3.5m hm .33 ml MI ml m... . N o N _ N “l" N|t\ N'N NII\ lOlOlnl-Ol-O r—F—r—r—l— r-Ir—F-l— l_l—l—l— F-F—O—l—F- r—r—P-r— 350 s .28 ACCT—00.6w .003}... no .0752 8:4. .0ttapc. 5020033 39:25 .t<. .me _ — 363m .0.oom _ _ ouco.um _ _ 3208050.). ‘ _ o _ .336 024. .oofam 30....m0m m: 30.. mpiom .0:on ELM 503.000 no.3”. .3 .20... . 3:0 5:05. Sofam eoofim £9: .25.. ml N V'lnlnfl r—r—N 2.940. .0033 pco 5.0 .3 3:09.093. 5:000. b09500... mottlbx.” a... “.0 39:0,». 9... h.o co_._manoU m 230... V 07.05 6O om .22 o m. m o o 3.5 .3 .96.. m. .... .... fl. I... .1 sees... .oo...um :9... 5.5m m . . . . . .835... .oo.._0m £9... 8.5.. I m N N N N .0325; .oo...om banEoE m _ . _ _ _ 109.3 ..0 EopcoEtoaam cotton. Bofimom 9:30... mgaom pcoemv 3.7. 503.80 20:30“. .3 .96.. 3.5 c0230.. pco 3.0 xx. Scopcoamo. o>$0t££Ep0 x3135»). or... “.0 29:0» of ca co...manoU v Ema... 61 activities (Table 1, pages 53—55). To aid the respondent in determining the educational level of the questions, those referring to public schools in general were on pink cards (l-l2), those pertaining to elementary edu- cation on green cards (13-21), and those concerning secondary education on yellow cards (22-3h). Each respondent was, however, expected to answer all questions. He was then requested to indicate his response by placing each of the 3"x5" cards in one of five groups signifying the re- sponse categories (Imperative, Very Desirable, Desirable, Permissible, and Undesirable). After the sorting of the cards, the respondent was then asked to give his choices to the interviewer, who then recorded them on an interview form° The following interview would be typical of the 1&9 actually con- cuted. "Good morning. You probably are wondering who I am and why you have been selected for the interview. (The response was in- variably 'yes.') I am a doctoral student at Michigan State Upi- versity, currently on a Mott fellowship in the Flint public schools and this interview is part of my doctoral study. I am talking with about 30 teachers and administrators in each of the five Michigan cities between 100,000 and 200,000 in population--Dearborn, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Saginaw. I am trying to determine their opinions on the activities for the public schools. "In each city I have asked to talk with teachers in schools that, in terms of student achievement, are considered below average, aver- age, and above average. This school is considered . (be- low average, average, above average). "Within each school I have asked to talk with six or seven teach- ers randomly selected, in the elementary schools, one from each grade level, and in the secondary schools, teachers representing different subject matter fields, both academic and non-academic. "As you know, educators have different Opinions about what the public schools should be doing. Some say we are doing too much, others say that we are not doing enough, while still others say too much of one thing and not enough of another. I want your opinion as a (educational position, i.e., first grade teacher 1It is significant to note that none of the lh9 respondents questioned the designation of the school given by the Central Office. 62 high school principal) as to what you think that the public schools should be doing. I say 'opinion' because there are no right or wrong answers to these questions. "On each of these cards (I pointed to the BR stacked cards) is written an activity that is sometimes found in public schools. You are to put each card in one of the five piles which will in- dicate your evaluation of it: Imperative, Very Desirable, De- sirable, Permissible, or Undesirable. "The main advantage of the cards is that they allow you to set the question aside if you are unsure, or to switch easily from one answer to another if you should happen to change your mind. "These activities refer to public schools in general, not your school, schools in your city, nor even your state, but American tax-supported public schools in general. "You might also consider an activity imperative for public schools in general that is not suitable for your particular school. "You will soon note that there are three colors of cards. The pink refer to education in general, the green to elementary education, and the yellow to secondary education. The colors will help you to identify the educational level of the activity. "Please feel free to ask me for further information about any activity, or for further clarification about any question." The question most frequently asked by the interviewees concerned the im- plementation of the activity. "I like the idea, but I am not sure how well the activity would be carried out." The response was: "Assume that the activity will be carried out competently, that is, neither poorly nor brilliantly, unless there is something inherent in the idea that would prevent it." After the respondent had put all of the 3h cards in the five dif- ferent piles, he was then told: "I would like to record your answers. Would you please read to me the activity that you had put in each of the five cate- gories? This will also allow you an opportunity to recheck the choices you have made, and to make last minute changes." When the responses were recorded on the interview form, the in- terview was completed. 63 Follow-Up Letters Upon completion of the interviews in each city, follow-up letters were sent to each of the five superintendents and 21 principals, thanking them for their cooperation (see Appendices E and F). Summary This chapter explained how the study was planned and conducted. First, the individual structured interview was chosen as a method of gathering data. Next, items were selected from the educational activi- ties in Imperatives in Education; these were revised and modified during the course of the trial interviews. After this, the cooperating school systems were contacted and lh9 interviews actually held in five Michigan public school systems. CHAPTER V ANALYZING THE SELECTED EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES AND EXAMINING THE HYPOTHESES This chapter has two purposes. The first is to present an analy- 3 ”1 '1 sis of the 22 selected activities from the two perspectives: the aspect of growth emphasized and the direction in which the activity expands pub— lic school services. Next, the hypotheses are restated and the procedures k: by which they are to be examined are set forth. Analysis of the Selected EducatiOnal Activities Aspects of Growth The N.E.A. Project on Instruction identifies five different as- pects of growth: intellectual, vocational, emotional, physical, and social.1 These distinctions can serve as a useful tool by allowing one to consider separately a single aspect of growth for any activity or ac- tivities. It must be remembered, however, that all growth is inter- related and that these divisions are artificial and only for the purposes of analysis. More hazardous, perhaps, is the designating of a single, primary aspect of growth from among five possible ones. The choice could well vary according to the individual learning situation and the specific teachers and students involved. Moreover, one could not be assured that 1National Education Association, Deciding What To Teach, Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Washington, Do 0.: National Education Association, 1963), p. 87. 6h Lad tecte each of t} .5 union t 9‘” b'a'. hue doll: ’- v “'18 SC; 65 any given learning situation would be assigned the same primary aspect by different Observers. In this study, the advantage of specifying a single primary aspect of growth, however, seemed to outweigh possible disadvantages, for it made possible the discovery of response patterns that might have otherwise gone undetected. Accordingly, the primary aspect of growth was assigned to each of the 22 selected activities (Table 5, Column 1). Direction of the Expansion The educational activities were next classified by the direction in which they expand school services. Harold Shane's statement provided the basis for this. The schools are expanding (a) inward, through curricular change and enrichment; (b) outward, through increased community service including adult education; (0) downward, by means of improved nursery and kindergarten programs; and (d) upward, as shown by the trend toward the universalization of higher education and by the increasing breadth and depth of graduate study and ad- vancement research in all realms of scholarship. Refer to Table 5, Column 2 for this classification. Examining the Hypotheses All five hypotheses were examined in this study. The first hy- pothesis was considered confirmed for any activity designated as impera- tive by more than 50 per cent of the lh9 respondents. The last four hy- potheses compared the imperative responses of the respondents when they were divided according to educational degree, position in the school, and years of educational experience (See Table 6 for these three divi- sions). These hypotheses were considered confirmed when a larger 2Harold G. Shane, "The School and Individual Differeneces," Indi- vidualizing Instruction, Sixty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. h6-h7. 66 prle .5 0 Analysis of the twenty—two selected educational activities l Aspect of Growth Direction of 1 Expansion 10. ll. Arranging for physical examinations with referrals to doctors. Providing free hot lunches for disadvantaged children not receiving them at horde. Emphasized Physical Physical Providing free hot breakfasts A I for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home Remaining open evenings and summer for community educational activities. Providing smaller classes for culturally disadvantaged students. .Proviomgm special school- community coordinator (home counselor) in culturally disadvantaged areas. In c00peration with other community agencies, pro- viding vocational counseling for all youth up to the age of 2]. - q - In cooperation with other community agencies, helping to retrain the young adult for a changing-labor market. Physical Social Intel lectual Emotional Vocational Vocational 1 For explanation refer to pages 42 and 43 Inward l2 ‘ Inward I nward Outward Inward Inward Outward Outward 57 Table 5 -- Continued ‘7 Aspect of Growth Emphasized Direction of Expansion l4. I5. 16. l7. I9. 20. 2l. Providing guidance counselors in all schools (elementary education). Providing guidance coonselors in culturally disadvantaged areas (elementary education). Sponsoring summer programs of compensatory education, such as Head Start (elemen- tary education). Offering exploratory exper— iences in industrial arts (elementary education). Offering exploratory exper- iences in home- economics (elementary education). Offering a pre-kindergarten program for culturally dis- advantaged children (elemen- tary education). Offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children (elementary education). Providing small classes for those needing special help in reading (elementary education). Emotional Emotional Intellectual Vocational Vocational lntel lectual Intellectual Intellectual Inward ? ii Inward . Downward Inwa rd Inward Downward Downward Inward 24. 26. ' 27. 30. [’4‘ . *'.. ‘68% Table 5 -- Continued Aspects of Growth Emphasized Providing in-school work experiences, such as in the library and in the cafeteria (secondary education). Vocational _ Providing special classes in . remedial reading (secondary eduCation). . . Intellectual Providing expanded counseling services, for example, a counseling load of 200-300 (secondary- education). Emotional In c00peration with local businessmen, offering direct work experiences in a 'work- study program for low achievers (Secondary education). ‘ Vocational In cooperation with local businessmen, offering direct work experiences in a work- study program for average and above average students ‘ (secondaryeducation). Vocational I Offering an exploratory career planning program at about grade 9 (secondary education). Vocational - I“ 9-1!“ I I -’ .I‘wl. Direction of Expansion . Inward Inward Inwa rd Inward Inwa rd Inward \r-“u-n—n—A—n—n —1 t ‘awo 69 Table 6 Composition of the sample of the I49 respondents 6 A . By Educational Degree Respondents with Less than a Master's Degree 69 Respondents with at Least a Master's Degree 80 Total I49 6 B . By Position in the School Elementary Teacher 60 Secondary Teacher 63 Administrator . 26 Total I49 6 C . By Years of Educational Experience Five Years or Less 37 6 - I5 Years 56 More than I5 Years 56 Total I29- 70 percentage of the specified group designated it as imperative; if the margin between the groups was five per cent or less, the results were considered inconclusive. Table 7 restates the hypotheses and summarizes the procedure for examining them. Presentation of the Results of the Interviews For the interviews the items were arranged according to the per- tinent educational level: the field of education as a whole, elementary IPAT education, and secondary education. For the presentation of the results of the interviews, the items were regrouped under one of three educational topics, each of which is the subject for a chapter: culturally disad- . t vantaged, Chapter VI; vocational education, Chapter VII; and general edu— cational activities (those activities not falling under either of the other two tOpics), Chapter VIII. Summagy In this chapter, each of the 22 selected educational activities was classified from two perspectives: aspect of growth emphasized and direction of expansion. The hypotheses were restated and the manner in which they were to be examined was set forth. 71 All _ stair I. _. r..uu.el|1., 3.059.»: 0.... 3.02030. 0:000. E09320 b29000... c0... 3:20.099 0:009 E09320 x.0..c0E0.0 .0 s0mot0o0n. 0:9: 0 x: 03.009... 30 00.9.9303 3.3.00 xco .0. 309.200 002300 0: 2.3 3.30:.0ax: 0:... 0050.0 3.0.305. 0 c0:. 30. :33 30209.0. c0:. 0050c 3.0.302 0 .300. .0 :33 2:010:80. .0 wag—000a 0:9: 0 x: 02.0.9.2 mo «0.0.5.320 x3200 xco .0. p08...c00 .0003300 0: 2.3 20:09.: 0:... .3c0pcoam0. 0:. “.0 :00 0a om cof 00:. x: 02. i00aE. «0.25.0.0 m. :0.:>> xt>=00 xcc 0.. p0E...c00 “0.0.0.300 0: .23 3.059;: 0:... 031009.. E09320 >c0.c0E0.0 .3 c0:. 390: 3.2200 x: 02.0.9.2 no “0909. 0: o. :00... 0..0E 0.0 cotooopm c. 30>..00aE. c. .0200“. 023.00 .0co:00:.00 0:... .v 30:000. E09320 502000... N: c0:. 30:000. E09320 b0.c0E0_0 x: 03.0.9.8. 30 .0900. 0: o. :00... 0.08 0.0 0.0003. c. 02.0.9.2 c. .0200“. 02.2.00 3.0.0030 0:... .m 30050.0 00002.0 :33 30.00310 .oo:0m 02:2. .3 02.0.9.2 mo .00mccm9 0g 30v... 0.0E 0.0 cotooopm. c. 02.932 2 .00200p 3033.00 .0co:00:p0 0:... .N 30.00200 _oo:0m 02:2. .3 0.3.99.2 “000.2300 0.0 cotcoopm c. 30>..00QE. c. .00:.030p 02.300 3.020020 0:.. .— 3030:.oaxr 3030:.0ax: 0:. mc.c.E0x0 eon. 05c009n. n 0.:0h 72,, ‘- {I’M—1:. .r .a «Iw‘l'l Ill‘I‘ lb! L... 0:320:00... “0.0.0.300 0: ...>> 3.3.0. 0:. .30. .0 .00 .00 m a. c.90E 0:. h: 000.090 .00..00umw 300.. m. 0:. 0.0E :..>> 3:09.090. AN. pco 00:0 .090 .0c0..00:p0 3.00.. 5.6 :33 3.0.0090. 2. 0:. 000.093 30:00:00 300.. 0>... c0:. 30. :....> 3.09090. .0 h._.0m0.c000.. 0:9: 0 x: 0>..00...E. «.0 00.9901 3.3.00 .30 .0. .85....8 8.8.38 2. :3 e358... 2.. 0. 0.000... .m 000.090 30.00300 2.... :..>> 39003.00 .oo:0«. 0.32. x: 03.009... mWWWp0m0. 0: o. .200... 0.0:. 0.0 0.0003 c. 0>..00aE. c. 00:..001 0...>..00 .0c0..003.o0 0:... 300:.oaxI 32:80 .. m 030. .m CHAPTER VI FINDINGS CONCERNING THE CULTURALLY DISADVANTAGED This chapter considers the results of the seven items in the in— terviews which were concerned with the culturally disadvantaged. They are presented under five headings: early education, providing meals, school-community coordinator (home counselor), guidance counselors, and smaller classes. In the last part of the chapter, the hypotheses are examined in the light of these results. The reader wishing to review the literature supporting these activities may refer to the first section of Chapter III. Early Education Two of the activities Judged by the interviewees concerned pr5:‘" grams of early education for culturally disadvantaged youngsters. When classified by the categories established in Chapter V (see Table 5, pp. 66-68), both are primarily concerned with the intellectual aspect of growth ind were downward expansions of the public schools. Revealed in Table 8 are respondents' Opinions of the first item, "offering a pre-kindergarten program for culturally disadvantaged chil- dren." The opinions of all respondents are reported in Table 8A. From this it can be seen that less than 30% viewed this activity as imperative, but almost three-quarters (29% + hh%) of the respondents considered it was either imperative or very desirable. Only 2% felt that offering a pre- kindergarten program to culturally disadvantaged youngsters was undesir— able. 73 '89. 8 c. ED. 7h Table 8 Opinions of the I49 respondents Of "Offering a pre-kindergarten program for culturally disadvantaged children" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 43 29% Very Desirable 65 44% Desirable 26 17% Permissible 12 08% Undesirable E 92% 6 Total number 149 100% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees Educational degrees Respondents ‘ Percentage Below Masters 29 of 69 33% Masters and above 20 of 80 25% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary teacher 2] 0t 60 35% Secondary teacher 13 of 63 21% Administrator 09 0f 26 35% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of experience Respondents Percentage Five years or less 13 of 37 35% 6 - 15 years ll of 56 20% More than 15 years 19 of 56 34% 83 Guidance Counselors The classification of this activity was similar to the previous one concerning home counselors, both emphasized the emotional aspect of growth and both were inward expansions of the school; moreover, neither home counselors nor elementary guidance counselors are commonly found in the public schools. Table 13A reports the opinions of all respondents concerning the ? H importance as an activity of the public schools of "providing guidance 'E counselors for schools in culturally disadvantaged areas." More than f one-third (35%) looked upon this as imperative, and more than three- lg quarters (77%) viewed it as at least very desirable (35% + h2%); 3% thought it was undesirable. Compared with the opinions of respondents of home counselors (Table 12A), these percentages represented an in- crease of about 10% in imperative responses (35% vs. 23%) and in those viewing it as at least very desirable (77% vs. 67%); undesirable re- sponses remained about the same (3% vs. 2%). As Table 13B indicates, this activity was rated as imperative more often by educators with advanced degrees (90%) than by those with lesser ones (30%)° These findings were consistent with those in Table 12B. It can be noted from Table 13C that administrators Judged this as imperative much more frequently (5h%) than either elementary or secon- dary teachers (32%). These findings were in sharp contrast to the pre- vious item of "home counselors" where position in the school affected the opinions of the respondents very little (Table 120). Table 13D reveals that the respondents with the least experience (five years or less) rated this item as imperative most often (h3%), fol- lowed by educators with over fifteen years' experience (36%) and finally 9A. 9B. 9C. 9D. 76 Table 9 Opinions of the 149 respondents 0t " Sponsoring summer programs of compensatory education, such as Head Start" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 35 23% Very Desirable 61 41% Desirable *‘7 41 28% Permissible 09 06% Undesirable 03 02% Total number 13? , 1m Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 13 of 69 19% Masters and Above 22 0f 80 28% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 11 of 60 18% Secondary Teacher 12 0f 63 19% Administrator 12 of 26 46% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of lExpen'iencae Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 08 of 37 22% 6 - 15 Years 10 0f 56 18% More than 15 Years 17 of 56 30% 77 a Master's degree (28% and 19%). When comparing these responses to those in Table 8B, it can be seen that imperative responses by educators with advanced degrees remained relatively stable (28% and 25%) while those of educators with lesser degrees decreased (33% and 19%). Table 90 shows the percentage of imperative responses by position in the school: administrators, h6%; secondary teachers, 19%; and elemen- tary teachers, 18%. By referring to Table 8C it can be seen‘that the per- centage of imperative responses to the two activities by secondary educa- ; tors was similar (19% and 21%), but that the other two groups fluctuated; i an increase of imperative responses from administrators (h6% vs. 35%) and i: a perceptible decline from elementary teachers (18% vs. 35%). I When grouped according to-educational experience (Table 9D) this activity was thought to be imperative most often by educators with more than 15 years of experience (30%) followed by those with five years or less (22%), and lastly by educators with 6—15 years of experience (18%). Compared with the results reported in Table 80, a decrease of affirmative responses is shown by those with five years or less of experience (22% vs. 35%), but the other two groups were relatively stable. ProvidingfiMeals Two items in the interview were concerned with providing meals for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home, one specifying free hot lunches and the other free hot breakfasts (Tables 10 and ll re— spectively). Using the categories set forth in Table 5, pages 66—68, both concerned physical growth and both represented inward expansions of the schools. Table 10A shows the Opinions of all respondents concerning the importance as an imperative activity of the public schools of 'providing 10A. 10 B. 10C. 10 D. .78 Table 10 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " Providing free hot lunches for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 20 i 13% l t a.‘ Very Desirable 58 39% ' 3% Desirable 47 32% 1 Permissible 20 13% undesirable 04 03% g Total number 149- 110% If. 3 Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters ‘ 06 of 69 09% Masters and Above 14 of 80 18% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 06 of 60 10% Secondary Teacher 11 0f 63 17% Administrator 03 of 26 12% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 04 of 37 11% 6 - 15 Years 07 of 56 13% More than 15 Years 09 of 56 16% 11A. 11C. 79 Table 11 Opinions of the 149 respondents 0f " Providing free hot breakfasts for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home" Respondents' Opinions, by response-categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 19 13% Very Desirable 44 29% 3 _ . Desirable 49 3 33% . I i.“ Permissible 24 I 16% - Undesirable 13 09% Total number 149 166% 3 ‘ i Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree til Educational Degrees Respondents 1' Percentage Below Masters 06 0f 69 09% Masters and Above 13 0t 69 17% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 07 0f 60 12% Secondary Teacher 09 of 63 14% Administrator 03 of 26 12% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 03 (of 37 08% 6 - 15 Years 08 0t 56 14% More than 15 Years 08 0t 56 14% 80 free hot lunches for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home." Only 13% considered it imperative and only slightly more than half of them (13% + 39%) regarded it as being at least very desirable. Fewer than 3% of the respondents looked upon this as undesirable. As Table 108 indicates, respondents with advanced degrees rated the item imperative exactly twice as often as those with lesser degrees (18% vs. 9%). ‘m Table 100 reports the Opinions of educators by position held in i the school. Secondary teachers viewed this as imperative most Often I (17%), followed by administrators (12%), and elementary teachers (10%). l E; When years of educational experience were taken into considera- tion, it was found that the proportion of imperative responses was the highest for respondents with more than 15 years of experience (16%), next for respondents with 6-15 years of experience (13%), and least for those with five years or less of experience (11%). This can be seen in Table 10D. The second item pertaining to meals was "providing free hot break- fasts for disadvantaged children not receiving them at home" (Table ll). The main difference between these two activities is the extent to which they are found in American schools, serving lunches being a common ac- tivity, and providing breakfasts a rare one. Even with the resemblances of the two activities, the near identity Of respondent Opinion toward them was unexpected. The same percentage (13%) named the two activities imperative. However, free hot lunches were rated at least very desirable by 52% (13% + 39%) of the respondents, while only h2% (13% + 29%) of them viewed breakfasts in this manner. When imperative responses were con- sidered for the two activities by educational degree, position in the school, and years of educational experience, in no instance was the 81 difference more than 3%. This can be seen by comparing the results of Table 10 with those Of Table 11. School-Community,Coordinator‘(Home‘Counselor) According to the two categories set forth in Table 5, pages 66-68, this activity was characterized by its emphasis on the emotional aspect of growth and was an inward expansion of school services. Table 12A shows the Opinions of all respondents concerning the ime portance as an activity of the public schools of "providing a special school-community coordinator (home counselor) in culturally disadvantaged areas." As can be seen, less than one-fourth (23%) regarded it as impera- tive, but two thirds considered it at least very desirable (23% + hh%). Only 2% of the respondents believed that this activity was undesirable. When respondents were grouped according to educational degrees, (Table 12B) it was noted that those with at least a Master's degree rated this activity imperative almost twice as often as did reSpondents with less than a Master's degree (29% vs. 16%). As Table 120 reveals, Opinions were influenced very little by po- sition in the school. Only 6% separated all three groups, the imperative responses by position being: administrators, 21%; elementary teachers, 23%, and secondary teachers, 21%. A slightly wider range Of Opinions (8%) was noted when Opinions of the respondents were divided by the number of years of educational ex- perience. Highest prOportion of imperative responses was recorded for educators with 6-15 years of educational experience (27%), followed by those with more than fifteen years (21%), and lastly, those educators with five years or less of experience (19%). ~v {-3 run-- 85 by those with from 6—15 years of educational experience (30%). Smaller Classes This activity was classified (Table 5, pages 66-68) as reflecting intellectual growth and representing an inward expansion of the school. Table lh reveals that more than h0% of all respondents viewed providing smaller classes for culturally disadvantaged students as an im- perative activity of the public schools. Seventy—six per cent Of them regarded smaller classes as at least very desirable (Al% + 35%). Both represented the highest prOportion of imperative responses of the seven activities for the culturally disadvantaged. Only 1% of the respondents looked upon this activity as being undesirable. Although the margin was not great, educators with advanced de- grees rated this activity as imperative more Often than educators with lesser degrees (hh% compared to 38%). This can be seen in Table lhB. As Table th indicates, when educational position was considered, this item was viewed as imperative much more frequently by administrators (58%) and elementary teachers (h7%) than by secondary teachers (29%). Table lhD reports imperative responses according to the number of years of educational experience. Educators with more than 15 years of educational experience Judged this as imperative most Often (52%), followed by those with 6-15 years of experience (36%) and finally by those in education five years or less (32%). Examining the Hypotheses Hypothesis Number 1 Figure 1 summarizes the Opinions of all respondents for each of the seven selected educational activities concerning the culturally dis- advantaged. No activity was viewed as imperative by a majority of the 14A. 14 B. 14C. 14D. '86” Table 14 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "Providing smaller classes for culturally disadvantaged students" Respondents' opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 61 41% Very Desirable 52 35% Desirable 29 20% Permissible 05 03% Undesirable 02 01% Total number 149 100% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degree Respondents Percentage. Below Masters 26 of 69 38% Masters and Above 35 of 80 44% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 28 of 60 47% Secondary Teacher 18 of 63 29% Administrator 15 of 26 58% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 12 of 37 32% 6 - 15 Years 20 of 56 36% More than 15 Years 29 of 56 52% a... x... r 11" 87 Offering pre~kindergarten program for culturally disadvantaged children . Sponsoring suntmer programs of compen- satory education such as Head Start. Providing free hot lunches for dis- advantaged children not receiving them at home. Providing free hot breakfasts for disadvantaged children not receiving 13 them at home. Providing school-community \ - ll coordinator (home counselor) in Q23 \ l 44' 29 2 x; . - culturally disadvantaged areas. Providing guidance counselors for \\ ‘3 7 II J i i . schools in culturally disadvantaged k 35\\ 3 ‘3 3 3 (:15 areas. Providing smaller classes for mm 35' culturally disadvantaged students. _ fix, 111 Percentage of Respondents Ill Figure 1 Opinions of all respondents concerning the importance of the seven educational activities for the culturally disadvantaged in the public schools \ Imperative -Permissible Very Desirable ' Undesirable Desirable 88 respondents, the range being from 13% for "hot lunches" and "hot break- fasts" to hl% for "providing smaller classes." The average for the six questions was 25.h%. Stated another way, on the average, one respondent in four thought the activities for the culturally disadvantaged were im- perative. The hypothesis was not confirmed for any of the seven educational activities as none of them was Judged imperative by a maJority of the re- spondents. However, one must be cautious in interpreting these results and not confuse a failure to confirm the hypothesis with a rejection of the activity. In fact, public school educators clearly approved of these activities; by adding the imperative and very desirable responses together, it can be seen that six of the seven activities were considered at least very desirable by a maJority of the respondents, the range being from h2% for "hot breakfasts" to 77% for "guidance counselors." The average of these two responsE’categories for all seven activities is 6h.5%, or nearly two respondents in three thought the educational activities for the cul- turally disadvantaged were at least very desirable. Another indicator of educational approval was the small number of negative responses, the rating of undesirable. The range was from 1% for "smaller classes" to 9% for "hot breakfasts," the average being 3% when these responses for all seven activities are averaged together. In other words, on the average, only three educators in 100 Judged these ac— tivities as undesirable. The two classifications of the activities (Table 5, pages 66-68) reveal other insights into the opinions of the respondents. A reluctance to name as imperative, activities emphasizing physical growth, was noted and the two activities involving this aspect, "hot lunches" and "hot breakfasts" received the least number of imperative responses, 13% for 89 each. The two items the most highly rated, "smaller classes" and "guid- ance counselors" involved intellectual and emotional growth respectively. No discernible pattern was noted when considering the direction of expansion of the schools. The two examples of downward expansion "pre- kindergarten" and "summer programs" ranked about average; the other five activities, all involving inward expansion, were rated both higher and lower than these. Hypothesis Number 2 It was hypothesized that the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by public school educators with advanced degrees. Figure 2 shows the per- centage of imperative responses for each of the seven educational acti- vities when respondents were divided by educational degree: Master's De— gree and Above; and, Below Master's Degree. In six of the seven activities, the hypothesis was confirmed, a .higher percentage of imperative responses being made by respondents with at least a Master's Degree. One not following the general pattern was "pre-kindergarten" which was Judged as imperative by a higher proportion of educators with less than a Master's Degree. When the imperative responses for all actiVities were averaged together, 29.1% of the respondents with advanced degrees believed these activities to be imperative as compared to 22% of the respondents with lesser degrees. One may conclude from this that those with more educa- tion are more receptive to the innovative programs for the culturally disadvantaged. Hypothesis Number 3 The third hypothesis stated that educational activities were more .E0.. 0:. .0 9.0.03 .090 0:. .0. . 0.30.". 00m .. 00600 .oco..00:00 x: 0>..0.0n.:.. m0 00mo.:a>00m.0 2.0.2.30 0:. .0. 02.200 38.8000 :0>0... 0:. m:..0:m.m00 3:00:090. .0 00200.0. N 0.39.“. 00m0.:0>0o....0 0092:0085 0002:0085 £2230 3.2230 23.230 «momma—U 2.0.0338 sco— 0...:00U s3.0.0.005 30:05.. 2:0. 00.. s :0.. am 0:95 00:00.30 050... .0: 00.”. .0: 00.”. .0:.E3m u.00:.v.r0.n. 90 0>0:< 0:0 0050A. 30.8.2 I 0050A. 20.3.2 30.0m mm. on- m... siuepuodsau 50 aBoiueOJed 00.... 91 likely to be regarded as imperative by elementary teachers than by secon- dary teachers. 11 H For four of the activities, "summer programs, free hot break- " the results were fasts," "home counselors," and "guidance counselors, inconclusive, the difference between the two groups being 5% or less. Two items, "pre-kindergarten" and "smaller classes" were rated as impera- tive by a higher proportion of elementary respondents, while one activity, "free hot lunches," was Judged as imperative more often by secondary teachers. Thus, in only two of the seven activities was the hypothesis confirmed. This may be seen in Figure 3. The indeterminate nature Of these results is also shown when the imperative responses of the two groups are averaged; the difference be— tween them is only 3.5%, elementary teachers having 25.h% compared to 21.9% for secondary teachers. It was somewhat surprising to note the similarity of views between elementary and secondary teachers. Hypothesis Number A The fourth hypotheSis predicted that the selected educational activities were more likely to be regarded as imperative by administra— tors than by elementary teachers; this was confirmed for three activities, and the results were inconclusive in the other four. By averaging the imperative responses Of each Of the two groups a difference Of more than 9% is seen (3h 9% for administrators and 25.h% for elementary teachers). The amount of difference is partially ex- plained by the comparatively high prOportion of administrative imperative responses for three activities, "summer programs, guidance counselors," H and "smaller classes; the latter two were the first examples of an ac- tivity being approved by a maJority of a group of respondents. These .50.. 0:. .0 050.03 .0000 0:. .0. . 0.30.“. 00m .. .00:0.. 0:. :. :0...moa x: 0>..0.0aE. m0 00m0.:0>00m.0 x..0.:..:0 0:. .0. m0...>..00 .0:0..00300 :00... 0:. m:..0:m.m00 m.:00:09.0. .0 0m0.:00.0n. m 0.39”. 00m0.:0>08.n. 00m0.:0>00m.n. 00m0.:0>00m.n. 3.0.3.15 x..0.:..:U 3.0.3.10 . «0305 .m.o.0m::0U e....0.0m:30U 3.3.0.005 30:05... 38030.“. .c0..0m W. .0_.0:.m 00:00.30 0:0... .0: 00.. .0: 00.“. .0553 I.00:.v.r0.n. u. 3 N. N. t S a. m. N. - R mm mm mm mm an on sruepuodseg 50 eBoiueaied m5 l 00. I.o.0......:.:.0< \ \\ 0:000.— .Co0:000m 0:000. >.0.:0E0.m 93 results showed that where levels of teaching affected very little the Opinions of the respondents, the nature of the responsibility did° Ad- ministrators viewed these activities much more favorably than did teachers. Hypothesis Number 5 In the fifth hypothesis it was predicted that the selected edu— cational activities were more likely to be regarded as imperative by edu- cators with little educational experience° Respondents were divided into three groups based on years of educational experience: five years and less; from six to 15 years; and more than 15 years. This hypothesis was considered confirmed for any activity in which the percentage of imperative responses for the group with the least experience exceeded gagh_of the other two groups by at least five per cent) As Figure h reveals, this was true for a single activity, "guid— ance counselorso" The middle group designated one, "home counselors" and educators with the most educational experience selected two, "summer pro— grams" and "smaller classeso" The results of the other three were incon- elusive, By averaging the imperative responses the results were somewhat similar: educators with little experience, 2h.3%; those with 6-15 years of experience, 22o6%; and educators with more than 15 years of experience, 29%, .For the second time in the survey, a majority of a group of respon- dents thought that an educational activity was imperative, educators with more than 15 years of experience of "smaller classes." These findings did not conform to expectations. It could be as- sumed that the re5pondents with five years or less of educational experi— ence were both younger and have had more recent univeristy experience than those in the other two groups, In view of these factors, both of 9h .E0.. 0... .0 0:.0.0>> .0008 .0... .0. . 0.30.". 00m « 00:0..098 _0:0..00000 .0 0.00.. 3 03.0.2.5. no 0000.:0>08.0 5:05:30 . 0... .0. m0...>..00 _0:0..00300 :0>0n 0;. 05.20.80 0200:0000. :0. .0 000200.00 _. V0.30.”— 0000.:0>08.o 0002:0085 0002:3085 .. A 23.230 235.30 235.30 .. h30......0—U h.,....0_0..:30U b.,....o_0...:30U h.,.......0.v_00.m h.,..0.._0:3._ a3.0.00... . . 0:0...00. .0:0Em 00:00.30 080: .0; 00.. .0; 00.”. .0EE3m 1.00:5...0... - _ l . w v . L d m 1‘ m .1 3 2 9 : MA . .. m , a ,2 mm. . .u. an 8 m. R 8 . u- 3 . mm . m a. w an . on- a a... . .w . u . . m. 0.. m. l 0.00.. m. .06 S 0.00.. m. I 0 _ _m :0... 3.0.. 8. 95 tvkxich should make them receptive to new ideas, one wonders why they were zicrto These results are difficult to assesso Summary This chapter presented the results of the seven items concerning t;kiee culturally disadvantaged under five headings: early education, pro- xrj_éling meals, school-community coordinator (home counselor), guidance <:<>Ilnselors, and smaller classeso In the second part of the chapter, the hypotheses were examined :fc327 each of the activities, taking into account reSpondents' opinions of t;k1eern. Hz Egthesis Number 1 This hypothesis was not confirmed for any of the seven aCthl- 133-6955, none being Judged imperative by a majority of the respondentsc How— eveI‘, on the average, 6hol% thought that they were at least very deSirable and only 3% rated .hem as undesirable, The respondents also tended to VleW more favorably activities emphasizing intellectual and emotional growth than those emphaSizing Phy-E i cal growth a EKliszghesis Number 2 This hypothesis was confirmed for six of the seven activities, tilefse being designated as imperative by a higher percentage of respond— e11t43 with at least a Master's degree than by respondents with less than a. Master ' 3 degree ., EliElfii-Ehesis Number_§ This hypothesis was confirmed for two of the seven actiVities Wh 1C3: were rated imperative more frequently by elementary teachers than I 4" ‘V. Iflmu’Y-u“ V 96 by secondary teachers, and in the other four the results were inconclu- sive. Hypothesis Number h This hypothesis was confirmed for three of the seven activities, these being designated as imperative by a higher percentage of adminis- trators than elementary teachers; for the other activities, the results were inconclusive. Hypothesis Number 5 This hypothesis was confirmed for one of the seven activities which was Judged imperative by respondents with the least educational experience, less than five years. Three of the activities were regarded as imperative by a higher proportion of one of the other two groups; the results were inconclusive for the other three activities. sir. mm... M 1' CHAPTER VII FINDINGS CONCERNING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION This chapter contains the findings of eight items of vocational education which were included in the study. These activities were of three types, each of which comprises a section of the chapter; work- study programs, exploratory programs, and adult vocational education. After the results are presented the hypotheses are examined in the final section of the chapter. A review of the literature supporting these ac— tivities can be found in the second section of Chapter III. Work—Study Programs The three work-study programs were classified in a like manner, all emphasizing the vocational aspect of growth and each involving an inward expansion of the schools (Table 5, pages 66-68). The opinions of the respondents of them, however, varied markedly (Tables 15, I6, and 17). Of the three, a decided preference was shown for a "work-study program for low achievers" (Table 15A). This was rated as imperative by 31% of all respondents and, as at least very desirable by 81% (31% + 50%); this latter figure is the highest yet recorded in the survey and means that four out of five respondents looked upon this activity as being at least very desirable. For "work-study programs for average and above average students" the Opinions of the respondents were less favorable, only 18% viewed it as imperative and less than two-thirds (18% + h5%) Judged it to be at least very desirable (Table 16A). A still further decline in approval 97 ~v-’—'"‘ "v hr“ m‘ “0‘. in . ‘1 ll, 15A. l5 B. 15 C. l5 D. 98 Table 15 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "In cooperation with local businessmen, offering direct work experiences in a work-study program for low achievers" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 47 31% Very Desirable 74 50% Desirable 2] I496 Permissible 06 04% Undesirable Ol 01% Total number 149’ lm Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage- Below Masters 28 of 69 4I% Masters and Above l9 of 80 24% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents. Percentage Elementary Teacher l8 of 60 30% Secondary Teacher 19 of 63 30% Administrator l0 of 26 39% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience fears of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less l5 of 37 4l% 6 - l5 Years 15 of 56 27% More than l5 Years l7 of 56 30% ~‘m. p ffi' >' fifmi‘hmwge. A 2.. , A it 16A. 16 B. 16C. 16 D. -99 Table 16 . - Opinions of the 149 respondents of "In cooperation with local - businessmen, offering direct work experiencesin 0 work-study program for average and above- . average students" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage l Imperative 27 18% I i Very Desirable 67 45% Desirable 45 30% . Permissibi 06 04% _ Undesirab e 04 03% . ‘1 Total number 149 1609. ’ Li" Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 16 of 69 23% Masters and Above 11 of 80 14% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 11 of 60 18% Secondary Teacher 09 of 63 14% Administrator 07 of 26 27% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 07 of 37 19% 6 - 15 Years 07 of 56. 12% More than 15 Years 13 of 56 23% Table 17 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " Providing in-school work experiences, such as in the library and in the cafeteria" 17 A. Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 14 10% Very Desirable 57 38% Desirable 64 43% Permissible 14 09% Undesirable OO 00% TOtal number 149 100% 17 B, Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 06 of 69 09% Masters and Above 08 of 80 10% 17 C. Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Pgsjtion' Respondent: Percentage Elementary Teacher 05 of 60 08% Secondary Teacher 03 of 63 05% Administrator 06 of 23 23% 17 D. Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 03 of 37 08% 6 - 15, Years 01 ‘OF 56 02% More'than 15 Years 10 of 56 18%. -d t.£-.\_ _ 1?."- m'mmn—q‘g. gnu-ma _ lOl approval of the respondents is seen in Table 17A; "in-school work experi- ences" was regarded as imperative by only ten per cent of the respondents and less than one—half '10% + 38%) thought it was at least very deSirable. Almost twice as many respondents with lesser degrees rated the first two work-study programs as imperative as compared to those with ad- vanced degrees: "for low achievers," hl% compared to 2hfl; and "for aver— age and above average students," 23% compared to lh%. "In-school work ex- periences, however, received a different prOportion of imperative responses (9% vs, 10%), This can be seen in Tables 15B, 163 and 17B. When respondents were grouped according to position in the school, it is seen (Tables 15C, 16C and 17C) that the activities were judged most favorably by administrators. The difference between them and the next highest group, either elementary teachers or secondary teachers, was slight for "work programs for low achievers" (39% vs. 30%), and for "work programs for average and above average students" (27% vs. 18%), but con- siderable for "in-school work experiences (23% vs. %). Elementary teachers' and secondary teachers' opinions were nearly equivalent, the largest difference being h% (Table l6C}; When imperative responses were considered by the years of educa- tional experience of the respondents, it could be seen that the middle group (6—15 years) was lowest for all three actiVities (Tables 15D, 16D and 17D). Educators with five years or less rated "work programs for low achievers" imperative most frequently and the other two activities were Judged imperative most often by those Wlth more than fifteen years of edicational experience. Exploratory_Experiences This section concerns the three items in the survey concerned 102 with exploratory experiences: career planning at the Junior high school level and industrial arts and home economics in the elementary school (Tables 18, 19 and 20 contain the exact wording of the items). These ac— tivities, like the work-study programs, were inward expansions of the school and emphasized the vocational aspect of growth (Table 5, pages 66-68)o While it may seem at first that home economics is misclassified, this interpretation was supported by Walsh and Selden who consider home economics not only preparation for homemaking, but also for wage earning.l The highest proportion of imperative responses was received by "career planning" with only 15% (Table 18A) and the sum of the imperative and very desirable responses barely exceeded 50% (15% + 38%). The other two activities, "industrial arts" and "home economics" obtained almost identical ratings, less than 9% believing them to be imperative and only about one-third Judging them to be at least very desirableo These repre- sented the lowest percentage of imperative responses of any of the 22 se- lected activities (Tables 19A and 20A)° Opinions concerning the three exploratory experiences were little modified by the respondents' educational degree, position in the school, and years of educational experiences As Tables 188, 19B and 20B indicate, the influence of educational degree on the opinions of the respondents was slight, the greatest difference being h% more imperative responses by those with less than a Master's for "home economics," A somewhat similar condition was revealed when the Opinions of the respondents were considered by position in the school (Tables 18C, 19C and 20C)o The difference between the high and low group was not 1John Patrick Walsh and William Selden, "Vocational Education in the Secondary School," Vocational Education, Sixty—fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, 1965), p, 96. 18A. 18 B. 18,173. 18D, Table l8 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "Offering an exploratory career planning pragram at about grade 9 Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response Categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 22 l5% Very Desirable 57 38% Desirable 47' 32% Permissible l8 12% Undesirable 05 03% Total number lZ‘7 1603/0 Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters ll of 69 16% Masters and Above 1 l of 80 14% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school PositLoD BTPO'T’ddr"? Percentage Elementary Teacher 08 of 60 l3% Secondary Teacher ll of 63 17% Administrator 03 of 26 12% Respondents designating the activity as imp‘verutive, by years of educational experience ‘Years Of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 05 at 37 14% 6 - 15 Years 07 of 56 12% More than 15 Years l0 of 56 18% 19 A. '49 an . . . ’9‘ 1014 Table 19 Opinions of the T49 respondents of "Offering exploratory experiences in industrial arts Respondents' opinions, by response categories Response Categories Respondents Percentage Imperative I4 09% Very Desirable 43 29% Desirable 67 45% Permissible 22 15% Undesirable i 03 02% Total number 3759' 155% :‘Respo‘ridents deem the MMty as imperative, by Manhunt degree 19C; 19 D. T w-‘w Below Masters 06 of 69 09% Masters and Above 08 of 80 l0% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 03 of 60 05% Secondary Teacher 08 of 63 13% Administrator 03, of 26 12% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of ' . ' educational experience ' Years of EXperience Respondents Percentage_ Five Years or Less 03 of 37 08% 6 - l5 Years 06 of 56 ll% 'M‘cfé than 1'5 Years 05"‘ot‘ '56 " 09°/a 20A. 203. 20C 20D 105 Table 20 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " Offering exploratory ' experiences in home economics Respondents' opinions, by response categories Resgnse categories Respondents Percentage Imperative - 14 09% Very Desirable 36 ‘1 ’ 24% Desirable 68 46%;, Permissible 28 19% Undesirable , _ A. . 03 t - ' 02% Total number 119' ' 1m Respondentsdesignating the activity'as imperative, by'educational degree . "Educational Degrees T i V i 1 Respondents 1' I i 1 Percentage Below Masters 08 of 69 i _ 12% Masters and Above 06 of 80 » 08% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 03 of 60 05% Secondary Teacher 09 of 63 14% Administrator 02 of 26 08% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience Years of EXperienCe Respondents . Percentage Five Years or Less 05 of 37 14% 6 - 15 Years - 05 of 56 09% More than 15 Years 04 of 56 07% 106 large, ranging from 5% to 9%. Each of the three activities received the highest porportion of imperative responses from secondary teachers, al- though the widest margin over the next group was only 6% over administra- tors for the activity of "home economics," An almost identical situation can be found in Tables 18D, 19D, and 20D where respondents were divided by number of years of educational experience. The margin between high and low groups was from 3% to 7% and each one of the three groups rated one of the activities as imperative most frequently: "career planning" by educators with more than 15 years' exPerience; "industrial arts" by the middle group (6-15 years); and "home economics" by those with less than five years of educational experience: In none of the instances was the margin between the top two groups more than 5%: Adult Vocational Education The two activities of vocational education resembled the preced- ille; ones in emphasizing the vocational aspect of growth, but differed fIWDIn them in representing an outward expansion of the school services for CHIt-—of-school youth (Table 5, pages 66-68). As can be seen in Tables 21 and 22, these two items were viewed Sint‘ilarly by the respondents, only one respondent in five rating them as i1niperative and about three of five judging them as at least very desir— able (56% and 62%)., As a whole, these activities were Judged higher than "etxqploratory experiences" and lower than "work-study programs:" The affect of educational degree on the opinions of respondents ‘38“: be seen in Tables 21B and 22Bo Educators with advanced degrees named the35‘se activities as imperative much more often than did educators with lesser degrees, 24% compared to 114% for vocational counseling and 21% e a OmDared to 16% for retraining the young adult: 21A. 21s., 21 C. 21 D. 107 Table 21 3 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "In cooperation with other community agencies, providing vocational counseling for all youth up to the age of 21" Respondents' opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage imperative 29 20% Very Desirable 62 42% Desirable 48 32% Permissible 08. 05%, Undesirable ~ '- ' 02 01% Total number 149 . . 100% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree _ Educational Dgg_e__es ' 1 Respondents Percentage , fielow Masters 'p - . I 10‘ of 69 14% Masters and Above ' 19 of 80 24% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 11 of 60 18% Secondary T cher 11 of 63 17% Administrator 07 of 26 27% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational . - experience .- il_e_a_rs of Experience 1 Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 04 of 37 l 11% =- 1.5 Years 13 of 56 23% Mere than 15 Years 12 of 56 21% 22A. 22 B. 22 C. 22 D. .108 Table 22 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " In cooperation with other community agencies, helping to retrain the young adult for a changing labor market" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 28 19% Very Desirable 55 37% Desirable ‘49 33% ' Permissible v.14 _ 09% Undesirable ‘ 03 02% Total number 149 1m Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational'Degrees ”'R'espondents '1 ' Percentage . Below Masters 11 of 69‘ 16% 1 Masters and Above 17 of 80 21% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school ‘ Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 10 of 60 17% Secondary Teacher 11 of 63 17% Administrator 07 of 26 27% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational ’ experience ‘YéOIS Of Experience T Respondents Percentage » Five Years or Less 07 of 37 19% 6 - 15 Years - 06 of 56 11% More than 15 Years 15 of 56 27% 109 When respondents were grouped according to educational position (Tables 21C and 220) it was found that the administrators rated both items as imperative much more frequently than did either elementary or secondary teachers. It can also be seen that distribution of imperative responses for both activities was almost identical. As Tables 21D and 22D show, educators with 6-15 years of experi- ence rated "adult vocational counseling" as imperative most frequently and those with more than 15 years Of experience Judged "retraining the young adult" as imperative most often. Examining the Hypotheses Hypothesis Number 1 The first hypothesis stated that the educational activities des- cribed in Imperatives in Education were considered imperative by public school educators. As Figure 5 reveals, this was not confirmed for any of the eight activities concerning vocational education, imperative re- aponses varying from 9% for "elementary home economics" and "elementary industrial arts" to 31% for "work-study for low achievers." When aver- aged together, the percentage of imperative responses for the typical ac- tivity of vocational education was 16.h%; or, on the average, about one respondent in six considered these activities as imperative. This hypothesis was not confirmed for any of the eight activities presented in this chapter. Even when considering the two most favorable response categories together (imperative and very desirable) it was found that, on the average, only slight more than half of the respondents (5h%) thought that these activities were at least very desirable; the range was from 33% (9% + 2h%) for "elementary hcme economics" to 81% (31% + 50%) for "work-study for low achievers." 110 In COOperation with local businessmen; \\ A “'1 ' offering direct work experiences in a &1\R ‘ I5H0l 1 work-study program for low achievers. ' In cooperatIon WIth local busmessmem- \\ 1'“ . offering direct work experiences in a 18 45 I 30 3‘ work-study program for average and “H ‘ above average students. / Providing in-school work experiences, such as in the library and in the cafeteria. Offering an exploratory career ‘ RIB , 318' planning program at about grade 9. \\ . ill Offering exploratory experiences in 9 industrial arts. Offering exploratory experiences in home economics. . in cooperation with other community agencies, providing vocational counseling for all youth up to the age Of 21 . In cooperation with other community agencies, helping to retrain the 37 young adult for a changing labor market. Percentage of Respondents Figure 5 Opinions of all respondents concerning the importance of the eight educational activities of vocational education for the public schools Nimperative L. a Very Desirable E Undesirable Desirable rai- Permissible 111 When these results are compared with those activities in the pre- vious chapter concerning the culturally disadvantaged, it can be seen that they were rated imperative less frequently (l6.h% vs. 25.h%) and a corres- ponding decline is revealed in those Judging them at least very desirable (5h.2% vs. 6h.5%). Two conclusions may be drawn from these comparisons: first, al- though it may be argued that training for the world of work is a tradi- tional and still urgent function of the schools, teachers and administra- tors do not attach a high priority to them; secondly, they can be induced to accept new types of programs if they are convinced of their worth, i.e., compensatory education. Despite the preference of the respondents for programs of compen- satory education over programs of vocational education, the average for "undesirable" responses remained relatively stable, about 3%. All of these activities represent an inward expansion except for "adult vocational counseling" and "adult retraining" which are examples of outward eXpansion. These two activities were intermediate in respond— ent preference. Hypothesis Number 2 It was predicted that the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by educators with advanced degrees. Figure 6 summarizes the percentage of imperative responses for each of the eight activities of vocational edu- cation when respondents were divided by educational degree. As can be seen, the hypothesis was confirmed for only one acti- vity, "adult vocational counseling,‘ and two were approved by a higher proportion of respondents with less than a Master's degree, "work-study .Eo: of mo 9:903 auoxm cos m 939“. mom w 3953 35:82am 3 .cotouapa _oco:ouo> mo mar—3:00 303 of 033.595 mo mctocmuop reap—comma. do amoacauuon. c 0.59.... lemf—uncaou smuWEOcOom . s23. moucutoaxm +3.34“, L,.....ue>am_._u< loffsets”. .ocotauo> 9:0: 3:53.; hchmccoi 45>) pea amoco>< . 30.. ::p< .1. 56.4 beacoEoE ESSENE... coouoU .oo...umac_ xpaamrvto; xmervto>> 112 _ siuapuodsau JO aBoweoJad a «a . . . mm. mm. on- out a>om do 323200 Emma of a>:o._maE_ no mczocmfiop 35209.9 do amoacauumn. n 239“. smczumcaou 2880:03— smt< woocotoaxm sm>03< wflu>m£u< 5 «mcmcmotax _a:o:ouo> 2:01 3330:. smEccoE v...o>> .w amoua>< 26.. . n... :3}, $334 . boEoEmE beacoEaE cumuou _oo;um..c_ bonfire—co; xmenvto>> k . . a all m m t D t m. E t 3 2 1 mm § mu R a R on on mm on; swepuodsau Jo aBowaoJad 02.. I coaozxfispd. \\\L. 3:0an beacouam .20an bEcmEmE M3". 0 116 .59: 9.: mo 95:03 #098 co“. m 059"— omm l. cucotodxu .ocotouapa mo 300x 3 cot—ounce _ocotouo> mo 323200 Emma of o>touadEm no actocmmmop ficopcoamc. .._o omoacouucm m 0.59“. s.mc:u..é=..oU smu_Eo:oum ent/x h..nee—emzxéxm. sa??? pea «Eo>o£u< smcmfiozox _aco$ooo> 2:01 .0339.— «mcmccoE v.83 . omocu>< 3a.. ::p< :36, betas—m 525.com . camcoU _oo;umac_ bonfire—co? $555.33 , N : a o1. 0: m «I... m .2 _N .. . w. 9 . @— RN I muoo>.m_.uc>O V\\\\. 38> m. .. a mu . mm: on: nu- L _. Two.— .0 38> oz... 02 sruepuodseg 50 SBDJUSOJad 117 when 5% or less separated the tOp two groups, one of which had to be those with five years or less of educational experience; this was true " H for four activities, "work-study for average and above, career plan- ning, elementary industrial arts,‘ and "elementary home economics." A larger proportion of the other two groups approved of the other three activities: "in-school work experiences," " adult vogational counseling," and "adult retraining." A somewhat clearer picture was obtained when the imperative re- sponses for all eight activities were averaged for each of the three groups. The highest was for educators with more than fifteen years of educational experience, 19.1%; followed by those with five years or less of experience, 16.8%; and last, those educators having between six and 15 years of educational experience, l3.h%. The ranking of the groups was the same as was found in the previous chapter. These findings follow the pattern established in the previous chapter, indicating that the reverse of the hypothesis would have been true, that those with the most educational experience are likely to re- gard these activities as imperative. Summagy This chapter contained the respondents' Opinions of the eight activities of vocational education. These were discussed in three sec- tions. After the Opinions were presented, each of the five hypotheses was examined. Hypothesis Number 1 This hypothesis was not confirmed for any of the activities of vocational education, as none was Judged imperative by a majority of the reSpondents. A tendency to rate activities emphasizing vocational growth 118 comparatively low was noted. Hypothesis Number 2 This hypothesis was confirmed for only one Of the eight activi- ties designated as imperative by a higher percentage Of respondents with at least a Master's degree. The-findings suggest that educational degree affects very little respondents' Opinions Of vocational education. Hypothesis Number 3 Not a single activity was regarded as imperative by a higher pro- portion Of elementary respondents than by secondary respondents. These results suggest the grade level Of teachers influences only slightly their Opinions Of vocational education. Hypothesis Number h This hypothesis was confirmed for six of the eight educational activities which were designated as imperative by a higher prOportion Of administrators than elementary classroom teachers; the results Of the other two activities were inconclusive. Hypothesis Number 5 This hypothesis was confirmed for only one activity. These find- :ings seem to indicate the reverse Of the hypothesis is true, that these tactivities are viewed more favorably by those educators with the most ed— ucational experience. 6II E(%La 'SA gag) uSuptssunos Axspuooss pspusdxsu JO ssoqa Ktqqfitts pssssdlns uSuptssunoo Azsausmsts“ JOJ sssuodss; sAtqszsdmI 'Jsttmts szsn sstthta -os on: sq; JO suoturdo ,squspuodssa ‘noqs VH3 pus v33 sstqsm sv '(99-99 88386 ‘g stqsm) {ooqss sq; JO uorsusdxs prenur JO stdmexs us sen pus quOJS Isuotioms psztssqdms on; sqi JO qssg °KtsAtiosdss1 qa pus g3 sstqsm up usss sq uso sssqi JO suotutdo ,squspuodssg °(uotassnps Kaspuooss) ll cog-003 JO psot Suttssunoo s stdmsxs Jo; ‘ssspnass Suttssunoo pspued -xs Sutp;AOJdu pus u(uomsonps Kisiusmsts) stooqss II? up szotssunoo But -pIAOld“ ‘Surtssunos psuxsouoo astAquup sqq up smear sqi JO on; ssstnasg‘SfittssunOQ pspusdig '111 asidsqo JO uotqoss pita; sqi up puno; sq use ssrqpxtqos sssqq 01 Sup —puodssxaoo sanszsart punOJSwosq sq; °psurmsxs 318 ssssqaodfiq ant; sq; ‘psqussszd 81? ssatntqos sq; go suopupdo |sauspuodssz sq; ragga ‘sxsadsqo on: SHOIAald and u; sv 'usxpttqs II? 10; usaJsSJsputw-szd pus ‘uotqsonps Katunmmoo ‘suotqsurmexs Isotsfiqd ‘Sutpssa tarpsmsz ‘ssotkass Suttssunoo pspusdxs :suotioss an}; aspun pszsprsuoo axe Asqm °psssnostp ussq :95 con shew qotqn usnss sq: 318 sssqa ‘sstatxtaos psaostss ea sqa JO °uotaeonps tsuotaeoon oi zou psfisausApssrp.£Tstnatno sqa oi quqrsu ups; -Jsd qua can; Sutsq satitataos sq: JO otqstzsqosasqo uowmoo sq: ‘smsqa flutflutun on seq ‘szsqdeqo 0A1 snotAst sq; swttun ‘zsadsqo stay SEILIAILOV TVNOILVODGE TVHENED DNINHEONOO SDNIGMIJ IIIA HELdVHO ,Eaur __-l qfi. :- 1 .‘"_' 24:“ 1?} Via-I 4‘ {'12.}... l 23A. 23 B. 23 C. 23 D. 120 Table 23 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " Providing guidance counselors in all schools Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 48 32% Very Desirable 49 33% Desirable 36 24% Permissible 11 08% Undesirable 05 03% Total number 143- 166% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 21 Of 69 30% Masters and Above 27 of 80 24% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 16 of 37 27% Secondary Teacher 22 Of 63 35% Administrator 10 of 26 39% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years Of educational experience ‘Years of fxpen'ence Responderfi Percentage Five Years or Less 15 of 37 41% 6 - 15 Years 16 Of 56 29% More than 15 Years 17 of 56 ' 30% . .-... ‘ Tia fixing-an.” u- “.v ‘1— ~wv-wao at , 121 Table 24 Opinions of the 149 respondents of " Providing expanded counseling services, for example a counseling load of 200 - 300" 24 A. Respondents' Opinions, by response categOries Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 4O 27% Very Desirable 60 40% Desirable 40 27% Permissible 05 03% Undesirable 04 03% TC'iCtl number” 142 136% 24 B. Respondent's designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees EdJCOiTOr‘OI Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 18 Of 69 26% Masters and Above 22 of 80 28% 24 C. Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school P2211311 Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 14 Of 60 23% Secondary Teacher 14 of 63 22% Administrator 12 Of 26 46% 24 D. Respondents designating the activity as imperative,by years Of educational expedence 239:1“ Exrflience RiogrycLerli Percentage Five Years or Less 09 of 37 24% 6 15 Years 10 Of 56 18% More than 15 Years 21 of ' 56 37% \ fi I q 'nro- . 122 however, the situation was reversed when the two most favorable response categories, imperative and very desirable, were added together (65% vs. 67%). Both activities were Judged undesirable by 3% Of the respondents. The influence Of educational degree on respondents' Opinions is reported in Tables 23B and 2MB. Both items were rated as imperative more frequently by respondents with advanced degrees; the margin, however, was not 1arge,’6% for "elementary counseling" and 2% for "expanded secondary counseling." When respondents were divided according to position in the school, it was noted that administrators Judged these items as imperative most Often. In Table 230 the margin was slight over secondary teachers, but in Table 2hC the total was double that Of either Of the two other groups. It was somewhat surprising that the item "elementary guidance counselors" was rated lowest by elementary teachers and "expanded secondary counsel- ing" lowest by secondary teachers. Tables 23D and 2hD reveal respondents' Opinions by years Of edu- cational experience. For both items, the percentage Of imperative re- sponses was lowest for the middle group (6-15 years); "elementary counsel— ing" was viewed as imperative most Often by educators with five years or less Of experience, while those with more than fifteen years of experi— ence judged "expanded secondary counseling" as imperative most frequently. For both items, the margin between the two highest groups exceeded 10%. Remedial Reading The interview contained two items on remedial reading: "provid- in{; small classes for those needing special help in reading (elementary education)" and "providing special classes in remedial reading (secondary education)." Both emphasized the intellectual aspect Of growth and 123 exemplified an inward expansion Of the school (Table 5, pages 66-68). Tables 25A and 26A reveal the unanimity with which these activi- ties were endorsed by the respondents. Over two-thirds Of them looked upon these as imperative and nearly all respondents (97% and 95%) re- garded them as at least very desirable. There were no "undesirable" re- sponses for either item. Opinions of these activities were influenced only slightly by the respondents' educational degree (Tables 253 and 26B), position in the school (Tables 25C and 26C), or years Of educational experience (Tables 25D and 26D). Approval was overwhelming and uniform. The larg- est margin between any two groups was 7%, slight considering the large proportion Of imperative responses. Physical Examinations Table 27 shows the respondents' Opinions Of "arranging for physi- cal examinations with referrals tO doctors." This activity emphasized the physical aspect Of growth and represented an inward expansion Of the school (Table 5, pages 66-68). As Table 27A indicates, only one respondent in five (19%) thought that this activity was imperative and less than one—half (19% + 30%) looked upon it as at least very desirable. As Opposed to the previous item on remedial reading, the educa- tional degree, position in the school, and years Of educational experience all influenced respondents' Opinions." Table 27B shows that respondents twith at least a Master's degree Judged it as imperative much more fre- qiuently than those with less than a Master's degree (23% vs. lh%). Imperative responses Of elementary teachers were nearly double trusse: of the next highest group, secondary teachers (27% vs. lh%). This _ ,_ )1:- . ‘3 3,1 25A. 25 B. 25 C. 25 D O " -"*“.«1m'-r Q mum...“ 12h Table 25 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "Providing small classes for those needing special help in reading" Respondents' opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 103 69% i h Very Desirable 42 28% , :‘ Desirable O4 03% ‘ Permissible 00 00% Undesirable 00 00% Total number 149 16657. 1 1 Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees :3 Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 50 of 69 72% Masters and Above 53 of 80 66% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 44 of 60 73% Secondary Teacher 42 of 63 67% Administrator 17 of 26 65% ”Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational ” ' ‘ ' "“""“”"“é".s.a.n'ce Years of Experience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 26 of 37 70% 6 - 15 Years 38 of 56 ‘ 68% More than 15 Years 39 of 56 70% 125 Table 26 Opinions of the 149 respondents of "Providing special classes in Respondents' Opinions, by response categories remedial reading" Response categories Respondents Imperative 101 Very Desirable 4O Desirable 06 Permissible 01 Undesirable 01 Total number 149 Educational Degrees Below Masters Masters and Above Position Elementary Teacher Secondary Teacher Administrator Respon den ts 48 of 80 53 of 80 school Respondents 39 of 60 44 of 63 18 of 26 Percentage 68% 27% 04% 01% 00% 166% 26 B. 6 Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees Percentage 70% 66% 26 C. Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the Percentage 65% 70% 69% Respondents designating the, activity as imperative, by years of educational Years of Easerlence Five Years or Less 6 - 15 Years More than 15 Years experience Respondents 25 or 37 36 of 56 40 of 56 Percentage 68% 64% 7 1% 27A. 27 a. 27 C. 27D. 126 ' Table 27 Opinions Of the 149 respondents Of "Arranging for physical examinations with referrals to doctors" Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 28 19% Very Desirable 45 , 30% Desirable 49 33% Permissible . . 23 15% Undesirable . 04 r 03% ‘ Total number 149 166% V . RespOndents designating the activ'ity'as imperative, by educational degrees Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters ‘ ‘ Io or 69 14% Masters and Above 18 of 80 23% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the ' , school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 16 of 60 27% Secondary Teacher 09 of 63 14% Administrator 03 of 26 12% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational ' V expefience Yew: of Experience ’ Respondents Percentage 1 Five Years or Less ’ 04 of 37 11% 63-15 Years - 08 Of 56 14% Marathon 15 Years _ 16 of 56 29% 127 can be seen in Table 27C. When years Of educational experience were considered (Table 27D) it was found that educators with the most experience (more than 15 years) rated this item as imperative more than twice as Often as did either Of the other two groups. CommunitypEducation The one item concerned with community education was "remaining Open eveings and summers for community education activities." This was an example Of outward expansion Of the school and was the only activity in the survey which emphasized social growth (Table 5, pages 66-68). As can be seen in Table 28A, only 19% regarded this activity as imperative, although more than three respondents in five (63%) thought that it was at least very desirable; it was also one of four activities in the survey receiving no "undesirable" responses. As was the case with the previous item, respondents' Opinions were affected considerably by educational degree, position in the school, and years Of educational experience. When respondents were divided by educational degrees (Table 28B) it was seen that educators with at least a Master's degree rated this activity imperative almost twice as Often as those with less than a Master's degree (25% vs. 13%). When Opinions were considered according to position in the school, it was found that the imperative responses of administrators were double those Of secondary teachers (39% vs. 19%) and triple those of elementary teachers (39% vs. 12%). This can be seen in Table 28C. Table 28D shows the influence Of years Of educational experience On the opinions Of the respondents. Educators with the most experience (more than 15 years) Judged this item as imperative twice as Often as did 28A. 28 B. 28 C. 28 D. 128 . Table 28 Opinions of the 149 respondents of “Remaining Open evenings and summer for community education activities" Respondents' Opinions, by reponse categories Response categories Regondents Percentage Imperative 29 19% Very Desirable 65 44% Desirable 44 80% Permissible 11 07% Undesirable 00 00% Total number 149 1m Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degrees Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 09 of 69 13% Masters and Above 20 of 80 ' 25% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 07 Of 60 12% Secondary Teacher 12 of 63 19% Administrator 10 of 26 39% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational experience ; Years of Experiencg Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 05 of 37 14% 6 - 15 Years 08 of 56 14% More than 15 Years 16 of 56 29% 129 either of the other two groups. Pre—Kindergarten for All Children The item "Offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children" emphasized intellectual growth and represented a downward expansion Of the schools (Table 5, pages 66-68). The lack of approval Of this activity is seen in Table 29A. Only 11% thought that it was imperative, and less than one-third considered it at least very desirable (11% + 20%), while lh% regarded it as undesirable; this is the only item in the survey for which undesirable reaponses ex- ceeded the imperative ones. As Table 29B indicates, a greater proportion Of those with a Master's degree and above thought that this activity was imperative than did those respondents with less than a Master's degree (lh% vs. 9%). Table 29C reports imperative responses by position in the school. Administrators rated this item as imperative much more frequently than either secondary or elementary teachers. When respondents were grouped according tO the years of educa- tional experience (Table 29D), it can be seen that this activity was Judged imperative most Often by those with more than 15 years Of eXperi— ence (16%), followed by those with 6-15 years Of experience (9%), and last by those with five years Of experience or less (8%). Examining the Hypotheses Hypothesis Number 1 Respondents' opinions Of the seven general activities are sum~ marized in Figure 9. For the first time in this study, the hypotheses were confirmed; two activities, "small reading classes" and "remedial reading" were designated as imperative by more than one-half of the 29A. 29 B. 29 C. 29 D. Table 29 ' Opinions of the 149 respondents of "Offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children Respondents' Opinions, by response categories Response categories Respondents Percentage Imperative 17 11% Very Desirable 30 20% Desirable 52 35% Permissible 29 20% Undesirable 21 14% Total number 149 TM Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by educational degree Educational Degrees Respondents Percentage Below Masters 06 of 69 09% .. Masters and Above 11 of 80 14% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by position in the school Position Respondents Percentage Elementary Teacher 05 of 60 08% Secondary Teacher 07 of 63 11% Administrator 05 of 26 19% Respondents designating the activity as imperative, by years of educational expefience Years of Exfetience Respondents Percentage Five Years or Less 03 of 37 08% 6 - 15 Years 05 of 56 09% More than 15 Years 09 Of 56 16% 131 Providing guidance counselors -' in all schools. Providing expanded counseling services, for example a counseling Ind of 200-300 . Providing small classes for those \ \ needing special help in reading. Wm Providing special classes in “‘ A 7‘ I \‘. \ was Arranging for physical examinations with referrals to doctors. . 33 l 23 $00 - ll I—t t—N— -—.\l_. -_> O Remaining open evenings and summer for community education activities. 19 Offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children. 20 35 - Percentage of Respondents Figure 9 Opinions of all respondents concerning the importance of the seven general educational activities for the public schools &\ Imperative - Permissible Very Desirable Undesirable l b-_- Desi rable. 132 rezspondents, 69% and 68% respectively. The range of the other five acti- vi.ties, however, was from a high of 32% to a low Of 11%. The aVezage of the imperative responses for these activities was r algso markedly higher (35%) than for culturally disadvantaged (25.h%) o- fc>r vocational education (16.h%). When the two most favorable response. ceitegories were averaged together, it can be Seen that two-thirds of the reespondents (66.7%) thought the general educational activities were at leeast very desirable. This total was similar to the "at least very de~ szireble" responses Of the activities for the culturally disadvantaged, ‘wiiich was 6h.l%. For both grouse, about two respondents in three thought tliat the activities were at least very desirable. Another method of gauging the Opinions of the respondents was by t:11e percentage Of "unde51zable" responses. Only four items in the survey 1 H. , ‘! ”3.0.1 r‘erceived.no negative responses, and three are in this chapter, rent *1 \ ITEwadIng (elementary)," "remedial reading (secondary)," and "community {illcatjon." The latter choice was somewhat unexpected, as it did not re- (D *lfrive a large proportion of imperative responses, only 19%. The only 1'teem in the survey receiving a higher total Of undesirable responses than ixngoerative responses was "pro—kindergarten (all children)," (lh% vs. 11%). nun—s These data do not make it possible to generalize on respondents' EBYYFfrrenres regardingrhe direCticn of expansion of the school. Five in- T’CIlved expansion, one outward, "comnunity education," and one downward, " ~ -- II lyreukindergarten. have 21I_lin_1i£_§.£.2. The second hypothesis predicted that the educational activities '19 »gg_g were more likely to be regardegd a... cribed in Imperatives in Ed m u-“ imperative by public school educators with advanced degrees. Figure 10 .25: of .._0 9.5.53 .898 of so”. a v.53“. wow i... 399v 3202823 3 £332.00 352335 1:059:39. of £30595 3 9:39.83 £5238. 3.093529. 2 as: *Axeovcoummv #525525 h..mc:omc=oU Levi—Eu :ov aco:_3..._um «mcozofsoxm mcmvoom 9:33. bovcouom h.bc__o....c=o..u cotomeovcmxuoi x:::EEoU _ou_m>;n_ .3883. 3:583. wovcoaXm b25503 133 d a m .u. mm. m 6 a m. on. a. m U D- mu. m 87 o>oa< van 0990 3232' acumen 9.232 323 .mE0: 0f ”.0 95203 auox0 0f .8 a 039... 00m * 3030p 3.320030 3 J0E>tuo 3:02.830 _o._0c0m.c0>0m 0.... 02.2095 3 mczocmmvdv 39.0.0590. $0,000.52}. 9 059E . 1.3023005 «3520523 emcm_0mc:ou 3 £205.20 :ov «823:3 «agreeing 9.233. 9.2003. bovcou0m sm...:0...caoU B c0tome0vcm¥|0i onsgu 30mm??— _£v0E0~_ _o=u0_.:0~_ p01coaxm b25803 m— : #— d 9 m. 3 mm. mm. m 6 9 m: on: W In.” m 00 P «a ma. m. . . 007 95.: ten 00.600 30.32.. 00600 20.32 26.0m— $.80: 0f “_o 9:033 398 0....— .3 a 059“. 00m .. “00500 35:00:00 3 30:3:00 .000300000 .0._0c0m.c0>0m 0f 023.095 m0 9500980 3:00.590. u3000:5023 0. 05mm . *Axe000000mv1b200E0Ev s00:0.Eoou .3 aA0832". :3 «033003 «30:05:85 @5000”. 9003. E00503 h..m_.__0..E_..oU B _:0t0900£v.|0.& b_c:EEOU 30mm}: _0_00E0~_ _0m00E0~_ 000.596 b02955 on swapuodsaa 50 aBmuaoJad oo—L 0>OA< 000 00.600 30:02.. 00.600 300.02 30.3 13h summarizes the imperative responses of the seven general activities by the educational degree of the respondents. For two of the activities the hypothesis was confirmed, "physical examinations" and "community education;" and two others were approved by a higher proportion of respondents with less than a Master's degree, "ex- panded secondary counseling" and "remedial reading (elementary)." For the other three items, the results were inconclusive, the margin between the two groups being 5% or less. The small influence of educational degree on these activities was also seen when the imperative responses of the two groups were averaged, the margin between the two groups being less than 2%, 36.5% for advanced degrees and 3h.9% for the lesser ones. Hypothesis Number 3 It was hypothesized that the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by elementary classroom teachers than by secondary classroom teachers. Only for "remedial reading (elementary)" and "physical examina- tions" Wdo the hypothesis confirmed, the percentage of imperative re- sponses of elementary classroom teachers being the large of the two groups. Two activities were rated higher by secondary respondents, "ele- ' and "community education" and the results were incon- mentary counseling' elusive for the other three activities. This can be seen in Figure ll. By averaging the imperative reSponses of the two groups, the minute effect of grade level on teacher opinion can be seen. The margin between the two groups was less than 1%, 33.5% for elementary teachers and 3h% for secondary teachers. This follows the pattern established in the previous two chapters. .80: 0r: *0 9.053 #0008 0.: .60 a 05mm". 00m .. 30:0... 0.: E c0530 .3 $023100 _ 35:00:00 _0.0c0m c0>0m 0': 0200.095 no 952930 3:00.590. 00 0m2c020n. .8 3 _ as S. $me £1 : 05mm Ab00cou0mvaxcoac0E0Ev *9.__0mc:oU 5 Lc0._0:;0:0v «cot0030m emcotccgofi 9.0001 9.003. b00coo0m h..m..:_0.a.c=oU B c0to900EvT0i Ewan—Ecou .08me _0_00E0~_ _0_00E0~_ 000,696 boE0E0E _ w : s N. E w. a. 9 mm mm mmL w mm mm mm. mm w on H a I“ 0 U P a W I col—0:35:00. \\\\ u0.._000._. b000000m 0:002. 3020.53 02L 136 Hypothesis Number h The fourth hypothesis stated that the selected educational ac— tivities were more likely to be regarded as imperative by administrators than by elementary teachers. Figure 11 also summarizes these results. The hypothesis was confirmed for the four items rated higher by the administrators: "elementary counseling, "expanded secondary counsel- " H ' ing, community education,' and "pre-kindergarten (all children)." Two items were rated higher by elementary teachers, "remedial reading (elemen- ' and the results for the other item tary)" and "physical examinations,’ "remedial reading (secondary)" were inconclusive. Administrator prefer—_ ence was also shown when the imperative responses of the two groups were averaged, h0.h% for administrators and 33.6% for elementary teachers. Hypothesis Number 5 The fifth hypothesis stated that the activities were more likely to be regarded as imperative by educators with the least educational ex- perience. Figure 12 summarizes the imperative responses when respondents were grouped according to years of educational experience. As can be seen, the hypothesis was confirmed for one activity only, "elementary ' and was considered inconclusive for another, "remedial read— counseling,’ ing (elementary)." In the remaining five activities, the hypothesis was not con- firmed. This can also be clearly seen when the imperative responses of all three groups are averaged, h0.3% for those with more than 15 years of experience, 30.9% for the middle group (6-15 years of experience), and 33.7% for educators with five years or less of experience. 137 :5: 0.2 “.0 @5052. 500.0 0.2 .0.— o 059”— 00m 0 \ 0032093 .0:o200:00 20 E00. .3 323200 3.5200300 _0.0:0m :0>0m 0.2 0>20.0QE_ m0 m:20:930 £30503. “.0 0m0.:00.0n_ N. .59. Lx.00:oo0mv LboE0E0EV wmczmmcaoU h..A:0.0__.._0 :0v h2020023 .3020:_:5Xm @5003. m:_000~_ x.00:oo0m «m:__0mcaoU :020m.00c_v_l0.m xzcaEEOU _0u_mx.._n_ _0_00E0~_ _0_00:.0~_ 000.5me 502.0503 m... 3 : m 0N mmlm 3 om am 0.. .0 H on: w d o o w. V II. I]. a K me 0. me o. m... w. l 33> m. .0>O \ “50> 9 I 0 U 03.. .0 03“— 138 Summagy This chapter discussed the results of the seven remaining educa- tional activities not treated in the previous two chapters. They were H H presented in five sections, "expanded counseling services, remedial reading," "physical examinations," "community education," and "pre- kindergarten for all children." On the basis of these results the hy- potheses were examined in the second part of the chapter. Hypothesis Number 1 This hypothesis was confirmed for the first time in the survey, two activities being considered imperative by a majority of the respond- ents. Both concerned special help in reading. Hypothesis Number 2 This hypothesis was confirmed for two of the seven activities which were designated as imperative by a larger percentage of respondents with at least a Master's degree. For these activities, respondents' Opinions were influenced very little by educational degree. Hypothesis Number 3 This hypothesis was also confirmed for two of the seven activi- ties which were rated imperative by a larger proportion of elementary respondents than by secondary respondents. These findings suggest that the grade level of teachers has little affect on their Opinions of these activities. Hypothesis Number h This hypothesis was confirmed for four of the seven activities which were Judged imperative by more administrative respondents than by elementary reSpondents. These results seem to indicate that administrators 139 v1" ew these actiVities more favorably than teachers. Mothesis Number 5 This hypothesis was confirmed for only one of the activities. As in Chapter VII, these results suggest that the reverse of the hypothesis would be true, that these activities are looked upon most favorably by educators with the most experience. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Problem and Its Background The purpose of this study was to investigate the opinions of public school teachers and administrators: (l) to determine the im- portance they attached to the educational activities described in IE; pgratives in Education, and (2) to examine the relationship between these opinions and educational degree, position in the school, and Years of educational experience. The knowledge of these opinions and relationships is important, as the active involvement of teachers and adIllinistrators is an essential ingredient of educational change. It was shown that educational goals are decided upon by the po- litical system, a process in which the educational system plays a con- Sl-llt-ative role; on the other hand, the selection of educational programs is an area in which the educational system has special prerogatives and competencies. Although this limits the scope of educational decision- making, it does, at the same time, identify an especially crucial area and One in which many divergent Opinions can be expected. Cooperative decision—making has long been advocated by educa— tional leaders, although many critics claim 'that there is not much evi— dence of it in practice. The recent impact of professional negotiations is modifying the role of the teacher and administrator in educational decision-making, although, at the present time, the new relationships have Ilot been clearly defined. lhO lhl Method of Investigation and Analysis It was decided to use the individual, structured interview as a method to gather data. The interview contained 3h items, 22 of which were based on activities recommended in Imperatives in Education, and which also had the support of educational authorities. The other 12 items were included to increase the variety of topics covered, but the , .4! T? results of these twelve items were not analyzed. i Interviewees were asked to place each of the educational acti- vities in one of the following response categories: "imperative," "very ‘. H H H H I desirable, desirable, permissible,’ or "undesirable." One hundred and forty—nine interviews were actually held with teachers and administrators of five Michigan cities: Dearborn, Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Saginaw. The interviewees were from a cross- section of schools representing all grade levels in the elementary schools and the different subject matter areas in the secondary schools. Each Of the 22 selected activities was classified according to (a) the aspect of growth emphasized: vocational, intellectual, physical, social, or emotional, and (b) direction in which it would expand public school services: inward, outward, downward, or upward. Results of the interviews were reported by educational topics: (a) educational activities concerning the culturally disadvantaged, (b) activities of vocational education, and (c) general educational activi— ties (those not falling under the other two topics.) Results of the Interviews Opinions of the Teachers and Administrators l. A summary of the respondents' opinions of the 22 selected ac- tivities can be found in Table 30. Part A reveals that only 3. lh3 two of them were considered imperative by a majority of the teachers and administrators; both of these concerned read— ing. Also, it can be seen that, on the average, an educa- tional activity was considered imperative by one respondent in four (25.2%); the proportion for activities concerning the culturally disadvantaged corresponded to the general average (25.h%), while for vocational education it was no- ticeably lower (l6.h%), and for the general educational ac- tivities, it was much higher (35%). Another way to measure respondents' Opinions was to consider the total of the two most favorable response categories to- gether (imperative and very desirable). When this was done, it was revealed that l? of the 22 activities were considered "at least very desirable" by a majority of the respondents; on the average, an activity was Judged "at least very desir- able" by three respondents in five (61.6%). Again, the lack of approval for activities of vocational education can be noted: only five of the eight activities of vocational edu- cation were considered "at least very desirable," and, on the average, this rating was given to an activity by only slightly more than half of the respondents (5h.2%). This can be seen in Table 30B. A general positive attitude toward the 22 selected activities can be concluded from the results contained in Table 300; it can be seen that none of the activities was rated as "unde-. sirable" by a majority of the respondents. On the average, an activity was looked upon as undesirable by less than 3% of the respondents. NN 3o o\on.N mm 3 n— $0.3 lh2 NN3N o\oN.mN 323204. 00.00_0m 0373330. 000. >_ n 3 o m 3 o n 3 o obm...” 0\om._ o0. .m n 3 0 m 3 m m 3 0 $58 $3... 0.9% n 3 N m 3 o n 3 o nwoo . mm 030. 0. o\ov. mm :020030m 000039.085 32320< 3:02000> 235.20 3:020030m m:_:.00:oU m:_:.00:OU 3530 32320.0. 32320.4. :_ __ _ 330. .m.:00:003. 0.2 3 5203:. 0 .3 ._0_00._305_. 003. 323200 3 .00:52 .N 0m0.0>< .— 0_00._30:D 6.300503. 0.2 3 5203:. 0 .3 ..0_00._30 50> .32 3.. 003. 323200 3 30:52 .N 000.024 .— ...0_00._3o 50> 0:0 0.33.008: 023230 50> 20.00.— to. 22:00:00.0. 0.2 3 5203.: 0 .3 02350:: 003. 323200 3 30:52 .N 0mo.0>< .— 0.20.006. 35200300 3 323200 35200300 00.003... 032ax.:0>>. 0.2 3 32:30 3300:0030 om 200.. lhh Educational Degree The second hypothesis stated that the educational activities in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by public school educators with advanced degrees. Table 31A summarizes these results. It can be seen in Column IV that this was confirmed for nine of the 22 activities. One can also note that this preference was selective, applying only to activities concerning the culturally dis- advantaged, and not to the other two educational topics. Position in the School Two hypotheses were concerned with the effect of position in the school on respondents' opinions: one pertaining to the teaching level, and the other to position of responsibility, administrators as compared to elementary classroom teachers. Teaching Level 10 The third hypothesis predicted that the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by ele- mentary classroom teachers has by secondary classroom teachers. In 13 activities the results were incon- clusive, and in four the hypothesis was confirmed, with the remaining five being designated as imperative by a larger proportion of secondary respondents (see Table 31B). The similarity of views is also shown in Column V which compares the average percentage of im- perative responses: 23.9% for elementary classroom teachers, and 23.6% for secondary classroom teachers. 2. The lack of a clear-cut difference between the Opinions 1145 LN In... :0... I... ll m— m 0 .V 0:300. m>.m:_ocouc_ $0.0N m N N . 0.00000. 500.303 b00:000m 000.0N v N o N 0.00000. 50033.0 50.3.3.0 . “.3 300.0 00.00 .03.. 0:.0000... .m Inn In: lml Kr . .i m m m o 2.33. 023.0305 £00.0N m N N . 00.000 93.3.2 0 30.00 0.00.0N 0 N . 0 0>o00 0:0 00.000 A0.0.3.2 . "0.3, m. :00 0003. .3. 300.0. 00.00 00.000 .0:o20030m .< 330030 32320< 3200300 0002:3085 0>20.00E_ 00.00.0m 32320< .0:o2000> 0.05.20 00. 00 03.nb33... .000200300 0:.:3000U 0:330:00 000.0>< .0. .0.0h .0330 323204. 323204. > >_ .: .. . 323200 00.00.00 03.»...33. 00. .0 30.500 .m.:00:003. :0 003.3003 .0:0200:00 .0 A£00.. 0:0 b...0.m:003. .0:0200:00 ._0>0. 0:.0000. 30.000 .0:o200:00 00 00352:. .0 0.00.. th In.“ In: Imu In: In 0— m 0 v. 3.33. 023.033. 00.0.0N m N N . 3.00000. E00.30.0 b00:000m 000.0N V N o N A300.000. E00.30.0 52380.0 - 3.0 300.0 00.00 .03.. 0:.0000... .m Inn IF nml kl I. 0 m m o 3.33. 023.033. o\oo.VN m N N . 00.000 3.3.305. 0 30.00 o\om.0N 0 N . 0 0>000 0:0 00.000 33.302 . "0...; . 3.300003. .3. 300.0 00.00 00.000 .0:0..00300 .< 3.3003”. 3...>20< 323300 0000390035 0>20.00E. 00.00.0m 32.2.04. .0:0..000> 3.0.2.30 00. .0 037333... .0:0..00300 0:.:30 :0U 0:.:.00:0U 000.0>< .0. .0.0... .0330 3...>..0< 32.>20< > >_ z. ._ _ 32.>..00 00.00.03 03.nx.:0>... 00. .0 30.500 3.303030. :0 003.393 .0:0..00300 .0 3.00.. 0:0 b...0.m:003. .0:0..00300 ._0>0. 0:.0000. 00.000 .0:0..00300 .0 00332:. .0 0.00... .N.NI In! 1m... In: In a N w m 2.82 m>_m:_ucouc_ ONONN N v N N s2; 2 8,: 922 $0.8 N o _ _ 38> 2 - 0 «$3 N _ _ _ :8» m .. o ”5:3 £cm3:0%2.>n 5:9: v9.0”. Mn mucmtmaxm 3:02833 mo 28> .0 H hm: [ml lml .INI In N P N v £33. 0333:03— nxuodN N N o 0 39.003 809320 bohcmEmE AXVNNMU 2 v o m 3225?“...de $3 .859; 333. xtzflmgammm Beer—833m .U www.mcoamom mm:_>:u< 528:3 vmmobcgvga o>:o._maE_ thBmm $_.:>:o< _oco:ooo> $332.6 9: *0 037552,... _oco:oo:vm mEEmucoU mEEmucoU mmEm>< .0“. _Eo.._. 1:950 32320.4 "ET—3204‘ > >_ :_ : ._ vmgctcoUuim mick. 1h? of elementary and secondary classroom teachers was, in itself, significant° This gives no support to the be- lief that elementary teachers are child—centered and secondary teachers are more concerned-with subject mattero It also suggests that there are, perhaps, more areas of agreement than disagreement between elementary teachers and secondary teachers. Position of Responsibility_ The fourth hypothesis was also concerned with posi- tion in the school and stated that the educational activities described in Imperatives in Education were more likely to be regarded as imperative by adminis- trators than by elementary classroom teachers. As Table 31C shows, for more than half of the activities, 13, the hypothesis was confirmedJ Administrative pref- erence was also seen when the average percentage of im- perative responses for the two groups were compared (32 2% vs. 23 9%)° Wheres“ :eaching level made no difference in respondents' Opinions, position of re- sponsibility dida Years of Educational Experience la It will be remembered that testing of the fifth hypotheSis was somewhat more complicated, as three groups were involved, For it to be confirmed, it was necessary that the percentage of imperative reSponses of the group with the least experi- ence (0—5 years) exceed the percentage of imperative responses lh8 of gagh_of the other two groups by five per cent. As Table 31D reveals, this happened for only three activi- ties. It also shows that if the hypothesis had been re- stated, substituting "public school educators with ex- tensive educational experience" for "public school edu- cators with little educational experience" that it would have been confirmed for eight activities. The tendency of the respondents with the most educational experience to rate the activities highest can be seen for all three educational topics, and is also reflected in the average percentage of imperative responses in Column V. 2. It is interesting to note, but difficult to explain, that the middle group, with 6—15 years of educational experi- ence, ranked lowest for each of the three groups of edu- cational topics (Columns I, II, and III), and lowest for the total for all 22 activities (Column IV), and had the lowest average percentage of imperative responses (Column V). 3. These findings contradict the notion that older teachers are unreceptive to change and new ideas, and strongly suggest that the Opposite is true, that older, more ex- perienced teachers are more receptive. Given the general belief that younger teachers are more flexible and respon- sive, these findings were puzzling. Eggpect of Growth Emphasized From Table 32, which lists the 22 selected activities by respon— delits' preferences, one can also discern their opinions of the five '1 kg 0Eo5m0pcal 2.00:: 0:0 BEVflEEmiEBm «030530530 «030580 b0>u.m0n_ b0> N0>IE0QETd5 “302030530 2 x35 .50: 5 2 0:0 NV 30.00 :0 0:38 03 :00 8:05:320552 $0 53385;”. _ v O ' s"P“flcho 3 mad .0 3 VN 2 ON ‘- 'saq co .om mm .mN mN mum Tm Nm mm 3. mo 00 M .m. m0tom0aou 0209.3. .3 m 35500 mag—0:00.00”. 0.03:. 0.. 03:. 3035 203:. 0:035 0:035 :23090 <00 :020050 _0:o:000> _0:otoEm _0:otoEm_ _0200_ _0+:_ _0300_ _0+.:_ _0300_ _0+:_ £390 <96 30%/w 30:30:65 Acotooap0 500:000mv 205200 30. :0“— EEmoa $0395.03 0 5 00:0:098 0:03 .0050 m5._0¢0 .c0E305m3 .000. 533:0:020000015 “5:00:00 52:050—0v £0053 :0 5 20.03300 00:03.6 05030.n— Acotouap0 x..0::0E0_0v 30:0 100002020050 3.05:3 5 £0053. :00 20.03300 00:050m.m5_030i “00005020030 335:3 .0“. 330.0 .6208... @5559”; “_:0200:00 300:0003 @5000: _0._p0E0: 5. 3320 .5009. m5E>o$ Acotooap0 >:0..:0E0_0v @5000: 530... 35000» @5100: 03.: :00 ”0320 :0E... @5030:— £23,... 3:00:00»? x3 ”05.2200 00.2020... 0.32-553: 0,: u.0 954.com Nm 033 xcom 21.. o n on _ m N... N 0 mN N N 0N m. m NN N n... n “v E , a” 1L NV .v 3 m Wmmwm .0— ON MN mN NN 0N 32000.00 03033. 3 30.500 3300:0903. 0: 03.30 0. 0330 0: 038300 0.03:. 0.53:. 0: 03:300 :0.30axm. (.0 :020050 .0.00m .0:0..000> .0200203. .0:0..08m. .0:0..08m 1:500:92...— . {30:0 (mo 0003‘ 00:82:00.0,“raw...~ 030». “023.30 :0..0‘0:00 b.::8800 :0... 588:... 0:0 mm:.:0>0 :0a0 3.5083. —N *0 0m0 0.... 0. a: {:03 :0 :0. 3:03:00 .0:0..000> 3.0303. $0.0:0m0 35::8800‘ 00....0 0...: 3 :020800000 :. 30:00:00 3030820. to...“ 000... 3 50:... 30:00:00 39.033800 .0 3.0503 .0883 3.532% 30:0 00.33008 .0 x. .93.:0 5 0.00.0380 080:. 0.050.000 b.::8800|_00..0u_ 3.00% 0 95030.5 30:00:00. 3000:0003 com .. ooN h.0 000. 3:03:00 0 0.9.098 :0. 300300... 3:03:00. 000:0ax0 3.0305 30:00:00 3030820. :0:0_.:0 00m030>00£0 3.0.5::0 :0“. 8050:: 5.3900540... 0 3.00:0 b3...0.< N— I o— :5. 151 o 2 mm am 2 0.02:; :8.me .080; .0 89: A @5380. .0: 00.250 vmm0.c0>00¢.=0 .0» 335005 .0; 00.; 9.2.305 m— m 2 mm on m: 0.03:. .4003}; ._ .mEo; .0 80:. 9:380. .0: c9320 vmmoEozuoflv .om 850:3 .0... 00... 95030.; D m N_ mm mm m_ 0.035 _oco:000> 7.0200300 fovcoummv o 0005 .3030 .0 6050.0 @5553 6.0.00 b29298 c0 actmto @— m v _ om 9‘ m: 0.02:.— _0co:000> Acotouavm bovcoummv 2:003: 0>0£0 0:0 mm0.0>0 .om 0.0.00.0 >03.mlx.0>> 0 E mmocmtmaxo v_.0>> 39:0 9.10:0 30830533 _000_ 5:3 9.2.0.3000 c_ m— m 9 mm om 2 0.02:.— _00_9¢.E 30.000 0. £9.30. 5:; . 30:05:60.0 30330 .8 mc_mc0..< 3 N 0 mm mm 2 0.0330 _0co_.000> , .910... .30. 9.5ch 0 .0. 2300 m Nu G 0% w: mcaox 9.: 50:0. 0. 9.3.0; .mm_ucmm0 m. . w .m gum N EEDEEOU .mfo its cotoaaooo c. m— mmmBmmBU 0309.3. .3 007.0096 {26.0 . 33:94 v7.0”. 2.0.50 3:0 coamm o 00:00: 0 00% m . . O. 0 N. «x Q «L .— < 82:80.58 2%. 152 N o— N m— o o 3 ON w u. .. “.0 mV 9 £800 :53 VNQ ON : samw ..¢...~ 0.2.0930 0mcoam0m >3 32030 30000090”. 0.030. .000_.000> «00:00:70 52000.22 m0_0.00000 00.0; .2 8002.098 520.298 92.0me NN 0.030. .000:000> .0230300 52000.22 to 3:532 E 8002.098 520.298 m0_.0&0 _N 0.030. _0co:000> A00200300 50000002 2.0.0000 0c: 0_ 000 50.3: 0:. cm m0 :03. $0002.098 4.03 30:09.5 9,030.0 0N 0.030300 _0200__0.0_ “00:00:00 52000.22 00.320 :0 .0“. E0505 00t0m.000_v_|0.a 0 m0_.0._.._O @— 023096 {30.0 5_>.t0< v.00~_ <00 00:00.5 <00 809.4 82.20058 2%. 153 different aspects of growth. 10 Respondents viewed most favorably those activities empha- sizing the intellectual aspect of growth. The first three activities concerned intellectual growth and the only one not receiving a high rating was "offering a pre-kindergarten program for all children." The assigning of the intellec- tual aspect of growth to this activity can perhaps be ques- tioned, and the designation of social growth might have been more accurate. Also viewed with approval by the respondents were the four activities concerned with emotional growth, ranking h, 5, 8, and 9. The only activity emphasizing social growth was 12th in respondents' preference, making no generalization about these types of activities possible. All three of the activities concerned with physical growth ranked below average in the estimation of the respondents: 1h, 17, and 18° The respondents' lack of approval for vocational education was again revealed. Of the eight activities emphasizing the vocational aspect of growth, six were in the lower half, and three of these ranked the very lowest, 20, 21, and 22. These findings produce contradictory evidence as to the re- ceptivity of public school educators to new ideas. Activi— ties emphasizing the emotional aspect of growth are new responsibilities and were Judged favorably, yet those which were concerned with the physical aspect of growth are also 15h new, but were not looked upon with approval. 7. These results do not support the view that traditional responsibilities are accepted by public school educators. Intellectual and vocational activities have both long been public school responsibilites, but the former were approved by respondents and the latter were not. 8. One is struck by the similarities by the top three rated activities. All of them (a) were concerned with intel- lectual growth, (b) were inward expansions of the public schools, and (c) were concerned with a lower pupil-teacher ratio. 9. As a group, the four activities concerning school counsel- ing were viewed favorably, ranking h, S, 8, and 11. Yet, the support for these activities was not uniform among the respondents, as an examination of the chapters dealing with the results reveals (counseling activities were discussed in three different chapters, starting on pages 73, 97, and 119). All four activities were rated highest by adminis— trators; the substantial amount of difference was shown when the average of the imperative responses were compared: hl.3% for administrators as compared to 26.5% for secondary teachers, and 25% for elementary teachers. Direction of Expansion Sixteen of the 22 activities represented inward expansions of the schools' activities. The three representing downward expansion (ranking 7, 10, and 13), and those exemplifying an outward expansion (ranking ll, 12, and 13), on the whole, can be considered about average 155 in the estimation of the respondents. Because of the preponderance of the activities of inward expansion, there was not sufficient data on which to generalize. It did seem, however, that there was no marked opposition to the expansion of the public schools in either an outward or downward direction. Implications While the respondents generally approved of the 22 selected i ” activities, an unmistakable priority was given to smaller classes and to a lower teacher-pupil ratio. Educators con- templating change must take this into account, and when It." lunamtm-imntua. 4 drug: - innovations are not reconciled with these Opinions, reac— tions from non-involvement, at best, to active resistance, at worst, can be expected. As it is presently constituted, the report of the Commission on Imperatives in Education is not a guide for curricular change. The hundreds of recommended activities are far too numerous for any school system to adopt, and yet no priori- ties are assigned to them, nor “re criteria presented for the designating of priorities- Teachers and administrators do not accept activities of vocational education for public schools. With this clear and strong disapproval, it is difficult to see how a pro- gram of vocational education can be conducted within the structure of the "comprehensive high school " A re-exami- nation of the concept of separate vocational secondary schools appears to be warranted. 156 Areas for Further Research In this study, several vital questions have been raised and left unanswered; these would provide fruitful topics for further investigation. They were: 10 To examine the opinions of members of boards of educa- tion, university professors, and lay leaders, to deter- mine to what extent their views coincide with those of teachers and administrators. To compare the educational opinions of the different subject matter teachers within the secondary schools, i.e., mathematics and social studies teachers. To compare the educational opinions of the different grade level teachers within elementary schools. To determine the educational opinions of students in education at various stages of preparation (under— graduate, master's, and doctoral) and compare these Opinions with those Of experienced teachers and admin— istrators. To examine more precisely the divergence of Opinions revealed between teachers and administrators. Selected Bibliography Books American Association of School Administrators. Imperatives in Education. Commission on Imperatives in Education. Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Administrators, I966. I80 pp. Barnes, Fred P. Research for the Practitioner in Education. Department of Elementary School PrincipaTs, National Education Association. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, I964. ”I pp. Barr, Arvil S. , Davis, Robert A. and Johnson, Palmer 0. Educational Research and Appraisal. New York: J .B. Lippincott Co. , I953. 362 pp. Bloom, Beniamin 5. Stability and Change in Human Characteristics. New York: ' John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , IW. 237 pp. Bloom, Beniamin S. , Davison, Allison and Hess, Robert. Compensatory Education for Cultural Deprivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, lnc., I965. I79 pp. ”Cervantes, Lucius F. The Drapout: Causes and Cures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, I965. 244 pp. Committee of College and University Examiners. Texonomy of Educational Objectives. The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co. , lnc., I956. 207 pp. Conant, James Bryant. Shaping Educational Policy. New York: McGraw- Hill, I964. I39 pp. ‘ Conant, James B. Slums and Suburbs. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. , Inc., I96I. I28 pp. Conant, James B. The American High School Today. New York: McGraw- Hill Book Co., Inc., I96I. I'M pp, Cremin, Lawrence A. The Genius of American Education. New York: Random House, Inc., I965. II6 pp. Cremin, Lawrence A. The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education. New York: Alfred A. KnoPE, I96}. 35Tpp. 157 1'38 (Books) Good, Carter V. Introduction to Educational Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., T9759. 495 pp. Griffiths, Daniel E. Administrative Theory. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc. , I959. I28 pp. Gross, Neal. Who Runs Our Schools? New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, Inc. , I95 8. I95 pp. Harrington, Michael. The Other America: Poverty in the United States. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1962-64. I86 pp. Hechinger, Fred. The Big Red Schoolhouse. Garden City, New York: Doubleday 8 Co. , I959-62. 288 pp. Kelley, Earl C. In Defense of Youth. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-3H0" Inc., I962. I45 pp. Lieberman, Myron. The Future of Public Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I960. 29[ pp. Michael, Donald N. I The Next Generation: The Prospects Ahead for the Youth of Today and Tomorrow. New York: Randomj-Iouse, Inc. , I963-65. 2I8 pp. Miles, Matthew B. (ed.) Innovations in Education. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, I964. 689 pp. National Education Association. Deciding What to Teach. Proiecton the Instructional Program of the PUEIIC Schoors. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, I963. 264 pp. National Education Association. Education In a Changing Society. Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, I963. I66 pp. National Education Association. Innovations for Time to Teach. Washington, D.C.: Proiect Time to Teach, Department ofTIassroom Teachers, I966. I47 pp. National Education Association. No Room at the Bottom. Automation and the Reluctant Learner. Edited by GoodwinWatson. Project on the Educational Implications of Automation. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, I963. I02 pp. 159 (Books) National Education Association. Planning and Organizing for Teaching. Project on the Instructional—Program of the PuBTic Schoofs. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, I963. I90 pp. National Education Association. Schools for the—Sixties. A Report on the Project on Instruction. New Yoflc McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. , I963. I46 pp. Sexton, Patricia Cayo. Education and Income. New York: Viking Press, Inc., I96I-64. 298 pp. The World Almanac and Book of Facts for I966. Edited by Luman H. Long. New York: New York World Telegram on the Sun, I966. 896 pp. Travers, Robert M.W. An Introduction to Educational Research. New York: The Macmillan Co., I958. 446 pp. Trump, J. Lloyd and Baynham, Dorsey. Focus on Change. Guide to Better Schools. Chicago: Rand McNally 8: Co. , I98I33. I47 pp. Van Dalen, Deobold. Understanding Educational Research: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-ka Co., Inc., I962. 432 pp. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. College Edition. New YOW: The Wofld PUbIEI‘IlI‘IQ (3., 2957-64. 728 pp. 160 ’ Articles in Books, Encyc|0pedias, and Periodicals Alberty, Harold. "Designing Programs to Meet the Common Needs of Youth. " Adopting the Secondary School Programs to the Needs of Youth. FiTty-second Yearbook of the National 80ciety fBr the Study of Education. Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I953. pp. II8-40. Arnold, Walter M. " Developing a Total, Balanced Program of Vocational and Technical Education ." The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, May, T965. pp. l42-I53. Barr, A.S. "Research Methods." Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Edited by Chester W. Harris. New Yoflc The Macmillan C7). , I960. pp. ”60:65. U Brink, William G. "Secondary Education--Programs." Encyclgpedia of Educational Research. Edited by Chester W. Harris. New Yfik: The Macmillan Co., I960. pp. I259-70. Byerly, Carl L. "A School Curriculum for Prevention and Remediation of Deviancy. " Social Deviancy Among Youth. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for IHeTIudy of Education. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I966. pp. 22I-257. Carlson, Richard O. "Environmental Constraints and Organizational Consequences: The Public School and its Clients." Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. Sixty-fourth Yearbocfl< of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I965. pp. 262-276. Chase, Francis F. "School Change in Perspective." The Changing American School. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the Nationachiety for the Study 0 Education. Part II. Chicagfi: University of Chicago Press, I966. pp. 27I-306. ‘ ' Cloward, Richard A. and Jones, James A. "Social Class: Educational Attitudes and Participation ." Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by ’ A. Harry Passow. New York: Teachers College Press, I963. pp. I90-2I6. Dill, William R. "Decision-Making." Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. Sixty-third Yearbook of the—National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I964. pp. I99-222. 161 (Articles in Books, Encyclopedias and Periodicals) Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators. "Universal Opportunity for Early Childhood Education." NEA Journal, Vol. 55, No. 8 (November, I966). pp. 8-I0. Freedman, Marcia K. "Background of Deviancy." Social Deviancy Among Youth. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Eaucation. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I96$j pp. 28-58. Ginzberg, Eli. "Social and Economic Trends." Vocational Education. Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I965. pp. I9-38. Glaser, Robert. "Implications of Training Research for Education." Theories of Learning Instruction. Sixty-third Yearbook of the National Society for thefiudy of Education. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I964. pp. I53-I8I. Goodlad, John I. "Individual Differences and Vertical Organization of the School." Individualizing Instruction. Sixty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I962. pp. 209-38. Havighurst, Robert J . "Social Deviancy Among Youth: Types and Significance.‘ Social Deviancy Among Youth. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the: t. at . :' Society for the Stde of Education. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I966. pp 59-77. Havighurst, Robert J . "Urban DeveIOpment and the Educational System." Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by A. Harry Passow. New York: Teachers College Press, I963. pp. 24-45. Herrick, Virgil E. "Elementary Education--Programs."‘.EncycI0pedia of Educational Research. Edited by Chester W. Harris. New York: The Macmillan Co., I960. pp. 430-110. Keller, Franklin J. "Vocational and Educational Guidance." Vocational Education. Sixty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part I. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education, I965. pp. I35-I67. --i62, (Articles in Books, Encyclopedias and Periodicals) Marburger, Carl L. "Considerations for Educational Planning."I Education In Depressed Areas. Edited by A. Harry Passow. New York: Ieachers Célle'ge Press,W3. pp. 298-32I . Marburger, Carl L. “School-Community Relations and Molodjusted Youth.“ Social Deviancy Among Vomit. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Sciary for the Study ofiaa’canon. Part I. Chicago: National SOciety for the Study of Education, I966. pp. 258-79. National Association of Secondary School Principals. "The Imperative Needs of Youth of Secondary School Age." Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principcfls, 3I:I45, Wrch, I947. pp.—8 - I64. Ostrom, Vincent. "Education and Politics." Social Forces Influencing American Education. Sixtieth Yearbook oflhe National Society for the Study 07 Education. Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I96I. pp. 8-45. ‘ ‘ Passow, A. Harry. "Education in Depressed Areas." Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by A. Harry Passow. New York: Teach—ers Col ege Press, I963. pp. 332-5I. Ravitz, Mel. "The Role of the School in the Urban Setting. " Education in Depressed Areas. Edited by A. Harry Passow. New Yor : eac ers College Press,j963. pp. 6n23. Robinson, Donald W. "How Sinister Is the Educational Establishment?" Saturday Review, January I6, I965. pp. 56-58. Schreiber, Daniel. "Work-Experience Programs." Social Deviancy Among Youth . Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the sway” of Eaucation. Partl. Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education,~ I966. pp. 280-3I‘4. - ' ‘ - Spaulding, Jean. "Universal Education for Four-Year-Olds? I Favor It." NEA Journal. Vol. 55, No. 8 (November, I966). p. II. Sprinthall, Norman A. and Tiedeman, David V. "Guidance and the Pupil." The Changing American School. Sixty-fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I966. pp. 59'83. “The Gownunity Schch--Past and Present. " The Communi .6. """""" (Articles in Books, Encyolmdlot and Periodicals) " sIIIeI. Lindley I. "Who Spedufor “Icahn?" Nations Schools, 67. (May, I96I). pp. 65-69. Aininistration. Vol. II, No. 4(Decem er, ‘. pp... "Vcczigonal Education: For One and All. " Education USA Wanna ' ._ pMonitor WOShlmhn, D C.: N'flm , _ . C ; , :1" m: October I3, I,“ p. 4i. ' fiblsh, John Patrick and Selden, William. “vocational Education in the , Secondary School. " Vocational Education. Sixty-fourth Yearboll , oi the National Society 5 If; Stuay of Education. , Part I. Chicago National Society for the Study oi Education, i965. pp. 88434 .- Wilhelms, Fred T. "V000ti0nal Education--tht are the Big Questions." ' . , ' The Bulletin of the National Association of Seoonrbry School Principals, ‘ Yr PP I Withey, Stephen 8. "Survey Research Methods. " Encyclqndla 07 Educational Research. Editodby Choctaw. Harris. New York: TheMcomt'lloo Co. ., I960. pp. l447-52. Schooland III . - J. ' v ‘ - ’ l ‘ 3175’?“ L ._‘ '4‘» ‘ . . A .p u. . .’ -r y-- r A. . r o" ‘ . i , ,... ~ l _ In .. I. ‘ s ‘ , . ... _ .. l I. '7‘.- ..‘ . . L. "s l '1 - V - t- I' . . - u , ' I' l jg? if, '.~‘ 6 ' '15.: -. '- ~q-.‘. on ‘ '_.' I .v : -‘ 4 :1 e " a _ _ . _. ' I8 ‘ "‘~ ‘ I. ‘ .U . ,e , ' ‘ ‘. . ‘t‘ ‘ _ s 'l ‘ ~‘ ~ 5 . .- .“l, .' I . ’5 _' .l.‘ ' 0 . . I , ,_ ' ‘ ‘4' . . 5- 7 I _ 1" .. n-_' , '_. .‘n‘w‘ ' '. ~_. .I 1‘ ._._\ u' y. r "‘l',"" ‘-.74 ~ ~,-' I ‘ I,. P . . _ I. A .0 II-' b.1- ' 7.. e -. ‘ ' I . l .‘ll _ -' ~_e,r \ ‘p I ,‘ "1- '- T". It: '. .. .‘ I V I... " I. It 'I-- - h 'I . “1”- .'V,._: ..-.._ ’ . e . e I. _ I “.- kr' "'I 4*: i "\ I \ -' ‘ , -' \ -...._ r‘ l ‘ _: s I l . .7 s «" ' J .j A ,.' p r. ,_ A- ... ' l I I ", 1! , I ‘g‘ . I . .- I ‘ ,I e 4. 161i Pamphlets, Government Publications and Unpublished Materials American Association of School Administrators. Federal PolicLirn the Public Schools. Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Administrators, October I966. 46 pp. I Green, Donald Ross, Jordan, James A. ,‘ Bridgeman, W.J. and Brittolh. Clay V. Black Belt Schools: Beyond Desegregation. Atlanta: Southern RegIonal Council, November, I963. 40 pp. Kruger, Daniel H. "The Teacher in the Decision Making Precess." September, I966. 35 pp. (Mimeographed.) Mackintosh, Helen K., Core, Lillian and Lewis, Gertrude M. Educating Disadvantaged Children in the Middle Grades. U.S. Dept. of . Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Disadvantaged Children Series No. 3. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educational Research and DeveIOpment, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, I965. 47 pp. Mackintosh, Helen K., Core, Lillian and Lewis, Gertrude M. Educating Disadvantaged Children Under Six. Disadvantaged Children Series No. T: Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Educational Research and DeveIOpment, U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, I965. 26 pp. McClusky, Howard Y. Adult Education Schooling and the Learning Society. February 4, I965. (Mimeographed.) National Education Association and American Association of School Administrators. Education and the Disadvantaged Ame-icon. The Educational Policies Commission. Wshington, D.C.: National Education Association, I962. 39 pp. National Education-Association and the American Association of School Adminis- trators. Educational Responsibilities of the Federal Government. The Educational Policies CBmmission. Washington, D.C.: NationE Education Association, I964. 30 pp. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare. Implications for Elementary Education. Followup on the I960 White House Conference on Chfidren and Youth by the Elementary School Section Division of State and Local Schools. Office of Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, I96]. 42 pp. U.S Dept.of Health, Education and Welfare. The First Work of These Times. Report to the PeOple on Education. Office oflrducation. Washington, D.C.: TSD—ept. of Health, Education and Welfare, I965. 64 pp. Appendix A Members of the Commission on Imperatives in Education Shirley COOper, Chairman Director of lnservice Education American Association of School Administrators Washington , D. C. John S. Cartwright Professor of Education Lehigh University Bethlehem, Pennsylvania George H. Deer, Dean The Junior Division ‘ Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana Herbert W. Schooling, Dean College of Education University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri Clarence Senior, Member Board of Education of the City of New York Brooklyn, New York Howard C. Seymour, Superintendent Union High School System Phoenix, Arizona Allen H. Wetter Retired Superintendent of Schools Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Special Contributor to the Report: Gordon l. SWanson Professor of Education University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota 167 166 Appendix B Superintendents of the five Michigan school systems and principals of the twenty -one schools which cooperated in the study Dea rborn Roy Cole, Superintendent Haigh Elementary School Delbert Loranger, Principal Long Elementary School Harry C. Francis, Principal O.L. Smith Junior High School Fred Schreiber, Principal Fordson High School Harvey A. Failor, Principal Flint William Early, Superintendent Cody Community School Mary (3. Callahan, Principal Martin Community School Lawrence H. Cunningham, Principal Zimmerman Junior High School Melford H. Ruud, Principal Central High School John Kouzouiian, Principal Grand Rapids Jay L. Pylman, Superintendent Aberdeen Elementary School Martha Bowles, Principal Sigsbee Elementary School Richard Bandy, Principal Harrison Park Junior High School John Bruinsma, Principal Central High School Romulus Romani, Principal Lansing William R. Manning, 'fl :perintendent Bingham Elementary School Hazel Trebilcock, Principal Mount Hope Elementary School Margaret Knapp, Principal . Walter French Junior High School Frank Throop, Principal Eastern High School Donald F. Johnson, Principal Saginaw Charles Coulter, Superintendent Baillie Elementary School Zeph Phillips, Principal Fuerbringer School Zepha Guilford, Principal Stone Elementary School A Bernice Arnold, Principal Webber Junior High School Dwight Stevens, Principal Arthur Hill Senior High School Harold W. Giesecke, Principal 167 Appendix C Draft of Professor Clyde Campbell's letter to the five superintendents of schools Mr. William Lee, one of our Mott Interns, is working on a dissertation involving interviewing with superintendents of schools, some other selected administrative persons and a limited number of teachers. He would like to be in your community on (date). The maximum time with any one person is 26minutes and probably will be 15 minutes in length. I shall have Mr. Lee confirm this date if it meets with your approval. We will be glad to send you a resume of our findings. It relates to the roles that these different pe0ple see in relation to alleged imperatives in education today. | h0pe you can help Mr. Lee with his study. Cordially yours, Clyde Campbell Professor of Education Michigan State University CMCzya .. 168 Appendix D Form on which answers were recorded by the investigator City 13. 0 0 0 00 School A 14. 0 0 0 0 0 Name 15. 0 0 0 00 Position 16. 0 0 0 0 0 Degree l7. 0 0 00 0 Total Years in Education 18. 0 0 0 O 0 .2 19. 0 0 0 0 0 .Q Q) 2 0.1, .2'32:§-8 20.00000 EEO-8 =36. V m 5.5 E 0 1.00000 22.00000 23.00000 N O O O . O O 24.00000 (10 O O O O 0 4.00000 25.00000 5.00000 25.00000 5.00000 27.00000 7.00000 28.00000 8.00000 29.00000 9.00000 30.00000 10.00000 31.00000 11.00000 32.00000 12.00000 33.00000 34.00000 169 Appendix E Draft of letter to the five superintendents of schools from the investigator after interviews were held l wish to express "to you my appreciation for the arrangements that you made to interview administrators and teachers in your public schools. In all instances, I found them cooperative and their remarks were most helpful. Thank you so much for your many courtesies. Sincerely, William B. Lee WBL.:aa 170 Appendix F Draft of letter to the twenty-one principals from the investigator after interviews were held I am very appreciative of your making arrangements for me to interview you and your teachers last Monday. I enjoyed visiting your school and talking with the staff. I am, indeed, grateful for the friendly cooPeration which I received. Thank you again. Sincerely, William B. Lee WBLsaa RIES "1111111111lllllllllll“‘