° . ' - I ’ - I r h “v _' ‘ \ .b—oo ,: -M‘ ‘ --.;;:;00Wa-c-v«;oo.co9uo w—V “ —= $ - - - ‘
- = " ' T ' ' ' ' ' qfi'bflflémfldfl‘ry‘ ""“‘””‘W‘ h?"%“'”. ' - e i-
r HaggaitetsmWSfifiWI-r- _ - - . . . .
I. ‘. ' ‘ - - . I

E
o:
2‘
I"
2

.0
*2
‘-

POLICEWOMAN:
, THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF HER ROLE IN THE
4 UNITED STATES

3 I Thesis for the Degree of M. S.’
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
PATRICIA I=. HARRIS

1967

 

1 VLLAVVLJLL,
E .

 

 

5W8-

(jam 2 552%5 5 5 7 LAW

‘0“

 

 

 

 

 

 

POLICEWOMAN:

T :35 H: u TORI CAL TIVOL U

'TI ON OF H3R ROLE
IN THE UIHI 3D ST

ATSS
By

Patricia F. Harris

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIBECE
School of Police Administration and Public Safety

1967

3,] :/

W .
APPROVED¢5I£ ,IlI (Hi3 H‘Wé/
Raymond T. uaTv1n (oneirman) '

7mm“,

(MemberV

é’flmfltm )1 ELK/(Z:

(Member)r

 

ABSTRACT

POLICEWOMAN: THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF HER
ROLE IN THE UNITED STATES

by Patricia F. Harris

This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that there has
been a basic change in the role of policewomen over the years, her work
which was once mainly preventive - protective, has expanded to include
all phases of law enforcement.

In order to test the hypothesis, a Model was developed. This
was based on several factors deemed important in determining her role.

The factors chosen included: Function and Duties, Organization, Promotional
Opportunity, Numbers, Training and Entrance Requirements. The Model

served as an ideal - type against which the historical and modern concepts
might be measured. These concepts are based on the policewoman's role

as presented and reflected in the literature.

Finally, several case studies were undertaken, in order to compare
the Model with existing reality. These consisted in personal interviews
with ranking officers in several large city police departments, undertaken
with the aid of a cover story.

The study verified the hypothesis insofar as it revealed definite
trends in the employment of policewomen, however, it failed to determine
conclusively if this was a basic change or merely a shift in emphasis.

The case studies revealed wide diversity and suggested that existing

practice often strays far from the ideal.

Patricia F. Harris

The results of the study are inconclusive because of the limited
sample and because of the complexity of subject matter involved. However,
it did emphasize the necessity for further study and research in these
and related areas. There is a definite need for more intensive acquisition
of knowledge regarding the use of the policewoman in order that the full

potential of her contribution will be realized.

POLICEITor-IAN :
THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION or T133 ROLE
IN THE UNITED “11:0

By.

Patricia F. Harris

A THESIS

Submitted to
the College of Social Science
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTLR OF SCIENCE

1967

Brennan.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to the memory of the late Dr. James

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Professor Raymond T. Galvin for his kind
direction and advice, and my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Philip H. Harris for
their patient encouragement. Sincere appreciation also, to those generous
friends whose support and assistance helped make the completion of this

project a reality.

iii

TABLE F CON

I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF T

Basic Background .

The PrOblem o o o

11"“) n
4. lb“ TD

"a" )n
214 4'1

Statement of the problem

Hypothesis . .
Methods . . .

Limitations . .

Importance of the study and

Definition of Terms Used .

Policewoman . .
Fiat ron o o 0
Model . . . .

Basic Concepts .

Initial or historical concept

Present day or modern concept

S USED

justification

Organization of Remainder of Thesis

II 0 A IIIODJI O O O 0 O 0

Some Functions And Qualities of M dels

Model: Basic Assumptions And Explanation

Functions and Duties .

Organizational Structure

Promotional Opportunity .

Numbers,Training and Education

PAGE

()OOOOOOO\]U1$'-P\N\N

@000

10
10
13
15
l7
l9
l9

CHAPTER PAGE

The Policewoman: A Model Construct . . . . . 20
III. A REVIEJ OF TEL LIES KTURE . . . . . . . . . 26
Historical Era . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Entrance Period (1845-1909). . . . . . . 27
Pioneer Period (1910—1925) . . . . . . . 31
Modern Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Transitional Period (1926-1945) . . . . . 44
Modern Period (l9A6-1967) . . . . . . . 56
IV. METHODS AND PROCEDJRJS . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
V. FOUR PROFILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O
; Profile of City A . . . . . . . . . . . 70
A Profile of City B . . . . . . . . . . . 75
\ Profile of City C . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Profile of City D . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
VI. ANALYSIS OF DATA, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . 91
Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . 91

‘ Historical Concept, Modern Concept and Model
Construct . . . . . . . . . . . 91

1 Highlights of the Profiles in Comparison With
} the Model . . . . . . . . . . . 94
E Summary And Conclusions . . . . . . . . . 99
E Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
k The Need for Further Research . . . . . . 101

k ConClUSionS o o o o o o o o o o o o 101

CHAPTER PAGE
APPL‘IQDIX .I C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 103
APPEDIX II 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 110

BIBLIOCZRAPHY . O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O 111

FIGURE

Chm-PW

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11+
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . l6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED

In view of the rising crime rate in the United States, the
greater complexity of our society in general, the intricate and far
reaching Supreme Court decisions, and last but not any less influential--
the increasing, if often unfounded criticism of police, it becomes
obligatory for police administrators to be alert to all new develop-
ments in science, technology or other fields, which might aid them in
their most difficult job. In addition, it is equally important that they
constantly review and re-evaluate the resources already at their disposal
in order that they may make most effective use of them. They cannot
afford to waste or underestimate any of the potential which already
exists in their organizations.

It is especially in consideration of the latter point that the
writing of this paper is undertaken, because the "resource" or "potential"
we wish to discuss already exists in many departments, and in almost all
of the larger departments. Yet, the degree to which the resource is
understood or fully utilized is open to question.

The "resource" to which we refer, and upon which we will focus
is-the policewoman. Despite the‘ggg§,of her existence for more than
fifty years, standardization or general agreement as to her utilization
seems to elude us. It is in the hepes of clarifying or re—clarifying
some of the areas of accord and dissension, and gathering together

widely scattered bits of information concerning her use that we proceed.

The philosophy and purpose in employing people to guarantee
security to the individual and the community should include every
available human resource. The evolution of the social and legal
problems of today provoke serious consideration and invite, if not
outright demand, the services of policewomen. The police woman [Sic]
is no stranger to law enforcement or police work, and historically
her role has enjoyed a wide acceptance and growth in certain progres-
sive departments. The future holds even greater promise, evidenced
by the expanded use of policewomen in some geographical locations.
[Sid] Not only in the iraditional assignments but in practically
all police activities.

I. BASIC BACKGROUND

Since gaining,£hancipation, women have entered into almost every
field imaginable. They have left few horizons uncrossed and there are
few occupations which have not found their special talents an invaluable
asset when utilized preperly. To the surprise of many, one of the first
--if seemingly unlikely--a11 male fields entered by women was that of law
enforcement.

Their first entrance into this field came as a result of the
realization that women prisoners could be most adequately and properly
cared for by other women. Many women's and child protective organizer
tions worked for this goal, one of the most active being the Women's
Christian Temperance Union. Thus, women first entered the field of law
enforcement in the auxiliary position of police matron. The earliest
appointments apparently occurred as early as 18h5 in New York City.

More appointments were made in the 1870's and 1880's. By 1890 most of
the major cities in the United States, including Boston, Chicago,

Baltimore, St. Louis, Detroit and Cleveland, to name a few, had entered

 

1"The Role of Policewomen in Law Enforcement" (unpublished
report in preparation for a workshop on Policewomen, International
Association of Chiefs of Police, 1965), p. l.

the movement.2

It was not long before the idea of giving a woman regular police
powers and the special assignment of the protection of women and children
was conceived. Although the first officially recognized or "regularly
rated" position was not established until 1910 when Alice Stebbins Wells
was appointed to the Los Angeles Police Department, there are on record
several instances of women holding similar positions before this time.
The earliest record of such an event dates to 1893 when Mrs. Marie Owen,
a Chicago patrolman's widow was employed by the police department and
was carried on department roles as a "patrolman". The policewoman move-
ment began then, in the early 1900's and has continued to the present.3

One more thing should be noted before the problem is presented.
There is sometimes confusion as to the duties of policewomen and police
matrons. At various times, even to the present, policewomen have been
called upon to perform the function of matrons, and sometimes matrons

have been enlisted in jobs that rightfully should be undertaken by

policewomen.
II. THE PROBLEM

Statement,g£ the problem. In spite of the early entrance women
made into law enforcement, and in Spite of the general lack of surprise

with which such a career is accepted today--many questions lie unanswered.

 

ZChloe Owings, Women Police: A Study_ of the Development and
Status of the Women Police Movement (New York: Frederick H. Hitchcock,

19255 . pp.-9'3-99.

3Ibid., pp. 99-102.

For instance: How well and consistently has woman's role within this
predominantly masculine field actually been defined? Has there been any
change in the concept of her role over the years? Was the policewoman
of earlier days able but unlikely to be called upon to perform certain
duties that are now accepted as routine assignments? If any changes have
occurred, are they generally accepted, ignored, or rejected by police
administrators?

Hypothesis. The specific hypothesis being preposed is that the
concept of the policewoman in municipal law enforcement in the United
States has undergone some changes from her initial appointment and
pioneer period to the present. In short, her role has expanded or be-
come more flexible.

To clarify this further, the writer contends:

1. That the policewoman's place in law enforcement, which was
once seen as almost exclusively protective-preventive work with women
and children, has expanded. It now includes almost all phases of law
enforcement activity, where she may be used to complement, but not to
replace, men.

2. That the concept of her role has shifted gradually from one
of a social worker in an authoritarian setting to one of a law enforce-
ment officer who is cognizant of the social work point of view, but not
completely dominated by it.

3. In addition, several case studies will be made. Through
these, an attempt will be made to ascertain the degree to which police
administrators have accepted the modern concept.

Methods. Approaches used in attempting to test the validity
of the hypothesis include the following: development of a generally

acceptable model construct of the policewoman's role as it exists or

5

should exist today; a detailed consideration of the initial concept as set
forth by early writings; comparison of the two concepts and exploration

of any changes that may have occurred over the years; and finally, a
limited study to indicate trends in the acceptance of the model construct

in reality. In assessing any changes which may have occurred, an attempt
will be made to further ascertain whether these are substantial and basic,
as our hypothesis indicates, or whether they are superficial, merely changes
in focus rather than in actual function or service.

In making the comparisons, it will be necessary to define the
elements to be included in the idea of basic concepts. The major elements
to be embodied in the basic concept are: 1) function and duties of police-
women, 2) organization patterns found in the employment of policewomen,
and 3) promotional opportunities available to policewomen. Supporting
elements which will also be considered are: 1) numbers of policewomen
employed, 2) recruit and in-service training received, and 3) entrance
requirements-with emphasis on education and age.

Limitations. The literature in print regarding policewomen is
not especially extensive.

0f the six major books on policewomen, three can be classified
as personal memoirs, one is a historical survey of the beginnings of the
policewoman's movement, and the other two center mainly on practical
methods and procedures to be used by policewomen.

The few articles in law enforcement periodicals are of narrower
focus and deal almost exclusively with a limited problem area or a
specific aspect of the work. Articles in popular magazines face a
similar problem of limited focus and superficiality due to their brevity
and to the fact that they are written mainly for laymen.

Very little of any of this literature deals with the subject

from the focus preposed here. This is a limitation in that there is no
readily available or proven framework from which to work, leaving the
present undertaking to be judged as it is presented. Realizing that little
can be validated in a single study, the present effort shall be confined

to indicating trends and possible solutions but will make no pretense at
rendering final, fully proven answers.

In trying to get an overall view of the policewoman's role in law
enforcement, it is impossible to go into great depth on individual factors.
For instance, lengthy dissertations could be written on such aspects as
entrance requirements or training alone. Thus, while from a comprehensive
viewpoint, a picture of greater depth emerges, from other standpoints the
presentation is superficial.

One of the greatest hinderances to any study of this type is the
lack of standardization which eiists. One evidence of this which has al-
ready been alluded to is the confusion which occurs in many areas regarding
utilization and duties of police matrons and policewomen. The complicating
factors introduced by the fact that various cities have adopted the use
of policewomen at different times, have used them differently, and have
often changed their organizational patterns over the years, is self evident.
Some of these hinderances may be lessening slightly today due to the in-
creased communication within the police field as evidenced by the existence
of professional organizations such as the International Association of
Chiefs of Police (IACP), International Association of Women Police, National
Police Officers Association, and others. Still, in view of the fact that
policewomen are probably less discussed than other tapics considered more
pressing, even this improvement loses impact.

Due to limited financial resources, and in order to simplify data

evaluation, the case studies will be confined to several large municipalities.

7

In addition to providing a basic unit of comparison, it was felt that this
emphasis would yield the most up-to-date and progressive data. The large
city is usually most versatile in its use of manpower due to the wide range
of behavior found in such areas, furthermore, it will be easier to scale
this information downward for applicability to the small department than

it would be to do the reverse. Again, it should be emphasized that the
function of the study under such conditions will necessarily be limited

to indicating current trends rather than to poll complete information on

all categories of cities.
III. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY AND JUSTIFICATION

The present problem is based on the relative absence of an in-
de :h probe of the role of the policewoman. The lack of what could be
termed a solid philisophical or theoretical understanding of this role
is a contributing factor in the failure to analyse or pinpoint any
changes that may have taken place. Furthermore, it encourages confusion
and prevents formation of any generally acceptable administrative policy.

None of the existing literature seems to fulfill the need the
writer has presented. Since women are already firmly established in the
field of law enforcement, it cannot be less than valuable to come to a
better understanding of their roles, so as to utilize available
resources most productively.

The study should have several important benefits, among them,
the correlation of existing information in the light of the present
problem, and clarification (to some degree) of administrative thinking
regarding the use of policewomen. Better understanding of the role of
the policewoman can contribute to wiser decisions as to the need for her

services in a particular jurisdiction and more effective decision-making

as to how she will be utilized.
Perhaps the most important benefit will be the encouragement of
further thought about,tnd inquiry into, this topic, ultimately leading to

fresh contributions to the field.
IV. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

Policewomen. A term used here to refer to sworn female employees

 

of a police department, (especially a municipal department, i.e. city,
town, or village), who have the same general law enforcement duties and
responsibilities as policemen. This then, excludes female employees of
such departments who perform exclusively as "meter maids," "crossing
guards" or matrons, or who serve the department in the capacity of
switchboard operators or office help.

The definition may apply, where specified, to women employed
by state police agencies. It will not, because of the diversified aims,
historical origins and growth patterns involved, refer to women serving
on county, fedeal, or other types of state law enforcement agencies.

M22522. As used here, this term refers to a female employee of
a police department whose main duties are to search, guard, escort, and
attend to the general needs of female prisoners.

In general, policewoman and matron are seen as two distinct
positions. However, as the reader has already been alerted, due to
historical intermingling of the positions and lack of administrative
acuity, the difference is not consistently clear out even today.

,flgflgio An abstraction or ideal; a reflection of reality. A
model may have predictive aspects, it is an aid to decision making when

it performs properly in making one see problems and possible solutions

more clearly. As one author has described it:
A model is an abstraction. It helps to describe the situation
under investigation, and in some sense duplicates it. Models help
in picking out those parts of a situation which seem to be most
important to the analyses. In a sen e, the model is an extension
and formalization of the hypothesis.

Basic Concepts. As could be expected, this refers to those ideas
chosen to underly and give unity to the model.

Initial pp historical concept. Used synonymously to refer to the
compendium of ideas that existed between 1900 and 1925 as to what the
policewoman was or should do.

Present day 25 modern concept. Terms used interchaqeably to
refer to the overall impression of what policewomen are or should be

today, may or may not conform to model construct presented. Chronologically

this will cover period from 1926-1967.

V. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THESIS

The remainder of the thesis includes five chapters.

Chapter II consists of the develOpment and presentation of a model
construct. Validation of the hypothesis will depend upon validation of
this model.

Chapter III is a review of the literature. Chronological sub-
divisions are utilized in order to more carefully trace evolvement of the
policewoman's role over the years. The historical and modern concepts

emerging as a result of this review provide one method of testing the

 

“Edward H. Bowman and Robert B. Fetter, Analysis for Production

Mgpggement (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 19ZI7, p. 29.

10
model.
Chapter VI contains additional analysis of the findings, summary

of this research suggestions for further study and concluding remarks.

CHAPTER II
A MODEL

It has already been established that a model is an abstraction
or a simplification of some phenomenon of the real world. The model to
be developed here will be a representation of the role of the policewoman
in the United States. Before going further into discussion of this
specific model, it is best to consider in a little more detail the

functions and qualities of models in general.
I. SOME FUNCTIONS AND QUALITIES 0F MODELS

"Models cannot replace the real world; at best they reduce a
complex system to manageable proportions or serve to chrystalize our
thoughts."1 A model should reflect reality; it may also be predictive.
Insofar as it aids in obtaining a keener insight into, or better grasp
of, a problem, it is an invaluable asset to the decision-making process.
However, if not seen in proper perspective, a model may lead to over-
simplification, either of the problem or of its solutions.

Some of the qualities of a model construct that should be
recognized and appreciated are noted here. Since a model is an
abstraction, it is more easily manipulated and studied than the real

world; on the other hand, because the abstraction must focus on major

 

1Claude McMillan and Richard F. Gonzalez, Systems Analysis:
A.Computer A roach to Decision Models (Homewood, Illinois: Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., 19 57: pp. 9-10.

12
points, a model is rigid in comparison with its real counterpart. The
flexibility of the real world here implied, is that which occurs as a
result of the infinite variations which occur in reality, but which cannot
be fully accounted for, or noted, in a model. For instance, being a
generalization, it cannot focus on the individualistic human factors which
effect each situation differently. It can and should be pointed out in
the development of the model that such factors exist, but they are too
intangible, changeable and particularistic to become a part of the model
itself.

The value of a model has been said to depend on its ability to
generalize and on its validity. "Models are neither true or [sié] false;
their value is judged by the contribution they make to our understanding
of the system they represent."2

The several purposes for which models may be used and for which
the present model is intended then may be summarized as: l) Obtaining
understanding and insight, 2) predicting behavior of an organization, and
3) prescribing manaygerial decisions.3

There are various types of models. The one to be presented here
is what many authors refer to as a schematic model#--that is a model

consisting of charts or diagrams of the phenomenon under consideration.

To assure proper interpretation, these will be supplemented by narrative

 

2Ibid., p. 7.

3Max D. Richards and Paul S. Greenlaw, Management Decision
flggipg,(flomewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1966), p. 68.

“Edward H. Bowman and Robert B. Fetter, Analysis for Production

Management (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D.Irwin, Inc., 1961), p. 29.

13
explanation and description.

One last thought before continuing. The aforementioned rigidity
of the model in comparison with the real world is a more serious limitation
than it would normally be because of the diversity of organizational
structure with which we are dealing. This construct is not confined to
one, large, centralized organization-~rather, it relates to a variety of
similar, but somewhat individualistic organizations. The writer will try
to alleviate this problem area by noting alternatives where these seem
necessary or practical, and when it is felt that they will not compromise
the integrity of the model as a whole.

In the final analysis, the practical applicability of this model,
if valid, depends upon the individual police administrator. It would be
up to him to adapt the ideas presented to his particular organization.

In other words, the ideal type offered here indicates where and how

policewomen can best be used-provided you have an imaginative and capable
administrator, exemplary policewomen, and an organization with well-known,
well-defined goals, where a variety of efficient ways are utilized to meet

these goals.
II. MODEL: BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND EXPLANATION

The basic elements which have been chosen to aid in interpretation
of the policewoman’s role, their importance and some of their inter-
relationships will now be discussed briefly. (See Figure 1, p. 1!.)

The division into major and minor or collateral spheres of
influence is based on the assumption that several of these elements--
namely functions and duties, promotional opportunities, and organizational
structure, are more readily indicative of the role pattern. The collateral

elements vitally effect and contribute to role pattern, but do so in a

ZUZO3MUZOn. m0 MJOM HI... 0Z_._..Uun_.._< nMOhuf ..

 

 

3:50 . . $35:st
oza A t

$207.02 Du J<ZO;<N_ 26.010
% 1
I
/

       

 

 

 

AnFszudicma muz<dez3

uo< oz<
zoidonom

 

 

 

 

WMUmZDZ

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ytzaxogo
44307520”:

 

 

 

 

mozuzndz. mush“: Q. I I l I III

U02w34u2_ kanxwdo I

15
less conspicuous manner. A discussion of these basic elements will form
the basis for the presentation of the Model Construct, the modern and the
historical concepts.

Functions And Duties p: Policewomen. This is necessarily one of
the major elements whch must be defined, understood and studied in order to
get an idea how broad or narrow the policewoman's role is. It is two-
faceted. The term function will refer to the policewoman's role insofar
as it is defined, determined or described by the division, squad, or bureau
to which she may be assigned. This will reflect possible specializations
of her role and the fact that different bureaus may have slightly different
focus or philosophy.

The term gppy will refer to general tasks as performed by all
members of the department, regardless of what unit or division they are
in. These cut across functional organizational lines and apply in a
basic sense to all officers.

For example, all officers, regardless of division, perform basic
tasks of arrest, interviewing, interrogating, and public relations. As
duties, these out across the framework of the entire department, however,
functionally, certain of these may be more emphasized according to division
or unit. When placed in a public relations unit, public relations becomes
the area of emphasis; in detective divisions the emphasis is more on
arrest; in juvenile divisions, prevention is stressed; in specialized
detective units, particular portions of the criminal law are most
vigorously enforced; the patrol force is concerned with enforcement of the
penal law in general. (See Figure 2, p. 16)

This leads to the inevitable question of generalist versus

specialist which will be dealt with in the Model Construct. A generalist

mm .50 oz< 020.522 .~

       

Ahosmmaosmv hung soaps: unwound oxm:

 
    

40m .5?—

msoHpmfiom hpflssssoo oowfiom

museums: chasm

Honors Hoaooom

muswmnnloo ebwooom

neoaeeaom oasoam

mamaaomom emu:

use areas noeeom corneas

wu0_>¢ww

_

>15 use: .3393 o
mummOanmch DSXD.‘ u>_P<M.rm_Z_ZQ< u D

 

. eodeHHebhom
aofibaoch

wsowvewaveebmH «summon

17
refers to one trained to do almost all aspects of the job, a Specialist
is one who concentrates on one particular aspect of the job.

Organizational Structure. The second element which influences
the policewoman's role is the organizational structure by which she is
incorporated into the individual department. In order to take into
account the fact that various departments are structured similarly, but
are different in detail, similarities will be extracted and emphasized
when Speaking of organization. (Figure 3, p. N3, gives the main
functional divisions of a large police department which will be utilized
for the remainder of this paper.)

In speaking of the study and understanding of organizational
structure, both the basic functional organization of the police depart-
ment and the organizational structure of policewomen are included. The
latter refers to how policewomen, in particular, are incorporated into
the department as a whole. They may be incorporated in a centralized or
a decentralized fashion. True centralization refers to a situation where
all the policewomen are assigned to a Women's Division. Another type of
complete centralization occurs when all the women are assigned to the
Juvenile Division. Both types of organizational structure may have a
,definite and individualistic influence on the extent of use of policewomen
by the various specialist divisions. Just as an example, a detective unit
might have more qualms about asking for an assist from someone in a
Juvenile Unit than they might in asking for an assist from a Women's
Division. Of course, ideally this should not occur. Furthermore, in a
different department, because of individual differences, the opposite
might occur. This is merely offered as a possible influence of a particular

type of centralization.

.525 zo_._.<~.z<o~_o.n<zo_roz:a 8:50: .n

 

4253 Son e

ua< .eoeesou .auoo ans
.ooouou nuns cornfiwaooam
.394 .eouou Heaven «ooh

 

 

honHan Hogdm

 

 

 

 

 

 

$5383 a. 35m 62 338933 .weaoaaom .3 r o no are: Hogans H83
lagevnH 3.3533 .3300 humans—um 3.935. 03 :59: use: eluodwwewwmfl mum” glaucoma: 3.3.99 «no.3.
than .wszpsec .3333 “innocuous a enonaen page}. Imem wade-«l 33.335. 83.0an «seaweed 30.3
locum a»: mugged amazon eolEo out. Unmanned eds—um hank—.623 emowuewwveebmH . lace Undo—hem a. caucus
nonH>Hn momenoo 203:3 :53. :03qu 05
moH> um mafimo ENszumo aoHedoHamm>zH jazHZHmo _ nonHan a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

._ I _

 

 

 

.emowaeaem 023:

Show .eomdmeusad: 573995 a age-em a gash

.nneghaom 51H elaao $5329 .«memunshoem

.nsoapeoasaesoo a. avaooem .Hegouhem .Unwaewdfln
mmBBmmm again: muogmflm gmaamHnHa

 

 

 

 

 

 

EEO

 

 

 

 

19

Complete decentralization would be characterized by the assignment
of women to the various functional Divisions and subdivisions of the de-
partment. There could also he a combination of centralized and decentra-
lized incorporation. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
form of organization?

Better knowledge of organization will continue clarifying the
functional role of the policewoman by giving a clearer picture of the
extent of her acceptance and utilization.

Promotional Qpportunity. The availability of promotional
Opportunity is also an indicator of the degree of acceptance which police-
women are given. In this category, we will consider both civil-service
and non-civil service positions. Rank is the term used to refer to civil
service positions, assignment will refer to non-civil service positions
such as detective. Where a high position is not civil service it will be
referred to as an appointive position.

Promotional opportunity should be based on merit and capability.
The existence of such opportunity aids in attracting career oriented persons
to the service and encourages those within the department to put forth
their best efforts in attempting to achieve such positions.

Numbers, Training, and Education. These elements effect the
policewoman's role pattern because they effect her ability, availability
and preparedness to perform various duties and functions within the depart-
ment. They may also affect her chances for promotion.

The numbers of policewomen utilized or hired seem to have about
the same effect on all three of the major elements.

Training is a term referring to technical police training, both

recruit and on-going or in-service training. Amount of training received

20
may effect how the policewoman is used and her promotional Opportunity.
Women not trained in specific areas, usually will not perform well in
those areas, even though they may have the innate capability to do so.

Education refers to pre-employnent courses in high school or
college, or any post-employment courses taken in an accredited college.
Education is most often spoken of in terms of being an entrance require-
ment, but should also be considered for its implications in on-going
"training" or education.

Both age, which is self-explanatory, and education, are con-
sidered here mainly as entrance requirements.

The importance of these collateral elements is more readily seen
when it is realized that the lack of any of the three could seveniy limit

the exploration of the policewoman's versatility in a department.

III. THE POLICEWOMAN: A MODEL CONSTRUCT

1. THE POLICEWOMAN IS A LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICER.

The policewoman is primarily a law enforcement officer, she has
the same powers, duties, and responsibilities as her male counterpart.
She must preserve the peace, protect life and property, enforce the law,
prevent crime and arrest violators of the law. She can, and in most
instances does, bring a social work viewpoint to law enforcement, but
social work is 22£_and should.ggt be considered a primary function.

This viewpoint can, however, result in a better understanding and
relationship between social workers and police. (See Figure #, p. 21)

2. THE POLICEWOMAN IS EMPLOYED TO ADD VERSATILITY TO THE
POLICE DEPARTMENT, TO COMPLEMENT NOT TO REPLACE MEN.

Policewomen, properly utilized, should add versatility and

balance to the police force. "Properly used" means that she should

FUDNEMZOU JUQOZ 4 rv.

 

[I41

>5. .4 .04

 

 

          
   

 

 

 

  

02¢ PEN—l
. zo oumdm .
_ rtzadoddo J<20FOSQ¢¢ 20....O—LOdn— >t23k¢ofio 329.520?» _
om Nzékzuumo
OZ< . Pew—gun”
auN3<¢b2uu he...
«no-#425200 (KUZUQ

 

 

 

      

         

            

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

33:3 83:3 oflumemMmm .. ,
some: orig 2 mo inflame 0&3
. :onth ’ 33:8 :33an
85333an
EHEE miflg gnu—”mo
[- rlr .
L - 4 Sign;
w 88> m . Eofifim
: 23.554 EHeémHfixfl o
a u
U ‘ ‘ v
a. _ u i.”
w o
_ “—0.10 — m
n <
<
2 n
o z
p 6.2555 so onmaammmfi o
4. SS no BEEEE .. :3 so Eomfifi .. Emu a.
N. :85 5: ES .5 5830mm .. mos: so nagging.” o
m n
k
w «No.93 .rZuiuuaounzu 35 z<i03uujoa
£8.38 .6 l sums
.mm.» w 9mg.” .3. _ . . A degammn
. 3:805 .. Ba mmmoEo we: madame 8 so. 55$on 8

 

 

 

mmlflw "m3 mezuxuxsdma 323.45 _ .szmxsmfifin 8. Egg 8: no; a: on. — ammo—132 no gamma

 

 

22
complement, not replace men. On the other hand, she should not be
excluded from investigations merely because she is a woman. If there is
a job she could accomplish more easily or less conspicuously than a man,
she should be employed.

One of her valuable contributions :3 the fact that her presence
in investigations involving women protects male members of the force from
false accusations of molestation or imprOper advances.

Dedicated women, as well as men, have great potential for con-
tinuing to improve the police image to the public and for aiding pro-
fessionalism within the service.

3. POLICEWOMEN MAY AND SHOULD BE USED IN ANY OF THE FUNCTIONAL
DIVISIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT ON AN AS NEEDED BASIS.

There should be no hesitation in using policewomen in any of the
divisions or in investigating any type of crime when it is seen that her
talents are needed. There are many instances when her use would perhaps
be more productive in a certain phase of an investigation, or when her
inquiries would be less conspicuous.

There should be no reluctance to experiment with her in areas
in which she has traditionally not been used extensively. For instance,
there should be further consideration of women in patrol work--one woman
patrol, two women patrol, and various types of special patrol.

Women should be able to and should be encouraged to serve in
areas of administration, traffic and auxiliary services as well as in the
juvenile division.

#. POLICEWOMEN SHOULD BE TRAINED PRIMARILY AS GENERALISTS,

BUT THEY SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO SPECIALIZE ON AN AS NEEDED
BASIS AND AS THEIR INDIVIDUAL TALENTS OR APPTITUDES BECOME
APPARENT.

Because of their smaller numbers and the importance of their

23
being available for many types of investigations, their basic training
should be as generalists. However, their Special interests, talents, and
abilities should be encouraged as they become apparent. Specialization
should be especially encouraged in those areas where it becomes apparent
a woman could be used on a more constant basis.

5. POLICEWOMEN SHOULD BE INCORPORATED INTO DEPARTMENTAL STRUCTURE

ON A COMBINATION CENTRALIZED-DECENTRALIZED BASIS WHERE
POSSIBLE.

This is in accordance with the previous principle which indicated
policewomen should be generalists. Centralization encourages and assists
in generalist training and eXperience. True centralization, in a Women's
Bureau, is recommended as it keeps the policewomen under more direct
supervision of the Commissioner, and allows greater possibility for
promotion. Special assignments are more likely to be requested from a
Woman's Division, than if the policewomen were centralized in some other
division or subdivision.

Decentralization to some degree is necessary to allow for fuller
use of policewomen in some divisions, and to allow for specialization.
More permanent assignments should include those to Juvenile Division, and
other divisions as needed.

5. POLICEWOMEN SHOULD BE PROMOTED ON THE BASIS OF ABILITY
AND MERIT.

There should be no hesitation to promote policewomen when ability
and merit show they are worthy of such promotion. Further, such promotion
need not be confined to command positions over women only. "Promotions"
includes assignment, rank, or appointive positions within the department,
civil-service and non-civil service. Such promotions should include

authority and pay increments as with male personnel.

2A
7. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR POLICEWOMEN SHOULD BE NO LESS
THAN HIGH SCHOOL, BUT SHOULD ENCOURAGE AT LEAST TWO YEARS
OF COLLEGE; AGE LIMITS SHOULD BE 21 AND 35.

Entrance requirements should be kept flexible so as not to exclude
those who were not able to continue school after graduating from high
school. If such peeple qualify in character, background and other areas--
including sincere interest in the work, they could be encouraged to con-
tinue their education after they are in the service. However, completion
of two years of more of college should be recommended as an entrance re-
quirement where possible.

Age requirements should not go below 21, except in a police cadet
position, because of the nature of the work and the responsibility involved.
Thirty-five should be the upper age limit because of the extensive variety
of Specialized knowledge involved and because of the physical requirements
of the job.

8. POLICEWOMEN SHOULD RECEIVE BASICALLY THE SAME TRAINING AS MEN.

In recruit training, policewomen should have all the same subjects
as the men. Any difference in training should only be in a very few
areas, and should involve only an increase or decrease in the hours of
training received in the particular subjects involved.

In-service training should be based on ability and need, when it
involves a specialization, otherwise, again, they should receive the same
training as the men.

Opportunities to specialize should be available to policewomen,
as suggested before. This includes possibilities of obtaining scholarships,
attending seminars, conferences and the like.

9. POLICEWOMEN SHOULD BE EMPLOYED IN LARGE ENOUGH NUMBERS TO

INSURE VERSATILITY AND FULL USE OF THEIR TALENTS IN THE
INDIVIDUAL DEPARTMENT.

25
The number of policewomen to be hired must be determined by
the individual police administrator and by his budgetary limitations.
However, final decision on this should be made only after carefully
considering and studying the benefits, and versatility policewomen can
provide if properly employed. If this Model is valid, most departments

should substantially increase their numbers of policewomen.

CHAPTER III
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The relative scarcity of material written on the subject of
policewomen necessitates a more intensive look at the literature that
is available. The review has been divided into chronological segments
which reflect the policewoman's role as it is portrayed in the literature
during various periods of her history. This allows for a careful con-
sideration of the historical concept of policewoman in comparison with
modern day policewoman. It also facilitates the highlighting of the main
"author-contributors" and "moving forces" of each period or era.

The literature natunily divides itself into three main segments:
1) books, 2) magazine articles, and 3) other sources such as--pamphlets,
booklets, proceedings and special reports. All of these may be subdivided
according to whether they are directly or indirectly concerned with the
policewoman's existence.

Books have the advantages of recording, in one place, highlights
of events which occurred over a period of time; or, of recording a
particular facet of a subject in depth. Reliance on one author's record-
ings however, at times may lead to the unintentional reliance on the bias
of that author.

Magazine articles are therefore important in that they provide a
greater variety of authors. Thus, while individually more superficial,
taken together they may provide a more balanced view. Or, again, they

may give more insight into trends or conflicts in thought as these

27

developed. Magazine articles as used here include both those written for
professional periodicals and those written for general interest publica-
tions.

The miscellaneous sources mentioned above may give special in-
sights into times when interest in this subject matter was particularly
high.

lb allow for the most meaningful review, the remainder of this
Chapter has been divided chronologically. The Historical Era, consisting
of the Entrance Period (18#5-1909) and the Pioneer Period (1910-1925),
will cover the development of the policewoman's role from the early
beginnings. The Modern Era, inclding the Transitional Period (1926-1949)and
the Modern Period (1950-1967), will study develOpments as they have
occurred over more recent years. In addition to aiding the discussion of
the policewoman's role, the limits thus set enable pinpointing and high-
lighting of the major "moving forces" and author contributors to the field

in each era.
I. HISTORICAL ERA

Entrance Period (1845-1909). This period begins with the first
known recorded hiring of matrons and ends just before the first regularly
rated policewoman was hired. During this time several cities did make
use of women with some degree of police power, but the women were not
officially designated as policewomen.

The first appointment of matrons was one maifestation of the
social movement taking place in the last half of the Nineteenth Century.
People were just becoming aware of the grave lack of humanitarian treat-

ment which existed in many of the country's major institutions and were

28
beginning to try to do something about these conditions. Many women's
organizations and social agencies became active in this work. They
encouraged and initiated the hiring of matrons so that women taken into
custody would be properly treated and cared for.

There at first appears to be some discrepancy as to when the
first appointments were made. Mary_A. Jenks, M.D., is described in the
Preface to her autobiographical book as having "the distinction-of being
the first woman in the world that ever were the silver badge of 'Police
Matron'".l However, this proves to be a misleading statement because even
as she took on her official duties in 1893, a book which recorded the
experiences of another police matron--Louisa Harris who had been appointed
in St. Louis, Missouri in l88h, was being published.2

Upon further research it is found that the first matron appoint--
ments were made in New York City in 18#5, and the first police matron was
appointed in the late 1870's. This is recorded by Chloe Owings, who made

3

the only complete and thorough historical study of policewomen, but is
most clearly and succinctly stated by Louis Brownlow in an article written

for the "Policewoman's International Bulletin":

 

lMary A. Jenks, M.D., Behind the Bars; 95;, Ten Years 15 the Life
‘2: a Police Matron (Pawtucket, R.I.: Mary A. Jenks, 19025, p. viii.

2

Louisa Harris, Behind the Scenes; 9;, Nine Years at the Four
Courts 2; St. Louis (St. Louis Mo.: A.R. Fleming & 00., Book and Job
Printers, 18955, p. 1}.

3Chloe Owings, Women Police: A_Study g; the Development and Status
of the Women Police Movement (New York: Frederick H. Hitchcock, l925),p.98:

 

 

29
. . . in 18h5, the American Female Reform Society . . . had
persuaded the New York city government to appoint six matrons,
two for the Tombs and four for Blackwell's Island, the first
woman prison matrons in the United States. The first police
matron, dealing with women arrested and detained for trial
rather than with those imprisoned after conviction, was
appointed in Portland, Main? in 1879, having served for two
years before that as a voluhteer visitor.

One of the most active organizations in seeking the appoint-
ment of police matrons was the Women's Christian Temperance Union. They
were active in securing the appointment of the first police matron in
Portland Maine, and in many other cities. Mary Jenks and Louisa Harris,
the two police matrons previously mentioned were both appointed through
the efforts of this organization, and in fact, Mary Jenks was president
of the Pawtucket Women's Christian Temperance Union. The great
influence of the organization may be noted in their philosophy "Push
the matter of police matrons in every city; commence at once and continue
until successful"5, and in the zeal with which their appointees took
office:6

Police Matron work is indeed missionary work; not only

debauchery and crime, but cruelty, want, misery, insanity,
destitution, abandonment and helplessness appeal to our
sympathies. Heart-rending incidents are daily brought to
notice, and experience convinces me that but for the
influences of those licensed hotbeds of crime--the saloons,

--there would be no need of barred doors, prison cells or
Police Matrons.

Matron work as described by Jenks and Harris in their memoirs

includes ministering to and counseling their charges, caring for lost and

 

1,

Louis Brownlow, "How Women Got Into Police Work," Policewoman's
International Bulletin, IV (February, 1928), p. 8.

 

5Owings, Op; cit., p. 99.

6Jenk5, 92¢- Cito, PP. 23‘240

3O
neglected children or those whose mothers are imprisoned, and in general
bringing social service techniques to bear on the unfortunates with whom
they come in contact:7

Not only those who are criminals, but the unfortunates of

all classes of women and girls are brought to our attention.

The inebriate, lewd, wanton, deserted, neglected and abandoned,
homeless, friendless, penniless and abused appeal to our sympathies
and in various ways receive our attention.

According to the impressions given by these memoirs, the matrons
tried to apply social work techniques within the confines of the jail
contacts they had.

Thus, the matron movement began in the East and by the late
Nineteenth and early Twentieth Century most of the major cities in the
country had employed or were making plans to employ such civilian personnel
to supervise women held in custody. Owings lists sixty-five cities as
having made such appointments by 1904.8

During this time several other movements began and should at
least be briefly noted because of their significance in relating the
material presented to the entire social context of the times. In 1878,
the first statute legally establishing the practiec of probation was
passed in Massachusetts, and in 1899 the first Juvenile Court in the
9

United States was established in Cook County, Illinois.

In spite of all these advances, no one gave any real consideration

 

7Harris,‘Qp; cit., p. 17.
8Owings, Qp;_cit., pp. 283-4.

9Herbert A. Bloch and Frank T. Flynn, Delinquency: The
Juvenile Offender in America Today (New York: Random House), pp. 310-11.

31
to giving women full police powers until 1910. However, there are on
record at least two instances where women were given some degree of
police power before that date. In 1893, the widow of a Chicago Police
officer was given an appointment in the Detective Bureau of the Police
Department. The extent of her police power is unrecorded, but it is known
that she assisted detective officers in cases involving women and children.
She was carried on the police roll as a "patrolman".10 Chloe Owings
further elaborates that:11

The first recorded instance on which information is available
of a woman receiving police powers in order to deal effectively
and directly with social conditions threatening the moral safety
of young girls and women was in 1905 during the Lewis and Clark
Exposition in Portland, Oregon . . . Mrs. Lola Baldwin, a
Travelers' Aid Society Secretary, was given police powers and
put in charge of this work.
And finally, in Grand Forks, North Dakota, the Florence
Crittendon Circle obtained the appointment of a woman with police
powers, but her title was that of "police matron." This was advocated
in 1909, but achieved in May, 1910.11
Pioneer Period (1210-1225). This period begins with the first
appointment of a regularly rated policewoman and ends in the year in which
Chloe Owings published her book which contained the first major survey of
the policewoman's movement. During this time also, the policewomen
received their first official recognition from the International
Association of Chief's of Police.
In Los Angeles, California, in September of 1910, Mrs.Alice

Stebbins hells became the first woman in the country to obtain an appoint-

ment which gave her both full police authority and the official title of

 

loOwings, 22; cit., p. 99. 11Ibid., pp. 99-100.

32
"policewoman". Mrs. Wells,-a graduate theological student and social
worker, actively sought this appointment and later worked tirelessly in
behalf of the appointment of other policewomen throughout the country.
Mrs. Wells sought and won this position as the result of her conviction
that the protective-preventive work being attempted by private social -
organizations could best be achieved by public officers invested with
police powers. The position was placed under Civil Service in 1911, and
by 1912 there were three women officers.12
A magazine article written about her in 1911 gives this
description:13
She wears no uniform, carries no weapon, and as often as
possible keeps her star in her handbag. Measuring not much
over five feet, she has no idea of using physical force in
the discharge of her duties, which are no less varied than
those of her brother officers, and often identical with them.
She goes about her work quietly and unostentatiously, with
the hope of applying preventive rather than punative measures. . .
Her duties consisted mainly in supervising and inspecting var-
ious places of public recreation including parks, dance halls and shows.
She was also charged with supressing unwholesome billboard displays,
and searching for missing persons}!+ This was the beginning. Within
a few short years there were enough women officers to form the Inter-
national Association of Policewomen.
In surveying the development of the policewoman movement and its

growth over these early years between 1910 and 1925, several notable facts

about the literature emerge. In the early part of the period, magazine

 

12Ibid., pp. 101-2.

13Bertha H. Smith, "The Policewoman," Good Housekeeping, 52
(March, 1911), p. 296

lhOwings, 92, 333., p. 102.

 

33

articles and the Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and
Corrections, or the National Conference of Social Work as it was later
called, are the main sources of information about the movement. The

several individuals who appear to be most influential include A.S. Wells
from Los Angeles; Mina Van Winkle, Director of the fishington D.C. Women's
Bureau; and Mary Hamilton, Assistant to the Police Commissioner of New

York City and in charge of that city's Women's Bureau. Other policewomen
active during this time include Ellen O'Grady of New York City, Fifth Deputy
commissioner and predecessor to Hamilton; and Virginia Murray, Director

of Detroit's Women's Bureau.

Only two books dealing exclusively with the topic of policewomen
were written during this period and they were published more than a decade
after the first policewomanias appointed. The first, The Policewoman, Her
Service Egg Ideals, was authored by Mary Hamilton and is mainly a personal
account of the author's experiences and views on policewomen. The second
book,‘!gmgg Police, by Chloe Owings, was published a year later, in 1925,
under the auspices of the Bureau of Social Hygiene. It is the most im-
portant literary contribution of this period, and in fact probably the
most important literary contribution of any period because of the extensive
historical data it contains. It contains a compilation of most of the
available data on policewomen at that time and also the results of the
first surveys conducted on the extent of the use of policewomen and police
matrons in this country.

Having pointed out some of the literary highlights of the period,
consideration will now be given to the concept of policewoman as it began
and developed during this pioneer period, as reflected in this literature.

Growth of the movement between 1910 and 1925 was steady, with the

34
greatest increase occuring after World War I. In the text of Egmgg
Police, Owings reports that at least sixteen cities had appointed women to
their police forces by 1915.15 The results of the survey conducted by the
Bureau of Social Hygiene in 192A for this book and recorded in Appendix I
of that work indicates that thirty-two cities had made such appointments
by 1915 and that in nine of the cities the person appointed performed both
as policewoman and as police matron.16 It was in May of this year, at the
National Conference of Charities and Corrections that a number of police-
women attending the conference decided to band together into an organiza-
tion of their own so that they might better cooperate and further the
develOpment of the movement. Mrs. Alice Stebbins Wells was elected
president.17

In Chapter VIII of her book, Owings records the results of two

     
   

surveys the one connect: with the book and conducted by the Bureau of
Social Hygiene in 1924, to hich 268 cities replied; and an earlier survey
conducted by Lieutenant Mina Van Winkle, Director of Women's Bureau of
Washington D.C., while she w president of the International Association
of Policewomen. The latter was conducted in 1919 and 1920 and 1A6 cities
replied.

In the 1919 survey, 56 of the 146 cities responding reported that
they employed a total of 175 women in their departments. However, it was

not known what proportion were police and what proportion were matrons.

In the 192# survey it was reported that "1A5 cities employ women police,

in 22 of which the women police also act as matrons . . ." she later

 

16Ibid., p. 285 17Ibid., p. 191

15Ibid., p. 10A

35

concludes that "at least 417 women in the United States are . . . exnuting
the preventive functions of the police."18

Today in at least 145 cities women are performing preventive

police functions and before thelyar this fact obtained in 73 cities
only--an increase of 72 Cities.

Fifty—eight cities who answered the 1924 survey employed no women
in their departments, of these 8 previously had women police, but had dis-
continued their services.

Unfortunately only the results of these surveys are available.
Details such as what cities were polled, what type of survey instrument
was used and how the studies were conducted are not given.

The influence of social work was felt throughout this early period.
Many social service agencies, especially juvenile protective associations
and social hygiene associafions were active in securing police appointments
for women.

Furthermore, in spite of the fact that there were no set require-
ments for policewomen in the very early stages of the movement, many of

the early appointments has social work backgrounds:20

In New York City, the first policewoman was a volunteer worker
who had been trained at a school of social science.

And Owings also notes that many of the early women police were

drawn largely from private social agencies. Because of the duties

 

involved, early literature stressed the importance of this social servic
background as being ideal. An important milestone occurred in the

policewoman's movement in 1922 when the International Association of Chiefs

 

18Ibido, Po 121-20 lgIbido, p0 1230

2Query E. Hamilton. "Woman's Place in the Police Department,"

American Cit , 32 (February, 1925), p. 195.

36
of Police officially endorsed the movement and made the following
recommendations for standardizing minimum requirements:21

Requirements: The minimum standard below which educational
qualifications may not fall should be as follows: (a) Graduation
from a four years' course of a standard high school or the
completion of at least fourteen college-entrance units of study,
and not less than two years' experience, recent and responsible,
in systematic social service or educational work: or (b) Graduation
from a recognized school for trained nurses requiring a residence
of at least two years in a hospital giving thorough practical and
theoretical training; or (c) The completion of at least seven
college-entrance units of study or of two-years' work in a standard
high school, and not less than two years' responsible commercial
work involving public contact and responsibilities tending to
qualify the applicant to perform the duties of the position, with
the equivalent of the college education through experience, such
as secretarial work.

However, in Spite of this recommendation, the indication in
previous literature that many early appointments were of such backgrounds,
at least one author points to the fact that as time went on the theory was
not universally put into practice. In 1924, only two years after this
recommendation was made, Mrs.Van Winkle, in aepeech before the National
Conference of Social Work stated:22

Up to the present day, club women have clamored for the
appointment of policewomen, and are only now beginning to realize
that it is not enough to appoint them but that such women should
have special training and qualifications, and that they must follow
their demands through to see that the right kind of women are
appointed. Otherwise they may find thlt unfortunate appointments
have been made of women in no way qualified to fill positions. It
has fi‘squently occurred that in lieu of pensions, widows of policemen
with no training were appointed, or matrons of the jails and police
departments secured legislation giving them the positions of police-
women with no prerequisites of education,£ncial training, or
experience. Social workers did not enter this field until very
recently, but the movement for their appointment gained impetus

 

21Mina Van Winkle, " The Policewoman," National Conference 22
Social Work: 1924, p. 190.

22Ibid., pp. 187-8.

37

during the war, When trained social workers were employed to put
into practice preventive measures . . .

This statement acts as a reminder that the literature is often
more reflective of ideal and philOSOphical concepts of those most
influential in the movement than it is of the reality of the overall
existing situation.

Little information as to age qualifications is given in this
early literature. But, one other qualification that should be noted is
that of civil service. Owings' report of the 1920 survey indicates that
at that time 30 cities required civil service examinations before appoint-
ment could be made, 26 did not.23

Early training of the policewoman consisted in "on-the-job"
training as Mrs.Wells points out:Zn

iunicipalities at present adjust themselves to the lack of

training by placing women in the department under civil service,
to learn their work after appointment, just as the men have
always done.

She goes on to note however, that progress is being made in
police training, and cites the New York and Chicago police schools as
being excellent examples of this progress. She also points to the
increasing interest of universities in helping to fulfill the existing
need for better training and education. She is enthusiatic over all
25

these developments but quite realistically states:

. . . the main dependence must be placel upon the practical
training which can be given in the departments of policewomen

 

230
24

Mrs. Alice Stebbins Wells, "The Policewomen Movement, Present
Status and Future Needs," National Conference 2f Charities and Correction,

1916, p. 550.

251bid., p. 551 g»

Wings, OE. Cite, p. 1190

38

now existing in numerous cities. Every well-trained policewoman should
have some studies in sociology as part of her training. Fortunately
every city progressive enough to have policewomen and to train them has
also some educational institution which can or will direct their studies.

Because of the lack of trained, experienced women which many
cities were seeking, separate training was advocated for women again
four years later:2

We must . . . train policewomen in special schools. For
this purpose, two years ago, the Boston School of Public
Service, affiliated with Simmons College, was established.
Last year George Washington University offered a training
course, and the New York School of Social Work trained
qualified social workers for positions as police executives.

Thus, while special training was advocated for policewomen,
most of the Opportunities that became available were for those seeking
Director's or Executive positions as head of a Women's Division. It
should be noted that both Mrs. Wells and Mrs. Van Winkle were themselves
active in initiating such programs as the University of California and
George Washington University, respectively.

The form of organization stressed during the pioneer period
was the centralization of all women into a Woman's Division, though
this was not the only form of organization practiced. The forms of
organization which had been tried in the United States included:27

The creation in the police department . . . of a definite
Woman's Division whose work is supervised by one woman director,
responsible to the head of the Department . . . The placing of
all women police in an already existing division, such as that

of the detective or special service division, and where their
work is supervised by a man officer. The assignment of women

 

26Van Winkle, 9p. cit. p. 188. -.

27Owings, 9p. cit. pp. 251-2.

39

police by some directing officer of the department to the different
precincts, districts or departmental bureaus, and where their work
is directed by the officer in command.

In 1919, the International Association of Policewomen endorsed

formally the establishment of Women's Bureaus in all departments.28

They had always been in favor of this type of organization, but had
advocated the practice only informally up to this time. A similar
resolution was passed during the 1922 convention of the International
Chiefs of Police.29 In 1924, 92 of the 100 largest cities reported they
employed policewomen, but only 6 employed them in a centralized Women's
Bureau, or under the direction of one woman. Thus, in spite of the

encouragement of that type of organization by those knowledgeable in the

30

field-no standardization along such lines had yet occurred.
The reason for the lack of enthusiasm for more decentralized
types of organization for policewomen was the fear of being stifled under

the command of a male officer who did not understand or appreciate the

31

service policewomen could render:

Usually he places her in a clerical position and nine times
out of ten concludes before he sees the woman that she is unable
to render any service in the police department.

32

Advancement was also a consideration:

The women should be organized as a unit, with provision for
advancement within their own group. They should not be scattered
through different departments and under the direction of different
persons. A competent woman supervisor should be appointed to
direct the work.

4

28Ibid., p..l94. 291bid., p. 258. 30Ibid., p. 256.

31Lieutenant Mina C. Van Winkle, "Municipal Policewomen--Their
Duties and Opportunities," American Cit , 25 (August, 1921), p. 93.

32Maude E. Miner, "The Policewoman and the Girl Problem,"
National Conference 2; Social Work, 1919, p. 137.

Speaking of promotional Opportunity, it should be noted that
during these early years, the main ranking positions opened to women were
those of the Director of Women's Divisions. One of the reasons for this
was the newness of the movement. As Mrs. Wells noted in 1915, there had
not yet been any chance for women to rise through the ranks since in
most cities under civil service rules there must be at least five years
service before any officer is even eligible to take the test for sergeant.
The movement itself was not quite five years old at this time.33

The following year, at the meeting of the International
Association of Policewomen, it was noted that there was at least one woman
supervisor of women police, one superintendent of women police, one

34

inspector and one woman chief of police. By 1924, the promise became

a reality as it was noted that "In.some departments women rank as
sergeants, lieutenants, captains, and there is one deputy commissioner."35
Thus, while the opportunities were not extensive in comparison to the
overall growth of the movement, they did exist in some places.

But the best indication of the policewoman's importance, how
necessary or unnecessary her presence, and the extent of her use, is con-
sideration of the functions and duties she performed. This provides an
index by which we can better visualize her place in the police department.

Here again, the early influence of social work and social workers

is noted. In a number of early instances it is recorded that social

 

3BMrs. Alice Stebbins Wells, "Policewoman," National Conference
of Charities and Correction, 1915, p. A15-6.

3“brings, 92; cit., p. 105.

35ven Winkle, "The Policewoman," Op; cit., p. 189.

41
workers, particularly those of the Travelers' Aid Society and the
Associated Charities, worked for the police department on a sort of co-
Operative basis-~that is, they were paid in part by the police department,
but still retained their positions with the social agencies.

Most of the literature during this early period indicates that
policewomen were hired and used mostly as protective-preventive agents.
Their duties were mainly to guard the welfare of the youth, to investigate
offenses in which women or children were involved either as victims or
as offenders. Another function to which the women were often assigned
was that of tracing missing persons.

Actually the work varied considerably according to the juris-
diction and administration under which the policewoman worked, so that
while the above generalization is mat applicable to the larger cities,
even here a goodly number of variations existed. Mrs.Wells summed it
up rather well when she stated:36

They answer suspicious advertisements, help secure evidence

against illegal fortune-telling or people who otherwise are
preying upon a credulous public; and in many other ways they
increase the efficiency of the department in its effort to
preserve the peace and safety of the community . . . There are
policewomen at this conference who in their round of duty have
done almost every form of social service acceptable. ,

Several years later, in 1919, another writer notes the [
difference in how Seattle, Los Angeles and Chicago used their police-
women. Seattle and Los Angeles stressed the protective-preventive
3?

function, while Chicago stressed law enforcement. The writer continues:

The protective function of policewomen has been disregarded at
times according to the reports of actual work accomplished. Women

36
37

Wells, Op; cit., p. 413.

Miner, op. cit., p. 156

42
are sent out occasionally to help in discovering thieves and even
murderers and to get evidence against criminals. Others are assigned
only to patrol work on a definite "beat." . . . In justification of
assigning women to detective and usual patrol work, it is explained
that if they are to be a part of the police force, they must do any
kind of work given to them by their superior officers.

A brief review of the work of policewomen reveals one important
fact--that there is a great need for standardization of the work . . .
It is most important that a definite program of work should be
approved and that the protective work should be emphasized.
In this and other later references it is strongly suggested that
the division of work between a policewomen and probation officers should
be distinct and should not overlap. They suggest the policewoman should

not have follow-up or supervisory work after sentencing.38 The idea of

using women in detective positions is generally discouraged.

_. id—r"

The general impression one gets is that the policewomen were
police officers with a special mission, and anything which equated them
with the function of a male officer was to be avoided. They shunned
carrying guns, wearing uniforms, or making arrests except where necessary.
However, the decision of a particular department to follow such guidelines
depended on the administrator and as pointed out before, in many instances
policewomen were hired with no idea of how to use them. For this reason
many departments utilized them as matrons or as clerical help.

The importance of the administrator and the person in direct
command of the policewomen can easily be seen when one takes a look at
a few individual departments.

In Detroit and New York, where there were Women's Divisions

under the supervision of women, the above theory was put into practice.

 

3822ig°1 P- 135; Van Winkle, "Standardization of the Aims and
Methods of Policewomen," National Conference of Social Work, 1920, p. 153.

43
39

In Detroit, for insance it was reported:

The unit by which policewomen measure their success should not
be the number of arrests made, but the number of arrests prevented.

The article then goes on to discuss the administrative set up of
the Detroit Women's Division which was to include four departments--
Protective, Under-Cover, Patrol and Office. The under-cover work was
described as securing confidential information without the identity of
the policewoman becoming known. But, the main function remains pre-
vention and protection. A similar situation existed in New York where
Mrs. Mary Hamilton set up a separate Women's Precinct--her philosophy

.40
was.

Effective service depends largely upon the extent to which
the women cooperate with the men, for after all, policewomen have
taken up policewomanship, not with the idea of replacing men in
this work, but for the purpose of aiding and assisting them by
seeking in a quiet, unassuming way to prevent crime.

However, in St. Louis, where the policewomen were plaCed under
the Chief of Detectives, the policewomen's aims, while being the same
insofar as they dealt with young women and girls, was different in that
more stress seemed to be placeion investigation and arrest.39

In short, there was a wide variety of standards in existence.
Efforts were being made to bring about some consensus as to effective
use of policewomen. Those most influential in the field stressed

protective-preventive functions and saw the future policewoman being most

effectively used in this way. They often saw the future of policewomen

being in the hands of social workers:

 

39Virginia M. Murray, "Policewomen in Detroit," American City,
25 (September 1921). p. 209.

Mary E. Hamilton, The Policewoman, Her Service and Ideals J
(New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1924), p. 7. v/

 

1.4

We must look to social workers to become the policewomen of
tomorrow. In police work will be found not only the greatest
opportunity for behalf of the potential delinquent and the

‘) prevention of delinquency, but also the oppogiunity to assist
in socializing this largest of all agencies.

II. MODERN ERA

The Modern Era includes the entire interval from 1926 to the
present. It is during this time that the Modern Concept emerges. For
convenience the era has been divided into two periods the Transitional
and the Modern (referring to the gggp recent stage of development).

Transitional Period (lg-£2132). During this period the shift
to a stronger law enforcement emphasis is noted, though the protective
preventive function under which policewomen entered the field is not
forgotten nor completely overshadowed. The literature again is limited.
The most outstanding contributions are made by police officers from
Detroit and New York City, and there is the continuing influence of
Lieutenant Van Winkle through the leadership she gave the International
Association of Policewomen during part of this period.

Eleonore Hutzel, Deputy Commissioner and Director of the Women's
Bureau of Detroit authored a practical and useful manual entitled The
Policewoman's Handbook. This is mainly a compilation of methods, pro-
cedures, and illustrative case studies, but gives some insights into the
period. The other book written during this time is the autobiographical
My Double Li_f_‘_e_:g'_1_l_e S2251 it 3 N_e3_ York Policewoman, by Mary Sullivan.

This too, while not dealing exclusively with the subject matter as we

 

41Van Winkle, "The Policewoman," op. cit., p. 92.

1+5
have defined it, reveals some interesting facts.

Another major source of information for the period is what has
become known as the Carol Williams Study, a survey conducted in 1946 by
a member of the Detroit Women's Division. These, plus several magazine
articles and some copies of the International Policewoman's Bulletin form
the bulk of the literature of the Transitional Period.

The fact of the ready acceptance of the practice of appointing
matrons in contrast to the more reluctant use of policewomen is noted
by Hutzel in 1929. In spite of the indorsement of International
Association of Chiefs of Police, many individual police chiefs were
apparently not caught up by the movement. She notes:h2

The interest which eventually resulted in the appointment

of women police officers was first expressed by certain groups
of women who felt the need for protective work with girls in
their communities . . . The continued efforts of these women's
organizations are largely responsible for the rapid increase

in the number of cities employing women officers. Police
officials have questioned the wisdom of such a change in their
organizations and there is still no general agreement among them
in favor of the idea.

She and other writers note that this reluctance is often due
to knowledge on the part of the administrator of some situation where
policewomen were hired but, because of lack of training, poor election,
or other reasons failed to meet expectations. Louis Brownlow, who was
active in promoting the use of policewomen notes that much of this is
also due to preconceived prejudice without real basis in fact. He admits
that there have been instances of policewomen who have been incompetent,

political or stupid, but goes on to point out that just as the entire

police force should not be condemned because of the incompetence of a few

 

haEleanore L. Hutzel, "The Policewoman," Annals 2f the American
Acadegz 2; Political and Social Science, 146 (November, 19295, p. 104.

1,5
policemen who are wrong, neither should the entire policewomen's movement
be condemned because of a few.“3
Several surveys where conducted during this period, the main one,
of course, being the one by Carol Williams. Unfortunately, all appear to
confirm Hutzel's observation on the failure of police executives to embrace
the movement wholeheartedly.
Police Commissioner Rutledge of Detroit made a survey in March
of 1929. Of 202 cities replying to his questionnaire, a total of 125 re-
ported employing policewomen. The most interesting part of the data is
that dealing with the number of cities with large populations who reported

employing only one policewomen. Nineteen such cities were in the 50,000

to 500,000 population range.
By 1934, the situationlnd not changed much as evidenced by the

remarks of Chief Richard W. Morris of Geneva, New York. Regarding the

necessity of policewomen he stated: "Every police department that arrests

women should have a policewoman, even if only on part time."l*5 He goes

on to observe that: ". . . some cities in every class, even the largest,

are without a policewoman. This is one of the many respects in which police
/

departments are behind the best practice."40

Finally, in the 1946 survey conducted by Carol Williams, it was

 

hBLouis Brownlow, "The City and the Citizen," Policewoman's
International Bulletin, III (August-September 1927), p. 12.

 

hhHutzel, op. cit., pp. 105-6.

h§Chief Richard W. Morris, Organization and Administration 3: 5
Municipal Police Department, Publication No. 30, New York State Conference
of Mayors and Other Municipal Officials, (Albany: Bureau of Training and
Research, 1954), p. 15.

h6Ibid.

. #7
ascertained that:l+7

Of the 296 cities replying, 131, or 44%, stated that they do

not employ policewomen, while 141, or 48%, do employ women as
police officers . . .

Her questionnaires, and thus the above results are from cities
having populations of over 25,000. It is interesting to note that from
statistical breakdown and computation, she figured out what she called
"population load per policewoman." She worked out such population load
averages for the various states and sections of the country on the basis
of her study and the 1940 census. Here are some of the results she
computed which are worth noting:£+8

V/ By this method of analysis, it was found that the average for
the entire country was one policewoman per 41,896 population. The

national average population load per policewoman, according to the

reports submitted by the 141 cities used in this study, was found
to be 40,848.

Further references to the findings of this study will be noted
below as the discussion turns to other aSpects of the concept as developed
during this period.

It should be noted here that lack of detail sharply curtails the
value of the various surveys cited. The failure to record completely the
methods and procedures used prevents proper evaluation of the results
of the individual surveys, and eliminates the possibility of meaningful
comparison between them. References are generally made merely to results,
only the Williams' study gives some information on the questionnaire used,

and population surveyed. While available data allows a general tracing of

 

Q7Carol M. Williams, The Organization and Practices 2; Policewomen's
Divisions in the United States (Detroit, Michigan, 1946) p. 9.

Ibid., p. 18.

trends, it fails to provide a serviceable basis for future research.

V// The strong social work influence is still apparent in this

-'—' "Q- 4-—_-..
r-a-.

period. In referring to the first meeting of Pacific Coast Policewomen,
Mrs. Elizabeth Lossingumakes the following comments:i+9
When Miss Helen D. Pigeon, executive secretary of the Inter-
national Association of Policewomen, came from Washington, D.C., to
open the policewomen's meeting . . . she found thirty-two people
assembled, all eager to hear the latest developments in this
comparatively new field of social work.

She goes on to note the strong trend toward requiring that police-
women be well equipped to do high grade social work and continues:

One glance at the exhibit material of face sheets, graphs of

organization, photographs and bibliographies was conclusive proof
that policewomen will not be found wanting in that strategic
position which they hold on social work lines.

These remarks plus the continued practice of the International
Association of Policewomen to hold its meetings in conjunction with the
National Conference of Social Work reinforce the close connection noted
in the Historical Era.

This close connection also continued to be reflected in the
type of entrance requirements set for policewomen--at least in the more
progressive jurisdictions. In 1930, August Vollmer, one of America's
50

most progressive Police Chiefs asserted:

, The present tendency is toward a standard requiring a college
i degree and social work experience before appointment.

8 In Berkeley, our rules and regulations specify that no woman
police officer shall be appointed who is not a trained social worker,

 

thrs. Elizabeth Lossing, "First Kindred Group Meeting of Police-

women of the Pacific Coast," Policewoman's International Bulletin, IV
(August, 1928), p. 2.

50August Vollmer, "Meet the Lady Cop," Th3 Surve , 63 (March 15,
1950), p. 702.

49

preferably with the stress laid on psychiatric training, as
evidenced by a certificate of graduation from a recognized

school of social work or the equivalent from a college of the

first class and some practical experience in work with individual
delinquents. I think we can confidently look forward to the time
when all policewomen will be very highly qualified; the top-notchers
today are unsurpassed by any group in social work. y

Vollmer stresses the importance of the policewoman as a link
between the police and social work and sees her mainly as a preventive
agent. It is his feeling that until such time as the police department

can attract men of similar training and background, the main burden of}/ ’

preventive work is hers.
Hutzel, in the Introduction to her book touches briefly on the
importance of educational background for the policewoman. She points out

that formal training in a school of social work is desirable because of
V’

the close relation between much of the policewomen's job with work of social y/
agencies. Not that the policewoman does the same case work, but much of

what she investigates will be preliminary to treatment by other social

workers, and her work should compare favorably to theirs in quality. She ‘8

notes Detroit's minimum requirements include an age requirement of 25-35

and the following:51

Educational: a) A degree from an accredited college or university.
b) Satisfactory completion of one year in an
approved school of social work.
0) An educational and cultural background that seems
to warrant expectation of success and progress in the field of
protective police work.

Experience: a) One year of satisfactory work under supervision
in a social organization of recognized standing.
b) Two or more years of experience in a closely
related profession.

 

Tfi:

\

{ 51Eleonore L. Hutzel, The Policewoman's Handbook (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1933), p. 5,6.

50

Detroit also put prospective applicants through a series of
psychiatric and intelligence tests to screen out the incapable or those
with undesirable qualities.

Hutzel also records that though no actual statistics are available,
the best estimates as of 1929 are that about onrhalf of the cities of the
United States have civil service examinations for their police officers,
and that in some of these, the women are given the same examination as
the men. She notes that in spite of the minimum standards adopted by the

chiefs of police, appointments are not generally made in accordance with

them.52

In 1946, the Carol Williams Study gave the following results to
53

questions regarding educational requirements:

The number of cities replying which had no educational require-
ments was 24, or 16%; 1 city, or 1%, required elementary school
training; 1, or 15, required 9th grade; 1, or 1%, required two
years<f high school; 74, or 52%, required completion of high school
training; 2, or 1%, required two years of college work; 1 or L%,
required two years of teaching experience; 7, or 5% required
college graduation; and 30, or 21%, did not reply . . .

Of the 111 replies received on this question, 27 cities, or
approximately 19%, may accept women police with educational
training below the completed high school level. Although 75, or
53%, of the cities required high school graduation, only 10 cities,
or 7%, required educational training beyond that of high school
work . . . The educational level of women police as a whole, remains
low.

Regarding age, her study only reveals that one hundred and one
cities did have age limits, but did not pinpoint what the age limits

54

were 0

 

52Hutzel, "The Policewoman," op. cit., p. 110.

53williams, 2p:_cit., pp. 10-11

5"Ibid., p. 10.

51

Thus, again, it is vividly revealed how far the reality continues)
to stray from the ideals exprssed by those most articulate in the movement.

Changes in training began taking place during this period. In
New York City as of 1927 they began receiving training in the Police
Academy and by 1934 pistol practice was required. Sullivan notes however
that: "Outside of pistol practice, there is no special training in self- )’
defense. Courses in jiujitsu were given for a time, but as we failed to
find this overrated Japanese art very practical, the classes were dis-
continued."55

Eleonore Hutzel suggests that where a police school exists
policewomen should attend just as men officers must. Only one question on
Carol Williams' survey covers training. The results showed that of the
cities replying "59, or 42% had a police training school . . . 14, or
10% did.have such a school, but policewomen did not attend it."56 As can
be seen, much of the lack of standardization of training at this time was
still due to the lack of adequate police training facilities. But, it was
becoming more or less accepted practice for policewomen to attend recruit
training with the men in most cities that did have such facilities.

Organizationally, Hutzel mentions three forms most often followed
--they correSpond closely to those mentioned by Owings earlier. She does
indicate some variations which are slightly different--i.e. having a
Central Women's Bureau, but having some of the officers assigned to the

57

precinct, similar to the way in which detectives in some cities work.

 

55Mary Sullivan,,My Double Life: The Stor qgf 5 New York
Policewoman, (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, l9 , p. 287.

56Williams, op. cit., p. 15. 57Hutzel, op. cit., pp. 109-10.

52
Later, in her book, she elaborates on this, and is the first

to suggest that this or other alternatives may prove the best way to
58

incorporate the policewoman into the department of the future. *

What is of basic importance is that the organization of
policewomen's activities in any city be fitted carefully to the
existing pattern of police organization. Unless a policewoman's
bureau, unit, or division is harmoniously integrated with the
larger plan of organization of which it is a functioning part,
danger of isolation will be encountered and opportunities for
needed cooperation between policewomen on the one hand and the
patrol force, detective bureau, and special police units will be
thwarted. Granted that, initially, it is better to organize
policewomen's work into a separate unit and that there will
always be need for a central planning and directing office which will
rank high in a police department's scheme of organization, it,
nevertheless, seems probable that, for the future well-being
of the work, women should find a place in the long established
divisional police commands. The aim should be to infuse the work
of policewomen into most of the primary units of police organization.

She contends that the prevailing type of detective decentralization
suggests the type of organization that ultimately should be followed, but
that such decentralization cannot take place properly until policewomen
are fully accepted and not looked upon as intruders by the male members of
the force.

Mary Sullivan's memoirs indicate that in New York City a certain
amount of functional decentralization had been practiced for some time--
though she does not give exact dates. She claims the distinction of being
the only woman to be assigned regulaiy to the Homicide Squad and notes that
she was with them for two years. She was also assigned to cases with
various other headquarter's bureaus, but gives no indication of being

regularly assigned to any of them. She notes later that policewoman

Kathryn Schneider was given a special assignment with the Narcotic Squad

 

58Hutzel, The Policewoman's Manual, op. cit., p. 2.

53

and did such a good job that she continued with them; from that time on
there was always at least one woman with the Narcdi:Squad.59

Carol Williams found a variety of divisions through which
policewomen were incorporated into departments, but her study fails to
distinquish clearly the differences in organizational structure. Her
results are stated in such a way as to cause confusion in the reader's
mind. Rather than try to clarify or interpret this situation, it will
merely be neted that in 76 cities which reported that policewomen were
attached to various units within the department, the greatest number had
them attached to juvenile or detective divisions. But in all, there were
some who had their policewomen detached to such divisions as narcotics,
vice, traffic, missing persons, inspection, or public affairs. Three
departments reported using policewomen in connection with all divisions.60

Promotional opportunity still appears to be quite limited during
this period. At times, policewomen are shown to have less rank even on
the entrance level. Twenty-five per cent of the cities replying to a
question regarding rank in the Carol Williams Study admitted that the
policewomen did not hold equal rank with the men, a slightly higher number
reported that their policewomen did not receive equal pay with the men.61

In May 1929, Helen Pigeon, then Executive Secretary of the

International Association of Policewomen cited the ranks of several

 

59Sullivan, op. cit., pp. 107, 214, 219.

60Williams, op. cit., pp. 12-13

61Ibid., pp. 9,15.

54
directors of Women's Bureaus and nded that: "Recently, several cities have
given the rank of sergeant to other policewomen, within the bureaus, who
have charge of certain phases of the work."62 But even in the large New
York City Department, chances for advancement did not exist. Mary Sullivan
states:63 3

I am very proud of the New York City policewomen. They show
great courage in handling dangerous and difficult assignments, . . .
Yet the city hasn't shown its appreciation by giving them the Oppor-
tunities for promotion that are offered to the men. Policewomen must
pass a civil service examination in order to be appointed, and in
Washington, Cleveland, Detroit, and several other cities they have
competitive examinations for higher rank within the women's division.
New York, however, as far as opportunities for women are concerned,
is still in the red flannel stage. An ambitious patrolman can take
an examination for promotion to the rank of sergeant, but no police-
woman, regardless of her ability, is eligible to take this test.
She goes on to observe that even the director of the Women's
Bureau in New York City has no rank. She had been made a first grade
detective, but notes that this is not a rank but a designation and is out-
ranked by any sergeant. I
Carol Williams reports in 1946 that only 21 cities or 14%, of those
replying to her questionnaire indicated they had positions of higher rank
Open to policewomen. She further stated that where a higher rank is given,
it is equivalent to the corresponding rank held by male officers, though
she does not make clear on what she bases this latter conclusion.64 Thus,
while opportunities for advancement were poor and not widespread, they

increased somewhat during this period.

It remains to take a brief look at functions and duties performed

 

62Helen D. Pigeon, "Women's Era in the Police Department," Annals
p£_the American Acadepy 2: Political and Social Science, 143 (May 1929),
p. 251.

63Sullivan, op. cit., p. 296. 64Williams, 0p. cit., p. 9.

55

by policewomen during this period in order to round out discussion. As
can be seen by some of the organizational comments noted above, the work
was expanding, though the emphasis still was strongest in prevention and
protection.

Eleonore Hutzel appears to be one of the first leaders of the

movement who recognized the eXpanding possibilities of the field. As early

as 1929 she noted:65

Recently there has been some experimentation in assigning women
officers to work which has to do with women but which is not pro-
tective in its nature. I refer to the assignment of women officers
to work in the detective bureau, the nartotic squad, the homicide
squad and other crime detection divisions. These efforts are still
very experimental. There is little doubt that in the future women
officers will be placed at work in many squads of the crime detection
divisions of the Police department, but at present the few efforts
that have been made do not justify any general conclusions as to
their usefulness or as to the peculiar qualifications for success
in such work.

66

Later, in her book she states:

One notable development in the Detroit Policewomen's Bureau
has been a gradual change from the more purely social service.
point of view to the police point of view. At first, the Bureau
was like a social service agency which happened to be housed in
the police department. Now it has become unmistakable a police
unit with a social welfare point of view.

Carol Williams asked several questions in her study about the

work load or duties of policewomen, but none of them indicate to any
substantial degree the entire scope of duties undertaken by policewomen.

A government publication of 1945, published to serve a manual for police-

women, deals mainly with her function in social protection, but it recognizes

 

65Hutzel, "The Policewoman," op. cit., p. 108.
66

Hutzel, The Policewoman's Manual, op. cit., p. 8.

III III llllli I

56

too, the fact that this is not the entire scope of her work.67
The literature of this period, while not being extensive enough

to give a full picture of the period begins to indicate some changes taking
place in the movement. While still emphasizing most strongly the preventive
protection function of policewomen, there begins to be a greater recog-
nition of the contributions she may make to the investigative phase of law
enforcement. Further, the necessity of her law enforcement function and of

greater integration into the police department are noted.

The Modern Period (1950-196 ). The literature available over this

V

 

period shows a marked increase over that available from the other periods.
Most of this increase is noted in the realm of magazine articles written
for professional magazines. There is also the addition of one noteworthy
book, Policewoman's Manual, by Lois Lundell Higgins, President of the
International Association of Women Police. This book is mainly a technical
manual, as was HutzeTs, but also contains some interesting information on
a survey conducted by the author, and on current trends. Another small
scale survey which nonetheless revealed some important information was
found in a study done by the Cleveland League of Women Voters. Perhaps
the most stimulating piece of literature, and most recent is the Proceedings
of a Workshop for Policewomen held at Indiana University and sponsored by
the International Association of Chiefs of Police.

Several thought provoking policewomen authors of the period are

from New York City-~Evabe1 Tenny, Felicia Shpritzer, and Theresa Melchionne.

 

67Techniques p£_Law Enforcement ip the Use 2£_Policewomen with
Special Reference pf Social Protection, National Advisory Police Committee
on Social Protection of the Federal Security Agency (Washington D.C.: 1945)

p. 3.

57

They confine their writing to magazine articles at the present. These
and othensart attempting fervently to bring about fuller understanding of
the policewoman of today, her triumphs and her problems. This period is
also marked by an increasing recognition of policewomen in books dealing
with general police administration and selection.

As of 1958, one source states:6

The latest survey made of the 100 largest city police depart-

ments in the country show 82 departments have 1,040 women with the
bake of authority, and their number is steadily increasing,
especially in the smaller departments where even one woman can make
a big difference.

The most recent survey on the employment of policewomen was con-
ducted by the Research and Development Division of the International
Association of Chiefs of Police, in preparation for the 1966 Workshop
of Policewomen. One hudred and sixty-one of the 166 questionnaires sent
out, were returned. The returns showed 1,792 women with powers to arrest
are employed by these 161 cities.69

Lois Higgins, in commenting on the surveys she had conducted noted
that there was no consistency between the size of the city and the number
of policewomen employed. In Spite of the fact that larger cities tended
generally to employ larger numbers of policewomen, it is not true that the

largest city employs the most policewomen, the second largest employs the

second largest number of policewomen, and so forth, down the line. She sees

 

60James M. Owens, "Policewomen in the Line," Police 3 (September-
October, 1958) p. 21.

69Nelson A. Watson and Robert N. Walker (eds.), "Proceedings _£
Workshop for Policewomen" (Indiana University, January 31-February 4,

1966) pp. 158—159.

58
this lack of consistency as a reinforcement of the disagreement among
police administrators as to the prOper role and use of policewomen.7O

An interesting fact is brought out in the seven city survey
conducted by the Cleveland League of Women Voters in 195%. Because of
the wide variation they found in the size of bureaus, they felt that the
fairest comparison in size would be to determine what percentage the
actual strength was of the potential strength for policewomen in each
city. Their tabulation at this time shows that only two of the eight
cities included (seven cities plus Cleveland), were up to full strength.
Unfortunately it is impossible to draw any real conclusions from this
fact since it is impossible to determine from the data available, just why
the cities were not up to full strength. If it was just because they
were waiting for civil service lists, no administrative aversion to
policewomen could be imputed, however, if there were no such valid
reasons, further inquiry into why this condition existed might be very
revealing.71

The increase in numbers thus continues, and is reported in the
literature. However, lack of general agreement or full acceptance of the
movement is still reflected in the growth during this period.

Training, while becoming more standardized, also continues to

show some variation. As late as 1954 Cleveland at least, did not have a

training program for its policewomen. Instruction for the new appointee

 

7OLois Lundell Higgins, Policewoman's Manual (Springfield,
Illinois: Charles C.Thomas, 1961), p. 91.

7101eveland Policewoman's Bureau, A Report Prepared by Cleveland‘s
League of Women Voters (Cleveland, Ohio: 195%), p. 2.

III II ll.|il I

II I. Ill

59

was limited to that given by the commanding officer of the Women's Division.
Up to only a short time before the study by the Cleveland League of Women
Voters, policewomen were not sent to the Police Training Academy. The

study reports that:72

The other cities had training periods of from four weeks to
three months. The actual time spent in school did not vary much
in these cities, for some combined class work and accompanying an
experienced officer on an assignment.

[I Lois Higgins indicates in her survey that:73
V/ About two-thirds of the cities surveyed had in-service training ¥
for women police. In some cases, this training is similar to that
taken by male officers, supplemented by special on—the-job training.
Several cities provided specialized training in local universities.
Others had high pre-service educational requirements in social work
or related fields.

She notes that there does not seem to be as much variation in
training as in some other areas, but stresses the importance of standardi-
zing such programs. Other parts of her study bring to attention the fact
that the greatest development in police training has come about since
World War II and infers that the trend toward policewomen being trained
with men and in a more highly specialized manner should be seen in this
light.78

The recommendation of the Workshop initiated by International
Association of Chiefs of Police in 1966 is as follows:75

As an integral member of the police team, it is essential that

the policewoman receive the same basic recruit training as provided

the policeman, including instruction in the care and use of firearms.

In addition, a policewoman should receive instruction in the

 

721mm. 73Higgins, 22. 933., p. 97.

71+I_bi-_d_o, p0 1130 75Watson, 22. $0, P. 3.

6O

laws, procedures and practices designed to prevent delinquency
v/and provide increased moral protection for women and minors.

. .\ f "‘“'

This is a reinforcement of the trend noted in the Transitional
Period.

Higgins' survey shows a marked decrease in average age at entrance
required by police departments. About 80% of the departments have a
minimum age of 21, only 11% have 25 as the minimum age for applicants.

She repots entrance requirements of High School to be required by 37% of
the cities, 16% required College, and “7% did not specify a minimum
requirement.7

Current recommendations for education and age as expressed at
the Workshop:77

As a group, policewomen work with other professional people

more than any other officials in the police structure. College
training is always an asset. It is highly desirable, therefore,
that the educational standard for this position be as high as
recruitment will permit in any given community. However, the
minimum standard should be a high school diploma. There are
reasons for accenting youth . . . the arduous nature of the
duties . . . Moreover, competition for youth is keen among all
specialized fields of endeavor; law enforcement agencies must
seek to obtain their fair share of the best human resources
available. For these reasons, it is recommended that the age
requirements for policewomen conform with those of the policemen,
with the minimum age established at 21 years.

Organizational structure continues to be a mixture, but there is
more acceptance of women in various divisions of the department besides
the Women's Division. In fact such flexibility is openly advocated. This
is not to say that differences of opinion no longer occur. A New York City

78

Police Officer discussing Vice and Gambling investigations states:

 

76Higgins, op. cit., p. 92. 77W
78
Capt. Frederick W. Egen, Plainclothesman: §_Handbook'2£ Vice
and Gamblin Investigation (New York: Arco Publishing Co., Inc., 19525,
p. 12:.

atson, op. cit., pp. 1-2.

61

Policewomen should be included in these units. Chief Inspector
August W. Flath of New York City's Police Department inaugurated
a pilot program that succeeded in determining the true worth of
policewomen in this field. They can not only make their own
arrests, but they materially assist plainclothes men in effecting
arrests.

He rates such "undercover" work highly because of its value in
eliminating the need for paid informers. 0. W. Wilson, one of the leading

police administrators in the country, on the other hand expresses this

79

view:

There does not seem to be justification for regular assignment
of policewomen to the vice division. Their services should be
available, however, so that they may be called on in cases involving
young girls and inexperienced women. A

Typical of the new philosophy is the way the New York City Police
Department deploys its policewomen. In 1960, Theresa M. Melchionne, then
Director of the Bureau of Policewomen, reported that two-thirds of the
253 women employed were dealing directly with detection and investigation
of crime. These policewomen are assigned to the Bureau of Policewomen, and

to various specialized detective squads; the remaining policewomen are

80

assigned to work in Youth Bureau. She explains:

The investigative skills deve10ped in the Bureau of Policewomen
serve the entire Department, for the Bureau acts as a "pool" for
all units having an occasional need for policewomen's services.
Policewomen are available for short-term assignments; these may
include relatiwiy simple tasks, such as acting as a companion to
male officers in order to allay suspicion; or tasks requiring more
skill, such as "tailing," or such arduous and dangerous assignments
as trafficking with known and hardened criminals and racketeers in
an assumed role to obtain vitally needed information . . . g

{any units in the Department require the services, of policewomen

 

79O. W. Wilson, Police Planning (Springfield, Illinois: Charles
c. Thomas, 1957), p. 123. ‘

OTheresa M. Melchionne, "The Role of Policewomen in the
Investigative Function," The Police Yearbook, 1960, pp. 166, 169.

62
on a year-round basis; for example, the Narcotics Bureau, the
Pickpocket and Confidence Squad, and the Missing Persons Bureau.
Policewomen are detailed from the Bureau of Policewomen, made an
integral part of these units, and designated as detectives. These
women may win advanced detective ratings in recognition of demon-
strated effectiveness.

Though not all departments suscribe to the newer theory, it is
much more acceptable now than it was in earlier periods.

In 1961, the number of cities having separate divisions for
policewomen, according to the survey by Higgins, amounted to only 27% of
the responding cities. No answer was received from 5% and 68% reported
not having a separate division.

The WorkshOp reviewed the various types of organizational
structure used to incorporate policewomen into a department and suggested
that that the individual department had to decide which would be best,
recommending only that "the police executive take measures to insure the
availability of her services to every unit of the department, as the
need arises".82 They stated in summary:83

There are merits and liabilities in both centralization and

decentralization, as organizational patterns. Under each structure,
of critical concern is the degree to which deployment flexibility
is responsive to the exigencies of the service, and the degree
to which standards of performance are maintained uniformly
throughout the agency.

3 Promotional Opportunity has always been one of the greatest p

areas of deficiency, and according to current literature, while the

the situation continues to improve, it is still an area of great

 

81Higgins, op. cit., p. 95. 82Watson, op. cit., p. 5.

831bid., p. h.

63
8A

limitations. In 1955 one writer stated:

The worst aspect of working conditions for women in law
enforcement is the generally poor advancement, or promotion
outlook . . . True, in the larger departments where there are
sizable female units there are some higher equivalent ranks
and pay assigned to the women. In other departments, a woman
will receive the higher pay of a sergeant or lieutenant, when
she is supervisor of the female unit, but will not be awarded the
higher rank. Again, many departments do not keep their women
officers together as a unit for general administration, but
disperse them throughout the varioustnits of the department.

When this happens there is practically no opportunity for a woman
to receive advancement of any kind.

By 1961 Higgins was only able to report 21% of the cities in her
survey as offering opportunity for advancement.85
Felicia Shpritzer, a policewoman in the Juvenile Aid Bureau of
the New York City Police Department began stating the case for better
promotional opportunities for women in that Department in the late 1950's.
She pointed out that New York, unlike other large cities, provided no
promotional opportunities for women, even within the Women's Division.
She notes they provide for the designation of four first grade detectives,
10 second grade detectives and 56 third grade detectives among the women,
but she further notes that even this much advancement is not possible for
those assigned to the Juvenile Aid Bureau. She contends that "According
to the City Administrative Code, patrolmen and policewomen have equal
status.“ In practice, this equality applies in all matters except for

86

promotion to sergeant."

 

8%

John J. O'Connor, Jr., Opportunities ip Law Enforcement (New
York: Vocational Guidance Manuals, 1955) pp. 86-7.

85Higgins, loc. cit.
86Felicia Shpritzer, " A Case for the Promotion of Policewomen

in the City of New York," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police
Science, 50 (November-December 19597, p. 516.

6A
In spite of her efforts, and the logic of her position, it was
I not until 196A that policewomen of that city were permitted to take the
exam, and not until November 1965 that she and another woman were appointed X
bf'to Sergeant. And, this was only done after a court struggle which went
to the Court of Appeals. In January 1967 another landmark court decision
was handed down when it was reported: "The petitioners argued success-
fully that if they had been permitted to participate in the Sergeant
promotion examination when it was originally held, they would have been
promoted in time to take the Lieutenant promotion examination."87
o/6Progress in this city anyway, is being made only through court litigation.
Function and duties are much wider today than in the past, as
recognized in the expanding organizational decentralization noted above.
The expansion of duties, while it exists, is sometimes hard to pin down,
and is sometimes confusing. As Evabel Tenny observes:
There has been very little published in the way of standards
of performance for policewomen, probably because the duties of
women police vary so widely depending on the needs, and customs,
of the departments to which they are assigned.
Perhaps one of the few effats to officially standardize what
policewomen can do was attempted at the Workshop at Indiana University.

The resulting recommendations indicate that the policewoman can success—

fully be used in almost any type of investigation, depending upon the needs

 

87William Goffen, "Civil Service Law and You: Promotion for
Policewomen," The Leader New York State Civil Service Paper (January 3,

1967), p. 6.

8Evabel Tenny, "Women's Work in Law Enforcement," Journal pf
Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Sciences, #4 (July-August 1533)
p. 240.

65
of the department, the skills and aptitude of the policewoman and the
aptness of the administrator.89 The report in its several sessions
considered the role of the policewoman in its various aspects, and noted
many areas where further development might well take place-~civi1 rights,
more extensive use of some policewomen in interrogation, and various
other aspects of the job. Unfortunately there is not time here to fully
discuss the aspects of the policewoman's job as touched on in the report.

The new trend as noted in the literature of this period would

seem to be summed up clearly by the Philadelphia Police Administrators
who have declared:90

Philadelphia policewomen have disproved the theory that a
policewoman should only be utilized in investigations of young
children, teenage girls and old women. This is antiquated in A
modern society. The new concept of well-trained, alert young
policewomen, successfully deployed in the area of police-community
relations, narcotics, homicide, vice and felony investigations, as
well as in the area of the enlarging juvenile delinquency field,
has been tested and validated.

The use of the new modern Policewoman in all phases of law
enforcement is rapidly becoming a necessary technique in all
efficient police departments that give maximum police services
to the pUbliCe

The evolvement of a modern concept, speaks for itself through

the literature. Failure of the President's Commision on Law Enforcement
to consider more closely this area of police functioning, which as can be
seen in so much in need of further study, is disappointing. The Workshop

sponsored by International Association of Chiefs of Police contains much

stimulating material, and will be of much value in future developments

 

89

90Philadelphia Police Department, The Philadelphia_Policewoman,

1959, p. 16.

Watson, 020 Cite, pp. 9‘13.

66
in the field, especially if followed through.

Again it is necessary to caution the reader that because of the
diversity and lack of details concerning the various surveys cited, it is
impossible to determine if the definition of policewoman as utilized in
this paper was so utilized in these studies. Therefore, the reader should
be aware that they are cited in order to give a general idea of the growth

of the movement, but are not guaranteed to be exact and completely comparable.

lllIlll-Vllllllllllrrlultlilllll'llll"

CHAPTER IV
METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The hypothesis and model form a framework to guide the present
inquiry. The review of the literature provides a basic look into the
historical aspects and the development of the policewoman's role. But,
in order to more fully explore the credibility of the hypothesis, greater
insight into the present reality of the use of policewomen today is
necessary.

As is pointed out in Chapter III, earlier literature often deals
with concrete organizational situations, probably much more so than current
literature. Therefore, the literature, while being a good source of
information, and perhpas the only source of much historical information,
only acts as a springboard for inspiring further concrete inquiry into

present actuality.
I. METHOD

Initially, a survey was considered the best way of obtaining
current, pertinent information on thegmployment of policewomen. A
questionnaire was designed along typical lines similar to those used in
the Model. The questions were chosen for importance of content and were
objective requiring only short answers. However, in spite of efforts
to keep it simple, the survey instrument was lengthy and somewhat awkward.
(See Appendix I.)

Realizing the reluctance with which such a survey instrument

68
might be met, it seemed that an alternative method should be considered.
The only other alternative was the use of personal interviews. This
solution would substantially reduce the number of cities that could be
polled, but it would eliminate the problem of failure to respond.
Furthermore, personal contact allows for more depth of observation than
questionnaire.

With these things in mind, it was decided to combine the two
ideas. Several personal interviews would be sought and the questions
from the questionnaire would serve to guide the line of questioning--
though at no time would the interviewee see or be asked directly to fill
in the questionnaire. The interviewee was not informed of the real pur-
pose for which the interview was being conducted or sought as such know-

ledge might inhibit candid answering.

II . PROCEDURE

In each instance except one, the interview was sought by means

of written request. It should be noted that for the purpose of this paper

"interviewer" will refer to the writer, and "interviewee" will be used to
denote the police official in the particular jurisdiction where the
interview was being conducted. In the written communication sent out
about eight to ten days before the date sought, the writer expressed an
interest in seeking a job in law enforcement, noted she was presently
employed by the Erie County Department of Social Welfare, and also cited
the fact she was a part-time police matron for the Town of Hamburg Police
since 196A. (See Appendix II for an example of this letter.) Thus an
attempt to set up a legitimate reason for the questions asked, and a

personal connection with police work was cited in order to encourage

69
greater cooperation or rapport.

The cities selected were chosen because of easy accessibility
and size. They are among the forty largest cities in the United States.
If said forty cities were to be divided into groups of ten according to
size, each of the cities cited in this paper would lie in a different
group. Thus, basing representation on size alone, they are to be con-
sidered fairly representative.

With one exception, the interviews were conducted on three
successive Friday afternoons in September of 1967. The fourth interview
was arranged more informally, by personal contact and by telephone con-
versation. In this case, the interviewee might have suspected the infor-
mation would be for thesis use because of previous contacts over a period
of time. However, it was felt it could still be included because of the
writer's greater knowledge of the department involved.

This then was the general set up for gaining the information
used in the case studies presented in the following chapter. Any other
significant difference which may have effected an interview or the find-

ings will be noted in the individual profiles.

CHAPTER V

FOUR PROFILES

The main source of information for each of the profiles that
follow was an interview with a ranking policewoman in the individual
police department. Any variation from this main source is noted as nec-
essary. The major portion of each profile consists of comparable factual
data gathered during the interviews. This is presented under tOpical
heading conforming to major points stressed in the Model. An additional
"Miscellaneous" heading is used in order to include factual information
which is inconsistent with the other headings.

In order to be as complete as possible, each profile is intro-
duced with a short summary of available historical data on the particular
department, and is followed by a section devoted to the interviewer's
comments and reactions. It was decided that it would be best to place
this latter, somewhat more subjective information, separately, so as to
preserve the basic integrity of the profile proper. The profiles are

presented in the order in which the interviews were administered.

I. PROFILE OF CITY "A"

Very little historical information is available on this city.
However, a few dates of first appointments as noted in early surveys
would indicate that they were among the first to employ both police
matrons and police women. The first police matron appointment was re-
corded as being made in 1877, and as of 1925, they had four (9) matrons.

The same source reports the first appointment of a policewoman as 1913,

71
and indicates that as of 1925 there was still only one (1) policewoman
employed.1 Another aurce indicates that this first policewoman in City
A was appointed under civil service.2

Numbers. Currently, City A employs both police matrons and
policewomen. The present complement of matrons includes one relief and
three full-time employees. Eight (8) policewomen are presently employed,
two of them holding the ranking positions of Sergeant and Lieutenant,
respectively.

The total number of sworn personnel in the Department is approx-
imately 550. Policewomen are under civil service and receive the same
pay and benefits as the male officers.

It was noted during the interview that the Table of Organization
for this Department actually provides for a total of twelve (12) police-
women, including a Sergeant and a Lieutenant. However, in recent years,
four (A) women who either retired or resigned were replaced by men.

Entrance Requirements. These vary from exam to exam. The age
requirement several years ago specified that one be over 21 and under 55.
During the most recent exam, about two years ago, the upper age limit was
extended to 39.

The educational requirement was the same for the women as it was
for the men. However, this too was changed during the last exam; women

were expected to have two years of college or the equivalent in experience.

 

1Chloe Owings, Women Police: A Study pf the Development and
Status of the Women Police Movement (New York: Frederick H. Hitchcock,

19255 , "55.7%, 285.

2Maude E. Miner, "The Policewoman and the Girl Problem",
National Conference pf Social Work: 1912, p. 15#.

72

Training. Policewomen receive exactly the same recruit training
as patrolman. This included defensive tactics training. Policewomen are
occasionally, at the discretion of the instructor, excused from a class
dealing with a topic such as accident investigation, with which they are
rarely involved. Policewomen do not, on the other hand, receive any
specialized courses designed for them alone.

The policewomen also receive about the same amount of in-service
training as the men. This city's policewomen have also had the opportun-
ity to attend several seminars or short-courses. The Sergeant interview-
ed said she had attended a course on alcoholism at Rutgers University,
and she noted that most of the women working with juveniles had had the
opportunity to attend the summer course at St. Lawrence University. She
did admit that sometimes a little "pushing" was needed in order to obtain
these opportunities for the women.

Organization and Distribution. Until about three years ago the

 

policewomen in this Department were organized in a separate Women's
Bureau. However, at that time, a reorganization occurred and the police-
women were assigned to the Persons Unit of the Detective Division's
Central Investigation Service. This Unit, which appears to be closely
connected with the Juvenile Division, has a complement of a woman Lieuten-
ant, a woman Sergeant and three policewomen. These women deal with
juveniles and missing women. They also assist other detective units
when called upon. The other three policewomen in the department are
assigned to the Morals Squad, the Vice Squad and the Community Relations
Unit, respectively.

A further reorganization is currently under way, in which the

Lieutenant is to be in charge of all Missing Persons cases. The

73

Sergeant described herself as a line sergeant in charge of the police-
women in the Persons Unit. Thus, there will occur some shift of duties
in accordance with this reorganization.

Promotional Opportunigy. Promotional opportunity exists in this
department, but it is obviously limited at the present time. The only
promotions presently provided for exist among the women only, that is
women are not placed in command over men.

It was noted that none of the policewomen have achieved the
status of detective--even those who work in special detective bureau
assignments.

Functions and Duties. As seen by the organizational structure
previously described, this Department utilized policewomen in a variety
of functional positions.

The duties of the policewomen vary according to their assign-
ments. Those in the Persons Unit mainly investigate cases involving
children. According to the new organizational set up the Lieutenant
will be in charge of'gll cases involving missing persons. The women in
the Persons Unit may be called upon to aid the various detective units
and the Sergeant interviewed stated that the detectives did utilize
their services. But there was no real indication of the frequency or
extent to which this actually occurred.

The exact duties of the policewomen in the other detective
units was not described, but it was indicated that the woman in the Morals
Squad was primarily responsible for a unique records system, and it was
noted that the woman in Community Relations did a great deal of public
speaking.

All the policewomen engage in public speaking and they may be

71+
called on for emergency matron duty at times when none of the matrons are
available.

Very little patrol duty is done by the policewomen. Those in the
Persons Unit do some store patrol to detect shoplifters. There is no
scheduled patrol of juvenile hangouts or recreation areas though this was
a regular part of their job a few years ago. Curtailment of this activ-
ity was primarily attributed to the current decrease in numbers.

Miscellaneous. Policewomen here work in plainclothes, except
for Special occasions when they don uniforms. The uniform is supplied
by the Department; gloves, tie and shoes must be purchased by the indiv—
idual officer. The women are equipped with a gun and handcuffs which are
also provided by the department.

The investigations per policewoman in the Persons Unit was des-
cribed as about five cases per day. It was also noted that because of
lack of numbers, policewomen are not regularly scheduled for night shifts.

Comments 22E Reaction. Several points of interest emerged from
this interview. The most significant to the interviewer was the acknow-
ledgement that though there is an authorization for twelve policewomen,
there are now only eight employed. There are no plans to hold civil
service tests for policewomen in the near future, but the startling as-
pect was that they had "replaced" with men four policewomen who had left
the Department. One's immediate reaction has to be the observation that
for some reason the top administrators in the Department are not particu-
larly impressed with the necessity or usefulness of policewomen.

It was freely admitted that the Younger officers seem to accept
policewomen more objectively than do some of the older officers and ad-

ministrators. Part of this resentment seems to center around the feel-

75

ing that if men were able to handle cases by themselves in the past, why
are policewomen necessary? It was also indicated that administrators may
feel concerned because of personnel problems that have occurred. How-
ever, it is felt that these problems have been exaggerated due to the
small number and high visibility of women. No elaboration of specific
problems was discussed.

None of the policewomen have attained the status of detective,
even those working in specialized units. It was indicated that they
would like blanket status as detectives since they work in plainclothes.
There exists somewhat of an underlying conflict here, which can be a
source of resentment for both policewomen and detectives.

Finally, the fact that much organizational change has occurred
over recent years and may occur in the future should be noted. The inter-
viewee indicated that changes favorable to the existence of the police-
women may occur since a new Police Commissioner has recently taken office.

The interviewer spoke to only the one officer in this Department,

but was impressed by the informality and candidness of the interview.

II. PROFILE OF CITY "B"

The first matron was appointed here in 1886, and as of 1925 the
city had four matrons. However, in contrast with City A, City B did not
formally appoint its first policewoman until 1925. This appointment was
made under civil service, and as of 1925 the Woman's Division consisted
of four policewomen who received the same pay as patrolmen. A fifth
woman who was appointed Director of the Bureau received the rank and pay

3

of Captain.

 

3Owings, Ibid., pp. 285, 142-5.

76

Numbers. This Department presently employs a total of forty-six
sworn female personnel. This includes a complement of five officers--

a Captain, a Lieutenant and three Sergeants-and thirty-five policewomen

in the Women's Bureau, and six policewomen in addition to the five officers,
but has never been actually up to full strength. Thus vacancies do exist,
but the interviewee stated that there were no immediate plans for increas-
ing the number authorized in the budget. There were hopes that provisions
would be made for at least two more in the not too distant future. Even
this though, would not bring them up to full strength.

Six matrons are employed by the department.

Entrance Requirements. High School or High School Equivalency
diploma is the only educational requirement. In discussing this, the
Lieutenant with whom the interview was conducted noted that college people
do not seem to like the job. She gave possible reasons for this as the
routineness of the job, the increasing lack of respect for law enforce-
ment officers displayed by the public, and the lack of promotional
opportunities.

Age qualifications are twenty-one to thirty-one. The upper
limit was just extended last year; previously, it was twenty-nine. Res—
idency is required after appointment.

Training. Policewomen here also, receive the same recruit
training as the men, with somewhat less intensive self-defense. In-ser-
vice training occurs on an as-needed basis, and was about the same for
the women as for the men. As for other types of opportunities, the inter-
viewer noted that the policewomen do go to some seminars and mentioned
iichigan State University and Kent State as examples.

Organization and Distribution. Policewomen in this city are

77

assigned mainly to the Women's Bureau. In addition to this, there is one
assigned to the Chief's Office, three are assigned to the Sex Crime Unit
(newly established this year), and two are assigned to the Pandering Unit.
The latter two units are in the Detective Bureau. Distribution in this
city then is a combination of true centralization (in a Women's Bureau),
and decentralization.

Promotional Opportunity. There are provisions for five women
ranking officers-—a Captain, giLieutenant, and three Sergeants. Thus,
promotional opportunity does exist within the Women's Bureau. The ranks
are civil service.

There are also limited opportunities to obtain detective status.
No one in the policewomen's centralized bureau can presently hold detec-
tive status, but those assigned to the two detective units automatically
hold detective status for as long as they have that assignment.

Functions 222.222i2fi‘ This Department utilizes policewomen in
a variety of functional positions. Unfortunately, the Lieutenant inter-
viewed did not go into a great deal of detail as to the actual duties of
the women who have assignments other than the Women's Bureau.

The women assigned to the Women's Bureau handle complaints
against female juveniles, that is girls to the age of eighteen, and miss-
ing girls to the age of twenty-one. They also handle cases of neglected
or abused children and school situations. They deal with boys to the age
of nine, if abuse is involved--beyond this age the complaint is handled
by a Juvenile Officer. The only exception is that the policewomen may
interview all involved on a morals complaint. And, if the individuals
involved in the latter are over eighteen, the case is taken by the Sex

Crime Unit. There are no policewomen assigned to the Missing Persons

‘I «“III [AI

78
Bureau in this city.

Policewomen are always assigned in teams. This was justified
because it was felt that two can handle emergency situations much more
eXpediently than they are handled when an individual officer has to call
for help, or arrange a rendevous to obtain aid. Also, two witnesses are
better than one when a case goes to court.

About four to six months ago, a new policy was started whereby
policewomen patrol juvenile trouble spots. On the day shift patrol, the
women wear uniforms; on afternoon shift, they do not. These special
patrols are conducted in unmarked cars, and are suspended at times when
the regular caseload becomes heavy. In general, the Lieutenant stated
they try to have four teams or women, one of which takes the special
patrol, on duty during the day shift, three teams on duty during the late
afternoon shift; and an emergency team on duty during the midnight shift.
She eXplained this does not always work out perfectly because of illness,
days off, vacations and unforseen events.

It was stated that policewomen were not asked to perform matron
duty, but that one policewoman was assigned to jail to take the public
intoxication cases to court. This assignment is made on a monthly basis.

In the Sex Crimes Unit, policewomen team up with male personnel
in investigation of morals charges involving persons over eighteen years
of age. The Pandering Unit deals with commercialized sex crimes such as
prostitution. No details were given about the duties of the policewoman
assigned to the Chief's Office.

Miscellaneous. Policewomen here generally work in plainclothes.
Uniforms and equipment are furnished by the Department, a recurring cloth-

ing allowance is also given. The Women's Division is provided with five

79
cars--the better of the older unmarked detective cars, when the detectives
get new ones.

Because of the fluctuating volume of complaints which come in to
the Bureau, the Lieutenant refused to offer any estimate as to average
number of cases handled per policewoman.

This Department does provide a pregnancy leave, which extends
from the fourth month of pregnancy until the baby is six months old.
Married policewomen have only been allowed on the Department since 1995.

Comments and Reaction. The Women's Bureau in this city is not
housed at Headquarters, it is housed in a recently built District Head-
quarters building, along with the Juvenile Bureau. The interview itself
was conducted in the "front office" portion of the Women's Bureau sec-
tion of the building. After the interview, the interviewer was conducted
for a very brief glance at the area where the policewomen do most of their
work-~a large cinderblock room with many desks and file cabinets. No
attempt was made to introduce the interviewer to any of the women work-
ing there. Interviewer was encouraged to file for next exam.

The interviewer's query as to the possibility of seeing the Main
Headquarters was quickly dismissed and discouraged. The fact that a
policewoman could not be spared to conduct such a tour is understandable,
but discouraging the idea completely puzzled the interviewer. The possible
reasons behind this reaction were generally ascertained later when the
interviewer appeared unannounced at Headquarters. It seems that most
visitors, even police visitors, are given a planned guided tour by the
Public Relations Unit. Furthermore, the Headquarters facilities seen on
the short, "unauthorized" tour received, are not as up-to-date as the

District Headquarters had been.

80
Prevention and youth work is stressed in the Women's Bureau of
this Department. It was stated that the policewomen assist detective
units upon request. However, substantiation of this claim was not apparent
in the interview. In fact, the interviewer left with the impression that
the main use of women is in raid situations-~for the protection of the men

from false charges.
III. PROFILE OF CITY "C"

This city did not appoint police matrons until 189A, but as of
1925, they had fourteen matrons in their employ. Their first policewoman
appointment was made in 1914, and five policewomen were employed as of
1925.4 No other historical information is available.

Numbers. Both matrons and policewomen are employed at this time
by City C, and the immediate commanding officer of both is the Captain
with whom the interviewer spoke.

She indicated that there are fourteen policewomen directly
under her command, and fifteen matrons. She noted that there was one
policewoman in a unit not directly under her command. Thus, the total
number of policewomen employed, including the Captain, is sixteen.

The policewomen here are civil service, but their pay scale is
lower than that of male personnel. Furthermore, they do not receive the
same pension plan as the men; they retire under a municipal pension plan

which is substantially lower than the police pension plan under which

the men retire.

 

59p.'§ip., pp. 284-5.

81

Entrance Requirements. The age limits in this city are twenty-
one and thirty-five. A high school education is required. The Captain
further elaborated that a background of experience in nursing or social
work was preferred.

A minimum of two years residence within the city is required be-
fore a person is eligible to even file for the exam.

Training. Recruit training for the policewomen is the same as
for men except that they receive no self-defense or firearms training.
Firearms training is not needed because the women do not carry guns;
however, the lack of self-defense training is not so easily justified.

No particular reason was given for eliminating this subject for the
women, but several of the women themselves admitted they felt such train-
ing should be given.

In-service training is about the same for both the men and the
women--especially roll call training.

A clear answer was not received on the availability of other
types of training for the policewomen. The Captain indicated that she
had been sent to some seminars and conferences, but did not specify which
ones. No indication was given as to whether this Opportunity was ever
given to the other policewomen.

Ogganization and Distribution. The policewomen are centrally

 

organized and comprise the Missing Persons Bureau, a unit within the De-
tective Division. One policewoman is assigned to the Youth Bureau.

There are no assignments of relatively permanent type to any
other bureaus or units within the Department at this time, and there are
no plans along such lines for the future. '

Promotional Opportunity. There is extremely limited promotion-

al opportunity within this Department. At present, there is only one

82

ranking officer; it was not ascertained at this time whether this is a
civil service position. Due to the generally lower status on which the
women seem to be placed in this department, it would not be surprising to
find that this is an appointment without civil service status.

Despite the fact that the Missing Persons Unit is a Bureau of
the Detective Division, none of the policewomen have attained the status
of detective. It seems that this status is not available to them at the
present time.

Functions 229 Duties. These too seem to be quite limited in this
Department. As seen by the organizational structure, there is not even
an attempt to make them look somewhat functionally useful by making assign-
ments outside the Missing Persons Bureau.

Contradictory statements were received in answer to inquiries
as to how extensively the Detective Units make use of the policewomen on
short term assignments. The Captain indicated that such use was quite
frequent, but on talking with various people within the Detective Units dur-
ing a tour of their facilities, just the opposite was indicated. One Unit
head indicated the policewomen are not even generally used by this Unit
when taking statements from females, unless the female would be quite
young. The answers received may be accounted for to some extent by the
fact of differing viewpoints. However, the suspicion that the other units
do not make extensive use of policewomen seems confirmed when one recog-
nizes that there is only one woman assigned to the Juvenile Bureau, though
the total personnel there amounts to seventeen officers.

The policewomen work in uniforms on all occasions except on
special assignments to the Detective Bureaus. Even the woman in the

Juvenile Bureau works in uniform, though all other members of the unit,

83
whether of detective, patrolman or other rank, wear plainclothes. Up to
about a year ago, the women always wore street clothes and, in fact, did not
have uniforms even for special occasions. However, since about the beginn—
ing of this past year the new policy went into effect.

One of the policewomen indicated that since this policy has gone
into effect their duties are much more limited. Present duties mainly
include the tracing of missing persons, which is accomplished almost
entirely through desk work. Generally speaking, there is no patrol, or
any other type of work done through this office. Also, the policewomen
are sometimes used to replace office personnel in other Detective units.
It was suggested that the work was much more diversified, and enforcement
oriented previous to the current practice. The new policy seems to be one
of the changes brought about in a current reorganization resulting from
IACP studies.

The amount of police work being done by the woman assigned to
the Juvenile Bureau would appear to be small due to the fact she works in
uniform. In a Unit where plainclothes and unmarked cars usually are the
practice, it is questionable how often they utilize her. Further, if
policewomen were considered valuable in juvenile investigations, it would
seem that more policewomen would be assigned there.

Miscellaneous. Policewomen here wear uniforms but do not carry
guns or handcuffs. The uniform is initially paid for by the women, then
a yearly clothing allowance is given.

No approximations were hazarded as to the number of cases
carried by each policewoman. It was merely stated that cases were

assigned as they came in.

8A

The women have no car assigned for their use. However, as of
recent months they have been given the privilege of using public trans-
portation free.

The physical facilities in which they are housed, the Headquarters
Building, provided a very pleasant atmosphere. The general appraisal of
the Department, after the tour received, would have to be one of approval.
The Department has modern, up-to-date communications, IBM and identification
systems.

Comments 223 Reaction. Most of the information gained in this
city was not given by the Captain of the Women's Bureau, with whom the
interview was originally scheduled, but was obtained through talking with
several of the policewomen and others in the Department during a tour
conducted by one of the policewomen. The public relations value of the
tour cannot be denied, but unfortunately, it failed to conceal the rather
obvious deficiencies regarding the employment and use of policewomen.

There is a definite lack of promotional Opportunity, and it
appears they are limited in type of duty performed. The fact of their
working in uniform almost all of the time seems to confirm this impression.
The Juvenile Unit is a prime example of the point that is being made. In
that unit, personnel include both detectives and patrolmen, but all of
them operate in plain clothes. The policewoman is the only uniformed per-
son in the Unit. In view of her visibility, her use on investigations
appears to be extremely limited and one wonders if she is not utilized
more in a secretarial capacity.

The fact that many of these practices have come in the wake of

an IACP suggested reorganization was quite puzzling. Several questions

85
arose in the interviewer's mind: Were the particular practices cited
IACP suggested or backed? Did these practices arise from previous per-
sonnel problems? If the practices were backed by or suggested by IACP,
what was the reasoning behind them. If the interviewer's impressions
were not too far removed from reality, one questions why they were not
replaced with secretaries or civilian personnel. Of course, the limita-
tions of the present information must always be kept in mind before
jumping to such conclusions. However, this city was particularly inter-
esting in the overall picture it presented and most directly invited
further research because of the many questions left unanswered.

Another seeming contradiction that should be noted was the
Captain's stress on preference of a background of nursing or social
work, in spite of the fact that only one of the policewomen works with

juveniles.
IV. PROFILE OF CITY "D"

This city appointed its first police matrons in 1890, and its
first women police in 1916. By 1925 there reportedly were five police
matrons and five policewomen. No information on their civil service
status at that time is available.

Numbers. This Department now employs a total of sixteen
policewomen, including one holding the status of Detective sergeant.
Six matrons are employed.

The policewomen are civil service employees and receive the
same pay and benefits as the men of the Department. There are no
plans at this time to increase the number of policewomen. However, the

last civil service list expired recently, and another civil service exam

86
may be held next year. This list would provide a roster of names in case
any vacancies occur.

Entrance Requirements. Minimum qualifications for the last eli—
gible list included age requirements of twenty-five to thirty—nine.

A high school education is required, but a high school equiv-
alency diploma is acceptable. This is the same as for patrolmen.

Training. Women here receive exactly the same recruit training
as the men. This includes training in firearms and self-defense.

In-service training too, is the same. They report that they
even receive the same riot—control training as male personnel.

Policewomen have been sent to various seminars and conferences,
though probably not as frequently as the men. St. Lawrence University
was cited as one of the extra training sessions attended, and it was
noted that several of the women have attended various sessions held at
local colleges and institutions.

0rganization.gpg Distribution. Policewomen here have a functionally
centralized-decentralized organizational pattern. That is, the majority
of women serve under the direct supervision of a woman Detective Sergeant.
Six others are assigned to various units throughout the department.

The main contingent of policewomen, nine, are assigned to the
Crime Prevention Bureau, which is headed by a Captain. However, these
women have a separate office and are under the direct supervision of a
woman Detective Sergeant. This Sergeant also supervises the matrons.

The other six policewomen are each detailed to a different unit--
Narcotics, Sex, Special Frauds, Court Detail, Commissioner's Office and
Inspector's Office.

Promotional Opportunity. Very limited promotional opportunity

87
exists in this Department. The one supervisory position that exists in
this Department. The one supervisory position that exists, that of
Detective Sergeant, includes a pay increase, but is not a civil service
position. This position has only existed since the early 1960's.

None of the other policewomen has been accorded detective status,
even though some of them are serving in detective units.

Functions 32g Duties. The women here appear to be used mostly
for juvenile cases and to take statements from women who are victims of
sex offenses. It was also stated that they are used as decoys for purse
snatchers, make narcotics "buys" and sometimes place bets in order to
assist detectives in getting evidence. How extensively or how often they
were called upon to make such assists was not ascertainable.

In dealing with juveniles, stress is placed on prevention and
enforcement; no case work is done. The policewomen do act as liason
in initial contacts between the individual and a social agency where
possible. 8

At present, there is little or no regularly scheduled patrol
activity, that is, patrol of stores or juvenile trouble spots. They do
patrol the high school sporting events. This special patrol is done both
in uniform and in street clothes.

A major portion of the policewoman's work is serving warrants
on females. Also, they often have to serve tours of matron duty, when
matrons become ill or are on vacation.

The policewomen in special units presumably have more opportunity
to work with detectives on investigations; however, there is evidence that

they are often used more in a secretarial role, or to assist in raids.

88

This would probably be especially true of those policewomen assigned to
the Commissioner's Office and the Inspector's Office. The woman assigned
to the Sex Unit indicated that her main function is keeping the records
and files relating to sex crimes.

Work schedules for the policewomen in this city are set up on a
round-the-clock, seven day week basis.

In addition to the above duties, the policewomen engage in public
speaking and conduct tours of the Headquarters building when such are
requested.

Miscellaneous. The policewomen here wear uniforms, but only on

 

Special occasions or particular assignments. The women must pay for their
own uniforms and equipment.

The policewomen have the use of one car.

No information was readily available as to the amount of cases
carried per woman.

The physical facilities set aside for the use of policewomen
was quite limited. They are confined to several small rooms which contain
a couple of desks, This is not necessarily a Sign of discrimination
against them as the physical facilities of the Department as a whole are
quite limited and cramped. However, its effect on morale must be con-
sidered.

Comments 223 Reaction. The interview was conducted with the
Detective Sergeant; also present was the woman assigned to the Sex Unit.
Most of the information contained here is the result of this interview;

a small part is the result of previous contacts with various other
people within the Department.

While the women here are functionally organized for quite a

89
diversity of work, it is doubted that they are actually allowed to take
advantage of it. It has been indicated on several occasions that they
are not allowed to handle the full investigatory process as are the men,
but are rather confined to jobs of assistance--in office work and in
arrests or raids. If this is true, it may well be a major reason why
there are no women who have achieved detective status.

A further problem which seems to exist, but which came to light
only because of longer term contact, is the fact that certain personnel
problems seem more prevalent among the women. That is, they apparently
do not get along as well with one another, and are more prone to exhibit
these feelings rather freely. While this was not really pinpointed here
or in any of the other studies, it would be a point worthy of further
study.

Finally, it should be again noted, that many of the facts cited
above have only been in existence for about five years or so. Before
that time, the policewomen in this city did not have uniforms, and had
no promotional opportunity whatsoever. Furthermore, the number of
policewomen hired by this city had remained static from 1925 until that

time.
V. SUMMARY

The cities studied Showed much more variation than expected.
The lack ofttandardization referred to so often in the literature still
exists. The four cities indicate that even in areas where it might be
assumed there is some accord, such as use of policewomen in juvenile

cases, there is disparity in practice.

90

The greatest shock was in finding a city where the women receive
less pay than patrolmen. The impact of this is further intensified in
light of the realization that this condition continues to exist after an
IACP suggested reorganization.

A greater or lesser degree of functional decentralization found
in the cities seems to confirm the hypothesis of more extensive use,
but such organizational structure in many cases fails to bear full fruit

in reality. Further study of this point is necessary.

CHAPTER VI.

ANALYSIS OF DATA, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

I. ANALYSIS OF DATA

We see in the Review of the Literature a definite change taking
place over the years. There is a gradual and emphatic, though not com-
plete, change in philosophy. Where at first, preventive-protective work
was suggested almost to the exclusion of all else, later literature Shows
the policewoman being considered primarily in her law enforcement function,
though youth work is still emphasized. Policewomen are not utilized
effectively in investigations of all types of crime, and the literature
lauds rather than condemns the practice. Standardization has still not
yet been achieved, but again, the literature rather than stressing one
phase of work for policewomen encourages experimentation which would
broaden her use even more. The policewoman today is presented as a more
integrated part of the police department, while in early literature, the
complete emphasis of her aims seemed to somewhat separate her from her
brother officers at times.

Historical Concepp, Modern Concept EESHEESEl Construct. Here-
after is a brief analysis of the concepts of policewomen as reflected in
the literature and the model construct. (See figure 5 for highlights of
the two concepts.)

In early literature the policewoman was seen mainly as a protec-
tive-preventive agent with police powers, but the social service Side of

her work was emphasized to such a degree that using her for extensive law

 

HISTORICAL CONCEPT .~ MODERN CONCEPT

509W- WORKER W'" ””95 LAW awroacmam cmc—ER
"WW" ascoemame seem. wean
VIEWPOINT.
~ -~ ‘, Uniform accepted-used for spe-
gigofigizggr82? OI uniforms, guns, cial occasion; general acceptance

of guns, handcuffs, as standard

— GENERAL. _ SQUipment.

Arrest only if necessary. Arrest an accepted duty.
Protective preventive function L3“ enforcement function stres-
stressed; almost exclusive em- sed; general emphasis on work
phasis on work with women and With women and children.
children. FUNCTIONS
"_ AND DUTIES —'

Use of policewomen for general Policewomen are utilized for
investigative work not general- general investigations of all
1y accepted. types, even major crimes.
Very limited. Limited, but expanding.

—PROMOTIONAU'—

OPPORTUNITIES b1 1

Very few detective positions Detective po:::ionl avails . n
open to women. '0'. 1‘33. ° 0"
‘dVOOOt. separate VOIOD'I Bur— More readily accept some decen-
0933 8911913113! (10 110“ favor '—ORGANIZAT|0N‘_ tralisation in the use of po—

diversification of women into

licewcsen.
detective bureau.

Encourage 300131 work trgining Encourage social work training
before and after acceptance in- 1riLJKIP‘IPJCS before entrance.

to police service. Receive same recruit and in—serb

 

lo recruit training. V1°° training 83 men.
Minimums recommended: —ENTRANCE Minim‘uzz‘regpmmended:

Ass: 25

Education: High School REQUIREMENTa Education: Encourage at

least two years of College.

5: COMPARISON OF HIGHLIGHTS

93

enforcement work was looked upon unfavorably. Current literature shows that
policewomen are used in all types of investigations. Again, this is seen
in early de—emphasis of arrest, and the fact that it was generally advoca-
ted that women should not carry guns or handcuffs.

In this then, the modern concept is most closely in agreement
with the Model of the policewoman as a law enforcement officer.

That the policewoman adds versatility to the force is noted in
both concepts. The versatility is more emphatic in the historical con-
cept because of the newness of policewomen, but it is more extensive in
the modern concept.

The historical concept and early literature stress the police-
woman's use in a Woman's Division. Her use in various detective bureaus
is generally discouraged because of the emphasis on the protective-
preventive function. The modern concept is more flexible. While not
strenuously advocating the use of policewomen in all functional divisions
as necessary, it encourages and praises such efforts where successful,
and suggest them where they are not in practice.

“x The training of women as generalists is much more apparent in
modern concept than in the historical concept. Early literature stresses
a background in social work. Later literature advocates more strongly the
training of the policewoman in all phases of police work.

Incorporation of policewomen into a department on a centralized
decentralized basis is much more characteristic of the modern concept than
the historical concept. In early literature, recommendation of women
being placed in a Woman's Division received the strongest support. The
modern concept still emphasizes this form of organization, but is more

accepting of some decentralization.

94

Promotion of policewomen on the basis of ability and merit is
encouraged in both the historical concept and the modern concept, but is
more prevalent in the latter. Early promotional Opportunities were
extremely limited, with one of the few available positions of rank being
that of head of the Women's Division. In the later literature it is
xiapparent that more positions of rank have opened pp, even though some
problems still exist in this area.

Entrance requirements are not discussed extensively in the early
literature, but the general recommendations for lower age limit is twenty-
five. Educationally, High School or its equivalent eXperience is
recommended and two years of college is encouraged.

Later literature encourages four years of college, but still
suggests a minimum of High School. The lower age limit is suggested in
later literature as about twenty-one.

The training received during the historical era is spotty and
not necessarily the same as the men. When training was received, it was
often more related to social service than the male officer's training.

In the modern era, it is generally accepted that the policewomen receive
the same or almost the same training as the men.

\J The numbers of policewomen have been steadily increasing over

the years, but even in the modern era do not show the increase in numbers
one would expect in relation to their important contribution.

Thus, it can be seen that though the modern concept relates
closely to the Model, and parallels it in some instances, it does not,

in an over all analysis meet the standards of the Model fully. 80 that,

~2 even phiIOSOphically, full acceptance of the Model does not at present

exist.

Highlights 2f the Profiles in Comparison with the Model. Below,

95
are some of the facts discovered in doing the case studies of what practices
existed in reality. (See Figure 6).

Numbers:

In two cities, (A,B), policewomen were not up to full strength in
numbers. In one of these cities, (A), policewomen were being replaced
by the men.

None of the cities in the study were currently planning any increase
in the number of policewomen hired.

Requirements:

Three of the four cities included in the study had educational re-
quirements of High School or High School Equivalency. Only City A
required two years of college or the equivalent of experience.

All the cities required a minimum age of twenty-one, with the
exception of City D which required a minimum age of twenty-five.
The upper age limit varied from city to city.

Training:

Recruit training was basically the same for men and for women in all
four cities. City C did prove to be the exception because in that
city women did not receive any training in firearms or self-defense.

Organization:

In all the cities there were centralized sections of policewomen,
though the organization structure was under the title of Women's
Bureau only in City B. In two cities (A,D), the women were under
indirect command of the Juvenile Bureau, in the third (C) they
comprised the Missing Persons Bureau.

In two cities (A,C), policewomen had exclusive charge of Missing
Persons, in the other cities (B, D), there were no policewomen
detailed to Missing Persons.

In three of the cities (A,B,D) where policewomen have assignments
outside the centralized section, one such common assignment was

to a Sex Unit.

None of the cities showed operational decentralization. (i.e.
having policewomen detailed to precincts).

Promotional Opportunity:
In only one city (B) were women allowed detective status, and then
it occurred automatically with a particular assignment and terminated

when the assignment was terminated.

In two of the four cities (C,D), there was only one supervisory

 

05.20 M39. 2. zuZO3uUZOm a0 9.4.52.0 HZUMMDU Aw

 

Atho muco>e

H: span assoc
HIOOHNMO o.uo«ooaenH

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

umo H HsHooamv IHonumm oaon HI QOHMMO n.MeHno 2m: anoHs>Havm ho
masseuse: muses uo>ssoopoa 02 HI couscous: Hooaom seem
an ncnpo cH 3pc: eso HI nusahh HaHoenm m4 mxdm
o m neuomwom .oneaosqm _
hut—JD Huang nofiwho Now O>w900¢09 H HI. #HED “Om
Imam sou finesse: anon sage» "nmstHa oan coapeo>owa oaauo manna .msa
on n wHaH
enceu
loo MHee no oceHstsuu no
umo no .esumouHm cs Hoonom anm
. II. "encouen
.nmaaoecaz use oz Houses oz masapoopoa oz an sconce ease» .onsaosqm a,r .
Anon Hnwooam new awe: nose» esom cheaeo H nHI anomaom McHuaH: mzmn
. nmnam .mu4
pmooao suochb mnemaom mchmH: “QMEHEHH m4 midm wH m fiHmH
MHMU m AW¥OQW MQ>HHOQP°Q m “Q0HG§H3£ .HO
mumsoucmm oHHco>snv IHoupmm osom mesmemucm m H: coauuo e.ueano Hooaom amHm
56 85.8 now 23333 H m: in: Mantegna 2m: .oneflsnm >.—u—U
span Mano ago: sage» sausage H mu ”as: cease Mom ma exam
I ”
Imam you snoano "coco 0:1 season n.nesom Hm Hm mod wv m mmmH
H essence unoHe>H=wm
. use. a o a queue name anon no omoaaoo
sumo Hmonoumv IHonuem osom .» H m pm 0 a Mo undo» N Aflw‘
nmhsovnmm mcoHpmH mc>Huoouon 02 HI on: m ooub
56 tom 3225.8 ooflom pcmowuom H H: gnaw n33: .onsqosnm
.35 HmHo nouso new assuage: H an «.25 33th mam: >a—I—U
loam wow ushouHcD Mao: some» .mzom HI anomhom mcHaon m< mzdm mmle «M04 m H MHmH
no? hit Han? .
335339: murSo oz< >tzPEOado zo: _ so @3225. opzmzuzsoum ”when“.
wZOFOZDL J<ZO_._.OZOMQ U02<MFZU

 

 

 

 

 

 

”dun—232

 

 

 

97

position open to policewomen, and in one instance this was known to
be a non-civil service position.

None of the cities in this study showed any promotional opportunities
except within the ranks of the policewomen.

Function and Duties:

Policewomen were involved in working with juveniles in all of the
cities, though only to a very limited degree in City C.

The prevalence of social work philosophy was not apparent in such
short interviews. Law enforcemnnt seemed to be stressed in most
instances, though City B had a strong preventive sense.

In two cities (A,D), policewomen were frequently called upon to
perform matron duty. In Cities B and C they were not.

Patrol activity was not stressed particularly in any of the cities.
Patrol of juvenile trouble spots was begun only recently in City

B, other cities did not have such regularly scheduled patrol. City
A reported doing some patrol work, mainly in the downtown shopping

area. City D patrolled only on special occasions such as athletic
events.

All the cities had some diversification of organization and duty,
but this was extremely limited in City C.

Miscellaneous:
In two of the four cities policewomen had one or more cars at their
disposal--City B, D. In one city (C), they had no cars but could use
public transportation free when necessary. The situation in City A
was undetermined.
Policewomen in all the cities of the study had uniforms. These
were generally used for special occasions or special detail, except

in City C where they were worn constantly.

Policewomen in all cities except C carry firearms, handcuffs, and
receive some self defense training.

From the above it can be readily seen that a variety of practices
exist in reality and that current practice, at least in these cities falls
far short of the Model. T0 briefly summarize: The current practice is in
agreement with the Model in considering the policewoman a law enforcement
officer, but still does not use her as extensively as the Model suggests

she could be used. There is an attempt in several departments to make

98
the policewoman more functionally useful, and her assignments are not
limited to the Women's Division. However, this was not found as
extensively as expected, and further it was impossible to ascertain how
much clerical as opposed to investigative functioning was expected of the
women. If not properly conceived or administered, such a decentralized
program may become a sort of secretarial pool.

Though policewomen were found in various functional sections of
the department studied, it should be noted none were found in admin-
istrative positions, except the heads of the Women's Sections. Only one
city was found to be using policewomen for a regularly scheduled patrol,
though the Model suggests further experimentation along these lines, and
the literature throughout both the historical and modern era have stressed
this function.

In agreement with the Model, it was found that most of the police-
women receive the same basic recruit training as the men, which would give
them the suggested generalist background. However, it seems that in
performing their duties they are confined primarily to juvenile and certain
sex crime investigations and are seldom used by the various detective
bureaus in the departments. Again, this is an impression gained only on
the basis of a short interview, and would have to be studied more before
it could be verified more completely.

This study shows extreme limitations in promotional opportunity.
Only one of the four cities had detective positions open to women at this
time, and this was based more on assignment than on individual merit.

Entrance requirements are low, and as relate to age, are quite
varied. However, they are in general agreement with those suggested in

the Model.

99

II. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study has some obvious limitations. Generalizations must
be carefully defined because of the extremely small sample utilized.
Furthermore, the method employed has several limitations that must be
taken into consideration. Case studies are more subjective than other
methods and this is BSpecially significant when one realizes the data
gathered was gathered on the basis of only one interview. Each interview
was individual. Though the interviewer attempted to keep basic factors
the same, each interview in the end was conducted somewhat differently
as pointed out in the Profiles.

Each interview yielded its own data, most of which was comparable,
but some of which was different insofar as detail was concerned. The
[lineXperience of the interviewer must also be noted. This in addition
to the shortness of time resulted in successive interviews including
more questions, and also in individual interviews terminating without
the answers to one or two questions.

Another weakness of the study is its lack of depth concerning
the individual departments operations. This is again due to two factors.
The inexperience of the interviewer failed to probe in depth on the
basis of the one interview. Perhaps more important, on the basis of the
cover story alone, there was little chance for depth probing into
administrative practices.

Several weaknesses in line of questioning were also noted by
interviewer as the study was conducted. The fact of women being replaced
by men in one department brought up the question of how the women are
attached to the individual department. Are their places established by

charter, or are they merely included organizationally? It would be true

100
in most instances that their inclusion has some legal basis. A future
study might include a question regarding this. Also, the carrying of
handcuffs and weapons, taken for granted in the original survey instru-
ment, should be questioned. Further inquiry pinpointing tne exact sc0pe
of the women's work more accurately would also be advised in any further
study.

However, in spite of the limitations mentioned, there were several
advantages in the method used. Personal interview allowed clearer inter-
pretation of the questions and prevented misinterpretation or confusion
that might have resulted if a questionnaire were used alone. The personal
contact allowed better understanding of the overall situation in which the
policewomen were employed, including physical set up of offices and brought
to the interviewer's attention several factors which would not have other-
wise been noted. In several cases it enabled the interviewer to get more
than one person's viewpoint and thus allowed greater insight into the -
existing situation.

Summary. The present study yielded an interesting array of facts
even though it was a limited study. Through the literature and through
several actual case studies it has been shown that the policewoman's role
or the general concept of that role has expanded and has taken on more
law enforcement emphasis. However, our endeavors have also uncovered or
perhaps more clearly established the fact that this may be more true in
theory than in actuality. As noted in the comparison between the case
studies and the Model, agreement between theory and reality, where it
does exist, may only be on a superficial level.

It is believed that the greatest contribution of this paper is

that it brings to attention the lackcf in depth research on this subject.

101

There is a need to make surveys to bring statistical data on the employment
of policewomen up to date, but there is an even greater need to do some

in depth studies which will endeavor to answer more fully the questions
that arise due to the lack of standardization which exist even today.

The present study just scratched the surface and brought to light some
factors which need to be studied and investigated more thoroughly so that
the employment of policewomen can achieve more effective results.

The Need for Further Research. Some of the questions that come
to mind include: Should policewomen's duties be more rigedly defined, or
should it be expanded? Are personnel problems of policewomen worse or are
they blown out of proportion because of the smaller numbers and greater
visibility of the women? Should the women be placed together in one unit
or should they be more completely decentralized than they now are? Would
such greater decentralization increase or decrease personnel problems?

Why, if policewomen are as necessary as proposed, are they being eliminated
in some places? Is the problem due to poor administration alone, or poor
administration and other problems? Why has there not evolved more stand-
ardization in the employment of policewomen after all these years? What
part of the problems arising from the employment of policewomen is due in
reality to general police problems, and what part is due primarily to the
fact of employing women in a primarily masculine field?

These and many other questions need study and understanding if
policewomen are to fulfill the great potential that their movement has shown
exists. It is hoped then, that the present effort will encourage others
to take up the challenge of such further inquiry.

Conclusions. The hypothesis has been partially validated. A

definite change in the concept of the policewoman's role has been traced

102
in the literature and is apparent in some of the administrative
practices found in reality. However, the changes are not as complete
as the Eodel suggests, that is, certain specific aspects are more generally
accepted than others--both in theory and in practice. While this study
is not conclusive, it does indicate and sometimes confirms certain trends

set forth in the Model.

103

APPENDIX I

A SURVEY TO DETERMINE CURRENT PRACTICES AND TRENDS IN THE

USE OF POLICEWOMEN

Directions: Please read carefully and answer all questions.

I.

l.

2.

3.

Either check (x) the apprOpriate response or fill in your answer,
as necessary.

(Note-- your comments, criticisms and reactions to the questionnaire
are invited. They may be placed on the back of this survey or on a
separate sheet of paper.)

Matron - refers to female employee who guards and tends to the needs
of female prisoners.

Policewomen - sworn female employees of the department who have the
same law enforcement duties and responsibilities as policemen; 523
included in this definition--wcmen who function exclusively as "meter
maids" or crossing guards.

Number of Policewomen (and Matrons) Employed.

Does your department employ police matrons? Yes No

a. If yes-~How many are provided for in the current budget? .

Does your department employ policewomen? ___Ies ___No
If yes--

a. How many are provided for in the current budget? .
If no-

a. Please indicate what seem to be the significant factors in this
continuing non—employment of policewomen:

 

 

 

The total sworn personnel in the department, including policewomen
amounts to .

Are there presently any vacancies in your quota of policewomen?
Yes No

a. If yes--ch many?

II.

I.

2.

3.

5e

104

Are there presently under consideration any plans to change the number

of policewomen provided for in your budget? Yes No

If yes--

a. Tentative plans are to seek an ( increase, decrease) in the
present total by (number of personnel).

 

b. What seem to be the main factors causing consideration of this
change?

 

 

Are policewomen required to act as matrons?

Yes, this is the general practice.
Yes, but only occasionally, in an emergency.
No, never.

Entrance and Educational Requirements.

What is the minimum recruiting age--a) for men?
b) for women?

What is the minimum educational requirement for entrance into your

department-- a) for men

b) for women
Does your department ( recommend or require) any specific pre-
employment courses for women who wish to enter? Yes No

If yes--
What are these recommendations (or requirements)?

 

 

Is the position of policewoman a civil-service position?
Yes No.

Please indicate the number of policewomen in your department at each
of the following educational levels:

 

 

Doctorate 2 years of college (without degree)
Manor's Degree High School

Bachelor‘s Degree High School Equivalency

Associate Degree Less than the above.

III. Training: Recruit and In-Service

1.

Under present recruit training in your department do the men and women
receive exactly the same training? Yes No

2.

3.

5.

105

If not--
a. Do you have a completely separate training program for women?
Yes No

b. Women receive less intensive training in the following subjects:

 

c. Women receive more intensive training in the following subjects:

 

d. Women receive 22 training in the following subjects:

 

 

e. Only the women receive training in the following subjects:

 

How long has this system of recruit training for policewomen been in
effect?

What type of recruit training did policewomen receive previous to this?

 

 

 

Do you anticipate any changes in your recruit training for police-
women in the near future? Yes No

If yes--explain briefly:

 

 

 

 

 

 

Check the statement that would best describe present in-service
training Opportunities for policewomen in your department:

a. The women receive the same amount of in-service training as
men.

 

b. The women receive more extensive in-service training.
c. The women receive less extensive in-service training.
d. Policewomen receive almost no in-service training.

If you checked b) or c), please explain briefly, especially as
to areas in which this occurs:

 

 

 

Are there other opportunities available to women to further their
education or training, for example, through short-course institutes,
conferences, seminars, etc.?

Yes No

If yes-~give examples:

 

106

IV. Organization, Distribution AND Rank

1. Below we have attempted to compile a fairly complete list of units
or squads which are common to most large city police departments.
1) Please indicate by a check (x) those units or squads to which
your policewomen are assigned (the reference here is to relatively
permanent assignments not to short term or one case assignments).
2) Show the total number of women assigned to each unit. 3) Indicate
ranks held by any of the policewomen within each unit.

For example, a completed entry might look like this:

 

Total number of
Unit Policewomen Rank (if any)

x Policewoman's Bureau 25 Sgt.(2), Lieut.(l), Qapt.(l)

 

In the above example, of twentybfive women assigned to the police-
woman's bureau, 2 are sergeants, l is a lieutenant, and l is a captain.

Note: Should you feel that due to your individual departmental
structure our list seems somewhat misleading in certain designa-
tions, or not specific enough in some areas, blanks are provided
where you may fill in your own names.

Total number of
Unit or Squad Policewomen Rank (if any)

Policewoman's Bureau
Juvenile Unit
Traffic Bureau

Records & Communications

 

 

 

 

Planning & Research

 

Training Division
Riice Lab
Public Relations

Recruiting, Personnel

 

 

 

 

Arson

 

Burglary & Robbery

 

Criminal Intelligence
Auto Theft

Homicide

 

 

 

Missing Persons

 

Pawnshop
Shoplifting
Vice Squad

 

 

 

107

Total number of
Unit or Squad Policewomen Rank (if any)

Morals or Sex Unit

 

Internal Investigations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Which of the ranks mentioned in the previous question are civil
service? .

a. What is the highest civil service rank ever held by a policewoman
in your department? YEAR

b. Highest non-civil service rank ever held by a policewoman in your
department? YEAR

3. Please indicate below the years in which policewomen have first been
allowed to compete for various civil service ranks within your depart-
ment:

Rank Year Rank Year

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. Please indicate below the years in which policewomen have first held
various non-civil service ranks within your department:

Rank Year Rank Year

 

 

 

 

 

 

5. Prior to recent federal legislation which insured equal Opportunity
regardless of sex, which of the following statements would have most
correctly described your department?

a. Policewomen were not allowed to hold rank of any kind.

b. Policewomen were allowed to hold the title, but were not
given the corresponding pay increase.

c. Policewomen were allowed both rank and pay increase.

108

 

6. Prior to federal legislation, did policewomen receive the same start-
ing salary as beginning patrolmen? Yes No
V. Functions and Duties of Policewomen
1. Below you will find a list of crimes (the F.B.I. classification, with
some modifications), and one or two other categories of complaints
handled by police. Please place before each the letter which best
or most closely describes your department's policy as to the frequency
of the use of policewomen in such investigations.
A - Always or almost always used (i.e. in about 75%-lOO% of cases)
F - Frequently used (i.e. about 50%-75% of cases)
0 - Often (i.e. 25%-50% of time)
S - Seldom used (i.e. in less than 25% of cases)
N - Never used in this type of case.
Criminal homicide ' Embezzlement & fraud
Forcible rape Stolen property (buying,
possessing...)
Robbery Weapons (carrying, etc.)
Aggravated assault Prostitution, commercialized vice
Burglary Sex offenses (except those already
mentioned)
Larceny-theft Offenses against the family &
(misdemeanor) children
Auto theft Narcotic offenses
Other assaults Liquor laws
Forgery, counterfeiting Drunkenness or intoxication
Gambling Disorderly conduct
Missing persons State and local offenses
Larceny-theft
(felony-except auto) Vagrancy
Driving while intoxicated
2. Below are listed several types of service which policewomen might be

used for in a police department. Using the same system of letters
to indicate approximate frequency of use, try to give an estimate of
the frequency with which your department uses policewomen in these
various services:

matron duty undercover investigations
(short term)

decoy undercover investigation
(long term)

surveillance filing records

interrogation typing reports (esp. other than

her own)

109

liason person with other court duty
agencies

serve warrants
other(specify):

 

 

 

 

3. Again using the same system of letters to indicate frequency--

a. Indicate the general policy followed in your department in
assigning policewomen to investigations:

Policewomen are assigned alone.

Policewomen are assigned in teams.

Policewomen work joint team investigations with male
personnel.

VI. Miscellaneous

1. What is the average investigation load of policewomen in your
department?

2. How many investigations do your policewomen handle over the space
of a year? (please give estimates if exact figures are not available)

Handled by policewomen only
Handled primarily by policewomen
Handled primarily by policemen, but assisted
by policewomen
TOTAL

This is a rough estimate.

This is a statistical compilation from
our records.

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION 1

110

APPENDIX II

#6 Sharon Avenue
Hamburg, New York 14075
September 3. 1967

Bureau of Policewomen
Bigtown
U.S.A.

Dear Sir:

I would like to request an appointment to talk with someone regarding
the operation of your Policewoman's Bureau and the use of your police-
women. If it would be convenient for you, could this be arranged

for ~ ________________ .

This request is prompted by the possibility of a future career in
police work. My present employment is as caseworker with the Erie
County Department of Social Services. Since l96h, I have also held
the part-time position of Police Matron with the Town of Hamburg
POIice e

Thank you for your consideration of my request. Hoping to hear from
you soon, I am--

Respectfully yours,

(Miss) Patricia Harris

lll

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS

Bloch, Herbert A., and Frank T. Flynn. Delinquency: The Juvenile
Offender ip America Today. New York: Random House, 1953

 

 

Bowman, Edward H., and Robert B. Fetter. Analysis for Production
Management. Homewood Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1961.

 

 

Egen, Capt. Frederick W. Plainclothesman: A_Handbook'g£ Vice and

Gambling Investigation. New York: Arco Publishing Company,
Inc., 1952.

Hamilton, Mary E. The Policewoman: Her Service and Ideals. New York:
Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1924.

 

 

Harris, Mrs. Louisa. Behind the Scenes; 23, Nine Years a: the Four
Courts 2: Saint Louis. St. Louis, Mo.: A. R. Fleming and
Company, 1893.

 

 

Higgins, Lois Lundell. Policewoman's Manual. Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 196I:

Hutzel, Eleonore L. The Policewoman's Handbook. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1933.

Jenks, Mary A. Behind the Bars; or, Ten Years of the Life of a Police

Matron. Pawtucket, R.I.: Mary A. Jenks, M.D., 1902.

 

McMillan, Claude, and Richard F. Gonzalez, Systems Analysis: A_Comnuter
Approach E2 Decision Models. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D.
Irwin, Inc., 1965.

 

O'Connor, John J. Opportunities 13 Law Enforcement. New York: Voational
Guidance Manuals, 1955.

 

 

Owings, Chloe. Women Police: A Study 2: the Development and Status pf
the Women Police Movement. New York: Frederick H. Hitchcock,

1925.

 

Richards, Max D. and Paul S. Greenlaw. Management Decision Making.
Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1966

 

Sullivan, Mary. ‘My Double Life: The Story 2: a New York Policewoman.
New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1938.

 

112

Wilson, O.W. Police Planning. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas,
Publisher, 1957.

 

B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNED
SOCIETIES, AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

Cleveland Policewomen's Bureau. A Report Prepared by Cleveland's League
of Women Voters. Cleveland, Ohio: 1954.

Melchionne, Theresa M. "The Role of the Policewomen in the Investigative
Function," The Police Yearbook, 1960, pp. 166-170.

Miner, Maude E. "The Policewoman and the Girl Problem," National
Conference 2: Social Work, 1919, pp. 134-43.

National Advisory Police Committee on Social Protection of the Federal
Security Agency. Techniques of Law Enforcement in the Use of
Policewomen with Special Reference to Social Protection, 1945.

 

Philadelphia Police Department, The Philadelphia Policewoman, 1958.
(mimeographed).

The_Role 2f Policewomen ip Law Enforcement. Unpublished report in
preparation for a Workshop on Policewomen, prepared by the
International Association of Chiefs of Police, Washington,
D.C., 1965.

 

Van Winkle, Mina C. "Standardization of the Aims and Methods of
Policewomen," National Conference 23 Social Work, 1920,
pp. l5l-Q.

. "The Policewoman," National Conference 2; Social Work,
1924, pp. 187-92.

 

Watson, Nelson, and Robert N. Walker (eds.). Proceedings 2: Workshop
for Policewomen, (Indiana University: January 3l-February

4. 1966).

 

Wells, Mrs. Alice Stebbins. "Policewomen," National Conference of
Charities and Correction, 1915, pp. All-518.

. "The Policewomen Movement, Present Status and Future Needs,"
National Conference 2: Charities and Correction, 1916, pp. 547-54.

 

C. PERIODICALS

Brownlow, Louis. "How Women Got Into Police Work," Policewoman's
International Bulletin, 5:8, February, 1928.

113

. "The City and the Citizen," Policewoman's International
Bulletin, 3:12, August-September, 1927.

 

Goffen, William. "Civil Service Law & You: Promotion for Policewomen,"
The Leader [Civil Service Paper, New York State], January 3,

19679 P' 3'

Hamilton, Mary E. "Woman's Place in the Police Department," American
City, XXXII, 23:19A-5, February, 1925.

 

Hutzel, Eleonore L. "The Policewoman," Annals of the American Academy
2; Political and Social Science, lEanlIIlh, November, 1929.

Lossing, Mrs. Elizabeth. "First Kindred Group Meeting of Policewomen of
the Pacific Coast," Policewoman's International Bulletin,
4:2-3, August, 1928.

Murray, Virginia M. "Policewomen in Detroit," American City, 25:209-10,
September 1921.

Owens, James M. "Policewomen in the Line," Police, V, September-October,
1958.

V/Pigeon, Helen D.’ "Women's Era in the Police Department," Annals 2f the
American Academy 2; Political and Social Science, 1E3:249-5E,

 

Shpritzer, Felicia, "A Case for the Promotion of Policewomen in the City
of New York," Journal 2: Criminal Law, Criminology and Police
Science, 50:50, November-December 1959.

Smith, Bertha H. "The Policewoman," Good Housekeeping, 52:296-8,
March, 1911.

Tenny, Evabel, "Women's Work in Law Enforcement," Journal 2: Criminal
Law, Criminology and Police Science, 4h:239-E3, July-August, 1953.

Van Winkle, Lieutenant Mina C. "Municipal Policewomen--Their Duties and
Opportunities," American City, 25:93-6, August, 1921.

Vollmer, August. "Meet the Lady Cop," The Survey, 63:702—3, March, 15,
1930.

Williams, Carol M. "The Organization and Practices 2; Policewomen's
Divisions ip the United States," Detroit, Michigan: National
Training School of Public Service, 1946. #0 pp. (Revision of
thesis presented to Graduate School of Wayne University).

 

"7'1,"AAAAMM