A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR ANALYSIS OF ADULT EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A REVIEW OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF EASTERN NIGERIA Thesis for the Dogru of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Elijah O. Odokara I966 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled ’ ' A THEORETICAL B'ASIS FOR ANALYSIS OF * ADULT EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES A REVIEW OF ADULT EDUCATION pROGRAMS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF EASTERN NIGERIA A. .___-H_..4.__— _._-.--—_. presented btj .. E. .0? Odokara has been ascepted towards fulfillment _of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Adult and Higher Education I} fi ’ /. ,/ .- L/ ' / //- .' // ' / / /" / \ 1‘: I, fir I. 1 x1 L4 I , i u " " 7 /' .7 '7 f / :f /./"'/ ,7 ,7 g/l/ Datq/g/I/J'fj'l'f/ {Vb/.4" {,1 1 .EQ/L b l 0-169 III- aII'CI ABSTRACT A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR ANALYSIS OF ADULT EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A REVIEW OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES .OF EASTERN NIGERIA by Elijah O. Odokara This study had the following purposes: 1. to develop a conceptual scheme for viewing adult educa- tion in a developing country such as Nigeria; 2. to employ the scheme in analyzing the county council sponsored adult education program in thirty-four rural communities in Eastern Nigeria; 3. to make, on the basis of this analysis, suggestions and recommendations for expanding and strengthening the programs in these communities. Methodology and Conduct of the Study The conceptual scheme of adult education programs for rural Eastern Nigeria was conceived first through establishing a rationale for using the areas of development (social, economic, polit- ical and individual) as the theoretical focus to be followed. Criteria for an adequate program were developed through a synthesis of existing models reported in the literature. Next, at- tributes of adult education programs for developing nations were Elijah O. Odokara identified from the reviewed literature and the model program recom- mended by the UNESCO World Conference On Adult Education. The conceptual scheme was developed in the form of an analyt- ical grid with the derived criteria, attributes and items as a plan for ana- lyzing the program of the thirty-four rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. The items of the content area of development approved by the judges were assigned to one axis of the grids and the approved qualitative attributes of excellence of Adult Education to the other axis. For purposes Of making the descriptive analysis Clearer, the programs are arbitrarily scored against a one hundred point scale. Since the aim of the study is to describe and not to evaante the programs, the percentage scores resulting from this analysis are not to be viewed in the traditional sense of percentage of excellence but as means of describing the programs using the developed scheme. Major FindirLgS on Weaknesses of the Progams The following are findings regarding the adequacy of the objectives of the adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria. Though no direct quantitative measurements Of the degree or level of adequacy of each program in any of the criteria could be derived, yet some inferential conclusions were made. 1. The expressed behavior changes that were intended to be accomplished through the content aspects of the program Elijah O. Odokara were not satisfactorily related to the needs of the Clientele and the education purpose of Eastern Nigeria. The objectives of the ten women's programs were more ade- quate than those of mixed programs in ”Health Education, " "Home and Family Education, " and ”Vocational Education, " but were less adequate than those of mixed programs in ”Civic Education, " "Liberal Education, " and ”Basic Education. " Both mixed and women's programs have inadequate objectives in ”Economic Education. " The following are findings regarding the adequacy of the pro- grams in their teaching personnel, activities and materials of instruction, methods and techniques of instruction, financial and physical resources and administrative policie s: l. The analysis revealed that the programs need to become more adult because their existing subject matter contents were in- adequately related to the needs of the clientele and educational purposes for adults in Eastern Nigeria, which are as follows: a. to achieve efficient agricultural production, adequate incomes and prosperous communities; b. to promote public consideration and understanding of economic, social and political problems; c. to encourage the growth of cooperatives and to increase membership in and public understanding of cooperatives . Elijah O. Odokara All the programs experience difficulty in promotion of their activities and in reaching new participants because of lack of adequate publicity and transportation facilities. None of the programs has teachers who have competency in program evaluation, preparation and use of audio- visual materials in teaching, and in the enrichment Of programs with local resources. Adult learners were not involved in the learning situation through activities and materials that are meaningful to them. All the programs experience conflict and lack of coopera- tion with other agencies in the communities and the county councils. No program has an adequate administrative policy that will help the communities to become interested in the program. All the programs lack teachers with adequate educational leadership in adult education for bringing about the desired changes and innovations in teaching methods and organi- zation of the programs. None of the programs has adequate financial or physical resources. Most of the programs do not teach courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Health Education, Economic 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 15. Elijah O. Odokara Education, Home and Family Education and Liberal Education. Most of the programs lack personnel who is qualified to develop and teach courses in the content areas of Voca- tional Education, and Home and Family Education. NO program has adequate provision for continuing educa- tion of its personnel. NO program has a community advisory committee that reflects all the segments of the community. Rigid rules imposed on program personnel from a remote head office tend to stifle their initiative and educational leadership abilities. Poor salary and its irregular payment cause the personnel of the program both to feel insecure and to have low morale. Diversion of adult education grants into other local council projects is a hindrance to the progress of the programs. Major Findings on Strengths of the Programs The following are findings regarding the areas of strengths and accomplishments of the programs in Eastern Nigeria: 1. The government of Eastern Nigeria has done a commendable job in encouraging and promoting adult education schemes and programs in Eastern Nigerian communities through its Elijah O. Odokara various Ministries in general and through its adult education headquarters at Owerri and Uyo in partic- ular . In spite of the problems and hindrances listed above that confront the programs, the senior officers of the government responsible for administration of adult education at Enugu, Owerri and Uyo have, through their dedication and pioneer efforts, proved that adult education can make a greater contribution in the solution of the problem Of development in the region. The increasing COOperation and communication which is now developing between the leadership of these programs at Enugu, Owerri and Uyo and the Division of Extra-Mural Studies of the University of Nigeria can provide a reliable platform for developing more effective programs of adult education for the region In a most trying and demanding circumstance, some of the teachers and organizers have performed their duties with missionary zeal. Nigerians everywhere cherish education as a means to individual and social success and with little Elijah O. Odokara encouragement they love to enroll in any education program and continue participating in it until the approved end. This is evidenced by limited cases of drop-outs in all the thirty-four programs. Recommendations On the basis of the findings in this analysis, the following suggestions are made for improvement of adult educa- tion in rural communities in Eastern Nigeria: In-service training programs for adult education teachers and organizers jointly sponsored by the University, county councils and the Ministries of regional government. Payment of regional government grants for support of adult education programs through the government treasury instead of through the local county council. Formation Of a local community adult education advisory committee for each program with member- ship of opinion leaders from all levels of the com- munity . Appointment of a community resource development coordinator for each rural community with joint Elijah O. Odokara appointment to community elementary school or second- ary school and the community adult education program. The main duty of the coordinator would be to promote the involvement of community resources in community adult education pr ograms . Provision of adequate means of transportation to all adult education organizers and teachers in each com- munity through the assumed local contribution of each C ounty . The removal of rigid rules from women's programs which stifle the initiative Of the teachers to inno- vate. Extending to adult education teachers the similar benefits and recognition that are given to their coun- terparts in elementary and secondary schools. The inclusion of adult education and community de- velopment courses in the elementary and grade two teachers ' training college S . The holding of an annual workshop jointly sponsored by the Ministry, County Councils and University of Nigeria Elijah O. Odokara for appraisal and evaluation of adult education programs in rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. 10. The organization of a regional adult education textbooks' committee both for selection and distribution of required textbooks and teaching materials to all rural centers and for maintenance of reading rooms for each program. The necessity of cooperation between the government departments, the University and all other agencies in the region in planning and promoting the type of adult education activities that can produce the desired development of rural communities in Eastern Nigeria is emphasized in this study. Contributions of the Study l. The study has focused elements of an evolving theory of adult education in national development upon the develop- ment problems of Eastern Nigeria by undertaking a com- parison of the major elements of the process of develop- ment (economic, political, social and individual) with the major elements of the adult education process. 2. The study has provided a clearer understanding of the existing local government sponsored programs in Eastern Nigeria rural communities and the problems that confront them by (a) identification of the nine major problems that Elijah O. Odokara confront the programs and their implications, (b) deter- mining how adequate the programs are in their expressed fobjectives, activities and materials of instruction, num- ber and qualification of the teachers, methods and tech- niques of teaching, financial and physical resources, and the administrative policies. The study has provided some useful suggestions and recommendations both for attacking the identified prob- lems that confront the program and for providing the desired leadership in the innovation of the program so as to make it a more effective instrument for the desired repair and change in society. The study has contributed to further unification and refine- ment of a theory of adult education in national development by choosing development (economic, social, political and individual) as the central focus of its rationale which emphasized that an adult education program must be geared to the needs and problems of its individual clien- tele and their society in order to contribute towards their effective development and benefit. A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR ANALYSIS OF ADULT EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING’COUNTRIES: A REVIEW OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF EASTERN NIGERIA By j Elijah O.” Odokara A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1966 LfCOPYRIGHT Elijah O. Odokara 1967 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation was made possible through the help of many peOple. Professor Russell J. Kleis, my academic advisor and committee chairman throughout my doctoral studies, provided his skillful guidance and encouragements. Professors F. G. Parker, 0. D. Meaders, G. M. John- son and M. Miller and Charles Hoffer, members of my committee, all recognized for their works in various fields of Adult Education, Extension Education, Higher Education, Education Administration and Rural Sociology, provided the assistance needed to develop the specific area of this study. A special note of thanks is extended to Professor A. Doyle and Dr. I. A. Wyeth, who served as consultants to my committee, for their assistance and professional advice in this undertaking. To the United States Agency for International Development, the writer will always remain grateful for making available the neces- sary financial resources and opportunity for this program. Appreciation is expressed to my wife, Mrs. Comfort Ada Odokara, my mother, Madam Amiriola Odokara, and my children, ii Grand Chinedum Odokara, Nkenne Martina Odokara, Iheoma Eliza- beth Odokara, Enyinna Francis Odokara and Nnaoma Cyprain Odokara, whose patience and forbearance helped to develop the Singleness of purpose necessary to undertake this project To my father, Mazi Odokara Okezie, whose memory continues to inspire and encourage me, I dedicate the cumulative result of this effort. Each in a very specific and tangible way helped in making this goal real. iii TABLE OF C ONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii LIST OF TABLES . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'x LISTOFFIGURES....................xii LISTOFAPPENDICES..................xiv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Contribution . . . . 6 Assumptions . . . . . . . . 6 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Methodological Overview . . . . . . 10 Organization of the Presentation - . 13 II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 16 Definitions and Philo SOphy of Adult Education . . . 19 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9 PhiIOSOphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Teaching the Adult Learner . . . . . . . . . . 26 Identifying Needs and Interests . . . . . . . . 26 Instruction of Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Education and Deve10pment . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Definition of Deve10pment . . . . . . . 36 Linkage Between Education and Devel0pment . . 37 Education and Economic Deve10pment . . . . . . 42. Education, Social and Individual Deve10pment . . . 49 Adult Education and Community Deve10pment . . . 50 Adult Education in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . 54 Adult Education in Colonial Period. . . . . . . . . 55 Content, Method and Characteristics . . . . . 55 iv Chapter Page The Problem Of the Existing Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . 63 Needs Of the Nation to which Adult Education Is Expected to Relate . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 III. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF NON-UNIVERSITY ADULT EDUCATION IN NIGERIA . . . . . . . . 78 Adult Education Before Colonial Period . . . . . 78 Traditional Adult Education . . . . . . . . 78 Adult Education During and After Colonial Period. . . . . . . . . 80 Adult Education by Voluntary Organizations . . 80 Government Sponsored Adult Education . . . . 81 Regional Government Sponsored Adult Education in Eastern Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Administration of the Programs . . . . . . . 85 Organization of the Programs . . . . . . . . 86 Village Women's Classes . . . . . . . . . . 88 The Mixed Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Center Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Grades in the Program . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Policy of the Programs . . . . . . . . . 94 Methods of Financing the Program . . . . . . 95 Problems of the Programs . . . . . . . . . 96 Regional Government Sponsored Adult Education in West and Mid- Western Nigeria . . . . . . . 98 The Zonal Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Teaching Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Policy...................101 The Program Format . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Finances of the Program . . . . . . . . . . 104 Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 The Problem of the Program . . . . . . . . . 109 Refresher Course for the Program . . . . . . 110 Adult Education in Northern Nigeria . . . . . . . 111 Islamic and Amistic Education in the North . . 111 Animistic Education for Adults . . . . . . 117 Islamic or Koranic Schools . . . . . . . . 118 Government Sponsored Non-Islamic Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . 119 Public Enlightenment Program . . . . . . . . 120 Chapter Problems of Adult Education in Northern Nigeria Summary . IV. PLAN AND INSTRUMENT . Rationale for Selecting a Developmental Focus Education as an Instrument of Development Adult Education in Development Expressed Needs and Education Purposes of Nigeria to which Adult Education Should Relate Origins and Development Of the Conceptual Scheme . . . Criteria of Adequacy: Qualitative Attributes of Adult Education . . . . . Criteria of Adequacy: Content Areas of Personal and Social Development . . . . . Assumptions and Selected Criteria of Excellence for Adult Education . . . . Assumptions and Selected Criteria of Excellence in Content Areas . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Criteria and Their Characteristics forAnalysis...... .. The Conceptual Scheme for an Adequate Program . Sub- Grids for Analysis in Terms of Individual Criterion Summary . V. ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE PROGRAM IN EASTERN NIGERIA AND INTER- PRETATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS Constituencies in Eastern Nigeria in Which the Programs of their Communities wereAnalyzed............. Owerri South East Constituency Aba Central Constituency . . . . . . . Aba North Constituency . Calabar Constituency . Opobo South Constituency Uyo North East Constituency vi Page 123 124 128 129 132 134 135 142 143 144 150 150 155 159 160 178 179 180 180 180 181 181 182 Chapter Page Aba South Constituency . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Uyo South West Constituency . . . . . . . . . . 182 Uyo North Constituency . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Mixed Programs of Adult Education . . . . . . . . 183 Ikwere Community Adult Education Program . . . 183 Eastern Annang Community Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . 185 Ikom Urban Community Adult Education Program . . . . . . . 186 Mbaise County Council Adult Education Program . . . . . . . 188 Owerri County Adult Education Program. . . . . 189 Ahoada County Adult Education Program. . . . . 190 Uyo County Adult Education Program . . . . . . 191 Ikwuano County Adult Education Program . . . . 193 Port Harcourt Municipality Adult Education Program . . . . 194 Ngor- Okpala County Adult Education Program . . 195 Khana County Adult Education Program . . . . . 196 Northern Ngwa County Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . 198 Izi County Adult Education Program. . . . . . . 199 Isu County Adult Education Program. . . . . . . 201 Western Annang County Adult Education Program . . . . . . . 202 Ogoja County Adult EducatiOn Program . . . . . 203 Calabar County Adult Education Program . . . . 204 Owuwa Anyanwu County Area Adult Education Program . . . . . . 205 Ezzikwo County Adult Education Program . . . . 206 Isi- Uzo County Adult Education Program . . . . 208 Nsukka Division Adult Education Program . . . . 209 Awka Division Adult Education Program . . . . . 210 Ishielu County Adult Education Program . . . . . 212 Adult Education Programs for Women . . . . . 213 Etinan Uyo Women's Adult Education Program . . 213 Ok/Oron County Women's Adult Education Program .. . . . 214 Owo- Ahiafoukwu Community Women' 3 Adult Education Program . . . . . . 216 Aka- Offot- Uyo Community Women' 8 Adult Education Program . . . . . . . 217 Uyo Community Women' 5 Adult Education Program .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 vii Chapter Page Ikot- Abasi Community Women's Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Oron Community Women' 5 Adult Education Program . . . . . 221 Ohio Etoi Community in Uyo Women' 8 Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . 222 Afaha Eket Community Women' S Adult Education Program . . . . 223 lkot Antia Ididep- Itu Community Women' 3 Adult Education Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Numbering of Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Rating of Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Table 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Interpretation of Rating in Content Area of Civic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Table 2 .7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Key. . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Interpretation Of Rating in the Content Area of Liberal Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Table 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Table 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Key. . . . . . . . . . . 236 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Health Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Table 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Key. . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Economic Education . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Table 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Key....................242 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Basic Education (Literacy) . . . . . . . . 245 Table7 245 Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Home and Family Education. . . . . . . . 245 Tab1e8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Interpretation of Rating on Instructional Activities and Materials . . . . . . . . . 248 viii Chapter « Page Tab1e9...................252 Key....................252 Interpretation of Rating on Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification . . . 255 Table 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Interpretation of Rating on Methods and Techniques of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . 256 Table 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Interpretation of Rating on Financial and Physical Resources and Administrative Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Tabular Summary of Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . 263 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . 267 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . 268 Methodology and Conduct of the Study ., . . . . . 269 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Conclusions . . . . . 272 Appraisal of the Basic Questions of this Study . . 272 Major Problems Identified by the Analysis . . . . 279 Implications of the Problems and Their Suggested Solutions . . . . . . . . . 280 Further Contributions of the Study . . . . . . . 284 Implications for Further Research. . . . . . . . . 286 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 ix LIST OF TAB LES Chapter/Table V. 1. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Civic Education . . 2. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Liberal Education . . . . . . . . . 3. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Vocational Education . 4. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Health Education . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Economic Education 6. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Basic Education (Literacy) . . 7. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Home and Family Education 8. Rating Of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Instructional Activities and hAaterials , . 9. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification Page . 229 . 231 . 234 . 237 , 240 . 243 , 246 . 249 , 253 Chapter/Table Page 10. Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Methods and Techniques of Teaching.................257 11, Rating of programs on the basis of the criterion Adequate Financial and Physical Resources and Administrative Policies . . . . . . . . 260 12, Percentage adequacy of program's objectives to the needs of the clientele in Eastern Nigeria in each of the Content Areas . . . . . 263 13. Percentage adequacy of programs to the needs of their adult clientele and communities in EasternNigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 xi Chapter / Figure IV. 1. 2(a). 2(b). 2(c). 2(d). 2(e). 2(f). 2(g)- LIST OF FIGURES General analytical grid on adult education program for individual and social development . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area 1: Civic Education . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area 11: Health Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area III: Liberal Education . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area IV: Vocational Education . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area V: Economic Education . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area VI: Basic Education . Analytical grid for first criterion: Adequate Objective -- Content Area VII: Home and Family Education Analytical grid for second criterion: Adequate Instructional Activities and Materials xii Page 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 Chapter/Figure Page 4. Analytical grid for third criterion: Adequate Methods and Techniques of Teaching Adults.................171 5. Analytical grid for fourth criterion: Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification . . . 172 6. Analytical grid for fifth criterion: Adequate Financial and Physical Resources and Administrative Policies. . . . . . . . . . 175 xiii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Information on Women's Programs in Eastern Nigeria...................308 B. Information on Mixed Programs in Eastern Nigeria...................312 C. Adult Education Statistics in Eastern Nigeria: 1958.....................319 D. Adult Education in Eastern Nigeria(1960-61) . . . . 321 E. List of Expert Observers Who Checked and Approved the Criteria, Attributes and Items of the Con- ceptual Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 xiv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There is an acute need to promote development in rural communities of Eastern Nigeria through adult education programs which can reach every community, bring about a social climate for tolerance and cooperation among the different ethnic groups and also‘ help each citizen to become an effective contributor into, and Sharer from the regional economy. I Since 1946 the government of Eastern Nigeria has been sponsoring adult education programs in the rural communities of the region through local county councils. The government considers the program as an instrument for achieving objectives of human develop- ment which are consistent with the broad regional purposes of economic and political development. These human development Objectives are: to improve the ability of the population as a whole to cope with change, to deal with modernization in social institutions, to participate in the trend toward industrialization which will make economic activity more rational, and to deal with the growing problem of migration from rural to urban c ommunitie s . As the existing program is expected to provide a basis for development of the ability of adults in the region to perform more complicated roles and to learn to deal with more complex social relationships and institutions, it is, therefore, the intention of this study to analyze this program with a conceptual scheme and to use the findings from the analysis as a basis for making sugges- tions which may help the program to make a greater contribution in the attainmentof the regional goals and to human development. Though the need for constant examination and appraisal of every education system is obvious, especially in a developing society, yet there has been no systematic study of adult education in rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. This paucity of research in adult education in the region leaves education and rural development planners without essential information they need to constructively guide the involvement of adults through education in the intense developmental projects of the region. While research in adult education in Eastern Nigeria itself is still scarce, a beginning has been made by some educators and anthropologists in providing recommendations on education and development in Nigeria and neighboring countries. Their recom- mendations can serve as background to this particular study. Bettinger, 1 an anthropologist and former pioneer mis- sionary educator of the Church of Brethren in Nigeria, in his com- prehensive survey of Missionary Education among Sudanese people of West Africa, emphasized the need of increasing the rate of devel- opment in West Africa through the education of adults. Raybould, 2 formerly the Director of the Extra-Mural Department of Ibadan University, in his final report on the program of extra-mural studies of the University recommended strongly for extension of development 1 I 1.. to all rural parts of Nigeria through adult education. \ Nash, in his report on the Anchan Rural Development Settlement Scheme, emphasized the need for development of rural Nigeria through the education of adults as he remarked: Our work here would have been enormously simplified had there been one or two literates in every hamlet who could have read out messages to the hamlet heads. We must look forward to the day when every order from the Emir and District Head is nailed up on the village tree and the peasant really understands what he is supposed to do. When the peasant can read the scales and work out how much he should get, he will become a much wealthier man. 1W. Bettinger, Sudan Sun-Up (Messenger Press, Church of Brethren, 1451 Dundee Avenue, Elgin, Illinois, 1939), p. 165. 2S. G. Raybould, Adult Education at a Tropical Univer- sity (London: Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., 1957), p. 137. 3T. A. Nash, "Report on the Anchan Rural Development and Settlement Scheme'.‘ (London: HMSO, 1962), p. 18. 4 Lewis called attention to the slow progress of adult educa- tion in Nigeria and also suggested "both the cause of the comparatively little growth of the adult education programs and the cause of the indifference of politicians on adult education in Nigeria be examined. " As a contribution to the planning for improvement of rural people and rural communities in Eastern Nigeria, this study will analyze the program in the thirty-four rural communities which were conducting active adult education programs when the investigator was collecting data for this study. It is intended to find out through the analysis how the organizational structure and the principles of the program are related to the needs of the individual and the rural communities. The Problem Purpose of the Study It was the purpose of this study: 1. to develop a conceptual scheme for analyzing adult education in a developing country, based upon adult education literature and a model recommended by the 1960 World Conference on Adult Education; 2. to employ that scheme in analyzing the local government sponsored program of rural community adult education 4L. J. Lewis, Society, School and Progress in Nigeria (Oxford, England: Pergman Press, 1965), p. 263. as it operates in thirty-four communities in Eastern Nigeria; to make, on the basis of this analysis, suggestions and recommendations for expanding and strengthening the government's rural community adult education program. Specifically, the problem which this study proposed to investigate may be stated in terms of the following questions: 1. What, on the basis of previous studies and the recorded judgments of professional observers , would be the prin- cipal elements and attributes of an adequate program of adult education in a developing country? To what extent does the program as currently operating under government Sponsorship in the selected thirty-four rural communities of Eastern Nigeria contain the elements and display the attributes of such an adequate program? a. In its expressed objectives? b. In its instructional activities and materials? c. In its methods and techniques of instruction? d. In the qualification of its teachers and administra- tors? e. In its available resources? f. In the extent to which it is reaching the people of its area? 3. What additions and improvements are suggested as the current program is analyzed in relation to the model program? Contribution It was felt that successful execution of the research neces- sary to answer the above questions would result in: l. focusing elements of an evolving theory of adult education in national development upon the development problems of Eastern Nigeria; 2. understanding the existing government sponsored programs in rural communities in Eastern Nigeria and the problems that confront them; 3. useful suggestions for improvement of the programs; and 4. contributions to further unification and refinement of a theory of adult education in national development. Assumptions The assumptions on which this study is based are: 1. that from (a) a study of general theories and practices in adult education and national development, (b) recom- mendations of professional observers of education and development in Nigeria and other developing countries, and (c) review of the model program which was 7 recommended by the World Conference on Adult Educa- tion in 1960, a conceptual scheme for analysis of adult education in a developing country could be developed; that such a scheme would be useful in analyzing govern- ment sponsored adult education programs in thirty-four rural communities of Eastern Nigeria; that future planning for adult education in rural communi- ties of Eastern Nigeria would be enhanced by recommenda- tions based upon an orderly analysis of present programs; that such a conceptual scheme for analysis Of adult educa- tion programs in national development would be a useful contribution to educators, political leaders, and others concerned with public policy in developing nations. Delimitations The delimiting factors which were established to confine the scope of this study are as follows: 1. Only the government sponsored programs of rural com- munity adult education in thirty-four communities which were recorded as approved programs by the chief adult education officer at Owerri were analyzed in this study. The discussion of other programs of adult education in Eastern Nigeria or in other regions of Nigeria was done only as background to the analysis. 2. Principal data for the study were Obtained by personal interview with the teachers and Officers in Charge of the programs. Other information on the thirty-four programs and other programs in Nigeria was obtained from the records and files of the various county councils and mini'stries responsible for adult education. This study is, therefore, dependent upon the perceptions of the persons interviewed and completeness and accuracy of the records and files employed. Definitions of Terms The following terms which are defined as follows will be used in this study: Adult Education The definition adopted for this study is that of Jensen, Liveright and Hallenbeck, which stated that "adult education is a relationship between an educational agent and a learner in which the agent selects, arranges, and continuously directs a sequence of pro- gressive tasks that provide systematic experiences to achieve learning for those whose participation in such activities is subsidiary and sup- plementary to a primary productive role in society. "5 5Gale Jensen, A. A. Liveright and Wilbur Hallenbeck, Adult Education, Outline of an Emergirg Field of UniversitJ Study (Adult Education Association of the U. S. A. , 1964), p. 334. Adult Education Program As defined for the present study, the adult education program includes only educational programs sponsored by the Eastern Nigerian government through the local county councils for the adults in Eastern Nigeria rural communities. Adult Educator The person who is delegated the responsibility of organiz- ing and developing educational experiences to meet the needs Of adults. Program Development The two-fold process of identifying needs of adults and demands of society and planning educational experiences to meet those needs and demands will be included in this study in the phrase "pro- gram development. " Umunna An Igbo (Ibo) term for extended family. Sarki A Hausa term for chief or executive head of a community. Literate A person who can read and write in any of the local languages and/or English and who can write or sign his or her name in that particular language or languages. 10 Rural Community A geographical area in which there is a high degree of association among people and in which the majority of the people are farmers, fishermen, hunters, traders and boat makers. Methodological Overview The previous statement of the problem indicates that before further substantial help could be given the county council adult education teachers either for expanding their program or for improving their competencies, it would be necessary to analyze these programs and identify their points of strength and weakness. The procedures used in accomplishing this task were: 1. Development of an analytical scheme. The criteria used M‘-x \— in developing the scheme were derived from reviewed literature on general theories and practices in adult edu- cation, on national development, on development in Nigeria and other developing countries, and from recommendations of professional observers of educational and developmental needs in Nigeria. The content was of the scheme were derived from the model program of adult education for development which was recommended by the World Con- ference on Adult Education in 1960. The 3.133313 of the content areas and attributes of the criteria were derived 11 from the expressed purposes and needs in Eastern Nigeria rural communities which are to be met with adult educa- tion. These needs and purposes are contained both in the reviewed literature on Adult Education in Eastern Nigeria and the records on local government adult educa- tion programs made available to the investigator by the officers and teachers responsible for the program in the region. The items of the content area of the scheme and the attributes of its criteria were used to build the axes of a general grid and sub-grids also used in this study. Collection of data on the government Sponsored adult education program in Eastern Nigeria rural communities. The data were collected both by interviewing the adult education teachers and officers in charge of the program and by synthesizing the required information on the program from the records of the county councils made available to the investigator during his visits to the communities. Comparing the data. The elements of the Eastern Nigeria rural communities' program represented by the data were compared with elements of the model program recom- mended by the World Conference on Adult Education. Identifying the adequacy of each rural community program on the basis of the model program. Both by using a simple checklist score system in which an arbitrary score of one 12 was assigned to every item in each of the content areas of the scheme and by comparing the number of items of the content area of the scheme to the number of items of the content area of the program of each of the thirty- ‘. four communities, the adequacy of the program of each Teommunity was determined by the total number of scores the program received. From the total score of each community, its percentage adequacy was determined. 5. Summary, suggestions and recommendations. The analysis was summarized by means of tables; and on the basis of the findings from the analysis, suggestions and recommendations were made for the improvement of the program in the thirty-four Eastern Nigerian com- munities. Sources of information for the development of the scheme were the reviewed literature on adult education, on education and development, the model program recommended by the UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education, and data on educational needs and purposes of Nigeria in general and of Eastern Nigeria in partic- ular. Sources of information on the adult education program in Eastern Nigeria and education purposes and needs of Nigeria include official documents published by various ministries, budget 13 and parliamentary speeches in Nigeria, the Ashby Commission Report, Phelps-Stokes Commission Report, Dike Commission Report, report on Nigeria by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment, proceedings of the Addis Ababa Conference of African States on the Development of Education in Africa, reports and records of various county councils and officers in charge of adult education. Organization of the Presentation The foregoing presentation outlined the problem and its component parts and gave indication of the methods used to attack the problem. Chapter II has as its purpose a review of literature which deals with specific aspects of the study: (1 ) definition and philosophy of adult education, (2) methods and techniques of teaching the adult learner, (3) role of the adult educator, (4) adult education and devel- opment, and (5) adult education and educational purposes and needs in Nigeria. Chapter III is devoted to a historical overview of adult education in Nigeria as a background to the study. This includes: (1) traditional adult education, (2) adult education by voluntary organ- izations, (3) government sponsored adult education in Eastern Nigeria, (4) government sponsored adult education in Western and Mid-Western 14 Nigeria, and (5) government sponsored adult education in Northern Nigeria. Chapter IV presents the plan and instrument for the analysis of the program. This includes: (1) development of a ra- tionale for the analysis, (2) establishment of the procedure for creation of a conceptual scheme as a plan for the analysis, (3) syn- thesis of the criteria, their attributes and items, and (4) employing these attributes and items in creating grids. Particular emphasis was placed on: (1) the rationale for developing the conceptual scheme of adult education and develop- ment processes and (2) the stepstaken in analyzing programs in terms of the needs of the clientele and education purposes in rural communities of Eastern Nigeria as represented in the scheme. Chapter V covers the analysis of the programs and the interpretation of the results of the analysis. This includes: (1) the discussion of the geographical and political divisions of the region whose rural communities' adult education program is analyzed, (2) a tabular summary of data about each program as obtained from interviews with teachers and officers in charge of the program and from the records of the communities, counties and ministries of the government in charge of adult education, (3) a numbering of the programs according to the rural communities, for facilitation of rating on the chart, (4) rating of the program and interrelation of 15 ratings on the basis of the attributes and the items in the grids, and (5) a surnmarization and interpretation of the results of the rating and analysis. In Chapter VI, the summary of the study, its conclusion, recommendations and implication for further research are presented. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The field of adult education impinges upon many disci- plines as it grows and assumes its significant role in a society. Adult education is provided by many agencies and institutions which differ widely in purpose and support. Sociology, gerontology, anthro- pology, psychology, political administration, economics, group dy- namics, and educational theory provide resources for the adult edu- cator as he studies the needs of adults in a community. Adult education may be defined in terms of the individuals and groups served, agencies and institutions offering programs, methods used, subject matter covered, functions or skills and pro,- ficiencies taught. More broadly, it may be defined as a means of social adjustment and also as an educational movement. For the purpose of this study adult education is defined as those organized learning experiences under the auspices of county councils and ministries of local government for helping in the improve- ment of individual adults and communities in Nigeria. The limiting circumstances of life which this program is assumed to eliminate are such things as inability to read and write, ill -hea1th, poor housing and 16 17 family instability, unemployment, inadequate employment, civic inef- ficiency, poor agricultural productivity, insecurity based on super- stition and poor income, tribalism, and lack of Skill for gainful em- ployment. The following review of research and literature was generally limited to the concept of adult education program as the effort of government agencies to link the education of adults to their individual, national, economic and social developmental needs. Brunnerl and others have compiled a comprehensive overview of adult education research. In the introduction the authors noted the "rather chaotic" condition of research in the field resulting from the diffusion of agencies and subject matter and the lack of fi- nancial support. As the study of the criteria for adequate adult education programs was being planned, the literature was reviewed to ascertain problems in develOping adult education programs identified by other investigators. The present review of the literature has been organized around five topics. These topics include definition and philosophy, teaching the adult student, role of the adult educator, adult education and development and adult educational need in Nigeria. lEdmund Brunner et a1. , An Overview of Adult Education Research (Chicago: Adult Education Association of U. S. , 1959) 362 pp. 18 The objectives of adult education programs are deter- mined according to the adult educator's definition and philosophy of adult education. A widely accepted definition of the role and philo- sophy of any adult education program for develOpment is best sum- marized by the following statement of the Committee for Development Education which met in Syracuse in 1961: We cannot emphasize too strongly our belief in the im- portance of improved education to the economic and social progress of a developing area. As we have already said, the :greatest economic resource of any country is its people. No (jinvestment will be more rewarding than investment in improv- \ ing the capacities of the peOple. Nothing will do more to in- crease the freedom of the people and their participation in national life, or to strengthen and stabilize democratic process. In this study government sponsored Adult Education pro- grams in Eastern Nigeria rural communities are analyzed with a conceptual scheme developed from a list of items and attributes syn- thesized from reviewed literatures and model programs and adapted to Eastern Nigeria rural situations. The items have been checked with and judged suitable for Nigerian situations by professional observers who are conversant with problems of development in Nigeria and other developing countries. The chapter concludes with a summary of the review of the literature and points to the need for the present study. 2Cooperation for Progress in Latin America (New York: Committee for Development Education, 1961), p. 23. 19 Definitions and Philosophy of Adult Education Among developing nations who are in a hurry to use edu- cation not only to catch up with but also to keep up with other developed nations of the world, programs of adult education have all too frequently developed without the careful designation of purposes which they require. Events have proven that such hurried programs usually operate haphaz- ardly without contributing meaningfully to the solution of the develop- mental problems of the society and thé people. At times, the program is completely shaped in a distant government office with little or no consideration to the changing needs and circumstances of the clientele and their envir onment. Definitions Many of the statements defining adult education and setting forth goals for the program appear in literature. In a symposium held in the Spring, 1957, Hallenbeck indi- cated, "Adult education is purposeful and orderly, voluntary, and sup- plementary to the main responsibilities of life. " 3 W. C. Hallenbeck, "A Sociologist Looks at Adult Educa- tion," Adult Education, 7:131-43, Spring, 1957. 20 Sheats defined adult education as ". . . those organized and planned activities in which man engages for the purpose of learning something. " Frakes emphasized that”Adu1t Education is experience to help people gain self-confidence and overcome resistance to change. " Bryson, earlier in 1936, expressed the view that adult education includes ". . . all the activities with an educational purpose that are carried on by people engaged in the ordinary business of life. "6 Rochte, 7 after examining many technical definitions, found general agreement that adult education is characterized by being: (a) voluntary on the part of the learner, (b) part—time, (C) under organized auspices and (d) for persons beyond the age of compulsory school attendance. The definition of adult education is basic to its philosophy. 4Paul H. Sheats et a1. , Adult Education, Dryden, 1953, 530 p. 5M. Frakes, "Older PeOple Confront the Churches, " Christian CenturyFoundation, 1955, 34 p. O 6Lyman Bryson, Adult Education (Boston: American Book Company, 1936). 7N. Rochte, "A State Program of Tax Supported Adult Education in Ohio, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1950). 21 Philosophy The philosophy of adult education is expressed in state- ments of goals and lists of characteristics of good programs. Many writers have based their goals of adult education upon needs of the individual; others emphasize needs of society; while others emphasize both these aspects. 8 in 1958 pointed out three patterns of adult Schwertman education. His ”Great Books” concept with the goal of teaching men to think about "great is sues” contrasted with the "community approach” with the goal of social action. He also suggested the emerging con- cept of the ”growth of individual. " Hallenbeck9 in 1957 pointed out the need for integration in a community. Adult Education was viewed as an integrator of people of separate work groups, families, and interest associations. 10 Henrickson in the same year emphasized that adult education pro- grams should be based upon the seven cardinal principles of education. 8John B. Schwertman, ”I Want Many Lodestars", Notes and Essays on Education for Adults, 21:31-34, September, 1953. 9 Hallenbeck, op. cit. , p. 2. 10G. C. Henrickson, "You Have a Job in Adult Education", School Executive, 76:64-67, July, 1957. 22 Kempfer11 in 1955 indicated that the objectives Of educa— tion -- self-realization, human relationship, economic efficiency and responsible citizenship -- should also be held for adult education. He also stressed that the curriculum should grow out of the developmental tasks of adults. 2 in 1956 held the view that while the Havighurst and Orr1 curriculum grows out of the developmental tasks of the adult, it should also grow towards the developmental directions in which a person should grow if he is to be happy and useful to himself. Powelll3 , in 1956, expressed the belief that the concerns of adults should be the core of adult education and its curriculum. These adult concerns are expressed by him as democracy, family, job, en- riched living, and self-understanding. 14, in 1957, identified the contributions adult edu- Caliver cation should make as: aiding to explain forces creating changes in the world, restoring curiosity, self-confidence, imagination, and llHomer Kempfer, Adult Education (New York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc. 1955). 12Robert J. Havighurst and Betty Orr, Adult Education and Adult Needs, Center for Study of Liberal Education for Adults, Chicago 15, Illinois, 1956. 13John W. Powell, Learning Comes of Ag (New York: Association Press, 1956). 14Ambrose Caliver, "The National Concern for Adult Education". Reprint from School Life, May, 1957. 23 creativity, providing opportunity for experience and helping the indi- vidual to understand local and general world situations. Bryson, 15 in 1936, included five functions of adult educa- tion as remedial, bridging gaps in early school years, training for an occupation, training in liberal arts to help the learner achieve pleasure in the content of the subject, and political education. Havighurst16 suggested in 1953 that three major functions of adult education are education for personal competence, education for civic competence, and education for joy in living. Knowles, in 1957, defined the aim of adult education as, "helping individuals liberate themselves from whatever shackles and deficiencies that prevent them from fulfilling themselves. "17 Bradford in 1957 suggested that the basic goal should be ". . . to develop free men with the ability to Operate independently in society. "18 Royall in 1954 expressed the view that the major purpose of adult education should be, "continuous solution of essentially 15Bryson, op. Cit. 16Robert J. Havighurst, Human Development and Educa- tion (New York: Longman, Green and Co. , 1953). 17Malcolm S. Knowles, "Philosophical Issues That Con- front Adult Educators, " Adult Education, 7:234-40, Summer, 1957. 18Le1and Bradford, ”Toward a PhiIOSOphy of Adult Edu- cation, " Adult Education, 7:83-93, Winter, 1957. 24 19 unpredictable problems which arise in the open society. " Essert, in 1951, 20 took the individual approach and iden- tified the following needs Of individuals: occupational achievement, search for truth and beauty, self-government, close fellowship and intermittent solitude. Sheats21 and others, in 1953, took the group or community approach, basing their statement of needs on social imperatives grow- ing out of the following: the growth Of knowledge, the declining impor- tance of face-to-face groups, and the changing role of the individual. 22 in 1950 listed the characteristics of Robert Deming adequate adult education from the'proceedings of the Committee on Social Philosophy and Direction Finding which was appointed by the Adult Education Association as follows: 1. Grows out of needs of all ages and socio-economic areas. 2. Is flexible and accessible. 19Norman N. Royall, Jr. , "Adult Education's Major Premise, " Adult Education, - 4:94-100, February, 1954. 20Paul Essert, Creative Leadership of Adult Education (Prentice-Hall, 1951). 333p. 21Sheats, op. cit. , p. 3. 22Robert C. Deming, "Characteristics of An Adequate Adult Education Program, " Adult Education, 1:25-26, October, 1950. 25 3. Utilizes available leadership. 4. Helps adults become better adjusted within them- selves. 5. Assists individuals and groups to adapt to a changing world, and gain control over social forces. 6. Is cooperatively planned and coordinated. 7. Utilizes adequate methods, techniques, approaches and facilities. 8. Has a congenial atmosphere in which each person feels welcome and at ease. Hallenbeck23 also reported in 1953, from the proceedings of another symposium on adult education, which dealt with the pur- poses, sc0pe, and definitions of adult education much more philoso- phically, that there was a general consensus on the following: that needs are both individually and socially derived; that, although we teach groups and assist in the attainment of group goals, that the long range purpose is individual satisfaction; that there is an obligation to assist the individual to attain his maximum intellectual development as well as to solve his practical problems; and that these goals are attained through a wide variety of educational means. 23Wilbur C. Hallenbeck, "Building Working Philosophies in Adult Education, " Adult Education, 3:149-52, 1953. 26 Teaching the Adult Learner The preceding review of statements of philosophy of adult education indicated that most writers believe adult education should be planned in terms of adult needs and interests. Examples of theory and research shed light on such problem areas as the following: What do adult students want to learn? To what degree can they learn effectively? What material, methods, and procedures facilitate adult learning? 24 chapters on adult learning, motivation, and Brunner's attitudes provide a comprehensive review of research done prior to 1959 in these areas. IdentifyiniNeeds and Inte re s t s Several studies of local needs examplify the type of re- search aimed at the description of adult students in one community. Ladd25 studied the Characteristics of adults in the Cary night school classes. He found a young group, median age of 22, whose most serious problems were related to personality development. Wilkins received 2500 responses from persons in Providence, Rhode Island. 24Brunner, op. cit. , Chapters 11, III, IV. 25Ernest E. Ladd, "The Characteristics of Adults En- rolled during the Gary, Indiana, Night School Classes for Credit toward High School Graduation, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1953), 191 pp. 26Ralph Wilkins, "A Study to Determine the Adult Educa- tion Needs of Providence, Rhode Island, " (Unpublished doctoral dis- sertation, Boston University, 1955), 206 pp. 27 Six per cent of the total population indicated that they were interested, and over one -half indicated interest in "gene ral education which would 27 enrich life. " Black analyzed the needs and interests of people in a community in Michigan and concluded that a community college should be developed. Another Michigan survey was that of Evans, 28 who found that women in five communities were most interested in home- making, recreation, personality development, economy, and creative arts. Among the men who responded, professional or occupational advancement ranked first as a reason for taking courses. Senior. 29 citizens who responded to Reynolds' survey listed health, housing, financial security, preretirement counseling, and leisure time activ- ies as major needs. In his volume discussing administration of adult education, Debatin30 describes the consumer in adult education. He cites 27Myrtle Black, "The Organization of a Public Community College Program in Relation to Postsecondary Education Interest and Needs in An Industrial Community, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation University of Michigan, 1956), 219 pp. 8Helen Evans, "A Survey of the Citizens and Civic Leaders of Selected Michigan Communities to Determine Need, Interests, and Motives Related to Adult Education, " (Unpublished doctoral disserta- tion, Michigan State University, 1957), 227 pp. 29Mildred Mary Reynolds, "The Identification of the Needs of Senior Citizens and an Analysis and Critique of Selected Programs Designed to Meet These Needs, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 1957), 187 pp. 30Frank M. Debatin, Administration of Adult Education (New York: American Book Co. , 1938), Chapters VI and VII. 28 several studies of interest in course offerings and occupational back- grounds of adult students. After analysis of numerous investigations of characteristics of participants, Brunner31 concluded that each program attracts per- sons to its purposes, educational status influences participation, and socio—economic status determines participation. From the review of research, he found a larger proportion of women, older adults, and better educated persons participate in liberal areas, while more men younger adults, and those in semiskilled occupations attend vocational classes. Kempfer32 reported relative merits of methods of iden- tifying educational needs of adults. In the majority of programs, in- dividual requests from community groups were the sources for pro- gram development. Kempfer also points out the importance of planning for a continuous identification of adult needs. Psychologists have explored adult interests and Charac- teristics of older age groups. Thorndike'333 early study of adult interests indicated relatively little change in interests as peOple be- come older. Havighurst34 suggests that interests do change with age 31Brunner, op. cit., pp. 128-129. 32Homer Kempfer, "Education Needs of Adults, " U. S. Office of Education Circular 330, 1951. Cited in Kempfer, op. cit., pp. 63-65. 33Edward L. Thorndike, Adult Interests (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935), 265 pp. 3 4Robert J. Havighurst, Human Development and Educa- tion (New York: Longmans, Green and Co. , 1953), p. 2. 29 in his theory of developmental tasks. According to him, these tasks arise from physical and psychological growth and from expectations of society and include personal development and family living, pro- gressing in an occupation, establishing and maintaining a home, citi- zenship, and leisure time. Havighurst35 also suggests the importance of recognizing the shift of roles in middle -aged groups. Tibbitts and Donahue36 in their research on physiological and personality changes in older people, observed that the period beyond 50 years of age re- presents a definite phase of life characterized not only by changes in the organism, in physiological and psychological capacities, and in the individual's social situation, but also by the persistence of de- sires or needs common to people of all ages. They also observed that aging is a period of gradual transfer from the responsibilities of par- enthood and career application to a period of broadening interests, preservation and improvement of the culture, assumption of community responsibility, and expression of creative impulses. 35Robert J. Havighurst, "Social Roles of the Middle-Aged Person, " Notes and Essays on Education for Adults, 4:5-14, March, 1953. 36Clark Tibbitts and Wilma Donahue, ”Developments in Education for Later Maturity, " Review of Educational Research, 23:202-17, June, 1953. 30 Brozek37 found a tendency among middle-aged men toward greater rigidity in thinking, greater tension, and increased respon- siveness to emotion-creating stimulus than among younger men. Studies of adult learning though relatively few, yet have provided important evidence for planning programs for adults. Thorndike's38 study of 1928 justified the belief that adults could learn effectively and stressed the importance of use of learning ability in prevention of deterioration. Brunner39 reports a study of the decline of intellectual ability with increase in age. Among the 600 persons in the group studied, the better educated Showed no decline. Nicholson's40 summary of adult learning investigations between 1930 and 1955 reinforced the idea that adults are capable of further learning. He concluded that the decline in adult ability to learn does not show itself too markedly for most verbal tasks until the sixties and added that even at that stage there is usually evidence of a lot of individual differences. 37Joseph Brozek, ”Personality of Young and Middle-Aged Normal Men. Item Analysis of a Psychosomatic Inventory, " Journal of Gerontology, 7:410-17, July, 1952. 38 E. L. Thorndike, Adult Learning (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1928), 335 pp. 39Brunner, op. cit. , pp. 26-27. 4°David H. Nicholson, "Why Adults Attend School" Adult Education, 13:172-77; 1949. 31 Lorge41 pointed out the reduced speed of performance, . but noted that whenever learning ability is measured in terms of power-ability, without stringent time limits, that the evidence is that the learning ability does not change significantly from age 20 to 60 years. 42 . Murphy explores the concept of the self-Image as an important key in adult learning: But the most important of all the individual differences among adult learners lies in their concepts of themselves -- what is now being called the self-image, the picture one has of himself -- his sense of identity, wherZShe belongs, what he can do, what his assets and liabilities are. Instruction of Adults 44 . . . . Cass summarlzed characteristlcs of students 1n adult elementary classes. She identified factors in the learning situation . . . . 45 . Wthh are d1ffe rent when worklng w1th adults. Essert summarlzes factors that characterize a learning experience. 41Irving Lorge, ”Adult Learning, " Adult Education, 2:156-59, June, 1952. 42Gardner Murphy, "Individuality in the Learning Pro- cess, " Notes and Essays on Education for Adults, 12:5-14, 1955. 43 Ibid. , p. 9. 44Angelica Cass, Adult Elementary Education (New York: Noble and Noble, 1956), Chapters 1, 11. 45Paul L. Essert, Creative Leadership of Adult Education (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. , 1951), Chapter II. 32 An example of research in teaching methods was that of Goldberg46 who studied the use of motion pictures in changing adult attitudes to- ward minority groups. He found significant changes in attitude after viewing one film, but no changes as a result of seeing two others. Bradford and Gibb47 reported theories and research in group behavior which relate to adult education. They observed that when the leader served as a group need satisfier, and was accepting and supportive, there was greater group orientation and less inter- personal anxiety than when the leader was self-centered. Research in sociometry and human relations has increased insight in adequate methods of teaching adults. The use of role playing as a technique for changing attitudes was cited by Bradford and Gibb. 48 49 Polansky's study of group social climates indicated the importance 4:6A1bert Goldberg, "The Effects of Two Types of Sound Motion Pictures on Attitudes toward Minority Groups, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1956), 241 pp. 4 7Leland P. Bradford and Jack Gibb, "Developments in Group Behavior in Adult Education, " Review of Educational Research, 23:233-47, June, 1953. 48Ibid., p. 236. 49Lucy Polansky, "Group Social Climate and Teacher's Supportiveness of Group Status Systems, " Journal of Educational Sociology, 28:115-23, November, 1954. 33 of teacher comments which support learners in higher status posi- tions. Teachers who recognize individual differences and positions seem to be best able to direct learning. Lewin's50 research on social climates for learning con- tinues to be significant to teaching -learning situations. In its recent report, the Educational Policies Commis- sion51 cited some of the investigations of the effectiveness of closed circuit television in classroom teaching. Janis and King52 found that role playing was effective in changing the Opinion of male college students. Participants who played the roles of advocates of a point of view changed more than those who read or listened to the same expressions of opinion. Kempfer 3 stressed the importance of the problem solving approach in adult education. He further stated that adults must set their own purposes and that they want to be involved in the learning ac- tivity. 50Kurt Lewin, "Frontiers in Group Dynamics: Channels of Group Life; Social Planning and Action Research, " Human Rela- tions, 1:143-53, 1947. Educational Policies Commission, Mass Communication and Education (Washington: National Education Association, 1958), 137 pp. 2 Irving L. Janis and Be rt King, "The Influence of Role Playing on Opinion Changes, " Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy- chology, 49:211-18, April, 1954. 53Kempfer, op. cit. , pp. 29-33. 34 Some findings from research and reports of investigators . . . 54 . . 1n group dlscussmn methods were presented by Sheats 1n hls chap- ter on methods in adult education. He emphasized the pressing need on the part of all participants for a clearer understanding of the pro- 55 reviewed several cess of group thinking and discussion. Watson investigations of the influence of group discussion techniques, in- cluding the nutrition experiment of Lewin in which women in discus- sion groups Showed more change than those in lecture groups. According to Gibb, 56 group methods are not effective for all teachers. Research findings on results of group methods versus lecture or drill methods have not clearly indicated that one method is better than another. Many sociological studies of significance to adult learning programs have been done. Among them is the studies of Loomis57 and others, which has specifically indicated that the adult student is influenced by cultural and social expectations, and that his self concept . 54Paul H. Sheats, Clarence D. Jayne, and Ralph D. Spence, Adult Education: The Communitj_Approach (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953), Chapter XIV. 55Jean Watson, "Science and Sweetbreads, " Leaders Digest, No. 2, Adult Education Association, 1955. 56Jack R. Gibb, "Learning in the Adult Group, " Review of Educational Research, 29:256-61, June, 1959. 57Charles P. Loomis and Others, Turrialba: Social Sygtems and the Introduction of Change (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1953), pp. 268-69. 35 has been structured by his culture. The authors observed, ”the desire for social acceptance is so great that all behavior except in an extreme crisis situation is affected by it." They further indicated that in a majority of cases the individual will even react contrary to reality as indicated by his senses if the reaction is felt not to be socially accepted. If learning is directed at Changing behavior in thinking, attitudes or skills, then the social atmosphere must be considered. Margaret Read58 stressed the importance of felt needs, beginning with the individual where he is experience—wise, involvement of the whole individual, the effect of so'cial environment as essential ingredients of democratic planning. She also warned that in the adop- tion of new behavior patterns of action it is important to think in terms of those who might be responsible for this area of specialization in society. The understanding of the adult learner's social situations is essential for adequate programs of adult education. Essert's59 review Showed trends in adult education through various agencies. He cited his own study which concluded that wars, depressions, inflation, and other political and social events produced no serious changes in the general upward trend of numbers of adults participating, but rather 58Margaret Read, "Education in Africa: Its Pattern and Role in Social Change, " The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 298, 1955, pp. 170-179. 5()Essert, op. cit. , p. 188. 36 resulted in shifts in sources of control and support, and changes in interests of participants and uses of learning experience. . . . . 60 , A study by the Natlonal Educatlon Assoc1atlon 1n 1952 showed a tendency to add "enrichment for life, " "vocational compe- . . . . . . . 61 tence, " and "c1V1c re spon31b111ty" offerlngs. Durrle collected articles by adult education leaders in workers' education, rural edu- cation, home and family living, and education for leisure and health. His analysis of these articles revealed a trend toward greater empha- sison the education of the individual in his cultural setting, commu- nity affairs and human relations, a shift from determining needs by random individual requests, toward discovering more basic needs, and a need for community organization of adult activities. The trend is toward meeting both the individual and com- munity needs for improvement. Education and Development Definition of Development Finding relationships between education and development 60National Education Association, A Study of Urban Public School Adult Education Programs of the United States (Washington, D. C. : The Association, 1952), 171 pp. 61Paul H. Durrie, "Emerging Patterns of Growth, " Adult Education, 2:186-87, September, 1952. 37 has been complicated by lack of precise definitions of both of these terms. More complicated, however, is the task of finding a noncon- troversial definition of develOpment. According to Arthur Lewis, To the economist development typically means economic growth as measured by investment rates, national income, industrial productivity. To those with social concerns development might mean an increase in literacy, more responsible social and polit- ical participation, identification with national symbols and authority, the prevalence of certain modern attitudes and values, or the level of health of the population. 62 Correa held the view that, Since the economy is part of the society, economic development might be subsumed under the term social development -- polit- ical development, religious development, and educational de- velopment are some of theother aspects of social development. ' . o4 ,, . . . John Valzey states that, development 1mpl1es a van- egated but simple process with social as well as economic charac- teristics which is measurable in both aggregate and individual terms. " Linkafi Between Education and Deve10pment Recent years have brought many thinkers to the point of view that an educational program Should be progressively planned from the cradle to the grave. Growing complexity of modern living has ac- centuated this view, and many communities have realized that advan- tages from education for adults accrue to both the individuals and the 62W. Arthur Lewis, "Education and Economic Development, " Social and Economic Studies, June, 1961, pp. 113-27. 63H. Correa, The Economics of Human Resources (Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co. , 1963). 64John Vaizey, The Economics of Education (London: Faber and Faber, 1962). 38 social order of which they are a part. No longer is the idea being held that adult education is for the underprivileged alone; but it is re- garded to be for all of those adults who still have interests in personal growth and development and social progress. Adam Carle summed up the fundamental purpose of adult education in developing nations as the achievement of "moderniza- tion. "65 Alfred Hayesbé observed that the adult in modern society finds himself more and more in a position of having to continue to learn, whatever his formal education may have been. He argues that no matter in what ways and on what models the developing nations eventually achieve a kind of modernization which is satisfactory to them, that they are likely to come to assign increasing importance to adult learning as a continuous process. Hayes67 further warned that though adult education, for example literacy, is widely regarded as a vital element in economic, 65Adam Carle, World Campaign for Universal Literacy: Comment and Proposal (Harvard University, Occasional Papers in Education and Development, No. 1), Cambridge, Mass. , 1964, p. 20. 66Alfred S. Hayes, Recommendations of the Work Con- ference on Literacy Held for the zigency for International Development, United States Department of State at Airlie House, Warrenton, Virginia, May 23-28, 1964. 67 Ibid. , p. 3. 39 socio-cultural and political development of any country, in the satis- faction Of the needs and aspirations of its citizens, and in their per- sonal enrichment, yet, that it should be recognized from the beginning that it takes time to achieve competence in any skill and that the promised rewards may take even longer to materialize. He indicated that careful long-range planning should provide for continuing the program until a self-sustaining level of achievement has been reached, this self-sustaining level defined as one which permits continuing learning through reading. Investment and develOpment are tOO Often viewed in ref- erence only or mainly to material resources and, on this view, the keys to national growth are said to be the traditional economic variables of land, labor, and capital. Investment in human capital has not been] sufficiently recognized as the catalytic and crucial agent in national development. Chakravarhi Narisimhan emphasized that the develop- ment of a nation's resources depends fundamentally on human rather than physical factors by observing that "when a country receives ex- ternal assistance, the benefits derived vary widely. In some countries, very considerable and effective use is made of this external assistance; , 6 in other countries everything seems to go down the dram. " He 68Chakravarthi V. Narisimhan, "Human Resource Develop- ment and Institution Building in the Role of Higher Education in Relation to Developing Areas, " (Washington: American Council on Education, 1961), p. 1. 40 associated the cause of failure to develOp by some countries to poor education standards of their adult citizens. A lack of adequate investment in human resource develop- ment through adult education has been observed by Rostow69 as a serious handicap because development of natural resources without a concurrent development of human resources leads to frustration and failure, not only in economic but in the political and social realm. Rostowv0 also observed that the recent attention being given to the contributions of a nation's human resources to its develop- ment suggests that the roots of societal Change run deep and creating modern nations means creating modern men; that is, the development process is an educational process. He added that it is yet unfortunate that relatively little serious attention is being given to the development of educational technology peculiarly adapted to the needs of the devel- oping areas. Although there is little disagreement that social and per- sonal changes through education accompany development, there is difference of opinion as to the significance of non-economic obstructions to economic growth. For example, W. Arthur Lewis in a foreword to T. Scarlett Epstein's study comments: 69W. W. Rostow, "The American Agenda in the Under- developed Areas, " Washington: American Council on Education, 1961, p. 46. 70 Ibid., p. 47. 41 We have often been told that some societies are poor mainly because their peoples do not have the right attitudes, for example, to work, to money, to thrift, or because their institutions, for example caste, or extended family inhibit economic effort. This book lends no support to this approach to the theory of economic development. Many countries have indeed attitudes and institutions which inhibit growth, but they will rid themselves of these attitudes and institutions as soon as their people discover that they stand in the way of economic opportunities. This point of view is subscribed to by some economists and empirical evidence has been Offered in its support. Yet, other observers such as Hagen, Lerner, McClelland, argue that change is only initiated when people acquire certain drives, needs, or person- ality characteristics. It would seem that Lewis has overstated his argument; but, the downgrading of the social impediments to economic growth does not necessarily eliminate education as a diffuser or even a progenitor of development. Hill insists, The lesson of the post-war period is that develOpment -~- '1, stands or falls with the improvement of human and institutional competence. Trained men and women in effective institutional settings, although not the only prerequisite to development, are the key to progress and the essential condition of useful as sis- tance from the outside. The development of a country's human 71W. Arthur Lewis, "Foreword, " Economic Development and Social Changes in South India, by T. Scarlett Epstein, p. 9. 42 resources is basic to the effective, balanced development of its natural resources. Education and Economic Deve10pment The Act for International Development of 1961, which gave U. 5. Congressional priority to programs of development educa- tion in AID activities states, it is a correct diagnosis that under-investment in educa- tion inevitably leads to a shortage of trained personnel at the higher and middle levels of decision-making activities and thus national development is seriously slowed or inefficiently di- rected. Galbraith74 in an article in Foreign Affairs said that the development process could not really be expected to take place, even with substantial amounts of financial assistance and technical help, unless several things were already present in the society receiving that assistance. There must be, he said, (1) a substantial degree of literacy and an educated elite of substantial size; (2)2a substantial measure of social justice; (3) a reliable apparatus of government and public administration; and (4) a clear and purposeful view of what development in- volves. 72F. F. Hill, "Education in Developing Countries, " International Development Review, IV:4 (December, 1962), p. 2. 73Act for International Development of 1961. 74J. K. Galbraith, "A Positive Approach to Economic Aid, " Foreign Affairs, Vol. 39 (April, 1961), pp. 445-446. 43 The problem of vicious Circle presented by the relation- ship of education to economic development has been tactfully projected by Hirschman in his question, Is a substantial degree of educational growth and progress a prerequisite to economic develOpment, or is the achievement of educational objectives one of the primary reasons for which economic growth and develOpment are sought ?'75 But, Mary Jean Bowman and C. Arnold Anderson provided this answer to Hirschman's question, Presumably the essential reason for wanting economic development is to bring about a resource base which will make it possible to improve the lot of human beings so that they can have access to knowledge and culture and the Opportunity to ful- fill their human potential in a better world. In this sense, edua __ cation is one of the main Objectives of economic development I and one of the main purposes for which it is sought. Most scholars like Coleman, Almond, Seymour Lipset, Everett Hagen, Bowman and Anderson77 who have studied the rela- tionship between economic levels of life on the one hand, and an array 75Albert 0. Hirschman, "Comments on a Framework for Analyzing Economic and Political Change, " Develogment of Emerging Countries (Brookings Institution, 1962), pp. 40-43. 76 Mary Jean Bowman and C. Arnold Anderson, "Role of Education in Development," Ibid. p. 41. 77Gabriel Almond and J. S. Coleman, The Politics of the DevelopiggAreas, Princeton, 1960; Seymour Lipset, Political Man, Princeton, 1960; Everett Hagen, "A Framework for Analyzing Econo- mic and Political Change, " Deve10pi_ng of Emerging Countries (Brookings Institution, 1962). 44 of social and cultural factors, including education, on the other hand, have concluded that there is certainly a close correlation between level of education and propensity toward economic development, al- though they could not demonstrate a clear causal relationship. Schultz78 in the Journal of Political Economy argues that what emerges from the dilemma whether education is a prerequisite to economic growth or a consequence of it, is that a certain kind of quantity of education must be regarded as a necessary input to“, . achieving rising developmental rates. He suggests that the achieve- ment of higher rates of literacy, specific vocational training and training for intermediate and higher administrative and managerial positionsfall within this category. He observed that the problem be- comes not whether education is a prerequisite to growth, but what kinds, at what levels, in what quantities, how organized, and how ad- ministered. 79 Arthur Lewis, in a paper he delivered in Washington in October of 1961, pointed out that the requirements of economic 78Theodore W. Schultz, "Reflection on Investment in Man, " Journal of Political Economy, October, 1962, pp. 1-8. 79W. Arthur Lewis, "Priorities for Educational Expan- sion, " paper delivered at the Policy Conference on Economic Growth and Investment in Education, Washington, October 16-20, 1961 (O. E. C. D. document, mimeographed). 45 development should be taken into account in setting educational priorities, but that they cannot be overriding. He noted that educa- tion was not invented in order to enable men to produce more goods and services, but to enable them to understand better the world in which they live so as to fulfill their potential capacities, whether spiritual, intellectual, or material. Lewis emphasized that most people would certainly agree that education is desirable even if it contributed nothing to material output. He goes on to say that from the standpoint of economic develOpment, one may distinguish between types of education which increasegproductive capaqcityflagnd types which do not. He comments that teachingan African cook to read may in- crease his enjoyment of life, but that it will not necessarily make him a better cook. Frederick Harbison, commenting on the African cook analogy of Lewis, observed, "1 think it quite possible that the cook who learns to read, although this may not make him a better cook, may decide not to go on being a cook for the rest of his life. "80 The Government of Pakistan Planning Commission, facing the dilemma in determining priorities in effecting a break-through 80Frederick Harbison, "The Strategy of Human Resource Development in Modernizing Economies, " a paper for the Inter- University Studies of Labor Problems in Economic Development (Princeton University, 1962, mimeographed). 46 from a state of chronic backwardness, presented its report which says, "No illiterate country has ever achieved significant economic development, and an educated community with highly trained leader- ship does not remain economically backward. " The report further states, Education has been viewed both as an economic invest- ment and as a means of human develOpment. As an investment it is essential for national develOpment,' and simultaneously it contributes directly to personal fulfillment and the growth of individuals. Fortunately these values reinforce each other. 81 The Commission on Post-School Certificates and Higher Education in Nigeria observed in its study of the Nigerian situation that economic growth is dependent on the development of human re- sources -- both individuals and institutions -- as on the accumulation of material capital. The Commission emphasized among other things, the need in Nigeria for upgrading of human resources through educa- tion, training, improved health, etc. , as well as the growth of know- ledge and technology available for application through these human resources. The Commission warned, "Every one should therefore understand that a develOpment plan which does not give high priority to the formulation of human resources is unrealistic and doomed to failure. "82 1Government of Pakistan Planning Commission, Outline of the Second Five-Year Plan (1961-1965), Karachi, 1960. 82Commission on Post-Secondary Certificates and Higher Education in Nigeria, Investment in Education, Federal Ministry of Education, Nigeria, 1960. (This is often Fefe—rred to as the "Ashby Report. ") 47 Herbert Parnes made the following observation, Though the functional and rather pragmatic view of educa- tional needs is not by any means the only way to view education in a developing country, and does not reflect the total purposes of education in such a nation. But in the present state of na- tional struggle for economic survival, education can be geared to making the nation and its peOple rich and, being rich, they can then be free to be uneconomic. Vincent Barrett, Jr. 84 suggested the following conclu- sions with respect to the role of education in economic development: 1. Education, although a central, factor, has until recently..- been relatively neglected inwthe study of economic growth. 2. Education, usually treated as a consumption good, is now recognized as an investment and as a direct contribution to increased productivity, in quite the same sense as capital, technology, machinery. 3. Education is, however, still a consumption good as well; to "live the good life" as a basic aim of education has not demonstrable relationship to the rate of economic growth. 4. Moreover, education has a very high political and social component which makes it more difficult to treat as a neutral economic input than is the case with the technology, machinery, external capital, and the like. 5. The human and political appeal of universal free primary education -- buttressed by concepts of human rights which can be demanded by this generation -- defies treatment on pure economic grounds; the latter would support a gradual move toward this goal with greater attention in the mean- time to secondary education, on-the ~job training, and perhaps vocational training. 83Herbert S. Parnes, "Manpower Analysis in Educational Planning, " O. E. C. D. Training Course for Human Resource Strate- gists, Frascati, September 3-28, 1962. 84Vincent M. Barrett, Jr. , "The Role of Education in Economic Development, " Education and the Deve10pmen£of Nations, Center for Development Education, Syracuse University, 1963. 48 6. Aside from the argument among some economists as to whether unbalanced growth in the economic sphere is an unmixed evil, the certainty that it will characterize edu- cational planning and develOpment should not deter us from striving to find a reasonable rational model relating eco~ nomic growth to manpower needs, and those needs to educational goals at various levels. 7. Education is a political and social hunger which cannot be held to a minimum which might be defined by the man- power inputs necessary to meet development goals. Frederick Harbison85 and Charles A. Myers observed that all developed countries have in common certain educational characteristics such as nearly universal literacy, compulsory school attendance, at least through primary school, high ratios of educa- tional enrollments in relation to respective age groups. They ob- served also that some one billion of the world's adult illiterates reside in less-developed nations, where school enrollment ratios are only a small fraction of those in develOped countries. The 1962 and 1963 United Nations Yearbook86 of National Accounts Statistics reveals a close correlation between the general wealth of a nation and its investment in education. The data indicate that countries with a high per capita income tend to spend a relatively high proportion of their income on education. This stands to reason 85Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, Education, Manpower and Economic Growth: Strategies of Human Resource Development (New York: McGraW-Hill Series, 1964). 86United Nations, Yearbook of National Accounts Statistics for 1962, 1963, UNESCO, New York. 49 that as a country's economy advances there is an appropriate increase in the number and quality of educated men and women needed to serve it. Education, Social, and Individual Deve10pment A dichotomy between the economic and the social is not clear cut. Herbert S. Parnes pointed out, Economic institutions such as banks or factories perform social functions and even may be viewed by sociologists as "social systems. " Moreover, social changes may, and fre- quently do, directly increase group economic productivity. Thus increased literacy, political stability and linguistic and cultural integration may provide the setting for the type of sus- tained, cooperative effort that economic growth demands. 87 The literature on develOpment offers few precise conclu- sions about the interaction of education (formal or informal) and social and individual development. Most of the authorities view so- cial and individual development as dimensions of the integrated process 88 . . . . of development. Charters observed that soc1a1 and 1nd1v1dua1 de- velopment involve the creation of the social structures, value systems, and motivations necessary for culture change and that such develop- ment may or may not be prerequisite to economic development. Such 87Herbert S. Parnes, ForecastiriEducational Needs for Economic and Social Development, The Mediterranean Regional Pro- ject, O. E. C. D. , Paris, October, 1962. 88W. W. Charters, Jr. , "Social Class Analysis and the Control of Public Education, " Harvard Educational Review, XXIII, (1953), 268-83. 50 social changes as increased political participation, national identifi- cation, increased literacy, or a lower death rate may well indicate the readiness of a society for economic development or that they may be the consequence of economic development. . 89 . . . Danlel Lerner stressed that a max1mlzatlon of the contribution of an educational program to social change requires teachers who are members of the modern world and who can create a setting for the building of new attitudes and values, or at least as- sist other community or national institutions in the performance of this task. The idea that the extension of education to every member of society tends to assist both social and economic equalization has been noted by Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers in com— menting: Social develOpment implies the movement of the society toward the direction of certain preferred types of human rela- tionships. In nations where there is little education and where income differentials between the more educated and the less educated are great, the educational system can be particularly effective in promoting social mobility. Adult Education and Community Development Two views of the relation of adult education to the 8gDaniel Lerner, The Passing of the Traditional Society (New York: MacMillan, 1958). 90Frederick Harbison and Charles A. Myers, Manpower and Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), p. 12. 51 community have emerged in recent years. Adult education may be one community organization, or it provides for community develop- 91 ment. According to McClusky , competition, duplication of leader- ship and support, and imbalance of community interests were problems experienced by many adult educators. He noted that such problems create. the need for coordination of community resources. In another article, McClusky92 defined community develOpment pro- grams as those which stress citizen participation in improvement of their social and physical environment. Brunner notes, Whether approached from the standpoint of community organization or that of community development, the problem of providing comprehensive programs of adult education and community self-improvement must necessarily involve the existing social organizations of the community, a vital part of which is the complex network of formal organizations. Know- ledge of how these operate, what functions they perform for their members and for the community, is essential if there is to be an effective, integrated adult education program for any community . Organizations do not exist in isolation; there are in every community certain activities which depend upon cooperative effort involving two or more organizational structures. Adult educators must utilize existing channels of inter-organizational l 9 Howard McClusky, "Mobilizing the Community for Adult Education, " in Sheats, Jayne, and Spence, op. cit. , p. 296. 92Howard McClusky, "The Role of Adult Education in Community Development, A Symposium, " Adult Education, 6:2-7, Autumn, 1955. 52 and even informal communication. Ignorance of the kinds of cooperation and communication which may exist may lead to waste, excessive and useless formal structuring and bureauc- racy, and even lead to antagonism and competitive programs. 93 _ 94 _ . Nlederfrank and Cole summarlzed literature related to the theory and principles of community development. Studies of specific community action programs described decision—making by groups and the significance of power structure in the community. Two examples of research which are significant for the adult educa- tor seeking understanding of community problems are included here. Lewis95 concluded that public school adult educators in ninety-one cities were in general ill-equipped to assist in a block-by-block pro- 96 study of the ways gram of citizen participation. Carstenson's people perceive hidden webs of inter-relationship within a community suggests the importance of this power structure. He found that service 3 9 Brunner, op. Cit. , p. 282. 94 . . E. J. Nlederfrank and Lucy W. Cole, "Educatlon for Community Development, " Review of Educational Research, 29: 304-307, June, 1959. 95 Gerda Lewis, "A Study of Citizen Participation in Urban Renewal and Its Relation to Adult Education, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cornell University, 1957), 449 pp. 96Blue Allen Carstenson, "A Method for Studying How People Perceive the Power Structure in Their Communities as Tested in Five Michigan Communities, " (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1956), 277 pp. 53 clubs were named more frequently as powerful influences than indi- viduals, the PTA was somewhat powerful, and that newspaper editors and unions were perceived to have less power. Snow described the role of the adult educator in commu— nity projects emphasizing ". . . his most effective role will be that of counselor and catalytic agent rather than director Of projects. "97 Biddle98 also used the concept of catalytic agent as he discussed the training of community educators. The "catalyst leader" gradually involves citizens, promotes change, and develops problem-solving skills. Problems in community organization and community development were revealed in the studies cited by Brunner. 99 The authors of the study concluded that there has been a lack of coordination of adult education in the local community. They suggested that adult education councils have tended to be short-lived. Failure to achieve more effective coordination seemed to be derived from the marginal status of adult education. 9”(Robert H. Snow, Community Adult Education (New York: G. P. Putman's Sons, 1955). . 98William W. Biddle, The Cultivation of Community Leaders (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), 203 pp. 99 Brunner, op. cit. , Chapter XIII. 54 Adult Education in Nigeria Cha racte ristic s of Pre -Colonia1 Tribal Education On the nature and effect of education in the pre-colonial tribal period in Nigeria, Sir Fred Clarke observed, It may be, then, that the most essentially religious thing in us is that by virtue of which we cohere as a society and that here is the heart of education's business. Of this indigenous African societies were apparently in little doubt, to the extent that such societies, although without the formal schooling of the West, regarded education as operative at all stages of human life very much in the interest of the cohesion of tribal groups. 100 On methodology and technique of instruction and teaching in tribal education, Clarke added, Drumming, dancing, mime, song, carving of figurines and designs applied to woven cloth, canoes, calabash, bowls and the like were means of teaching, communicating and per- petually reminding the community what was necessary for its preservation and health. 101 In his book, Hunza: Lost Kiggdom of the Himalayas, John Clark, reflecting on the positive effect of this system of schooling to the clientele and the society writes: 100Sir Fred Clarke, Education and Social Change, An English Interpretation (London: Sheldon Press/New York: MacMillan, 1940), p. 70. 101 . Ibld., p. 73. 55 Last is the sense of responsibility. Dedication, empathy, love -- responsibility has many names that are aspects of the one great thought . . . . However, unless a man feels a strong responsibility and a sense of empathy toward his community, he will live, intellectually lonely, in the same discomfort and po- verty his fathers knew. The responsible man feels a firm de- termination that all men shall have the privilege of elevating their own dignity as he has done. He develops whatever systems of organization and voluntary cooperation are needed to help his fellows. He will not demean the less fortunate by tossing them gifts, but will rather assist them to the same opportunities he has enjoyed. '02 Bronislaw Malinowski commented thus on the negative effect of the tribal education to change, Indigenous African community education appears to have been directed to maintaining cohesion in a political, social and economic state of affairs of a pre -eminently static kind. It was resistant rather than sympathetic to change. 103 Adult Education in Colonial Period Content, Method, and Characteristics Margery Perham noted that Sir F. D. Lugard's theory of Dual Mandate worked through a well coordinated adult education process. He observed, In theory, British colonial, political, and administrative officers were in the nature of advisers to native rulers who were 102John Clark, Hunza: The Lost Kingdom of the Hima- layas (London: Hutchinson, 1957), p. 260. 103Bronislaw Malinowski, The Dynamics of Cultural Change, P. M. Kaberry, Ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1945), Chapter V1, p. 65. 56 to put into effect the advice of the administrative officers. Simultaneously native authority, it was assumed, would learn better government. Harold Cooper described the character of the program of adult education employed during the early colonial period in intro- ducing both the theory of Dual Mandate and system of Indirect Rule as paternalistic. He observed that, British political officers, finding themselves in positions of authority, often tended toward the paternalistic. The more concerned the officers were for the welfare of underdeveloped societies, the more prone they were to push upon their bene- ficiaries their schemes of beneficence. This paternalism was not exclusively a political pattern. Teachers and missionaries, no matter of what nationality, were equally prone to it. 105 Dr. Busia, formerly professor of anthropology at the University of Ghana and sometime leader of opposition of the first Ghanain parliament, in his studies made the following observation about the serious lack of balance which this early program of adult education contributed to the political, economic and social develop- ment of the clientele. He suggests, What was wrong was fundamentally that cross-cultural contacts between Britain and Africa were in Conflict with the specifically political contacts created by Indirect Rule. 104Margery Perham, Native Administration in Nigeria (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), reprinted, 1962. p. 121 105Harold Cooper, "Political Preparedness for Self- Government, " Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 306, pp. 71-77, July, 1956. 57 Although the theory and practice of Native Administration sought to build up the political power of chieftaincy, economic and social development, including education, ran counter to the very political process. The spread of Western education, accomplished almost overwhelmingly through Christian mission endeavor, constituted a formidable challenge to the indigenous priestly authority of the native chief which began to crumble with ever-increasing speed. 10 Audrey Richards has this to say about this early method and programs designed to teach indigenous authority, not only to rule, but also to assume the gamut of responsibility from political to social. The method chosen imperceptibly sapped the foundation of the very authority which was to be taught responsibility. As is now well known, social action -- to be effective, requires team collaboration providing for all the elements of social education to act together with immediate and all-around impact at the actual field level. But in this Situation, teamwork at the point of contact in the field among, say, education, health, agricul- ture, and other social development personnel was at best in- formal, Sporadic, and by no means a matter of priority. By the same token there was division between government and mis- sion on one hand and between government and commerce on the other. All this makes for only the poorest integration and team- work at the point of impact upon the population with serious lack of personal and team responsibility at that level and its sick- ening concomitant —- frustration by red tape. 107 Hilliard summarized the weaknesses of this early adult education program as follows: This early method of education geared towards promotion of indirect rule worked out differently from what had been anti- cipated due mainly to failure to examine the African political, 1061);; Busia, The Position of the Chief in the Modern a Political System in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1957). 107Audrey Richards, A Discourse on Local Government in Africa (London: Cassell, 1956). 58 economic, and social scene to which it was applied. It attempted to use chieftaincy and an indigenous system of authority for pur- poses of development and change, but the very purpose of chief- taincy and indigenous tribal authority was to preserve the status quo. 08 Concerning the content of the education program and methods of instructions, Thomas Jesse Jones made the following observations, The bookish quality of the educational program did not es- cape notice even before the first world war; both missionaries and government officials were frustrated by this urge on the part of the educated to escape to towns away from the task of lighten- ing the hard lot of their fellow countrymen back in the village. As one high official puts it, the school has turned out "not one planter of corn, " commerce grumbled because, as trade became more develOped and complicated, the African products, educated on a bookish curriculum by the rote method, were good enough for repetitious work but unreliable when initiative and resource- fulness were called for. i There have been differing views about the adoption of rote learning as a method of teaching at this period. Some authorities traced it to pre-literate African culture while others criticized it as an inherent part of the colonial system. John Wilson observed on this is sue of method, Indigenous education of pre -literate societies depended considerably on rote learning employing the memory and the imitative factors in learning. These qualities were brought to the learning of the new content from the West. Besides, 108E H. Hilliard, A Short History of Education in British West Africa (Edinburgh, Scotland: Nelson, 1957). 109 Thomas Jesse Jones, Education in Africa (New York: The Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1922). 59 colonial government was interested in producing a certain num- ber of minor administrative personnel whose task tended to be routine and repetitive and the memory and imitative faculty were not unSuitable to such work. Western education of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in its method tended to rely on these very qualities of the mind and so exported what was already a well-tried custom in Africa. 110 But Raum presented the following opposite view, Dangerous ideas are taking hold throughout Africa that memorization is a method of learning indigenous and natural to Africa and that it is, for Africa, a satisfactory way of learning. One has only to note what has been already said to the effect that indigenous African education, besides using rote learning, also used dramatization, mime, and role playing, these being not only modern educational methods but of the very root of universally approved means of learning and teaching redis- covered in modern education. 111 Joseph Roucek observed the dangerous role of the Africans themselves in discouraging change in the education system, As the African societies developed, some Westerners be- came concerned and critical. They were aware that while ed- ucation which emphasized only the ”3-R's" might be useful for development of initial skill required in government, commerce and mission, beyond that stage, something of greater breadth was required if any progress toward modern civic and social responsibility was to be developed. Besides, there was plenty of evidence that education as it had developed, whatever purposes llOJohn Wilson, Education and Changing West African Culture, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1963. 1110. F. Raum, ”The Demand for and Support of Educa- tion in African Tribal Society, " The Year Book of Education, 1956, pp. 533-544. 60 it served in the take-off stage, was rapidly becoming subject to diminishing return. Roucek further observed, . but it was so held among the few minor administrative personnel whether in mission, government or commerce that the bookish educational means by which they achieved their social and economic status should be defended from any altera- tion. Thus the content of education and method became sacro- sanct and even ossified by the desire and will of the educated Africans themselves. 113 noted that the Second World War brought a sig- Mason nificant effect on educational scenery of Nigeria in particular in spite of the resistance of some of the advocates of colonial system. Ac- cording to him, before the war, comparatively slow progress was accepted as normal speed of development, which gave the impression that time was on the side of development and that slow flowering was essential to the soundness of growth. He pointed out that the growing impatience of the people reached its zenith with the return of Nigerian troops who, having served in Burma, India and Egypt where they wit- nessed illiterates and semi-illiterates being taught technical skills, began to demand the application of similar speeding-up processes to their national economic and social develOpment. 112Joseph Roucek, ”Education in Africa South of the Sahara," Journal of Human Relations, Vol. 8, 1960, pp. 810-818. 113R. J. Mason, British Education in Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 187. 61 As an outgrowth of this agitation of the returned soldiers for more education and improvement an Advisory Committee on Edu- cation in the Colonies, in May, 1941, appointed a sub-committee to "consider the best approach to the problem of mass literacy and adult education in more backward areas with emphasis upon community ”114 education. The Committee presented the following goals of adult and community education for the colonies. 115 l. The improvement of health and living conditions of the people. 2. The improvement of their well-being in the economic sphere. 3. The develOpment of political institutions and political power until the day arrives when the peOple can be- come effectively self-governing. The Committee presented the following as a means of 16 achieving the goals: 1. To plan universal schooling for children. 2. To gain from the very start the full and active sup-- port of local communities and so develop initiative and drive at grass root level. —_k 114Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, "Mass Education in African Society, " Colonial, No. 186 (London: H. M. S. O. , 1944), p. 4. 1151bid., p. 3. llbIbid., p. 8. 62' 3. To teach literacy to all adults under fifty years of age. 4. To make sure that mass education and welfare plans we re comprehensive, balanced and well coordinated. 5. To have definite targets for all-around advance within specific stated periods. An important landmark in concern for adult education programs geared towards developmental needs of the nation was a conference of a very comprehensive nature which took place at Cambridge, England, in 1948, under the title "The Encouragement of Initiative in African Society. " The above conference was pre- ceded in 1947 by another Conference on African Local Government. This conference recognized that progress of self-government was not enough and that ”What British administration must in addition give the colonists is a new inspiration. "117 It is remarkable that as a result of these conferences, the Secretary of State for the Colonies advised the colonial govern— ment to use the program of mass and adult education in achieving for the colonists the goals recommended by the Cambridge Conference on African Education which are as follows:118 117Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, ”Education for Citizenship in Africa, " Colonial, No. 216 (London: H. M. S. O. , 1948), p. 1. 118Cambridge Conference on African Education, African Education (London: Oxford University Press, 1953). (a). (b). (c). (d). 63 The provision of Social Welfare Services. The promotion of community development. As a means of fostering cooperation with appro- priate voluntary agencies and government depart- ments. The training of social workers and community de- velopment staff. The Problem of the Existing Adult Education Program Clarke Thomas noted, Until the present crash program of universal primary school education produces a generation of literates, adult ed- ucation, in order to meet a major need in Nigeria, will have to include great emphasis on literacy efforts linked to the social and individual needs of more than seventy percent of the popu- lation who are still completely illiterate. 119 Ira De A. Reid corrimented on the conflicting aim of adult education in Nigeria, "It remains to be determined whether it is for wider development of personality or for specific preparation for an examination. "120 A UNESCO Conference on Planning and Organization of Literacy Programs in Africa reported in 1964, 119 Clarke Thomas, "A Layman's View of Adult Education in Nigeria, " Adult Education, Volume XII, Number 2, 1963. 12OReid, Ibid., p. 2. 64 In the area of literacy although a great deal has been done, much more needs to be done. In most African countries the literacy work is conducted through federal welfare and community development agencies and not necessarily through educational ministries or through the schools. Elementary and secondary school buildings as well as teachers on those levels are not used to anlyégreat extent in adult education work or continuing education. A solution to the shortage of potential teachers for various adult education programs in Nigeria was presented by S. O. Awokoya in suggesting, Another aspect of increasing the number of teachers for adults is the extent to which all skilled people might be helped to become trained in teaching. Up to the present, limited use has been made of literate housewives in this way. 122 K. O. Dike in his report made the following observation on lack of enthusiasm of the people in participating in adult education classes: Whilst there can be no doubt about the value of some thousands of adults attaining a modicum of literacy, this scale of participation and success suggests a need to study the moti- vation or its absence in a community which has a high rate of illiteracy yet is anxious to make rapid social and economic progress.123 IZIUNESCO, Final Rep_ort of the Regional Conference on the Planning and Organization of Literacy Programs in Africa UNESCO, Paris, 1964). 1225. O. Awokoya, "Educational Planning in Nigeria, " International Conference on Educational Planning in Developing Countries (Deutsche Stiftung Fi'ir Entwicklungslander, Berlin, 1963), pp. 15-16. 123K. O. Dike, "Development of Modern Education in Africa, " Chapter 12 in The One and the Many, Ed. J. N. Brookes (New York: Harper, 1962). 65 C. W. Elliot spoke about the curriculum, The need to adapt the curriculum to the environment has been continually subject of comment. Reference has already been made to attempts to carry out suitable adaptations and changes, yet the same criticisms are still made and have considerable validity. One of the more important reasons for this is that the peOple who have tried to modify the cur- riculum were working more or less in isolation. 124 On the problem of coordination and cooperation in Nigerian adult education and the difficulty of lack of adequate resources which the program faces, Lewis made the following comment: "Apart from the prejudices of local politicians, it is of interest to note that adult education has attracted little attention from sources of bilateral aid. "125 Also on the problem of Coordination of programs between various agencies Lewis remarked, Different facets of adult education have been regarded as the responsibility of particular agencies and there has been no machinery either to coordinate efforts or even more importantly, to plan on an integrated basis the activities of individual agencies in the total social and economic context of development. 126 Campbell expressed the popular need in Nigeria for an education program which can reach all the people by saying, 1240 W. Elliot, "The New Education, ” Atlantic Monthly, 23, 1869. 125L. J. Lewis, Society, Schools and Progress in Nigeria (Oxford, England: Pergamon Press, 1965), p. 139. 1261bid., p. 142. 66 Means must be found and found quickly whereby the people, as a community, can understand and appreciate the forces which have changed and are changing their lives so rapidly and radically. The mass and adult education of the community is a problem of urgency that is necessitated by the natural ripening of general problems, and by the forced pace at which those problems, social, political and economic, are maturing. Accelerated community education is the recurring refrain in African education. 127 Archibald Callaway has called attention to one of the dangerous social problems which adult education should confront as he notes, The unemployment problem of school leavers -- caused by the impact of education on a background of traditional society and an under—functioning economy -- aggravates the existing latent and open unemployment. Because of their rising number and the related social pressures, however, the unemployment of school leavers calls for closest attention. 128 1 Frederick Harbison 29 in the report of the Commission on Post-School Certificates and Higher Education in Nigeria sug- gested specifically the following activities of adult education neces- sary for upgrading of employed manpower in Nigeria: 127McLeod J. Campbell, African History in the Making (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1956). 128Archibald Callaway, ”Employment Among African School Leavers, " Journal of Modern African Studies, 1, No. 3, 1963, 351-71. 129 Frederick Harbison, "High Level Manpower for Nigeria's Future, " Education and National Building in Africa (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965). 67 1. Short courses for junior and middle level manage- ment as training programs for supervisory and junior management. 2., Evening classes for persons to work for the same technical degrees or certifications as are offered by full -time technical institutes. 3. Evening classes for those persons wishing to work part-time toward qualification for entry into uni- versities. 4. Refresher conferences or seminars for increasing the effectiveness of teachers. W. Arthur Lewis emphasized that, The quickest way to increase productivity in the less developed countries is to train the adults who are already on the job. This field is almost neglected. Most of the Ministries are too busy making new regulations and processing forms, to regard adult education as a major part of their functions. 130 Needs of the Nation to which Adult Education Is Expected to Relate Though no specific studies have been done on the situa- tion of adult education in Nigeria recently, various writers and speakers have made passing references to the role adult education can play in the development of national resources. Phelps-Stokes Reports had emphasized that effective education for the colonists should have a defined responsibility to everyone in the community, 130W. Arthur Lewis, "Education and Economic Deve10p- ment, " Social and Economic Studies, the Institute of Social and Economic Research, University College of the West Indies, Jamaica, X, No. 2 ‘June, 1961), 94-101. 68 both young and old. The report added, "its influence must make for improved health, effective industry, helpful recreation, sound charm 131 acter, and spirit of service. " A. V. Murray in his critical study of the "schools in the bush" asserted, The missions have failed to see how their success depends on the welfare of the native adults, and have therefore been strangely indifferent to the important needs of the people in economic value of agriculture, and little concerned with health. 132 133 has noted, the Phelps—Stokes Commissions As Lewis advocated a policy of adaptation of education to the environment, and as their brief had required them, they did so in the light of the re- ligious, social, hygienic and economic conditions of all people in the society. Their advice was taken into account by the committee re- sponsible for producing the Memorandum on Educational Policy in British Tropical Africa which was accepted by the Nigerian govern— ment as the basis for developing its own policy. He observed that the two principles laid down in the Memorandum which were taken note of by both government and missionary education authorities 131Reports of Phelps-Stokes Commission on Education in Africa (Edited and abridged, Oxford University Press, London, 1922L p. 33. 132A, V. Murray, The School in the Bush -- A Critical Study of the Theory and Practice ,of Native Education in Africa (London: Longmans, 1929). p. 73. 133Lewis, op. cit. , p. 69. 69 are as follows: 1. That education should be adapted to local conditions in such a way as would enable it to conserve all sound elements in local traditions and social organi— zation; 2. That education should function as an instrument of progress and evolution. 134 in a course organized for visiting teachers in Baylis, Northern Nigeria, noted the expressed need of the government for providing the teachers with guidance and leadership skills which can help them to relate the work of the school to the work of the com- munity. Clarke reported that at Omu in the Ilorin Province of Northern Nigeria it was agreed between the native head and the edu- cation department that a program be planned for patterning the life and activities of the school upon local economic and social conditions in such a way as ”to combat the subversive tendencies which were troubling the minds of the older men and guide the inevitable changes so that they might benefit the people. "135 134P. G. S. Baylis, Report on a Course for the Training of Visiting Teachers Held at Togo Go‘mbe, Northern Provinces of Nigeria, 1936-38 (Colonial 174, HMSO, London, 1940). p. 5. 135J. D. Clarke, Omu: An African Experiment in Educa- tion (London: Longmans, 1937), p. 7. 70 136 reported that at Akure in Western Nigeria the Apeji teachers and catechists in training in the Church Missionary Society School had petitioned the Mission to provide an auxiliary evening class for their fiancees and wives so as to help them develop the skill and attitude for marriage and for sharing community leadership with them. The report added that on the effect of this request classes for illiterate women were organized in domestic science and hygiene at both Kukuruku district and at Ile sham in 1937. A major impetus to adult education came from the re— 137 on Education port of a subcommittee of the Advisory Committee in the Colonies published in 1943. ‘ Published under the title Mass Education in African Society, the report defined the aims of mass education as follows: 1. To spread literacy among adults, together with a wide spread develOpment of literature and libraries. 2. To plan mass education of the community itself, involving the active support of the local community from the start. 3. To effectively coordinate welfare plans and mass education plans in order that they might form a comprehensive and balanced whole. j. 136Sam Apeji, "Reflections on Nigerian Education, ” The Student, VII, No. 5 (1963), 4. 137Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, op. cit., p. 3. 71 In 1951, Malafa138 reported on the organization of a special training center designed to inculcate in all the adult partici- pants a spirit of responsible and enlightened citizenship. He added that it was hoped that through living and working together, sharing rigours of mountain-climbing, digging together, and building bridges, mutual cooperation and responsibility would be developed which in turn might give rise to development of leadership skills and attitudes. Mr. A. Deleon, Director-General of UNESCO at the Regional Conference on the Planning and Organization of Literacy Programs in Africa, held at Abidjan, Ivory Coast, March, 1964, remarked: / Almost half of the world's adult population, are at pre- sent rendered incapable of effective social participation because they are illiterate 3. These gene rations of illiterate adults, if left uneducated, will continue to be a burden on the national in- come; they will hinder the social, economic, political and cul- tural development of their country. John Hatch in a seminar in inter-university co-operation in West Africa pleads, If we do not provide for adult education now, we will be sacrificing the present generation in the interests of the future, ./ v— 138P. E. N. Malafa, Man O‘War Bay, Overseas Educa- tion, 34(4), (1963), 157-61. 139A. Deleon, Final Report of the Regional Conference on the Plannigg and Organization of Literacy Programs in Africa, (UNESCO), Paris, 1964, p. 123. 72 we shall be creating a gap between the school population and the adult population of the community. In fact we may discover to our dismay at last that neither the elementary, secondary or university graduate can belong any longer in his com- munity. McLeod emphasized, "It will do no good to have the new influence of the school and old influence of tradition blindly opposed to one another. Adult education is the only hope of bringing about a 41 reconciliation. ” Batten observed that, ”community education is essential to provide the knowledge needed to assist people to control their own future with benefit to themselves. "142 Hodgkin143 noted a variety of aims which have been given adult education projects, such as: 1. Closing the gap between older and younger genera- tions. 2. Giving additional civic programs. 3. Teaching hygiene and sanitation. 4. Spreading literacy. 140 John Hatch, ”Extra-Mural Education in a Developing Country, " The West African Intellectual Community, published by the Congress for Cultural Freedom, Ibadan University Press, 1962, p. 205. 141,1. McLeod Campbell, African History in the Making (London, Edinburgh House Press, 1956), p. 197. 142T. R. Batten, Problems of African Development (London: Oxford University Press, 1960), Part II, p. 159. 143R. A. Hodgkin, Education and Change (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), p. 213. 73 Adapting the whole community to demands of modern government. Making adult education a part of all-round drive for cultural, economic and constitutional development. . 144 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment in 1955 suggested to the government of Nigeria to use adult education and make the nation's womanhood an economic asset by providing them courses in domestic science, home craft, commerce, etc. David G. Scanlonlé5 outlined the following which an adequate program for adults should aim at: 1. It should make full use of existing cultural agencies. 2. It must be carried on within the framework of the social and domestic milieu of the clientele. 3. It should be designed to meet the needs of the community. 4. The teaching materials should be meaningful to the villagers. 5. It must raise the hopes and ambitions as well as the skills of the people. 144 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop- ment, The Economic Deve10pment of Nigeria (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955). 145 David G. Scanlon, "Education and Social Change in West Africa, " Teachers College Record; Vol. 56, 1954, pp. 129-134. 74 146 Margaret Read enumerated the following elements as needs which the program neglected to cater for: 1. Training in physical and social development. 2. Training clientele in citizenship which is related to their society. 3 Promoting their interest in their cultural heritage such as folklore, music, art and dress. Margaret Read then goes on to observe: 1. The problem of illiteracy cannot be disassociated from the spread of adult education, and 2. the raising of standard of living, the conservation of natural resources such as soil, forests and water, the stepping up of the production of food crops and of commercial crops, the improvement of village hygiene, and the introduction of preventive health measures are some of the needs of the masses which are a challenge to any adult education move- ment in the colonies or in the emergent nations. She also contends that the existing adult education program tends to serve almost exclusively the needs of people in ‘white collar' jobs; that before the adult education program began, there was a gulf between these people and the illiterate masses, which may be widened unless the reasons for the gulf are recognized and their existence eradicated with adequate programs of education which can reach and benefit all. 146Margaret Read, "Education in Africa: Its Pattern in Social Change, " The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 298, 1955, pp. 170-179. 75 Mbonu Ojike in his reflection on African need for emanci- pation made the following remarks concerning adult education needs in Nigeria with special emphasis on Eastern Nigeria: The development of Eastern Nigeria will be rapid and more effective if among other things the adults are educated. I believe that very often the fir st step in adult education has an economic motive; better-made buildings, more efficient farm machinery, better crops, a more rational system of farm accounting. But these in turn will introduce the adult to a wider type of educa- tion, concerning itself with leadership, with the correct princi- ples of social behavior, with a sense of dedication and respon- sibility to the society of which he is a member. 147 Summary The preceding review of research and literature was con- ducted in five areas. The purposes for the review of literature were to develop rationale for the analysis and to derive and synthesize criteria in terms of attributes and items to be used in the developing of a scheme for analyzing the programs of adult education in the thirty-four rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. Literature related to definition and philosophy of adult education was examined for identification of similarities of goals of adult education. A review of the research concerning the adult learner and his instruction, psychology of learning, group dynamics and teaching 147Mbonu Ojike, My Africa (New York: Van Rees Press, 1964). 76 methods suggested essential elements which contribute to make a program adequate for meeting the needs of participants. A review of literature on education and development revealed the important relationship between education and social, economic, political and individual development. The review of literature on adult education and com- munity development revealed the technique and methods of using adult education to achieve not only a nation's political, social and economic development but also the improved quality of individual social participation, economic betterment, and political contribu- tion. The review of literature on adult education in Nigeria revealed the developmental trends and circumstances which have shaped the character and nature of the existing program and the social situation in which it operates. The review of literature on developmental needs of Nigeria revealed the specific problems of society and individuals which adult education programs should recognize and contribute to their solution. Several studies we re found which were similar to the present study. Robert C. Deming's study of Characteristics of Adequate Adult Education Program provided an insight used in se- lection of the criteria for this analysis. 77 In this study, development is assumed to imply a variegated but single process with social as well as economic characteristics which are measurable in both aggregate and indi- vidual terms. Furthermore, the concern here is not with the social or other problem left in the wake of development but with using the analysis as a basis of making suggestions that can help the programs to make more contributions in the solution of problems of individual and social development in the region. CHAPTER III GENERAL OVERVIEW OF NON-UNIVERSITY ADULT. EDUCATION IN NIGERIA A clear understanding of the present status is essential for the future. Moreover, proper interpretation of the present status is dependent upon an adequate understanding of the historical back- grounds from which the present status developed. Therefore in a study that has as its purpose the extension of the present trends and the projection of future purposes and goals of adult education in Nigeria, the scope and organization of the present system must be understood in its relation to its historical development and also in relation to the historical backgrounds of its social and economic environment. Adult Education Before Colonial Period T raditional Adult Education In most traditional Nigerian communities, there were in- stitutions which indirectly performed adult education functions. There was a deep-rooted custom of settling disputes between people by dis- cussion, whether in full Conclave of the family, the clan or the village, 78 79 or in the representative gatherings of the clan in the market places or palaver halls which dot the village streets. The gathering might be a small grouping of villages or an extensive kingdom or compound. In such discussions, the reports of the emissaries and comments of the elders informed and educated the participants. The opinion of those members of the community who could not participate in such an open discussion are usually submitted to the general gather- ing through their own spokesmen. In most communities there were secret societies such as Akang, Ikoro, Ekpe, Ogboni and Ozu, and though economic and poli- tical factors influenced admission, candidates had to acquire certain knowledge about their own society as well. The system of age-sets, where it operated, was a further means of providing life -long social training. As Lord Milverton observed, The traditional religious cults demanded the education of postulants; while in Islamic areas, the wandering teacher was prepared to impart his learning to anyone interested, this learning in most cases included not only Moslem theology, but also the whole corpus of philosophy available in Arabic. 1 According to Bown, These long standing avenues of adult education and the old institutions which we re associated with them matured in relatively 1Lord Milverton, "The Realities of an African Civiliza- tion, " African Affairs, Vol. 55, 1956, pp. 178-187. 80 stable societies, before Africa, together with the rest of the world, was caught up in the dynamic technological and econo- mic shifts of the 19th and 20th centuries. Adult Education During and After Colonial Period Radical changes, such as improved communications, ex- ploitation of cash crops, the wider diffusion of money, brought about the need for new vehicles of adult education, and new forms as well. M. C. English observed, "The guise of a class with Western school education, lite rate in European languages and interested in achieving political and economic advance, led to both the founding of newspapers and the appearance of a whole wave of voluntary organizations. "3 These educated men attempted to arouse the consciousness of their fellow citizens to new problems and new perspectives. Adult Education by Voluntary Organizations The purpose of these voluntary organizations was partly the mutual education of members and partly the educational and social develOpment of a particular village or ethnic group. Some gained political ove rtone, but all had some educational aspect. 2Lalage Bown, "A conspectus of University Extra-Mural Studies in Nigeria, " Journal of International Congress of University Adult Education, Number 1, Vol. IV, March, 1965. p. 45. 3M. C. English, An Outline of Nigerian Historx (London: Longmans, Green and Co. , 1959), p. 165. 81 The British Council, the Trade Unions and Nigerian Union of Teachers were the principal sponsors of programs within this cate- gory. These groups concentrated on planning programs for their members only. In some cases, the BritishrCouncil was able to initiate a chain work of study groups and debates in principal townships on such topics as ”local government, " ”taxation" and "principles and problems of indirect rule. " In addition to these groups were the Christian missionaries who became responsible for a wide range of adult educational activities, especially literary and women's education. The methods of these groups were totally informal. Ac- cording to Ross, "Christianity in direct and indirect ways has probably had the most fundamental, widespread, and creative effect of any ele- ment entering Africa in modern times. " Government Sponsored Adult Education Inflation was the chief post-war problem. It led to discon- tent and increased criticism of the colonial government. The criticism was spearheaded by the Nigerian ex-soldiers. These people who during the war visited many countries in Eur ope and Asia were unhappy to come home and witness problems of risen prices, and unemployment. 4Emery Ross, "Impact of Christianity in Africa, " The Annals of the American Academgof Political and Social Science, March, 1955, p. 227. 82 At the same time in England, after the war, public opinion urged the colonial government to establish departments for promotion of mass education and community develOpment in the colonies as a step toward social and economic reconstruction of the colonies. In Nigeria, the emphasis tended to vary from area to area, although each regional department initiated a wide spectrum of adult education. In Northern Nigeria, where primary education was thinly spread, there was an onslaught on illiteracy. In Southern Nigeria, where the existence of improvement societies indicated an already awakened desire for progress, there was a series of attempts to stimulate self-help in village communities. The government sponsored adult education programs emphasized literacy like the adult education by the Christian missionaries. Regional Government Sponsored Adult Education in Eastern Nigeria Adult education in the region owed its origin to the various voluntary organizations mainly the Christian churches who, from their early days in the region, organized classes for their members. These classes were run as Sunday Schools and evening classes which were primarily devised for teaching the members to read the Bible and Catechisms, how to read the prayers and sing the church songs. The only form of written work done by participants was practicing on how to write their names. These classes were conducted 83 not only for the adult members of the churches but also for the entire congregation of the church. During the Second World War, it was realized that over 95 per cent of the Nigerians who were then recruited as soldiers could neither read nor write. The problem of illiteracy hampered communi- cation among the soldiers and between the soldiers and their officers. In order to give the soldiers some education which could enable them to understand how to read and write in English, John Albert Carpenter was appointed to start an emergency program for all the Nigerian illiterate soldiers. Carpenter performed the tedious task so creditably that after the war in 1945, he was appointed to organize an adult education program for the whole country. Nigeria at that period was divided into Lagos Colony, Western, Eastern and Northern protectorates and the Cameroon. Carpenter established the headquarters of adult education in Lagos and sub-headquarters in other parts of the protectorate. He initially opened centers at Udi, Eket, Abak and Ahoada in Eastern Nigeria and appointed the following organizers, A. A. Simon, T. D. Abbey, G. Okon and A. N. Aloude, to each of these centers as pioneer organizers. According to Eastern Nigeria Annual Reports, one ofthe pioneer organizers. observed, ”aaa new scheme with inadequate staff and resources, it grew spasmodically in some 84 of the counties, but in some, such as Udi, its successes were very impressive. " The impressive achievement of Udi adult education pro- gram later became the topic of the film, ”Day-Break in Udi" which dipicted Udi county in a process of change through the efforts of adults who were the clientele of the adult education program. A. L. Amadi the present Registar of Community Develop- ment in Eastern Nigeria Ministry of Internal Affairs succeeded Carpenter in 1952. Within the same year, the site of headquarters of regional adult education was transferred from Aba to Owerri. Later Uyo was officially made the headquarters for Adult Education for Women. As the Chief Adult Education Officer, Carpenter had his department under the Ministry of Education but in 1959 Adult Educa- tion was transferred from Ministry of Education to Ministry of Internal Affairs. The Chief Adult Education Officer's circular of 1964 re- ported the following concerning the progress of the program: It is striking that though the adult education program ex- pands yearly, the number of the government employed organizers continues to be only eleven since 1952. In 1959 there were 33 county Councils with active adult education programs, while "Eastern Nigeria Annual Report, Ministry of Education, 1958, " Official Document No. 23 of 1960; Govt. Printer Eastern Nigeria, Enugu. 85 in 1964 there are 59 counties with active programs. The or- ganizers employed by the counties increased from 42 in 1962 to 54 in 1964. 6 Administration of the Programs The administrative personnel of the program in Eastern Nigeria was made up of an adult education officer, an assistant offi- cer, eleven temporary government organizers only one of whom had a qualification above First School Learning Certificate, a county organizer, a center committee and an instructor in each center. In addition to these personnel are two clerks and an artist attached to the headquarter's office at Owerri and also the female adult educa- tion officer and organizers who are in charge of the women's pro- gram at Uyo. The Adult Education Annual Report of 1961 indicated the following as the functions of the following officers: 1. The Adult Education Officer -- the officer super- vises campaigns for the whole region. He trains organizers, inspects centers accounts and records, and makes provision for required text books for the programs. 2. The temporary organizers and county organizers organize campaigns, open new centers, supervise 6Chief Adult Education Officer Eastern Nigeria, "Progress Report, " AEO. 12/307/7th February, 1964. p. 11. 86 centers, form committees, and maintain monthly pro- gress records of the center. According to the Chief Adult Education Officer's circu— lar letter of 1964 referred to previously, apart from the eleven temporary officers employed by the government, each county was required to employ an organizer. The government organizers visit from one county to the other, while the county organizers are per- manent at their respective counties. While the government organizers are provided with motorcycles which help them to meet the transpor- tation needs in rural areas, the county organizers are provided no means of transportation. In addition to the organizers, each center employs a num- ber of instructors who, in addition to teaching the students, are also required to keep the center - program records, act as financial secre- tary to the center committee, take care of the center library, keep center files, keep a yearly examination record and submit annual and monthly reports to the Regional Adult Education Officer at Owerri. Oflanization of the Programs Adult education in Eastern Nigeria is organized under two main divisions, namely: 1. Mixed adult education which caters to the general education of both male and female. This division has its headquarters at Owerri, 87 2. Women's adult education which is divided into two sections with one section catering to the education of women with basic education and who were ad- mitted for training as either organizers or instruc- tors. The entry point or the required basic education required for this group is usually First School Learning Certificate. The second section caters to adult illiterate women who have not had any form of education or who are completely il- literate. This second group is taught the arts of home making, reading, and writing in English. The Women Adult Education Center at Uyo is the only center equipped in the region to cater to these two different groups. The Center was originally started by A. I. Spence in 1953, who was succeeded in 1957 by V. Ugorji. This program and its counterpart for men which has its headquarters at Owerri were transferred from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1959. From 1959 the Uyo program included additional courses in such areas as Literacy Teaching Methods, Clothing Construction, Home Management, Mother Craft, Gardening, English Grammar, Physical Education, Needlework, Laundry, Nutrition, Cookery and Hygiene. Thirty-three students with a minimum entry requirement of First School Learning Certificate were annually admitted into this 88 program by means of a competitive examination. Each student paid an annual fee of-Ia 26(twenty-six pounds) as a charge for board and rooms. Books and other study materials are supplied free to parti- cipants. The government pays the officer, the organizers and in- structors while the county council is responsible for the buildings and equipment. The objective of this program was stated as "the improve- ment of the living standards in the region and encouragement of hygienic conditions in rural communities. " At the end of the one year training some of the participants are located to be in charge of newly opened centers while others may either return to their villages or start their own private training centers. Village Women' s Classe s The instructors who graduated at Uyo were located in rural village centers where they conducted classes in reading, writing and basic courses in child care, cooking methods and nutrition for illiterate women. These home -making courses were conducted for four days each week. The fifth day, the instructors visited the homes of the women and helped them in home and family planning practices. Each 7Official Report, ”Women Program Uyo, " Ministry of In- ternal Affairs Circular, AEO, 33/295. let, April, 1965. p. 3. 89 participant was awarded marks for her practical application of what she had learned at the center in her general housekeeping. At the end of each year a special prize was awarded to the participant with the highest grade point average. The syllabus was estimated to cover four years. Each participant was expected to continue in attendance until she became both literate and efficient in home cares. An annual open house was observed in each center on which occasion each of the participants exhibited to public inspection a creative art she had completed while in training at the center. The Mixed Sections The objective of the mixed section of adult education is _ stated to be to help the clientele to become better and more useful citizens and to do better whatever role they occupy in society. The subject matter included reading and writing in English, Vernacular, Hygiene, Civics, History, Geography and Arithmetic. A11 sexes are grouped together in this section. The outstanding distinction between the Women's Adult Education program and the Mixed Adult Education program was that the women had specially trained and permanent teachers, while the mixed adult education program did not. In the mixed adult education, the fee was low and there were both poor attendance and high drop-out 90 rate. The instructors in the women’s adult education program were better paid while the instructors in the mixed program were either not paid or were poorly paid. The mixed adult education program, since it relied heavily for its operation on the use of primary school classrooms and voluntary help of primary school teachers,usua11y was affected when these primary schools closed on holidays. Classes were held in the evenings between either 3:30 pm to 4:00 pm or between 6:30 pm to 7:00 pm. Participants in classes held after 7:00 pm paid for the light they used in their studies. Classes were usually organized between the months of January and April. Class organizations were preceded by a series of meetings between the organizer and such community leaders as village elders, church leaders and council officials. After such campaign meetings, county councils interested in starting adult education programs in their communities would then submit formal applications to the Regional Adult Education headquar- ters indicating their community problems which they intended to solve by means of adult education, the community resources, and their general community educational purposes. In addition to the above information, the government cir- cular on adult education required that any community requiring govern— ment approval for establishment of adult education program must deposit with the Regional Treasury a stipulated amount off. 500 91 (five hundred Nigerian pounds). This amount covered the initial expenditures on salary of an organizer, an instructor and basic teaching materials such as textbooks, office equipment and class- room equipment. Cente r Management Center management is the joint responsibility of the organizer and the center committee. The committee appoints the chief instructor, decides on the amount of fees to be paid by each participant, appoints a treasurer who collects and accounts for all center finances. The chief instructor acts as the secretary of the center and its administrative head. The primary duties of the organizer are the organization of regular committee meetings, supervision of center instruction and submission of monthly and quarterly reports on center progress. The instructors, the committee and the organizers share the respon- sibility for the management of the center. Each program is expected to be self-supporting. Grades in the Program Until 1952, Adult Education Centers had up to six graded classes. The participants who completed the six grades and passed the qualifying examination were awarded a diploma of successful completion. The awarding of a diploma was discontinued in 1959 92 when it was discovered that the recipients were not interested in learning for self-improvement but were participating in the program for the only purpose of getting a certificate which they would use as a ticket for employment. Lately, there has been a series of opposi- tions to the discontinuation of the policy of diploma award. Supporters of the policy of diploma award argued that it is a healthy method of motivating the participants and that it represents an immediate visible outcome of the participant's efforts. The approved grading system still in operation was re- ported by the Ministry of Internal Affairs Circular as follows:8 1. Adult Education Grade I. At this stage all studies and teachings are done in the pre- dominant language of the locality. 11. Adult Education Grade 11. Studies are done in this level both in vernacular and in English. III. Advanced Grade 1. Lessons at this stage are taken both in native vernacular and English. Compulsory oral and written English. IV. Advanced Grade 11. Less emphasis in use of verna- cular in teaching and more empha- sis in use of English in teaching. V. Advanced Grade 111. The same as above. VI. Advanced Grade IV. All lessons are taken in English. Participants are required to spend one year in each class 8Ibid., p. 3. 93 before proceeding to another class. The syllabus for these classes, which was published by the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1961, empha- sizes the need of relating the subject matter to the interest, need and level of the adult clientele. A general timetable for the adult education program is pub- lished annually in the regional adult education almanac. In preparation of the timetable such things as the different local market days, tradi- tions, festivals, customs, and farming seasons are taken into considera- tion. The chief instructor of each center draws a local timetable from the general timetable to suit the demands of his local conditions. Apart from the blackboard and chalk no mixed adult educa- tion center used any other teaching aid in teaching. The circular in government report indicates that sufficient teaching aids such as pro- jectors, film strips, flannel boards and cameras had been purchased for these centers and have been in storage for many years at the re- gional headquarters in Owerri. The reason given for their not being used was that there were no trained and competent personnel to operate them. But through the generous grant from UNICEF, the women's program at Uyo had been equipped and adequately provided with such essential features as needlework room, domestic science room, visual aids and materials. 94 Policy of the Programs The Eastern Nigerian policy paper of 1959 defined the policy which is supposed to guide adult education. The policy defined the institutional and financial responsibility of the Educational Depart- ment, the county, the urban areas, the pupils and their villages. First, the policy stated as one of its aims the provision of remedial Primary Education especially in the rural areas for both adult men and women who had either missed or had incomplete Pri- mary School Education. For the support of this phase of the program, the policy stated that texts and study materials which were adapted to the clientele's level and need should be produced locally and sold to the participants at cheap cost. The policy also stressed the importance of helping the clientele to read and write in their own languages so that they can participate more intelligently in the social and political issues of their society. Also in the policy provision was made for post-literacy in- struction for persons already literate in their own tongue to learn English and arithmetic, simple accounts, and techniques of personal business management. Additional instruction in such activities as house-crafts and discussion on social issues are also conducted for the participants in the women's program. The minimum age limit was recommended to be twenty- one years which is the tax paying age. There is no maximum age limit. 95 The policy required every county to establish its own community pro- gram. Each community was required to be financially responsible for initiating its own program to some extent. At the beginning of the pro- gram instruction took the form of mass education in which the community at large was educated in the importance of adult education for community and individual develOpment. The organization of an adult education center was made the responsibility of a committee which worked with the organizer. Conferences of committee representatives were held from time to tiine to stimulate interest and spread the campaign throughout all the parts of the county. The committee also had the responsibility of employing part-time instructors. Though the policy limited the unit under each organizer to an area containing about 100, 000 adults yet it pointed out that in case of areas with limited transportation facilities, this num- ber could be reduced to a lesser number. Methods of Financing the Program The policy specified the specific responsibilities of the regional government, the local councils and the participants towards the upkeep of the programs. The regional government is responsible for the payment of the salary of the Regional Supervising Staff. This includes the Adult Education officer and the eleven Regional Organizers. It also pays for the production, publication and distribution of the approved textbooks and teaching materials. The regional government 96 also makes an annual grant-in—aid to the counties both for the salary and transportation allowances of the adult education organizers who are approved by the Director of Education and also for the village li- braries and for publication of news letters. The county council pays the allowances of adult education organizers, his office equipment and for all publicity about the pro- gram which are made in the indigenous languages of the locality. The pupils fees cover such expenses as part-time instruc- tors salary, cost of lighting and other sundry expenditures on teaching materials such as chalk and pencils. The community built and re- paired the buildings in every center for adult education by community effort. Problems of the Programs The only good buildings for adult education in Eastern Nigeria are those built by the government at Owerri and Uyo head- quarters. Most of the adult education classes in the region were conducted in the elementary and secondary school classrooms. When these schools closed for their annual holidays, the buildings were locked up and the adult education programs, having no place to con- duct classes, were discontinued. Even when these elementary and secondary school build- ings were available for the adult education activities, the facilities 97 were not satisfactory for the program since they were not meant for the adults. Closely connected to the problem of buildings is that of staff. Most of the teachers were volunteer Primary School teachers while others were Primary School leavers who were neither trained in the subject matter area they taught nor had previous experience in working with adults. According to Okon, the assistant adult education officer at Owerri, the adults usually discontinued their attendance as soon as they were asked to buy books or any study material. There is a general tendency for most participants to expect that the government will provide them everything freely, including the required textbooks for their studies. Okon also observed in his report a high rate of drop-out and absenteeism among the participants. Apart from the annual almanac published by the administra- tive staff of the mixed program at Owerri, there is no other published periodical which the participants can use for their follow-up reading. The shortage of supervising staff also made it difficult for adequate supervision and inspection of centers to be done regularly. In many areas adolescent girls were not allowed by their husbands to continue attending classes as soon as they get married. In other places husbands had refused to permit their wives to partici- pate in adult classes when they themselves were not participating. 98 Cases had been reported in which husbands indicated that these courses gave their wives information which made the wives develop unfaithful attitudes toward their marriages. Instability of teachers in the program due to poor salary resulted in frequent recruitment of unqualified and inexperienced teachers to take their place. Lack of means of transportation made the distribution of books and other study materials difficult especially during the rainy season when the roads are bad. It also created an obstacle in carrying out campaign activities. Some county councils gave adult education organizers additional assignments that tied them down in the offices and did not allow them sufficient time to do their special duties as adult education organizers. Some of the politicians and government officials had op- posed mass education on the grounds that it would increase the number of the unemployed but educated people in the society who could become dissatisfied with the government. Regional Government Sponsored Adult Education in West and Mid-We stern Nigeria In Western Nigeria organized programs of Community Development were begun in October, 1948 when a separate Depart- ment of Government, the Ministry of Development, as it was then called, was charged with special responsibility for community 99 development. In the main, the work of the Community Development Section of the Ministry was in two parts, namely, youth clubs and organizations and Local Construction Projects. In 1954, adult education classes were started as another aspect of the develOpment project. These classes were unsystemati- cally ope rated from the Ministry of Education until 1958 when the program was expanded to include such areas as Fundamental or Basic Education and Leadership courses. The total program was transferred at this expanded stage from Ministry of Education to Department of Community Development where it was merged with the two aspects of Community Development to form) a Division of a re—organized Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. Three categories of specialized staff were recruited to carry out this newly expanded program. There were the Adult Educa- tion Officers, usually graduates of universities. These graduates we re assisted by locally trained school teachers who had participated in short courses in adult education techniques. The senior officers organized adult education classes in rural areas during those months of the year when normal village work lessened. In its first early years the program attracted many parti- cipants and support of many counties. But as the Free Primary Educa- tion was introduced in the Western Region, some of the adults dropped out of the adult education program and joined the Free Primary 100 Education classes while others dropped out on the basis of their pro- test that they were required to pay fees to participate in adult educa- tion classes while primary education was being given without charges. The Zonal Arrangements Though the government gave a high financial support to a massive campaign in 1948 as a means of eradication of illiteracy, yet poor administrative arrangements caused the many centers to be closed after a short time. In 1950 new changes were introduced in which the whole region was divided into three zones, each under the direct supervision of an Adult Education Officer who also organized the program in three provinces, Benin and Delta province which later became the Mid -west Region; the Ondo and Oyo provinces; and Abeokula, Ijebu and Colony provinces. Ibadan, the most populated center came under a separate officer who was also in charge of literature production. All the three zones were administered by the Chief Adult Education officer at Ibadan. In each province the divisions formed one group. Ekiti, Akoko, Ilesha, Ondo, Okitipupa, Owo and Ife formed a group called the Central Circle. In each division an organizer was given the re- sponsibility of conducting the campaigns with the help of the employees of the local county council officers. 101 Teaching Mate rials In the initial stages adult textbooks were very scarce. By 1955, basic primers in Yoruba were produced and in that year over 60, 000 primers and other books were sold and over 3, 000 adults re- ceived adult education course completion certificates. Follow—ups in the form of post-literacy reading materials, news sheets and local newspapers we re established and the Adult Education officers acted as the editors of the local news sheets in their own areas. In Ekiti the name of the paper published under the auspices of the program to serve as a follow-up reading material to adults was known as "Irohin Ekiti". The rate of sale of each newspaper depended on the ability of the adult education organizer. By 1957, the "Irohin Ekiti" was discontinued because of lack of finance. Along with lite racy campaigns, there were also part-time courses in domestic science for women under part-time teachers. Such courses as cooking, laundry, knitting, needle -work, care of sewing machines were included in the women's program. Policy The government's first memorandum on extension of adult education stated that the aim of adult education was "to provide remedial primary education especially in rural areas for adults, both men and women, who have either missed or had incomplete primary 102 school and that this program was to be supported by sufficient produc- tion and adequate distribution at cheap cost of study materials and textbooks suitably adapted to the need of clientele to the partici- pants. " Provisions were also made for continuation of instruction for adults already literate. Such instruction was on English, Arith- metic and simple accounts. There were additional activities in house- crafts and various aspects of social education. There were courses specially arranged for instructors. The officially accepted minimum age limit was 16 years and there was no maximum age limit. It was required that every native authority should have an adult education program. The Program Format The following was the program approved by the Ministry for Adult Education: (a) The initiative in starting a program was required to come from the people of the area, district or divi- sion. Native authorities (local government councils) and individual leaders were to have Special respon- sibility in this matter. 9Instructor's Handbook, Adult Education Department, Western Region, Nigeria, 1954, p. 13. (b) (C) (d) 103 At the start of a program, instruction for illiterates usually took the form of a campaign in which four month's course of two or three lessons a week were given. These became plans for building up post- literacy classes and the creation of the Adult Educa- tion Center as a permanent village institution. The organization of an Adult Education Center was in the hands of a village Adult Education Committee. Conferences of Committee Representatives were held from time to time to stimulate interest and spread the campaign throughout the area. Among other matters, the village committee was respon- sible for finding and employing part -time instructors. The centers in an area were supervised under the native authority by an adult education organizer, a native administration office appointment held by an active man with proven ability and experience in teaching. The maximum unit for an adult education organizer was approximately 100, 000 adults, but the factor of area and communication did considerably reduce this figure. 104 Finances of the Program (a) Financial responsibility in adult education had three aspects: (i) Government (i. e. Education Department). (ii) Native Administration. (iii) Village (i. e. the pupils). (b) The Education Department provided finance for the following: (i) Regional supervisory staff. (ii) Production, publication and distribution of Yoruba literature at low prices. (iii) Limited assistance in the production of literature in the other vernaculars. (vi) Assistance in development, purchase and dissem- ination of propaganda materials and other aids. (v) Reimbursement of the native administration by a grant-in-aid in respect to the salary of an adult education organizer approved by the Regional Di- rector of Education. A native administration may of course employ a second organizer in an approved program but this does not necessarily attract reim- bursement. (vi) Assistance towards village libraries and local news sheets. 105 (c) The native administration had the following financial re- sponsibilities: (i) Payment of allowances and expenses of the adult education organizer. (ii) Payment of office expenses of the organizer. (iii) Provision of capital for the purchase of equipment for resale to pupils. (iv) Provision of funds for publication in a local verna- cular (non-Yoruba areas) produced by a local language committee. (v) Funds for assistance to centers. Normally, the assistance to centers were not to exceed 5 (five shillings) per month per 20-25 pupils. (vi) Any additional expenditures. (d) The village and pupils were concerned financially or other- wise in a number of ways which were supervised by the village adult education committee. (i) The expenses of the center such as the instructors' remuneration, chalk, lighting if any, were met from the assistance from the native administration. Pupils in post-literacy classes usually paid higher fees. Each locality fixed its own maximum fees. (ii) Pupils paid for their own equipment. 106 (iii) Any building on the center for libraryaor other usage was by special village effort. The aim was for each adult education center to become eventually completely self-supporting. The policy also recommended the following procedure for getting financial assistance from the Education Department. (i) An adult education program could only be worked out after full discussion with the regional adult ed- ucation officer. A native authority desiring to op- erate a program was required, however, first to show its good faith by implementing the following: (a) Salary of adult education Organizer i: 100:0:0 (b) Allowances and expenses of adult education organizer i: 36:0:0 (c) Campaign expenses is 50:0:8 (d) Capital for purchasing equipment for resale '1: 50:0:8 The salary of adult education organizer would fully be re- imbursed by a Grant -In-Aid and the capital for purchasing equipment would be recovered from sales on approval of the campaign. Syllabus There were two grades of remedial primary education for adults. In the adult education class one, the adults learned the ele~ ments of reading and writing in their own language. In the advanced 107 grade the subjects included literature, mass education follow-up , series, English, Arithmetic and simple accounts. Participants were also encouraged to obtain adult education booklets and study materials for the continuing of their education. (a) The literacy course: This course was scheduled to last three to four months. Lessons were held at least twice, preferably thrice, a week each meeting lasting 40 minutes to 60 minute 5. (i) (ii) (iii) In teaching of Yoruba as a language, the Yoruba Primer 1B served both as reference text and syl- labus. As syllabus, it contains 27 lessons called "steps. " A short step usually was completed at one meeting, a long or difficult step is repeated at the instructor's discretion. Reading and writing were taught side by side from Step 1. The instructor used blackboard and the learners used slates, wooden boards and/or papers. In the early stages pupils copied from the blackboard or the Primer, later they wrote on dictation. Spe- cial attention was given to word division. Pupils were encouraged first to begin practicing writing with pencil and paper and later on with ink ruled 2D or 2A exercise books. The students were encouraged to write in script. (b) (W) 108 As soon as the syllabus was completed the organizer conducted a qualifying test and issued certificates of competency to successful participants. Advanced grade: The subjects in this area were Yoruba, Edo, Urhobo, English, Arithmetic, History, Geography, and Civics. (i) (ii) (iii) (vi) (V) (vi) Yoruba Literature: Advanced Yoruba composition, letter writing and self-expression in composition. Study of customs, traditions, provides stories and fables. Arithmetic: Notations not exceeding 10, 000, addi- tion and subtraction, multiplication, value of mone- tary system, measures of length and weight and simple fractions. History and Geography: Traditional stories of the village or tribe from the elders; the legend of origin or Yorubas; the coming of the British to Nigeria and its contributions to society -- schools, hospitals, police, law courts and government. The constitution and its features. Elements of physical geography -- day and night, rain, wind, vegetation, rivers, eclipse, sun, moon and stars, the earth, the seasons; Nigeria, its peoples and resources. 109 (vii) Civics: Rights and duties of citizens. Apart from the text books, the following news sheets were published as follow -up reading materials for the participants. Southern Zone published 'Aiye Olaju' Osun Division published 'Te Si Ibi Arye Te Si' Central Zone published 'Orun La' Afenmei Division published ‘Itansan Imole' Benin and Isham published 'Ukpa Alaghodaro' The Problem of the Prggram The writer discovered that majority of the centers did not keep any records, apart from Ekiti Division where it was possible to obtain the records of activities for the period of 1958 to 1963. No record for periods 1949 to 1957 could be obtained from any center. This unavailability of records was attributed to instability of government and political conditions in We stern Nigeria at that particular period. The record obtained from Ekiti revealed that the organizer was also the administrator, supervisor, teacher, propagan- dist, examiner, book seller and controller. He had no office assis- tants even though there was provision for these positions in the budget. His field workers were the instructors who were scattered over an area well over 2, 100 square miles. Also the records showed that, 10Adult Literacy Campaign-~Files 'A' and 'B', Ekiti District Councils , 195 6. 110 "The maximum salary paid to these organizers per month was 6/8(1 (Six shillings and eight pence) or 87 cents (eighty-seven cents). ”11 Two campaigns were conducted every year. One from January to June, and the other from July to December. The actual campaign lasted about four months during which period participants attended classes three times each week and each lesson lasted for one hour. One and a half months in the year was devoted to enrollment, refresher courses for instructors and the award of certificates. All part-time instructors were paid an honorarium of 1:2. 2/ (Two pounds and two shillings or six dollars) every six months. There were no voluntary teachers. Twenty-six to thirty~eight per cent of the instructors had grade 111 school teachers certificates; fourteen to seventeen per cent were 'C' teachers who were experienced but untrained; others were made up of clerks, laborers, tailors, car- penters. There were no farmers or agriculturists. Class meetings were few and were not constantly supervised. Refresher Course for the Program In 1960, through the joint leadership of the Division of Extra -Mura1 Studies of the University of Ibadan, the Ministry of Economic Planning and Community Deve10pment, a one week 11 Ibid. , file "B". 111 refresher course in adult education and community development was held in Western Nigeria for all levels of adult education workers in the region. The refresher course provided a common platform for all adult education and community development workers both to get to know each other and the major problems of adult education in the re- gion. The resource people for the course were drawn both from the Ministries and the University. Though there was no follow-up to this refresher course, the Ministry described it as ”an important and most serious step taken by the region on its problem of development. "12 Adult Education in Northern Nigeria Differences of Nigerian people in history and outlook which had been recognized in the political constitution of the country have their roots in the influence of the regional sentiments and interests. These sentiments and interests can be more easily noticed in the rival views of education, especially adult education and religious freedom in Northern Nigeria since 1901. Islamic and Amistic Education in the North Unlike Eastern Nigeria, educational institutes and proce- dures were already present in Northern Nigeria when the High 12Federation of Nigeria Educational Development, 1961-7. Sessional Paper No. 3 or 1961 (Lagos: Federal Government Printer, 1961). 112 Commissioner set forth the basic principles of British Administration in a speech to conquered Fulani leaders at Sokoto in 1901. The exist- ing schools were little more than remnants of the ancient educational glories of Timbuktu, Katsina, and Kukawa, but they had not lost their Moslem characteristics. Luggard said in his speech, "Government will in no way interfere with the Mohammedan religion. " The British immediately drew up an ordinance for "un- settled districts" which excluded missions and mission education from most of the ten million inhabitants of Northern Nigeria. 14 Mission organizations at once took exception to this ordinance and some con- troversy ensued. The government maintained that to allow mission educa- tion in Northern Nigeria would be a denial of their promise to the Moslems, that it would have an unsettling effect upon the country, and would 1'degrade the European in the eyes of the native. "15 The govern- ment further maintained that Mohammedanism, as a religion, was much better adapted to the native of Northern Nigeria than was Christianity. 13 Letter of Njida Gwari, dated September 23, 1939. 14A. C. Burns, History of Nigeria (London: Cambridge University Press, 1942), p. 259. 15 M. Perham, Native Administration in Nigeria (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 288. 113 Since the matter was controversial, various opinions were set forth concerning it, but as is common in controversy, each side overlooked certain facts which did not support its side of the question. Morel did set forth the point of view of the government that, Islam to the Negro is the stepping stone to a higher con- ception of existence, inspiring in his breast confidence in his own destiny, imbuing his spirit with a robust faith in himself and his race. Christianity did not do this for the Negro. Its effect, indeed, is quite contrary. Instead of encouraging, it discouraged. Instead of inculcating a greater self-reliance, it seemed to lessen that which existed. The Christian Negro for the most part is a sort of hybrid. He was neither one thing nor another. His adoption of EurOpean clothes caused him to be looked upon partly with suspicion, partly with ridi- cule, by his pagan fellow-countrymen, although they made use of his services as clerk or secretary when occasion required it. Mohammedanism bestowed on him an undisguised con- tempt. 16 But Morel did not point'out that he was placing the Sudan Negro of Northern Nigeria, a product of centuries of civilizing con- tact with the North and East, over against the Southern Nigerian Negro whose contact had been only with Europeans, who came to ex- ploit or enslave him. The differences between the two cannot be attributed solely to Mohammedanism and Christianity. Morel pointed out some of the specific reasons for the government contention that Mohammedanism is better adapted to Nigerians. One which was stressed was that Islam condoned polygamy. 16E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1937), p. 230. 114 ”Islam, despite its shortcomings, did not, from the Nigerian point of view, demand cultural suicide of the Nigerian as an accompaniment of conversion. ”17 Burns also pointed out that, Islam is . . . better adapted than Christianity to the African life . . . both involve strange doctrines which he scarcely understands but while one forbids him to possess 18 more than one wife, the other imposed no such restrictions. One difficulty that the colonial government encountered in maintaining an exclusively Moslem educational policy in the North was that ”Mohammedanism offered very little in the way of literate educa- tion. " Meek observed that in 1911 the census returns indicated that only three per cent of the Moslems in Northern Nigeria could write. He indicated, That of the total population, 97 per cent were termed il- literate and that the cause of the general illiteracy was to be be found, firstly, in the history and social conditions of the tribes; secondly, in the comparative absence of educational facilities, and thirdly, in the defective character of the Moslem system of education. 1 7ihid., p. 211. 18Burns, op. cit., p. 258. 1C)C. K. Meek, Northern Tribes of Nigeria, II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933), p. 254. 115 Referring to Islamic education as the force that could not produce the desired administrations for a dual mandate, Luggard ob- served that, "Islam is sterile, no fresh impulses radiate from it, no powers which foster life and make it a dynamic force in progress. Its atmosphere is that of stagnation. "20 Burns pointed out, "In Moham- medan schools the pupils learned the Koran by heart and were in— structed in this religion, but there was little or no education in the western sense. " It was conceded by the government that distinctly pagan areas could be opened to missions if the consent of the government and the tribes concerned were first obtained. On this point, Luggard re- marked, An alien mission is, of course, non-native, and as such would be bound to obtain the governor's sanction for the acqui- sition of land. Like any other application, it would be investi- gated by the District Officer, and, in particular, he would ascertain whether the people were desirous of the establishment of almission among them or hostile to it. 2'2 Missions could therefore not approach the tribes directly, and as a consequence of acting through the District Officers, many of whom were not sympathetic to missions, very few tribes were re- ported as willing to give their consent for establishment of mission 20F. D. Luggard, The Dual Mandate (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1932), p. 590. 21Burns, op. cit. , p. 241. 22Luggard, op. cit. , p. 586. 116 adult education in their villages. The government apparently feared that the teaching of racial equality under Christianity would make it more difficult to operate the dual mandate. Orr in 1911 reported, "It has been deemed prudent by the authorities to restrict missionary enterprise in the Northern Moham~ medan States until railway communication has rendered the military situation more secure. "2 This admission revealed the early hostility of government of the North to any other form of education except Is- lamic education. The contention of missions was that, in refusing to open the pagan tribes to Christian education, the government was reserving them for Moslem influence only, and thus denying to the African the very religious freedom, or opportunity to choose, which Luggard had promised them. Perham24 pointed out that the Phelps-Stokes Commission referred to the indifference and even the hostility of the government to missionary enterprise, and recommended that the government should grant religious freedom in Nigeria. He also pointed out that an open attack was made in 1929 by Victor Murray, who interviewed 23J. M. Orr, Making of Northern Nigeria (London: University of London Press, 1941), p. 261. 24 . Perham, op. Cit. , p. 288. 117 the authorities at Kano upon the subject. He added that the experience of Murray led him to critically analyze the whole system of indirect rule of which the policy of exclusion seemed to be a part. Animistic Education for Adults. -—Though animistic educa- tion varied in each of the non-Moslem tribes of Northern Nigeria, it had many characteristics which were. common to all of them. In an informal way it taught the clientele, both men and women, the things they needed to know to carry on their tribal existence and to conserve the ancient traditions and ordinances. This education consisted in charms placed around the head, upon the abdomen, and on the feet of the clientele. The clientele were taught to develop faith and reliance on these charms as their pro- tective mechanism from such ills as abdominal disorders and snake bites. The clientele were taught the routine procedure of obser- vance and sacrifice to the family and public shrines. They were taught about the numerous festivals, their rituals and required of- ferings. They were taught the native crafts, trades, methods of plantation and harvesting. In most cases, the method of learning was by doing and repetition. Again, while these adolescents were learning the animistic practices informally, they might be enrolled in Moslem classes held in their villages. These classes were open to both Moslems and animists. 118 Islamic or Koranic Schools. --Moslem or Koranic schools were private venture schools, taught by itinerant Mallams or teachers. The aim of these schools was that the participants become Moham- medans, which meant that they would acquire ability to recite long passages from the Koran, know the proper forms of prayer, know how to salute the great men of the faith whom they met. Meek25 observed that though Moslem teachers pretended to despise animism, they were yet inseparable bounded up with animistic culture so that it was difficult to see where animism left off and Mohammedanism” began. Koranic schools were slightly more formal than the purely primitive animistic instructions. The Koranic classes took place a— round council fire before and after sunset. In less busy seasons of the year the classes might be held during the day. There was no age limit. Some moral instruction might be given in the vernacular. Writing, if taught, was in Arabic. Discipline was very strictly en- forced. Bettinger remarked that, "Frequent applications of the rod was considered a necessary stimulus to mental and spiritual develop- ment. " The ineffectiveness of Koranic education to meet the educa- tional need of the North either quantitatively or qualitatively, and its 25 , Meek, op. Cit. , p. 11. 26D. W. Bettinger, Sudan Sun-Up (U. S. A.: Elgin Pub- lishing House, 1939). p. 189. 119 resultant problem was revealed in the following information from the report of the Education Department in 1932, that, The number of these schools increased rapidl in Northern Nigeria. In 1931 a survey revealed 35,452 Koranic schools in Operation in Northern privinces. A year later this number had increased to 37, 431 and pupils enrolled had increased from 193, 000 to 207, 000. But the more than 35, 000 teachers who in- struct in these schools present an obstacle, for many of them are not themselves literate. 27 It was also indicated that the growing illiteracy of both the Mallams in Koranic schools who could not even write the Arabic letters reinforces the emphasis and pressure for introduction of a new system of adult education for elimination of illiteracy in Northern Nigeria. Government Sponsored Non-Islamic Adult Education Program The Northern Nigerian government accepted the challenge to progress which mass illiteracy presented and launched an intensive as well as expensive scheme of adult education. At selected centers special courses of a year duration, followed by periodic refresher courses, were arranged for those of the Koran teachers who cared to take advantage of them. 27Report of the Education Department, 1932, p. 39. 120 The Department of Education report of 1950 stated of the program, The courses are free and the teachers, on returning to schools, are provided with some simple equipment and school materials but rely as before for their livelihood on offerings in money and kind that come from participants. This scheme was not well received by the leading Moslem teachers who lived at the Northern extreme of Northern Nigeria and the Director of Education at one time reported that, "Religious pre- judices have up to the present prevented any considerable expansion of this scheme. "29 But in the central and southern part of Northern Nigeria, especially among those who live near the river Niger and who have more advantage of frequent contact with the people of Eastern and Western Nigeria, the adult education scheme had been one of the most successful and best organized schemes. Public Enlightenment Program Until September, 1954 adult education headquarters' sole task was to push ahead with the adult education campaign and to pro- vide suitable follow-up reading materials for those people who had already participated in the program and become literate. 28Report of the Education Department, 1950, p. 6. 291bid., p. _8. 121 From the above date, Northern Nigeria restated the broad objective of its adult education program to be "Public Enlight- enment. " Some forty pamphlets covering a wide range of subjects including agriculture, hygiene and sanitation, baby care, civics, and simple or basic economics were printed for sale. Articles of a similar nature were regularly published in the Provincial Reading Sheets and a series of broadsheets, mainly dealing with health, were distributed. The Ministry of Education report indicated that all the at- tempts still did not achieve the expectation of reaching most of the people. The reading sheets reached only a small proportion of the reading public and the pamphlets did not sell well. The Northern Nigerian government paper expressed how seriously the government viewed the slow progress of the program and later steps taken to reorganize the regional adult education program which had become known as "Public Enlightenment" program. The paper stated, In November, 1954 His Excellency the governor, in a communication to the Yahili da Jahihci committee, stated that he continued to feel apprehensive regarding the plans of the adult education program for the provision of public enlighten- ment. The executive council had clearly laid it down that the abolition of illiteracy was only one means towards achieving this end. The campaign should not be divided into two phases-- the literacy campaign and the public enlightenment campaign; as soon as a man became literate he must be provided with reading matter of the right kind or more harm than good might result. 'The war against ignorance' should be continuous. In 122 literacy classes there should be at the same time discussions on matters of general interest. This was part of the duties of the Provincial Adult Education Officer to organize and in this way a man could start being ‘enlightened' before he became fully literate. 30 At this meeting of the Yaki da Jahilci committee the functions of the Director of Information Services and the Chief Adult Education Officer in the field of public enlightenment were defined as follows: (a) The Public Relations Officer is solely an advertising agent of the government, publicizing what govern- ment has done and preaching what it intends to do. (b) The Chief Adult Education Officer is the expert ad~ viser to government on methods of presentation and a person responsible to government on the enlight- enment of communities on the manner in which they can achieve social and economic progress. Following this meeting, Adult Education Headquarters immediately began to prepare what were called "study kits” (now called discussion group notes). These took the form of a series of questions and answers on a specific topic, printed in large numbers in the major vernaculars. The intention was that these should be used as a basis for discussion in meetings not only of members of adult classes, but also of literates of all kinds and even illerates. The organizer or group 30 Ibid., pg. 9. 31"Northern Nigerian Adult Education Policy, No. 41, " Literacy Campaign Handbook, Northern Region of Nigeria, 1954. 123 leader read each question in turn and tried to elicit the correct ans- wer. Only if he failed to do so did he read the printed answer. At the end of the discussion he distributed c0pies of the notes among the literates present. The Chief Adult Education Officer reported that in this method of instruction they bore the following factors in mind: (a) The aim of public enlightenment is to change the habits, customs, views and opinions of the mass of the people. (b) These habits, customs, views and opinions are not the results of individual thought but are enculcated by the group. (c) Logical argument and the individual approach are likely to succeed in only a few cases and with in- dividuals who are rebels against the group or society in which they live. (d) The reason is that attempting to change a person's views into views which conflict strongly with those of his group is, in effect, asking him to set himself against the group. For most people the respect of their group is more important than the holding of an opinion or the changing of a habit. Problems of Adult Education in Northern Nigeria In an interview, the Chief Public Enlightenment Officer complained of lack of women organizers and instructors in the program. The problem of difficulty in involvement of Northern Nigerian women 32 Ibid. , p. 3. 124 in adult education programs either as learners or organizers stemmed from the rigid Mohammedan custom which forbade the active partici- pation of women in public affairs. The second problem that adult education faces in Northern Nigeria is a problem of communication and transportation. Most of the roads are impassable during a rainy season and there are neither telephones nor post offices. This situation presents obstacles in adequate involvement of the people in planning the program and reaching people effectively with the program activities. The problem of having sufficient and adequately trained adult educators who can teach and write in the dialects of the various different peoples and tribes who inhabit the gigantic mainland of Northern Nigeria had presented barriers in the way of reaching these various tribe 8. Summary The first section of this chapter described the traditional system of adult education in Nigeria. It pointed out that although the traditional system fulfilled its main objective of transmitting to the clientele the custom and traditions of the clan, thus preparing them to take their places eventually in their society, that yet, because of its almost unorganized outlook and infestation with superstitions, taboos, and impenetrable secrecy, it could neither withstand the dynamic 125 technological and economic shifts of the 19th and 20th centuries nor help the individual to take his rightful place in a developing society. The second section described adult education programs by voluntary agencies such as the British counsel and Christian missions, whose programs were similar only in their common use of informal methods. It pointed out that the objective of the Christian missions' programs was to rescue the individual and society from what the missions regarded as shortcomings of traditional or tribal education by pioneering a wide range of adult educational activities, especially in literacy and home and family living both in rural and urban communities. It also pointed out that these missionaries con- centrated on not only helping the natives to become Christians but also on helping them to improve both their physical and spiritual ways of life as Christians. The third section of this chapter pointed out the essential causes that led to government participation in sponsorship of adult education as increased public discontent and criticism of colonial government which was stimulated both by post-war inflation and the return of ex-soldiers of the Second World War. It indicated that these unrest social situations were triggered by both growing need for an enlightened and educated adult population who could participate in their individual and social development, and also by a national desire for skilled and competent citizens in government and business for its 126 development. The chapter related that the public opinion in England at that time also contributed to the pressure on colonial government to satisfy through adult education programs the need of educating colo- nial citizens on their rights and responsibilities in a developing society. It pointed out that the colonial government started early to contribute to these adult education needs through the departments of Agriculture, and Health and Education, and shifted the administra- tion of these programs to ministries and departments of Internal Af- fairs and Community Development in Eastern and Western Nigeria respectively. From these ministries and departments in each regional capital, sub-headquarters and centers for adult education were or- ganized in provinces, districts, towns and villages in East, West and Mid-We st. The fourth section described the general trends in re- ligious and traditional education in the north, their negative effects upon the programs of voluntary agencies, especially the Christian missionaries who were Opposed not only by the Moslems but also by the officers of colonial government in the North. It described the later developments such as the alarming increase in illiteracy in the 127 North which proved the inevitable need for introduction of government sponsored adult education in the North. It also summarized the events which led to the recognization of the government adult education pro- gram under the new title, the Public Enlightenment Program. CHAPTER IV PLAN AND INSTRUMENT The procedures followed in the conduct of this study have been reported in three parts: (1 ) the creation of a conceptual scheme as a plan for analyzing the selected adult education programs; (2) the overview of adult education systems; (3) the application of the con- ceptual scheme in analysis of the programs. The need for analysis of government sponsored adult edu- cation programs in Eastern Nigerian counties to determine how the programs are related to the develOpmental needs of the clientele was established in Chapter I. The task was approached by first establish- ing a rationale for selecting developmental need as a theoretical focus for analysis in Chapter II. The conceptual scheme for analysis of the government sponsored programs of adult education in Eastern Nigerian counties was developed in Chapter IV. In Chapter III, an overview of adult education in Nigeria was presented as a background to the analysis. In Chapter V the conceptual scheme was applied both in the analysis of the selected programs and in interpretation of data from the analysis. In Chapter VI, the study is summarized, its implications 128 129 discussed and, on the basis of the findings from the study, recom- mendations and suggestions were made for improvement of the pro- grams. Rationale for Selecting a Developmental Focus This study assumes development to imply a variegated but single process with social as well as economic characteristics which is measurable in both aggregate and individual terms. It views education as one basic ingredient in the process of development. The idea of development connotes change and it is through the process of education that change can be made meaningful to the lives of people it affects. The term "process" embraces a combination of mean- ings. It denotes an ongoing operation involving steps; it indicates a particular procedure or method; and finally it involves people. In the process of development, every citizen should have an opportunity to participate in making decisions that may affect him, his family, his neighborhood and his community. The degree to which the citi- zen's self-directed responsibility, initiative, and use of democratic action is generated will be the result of how well these understandings and skills are acquired. To get the citizens, therefore, to take advantage of new ideas, such as civic responsibility, is crucial in national and indi- vidual progress. For if these new ideas become part of his concept, 130 his behavior will be expected to change. Recognition of this fact has led to studies of the social, cultural and economic conditions which affect the process of improvement of individuals and their society. Development programs, to be lastingly appreciated and patronized by people, must be made meaningful to their lives and needs. It is through the process of education that people are effective- ly involved both in the means and ends of development, for people are more sincerely committed to a course which they understand and which is made meaningful to them. Lippitt and Westley, in their text on planned change, have indicated that "the fundamental problem of development is not to create wealth itself, but to create the capacity to create wealth. "1 A framework for understanding the role of education in development is also found in the following United Nations pronounce- ment that the problem of the underdeveloped countries is not just growth but development. Development is growth plus change. Change in turn is social and cultural as well as economic, and qualita- tive as well as quantitative. Hans Singer has made the following observations about development : 1Watson Lippitt and S. Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change'(New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Ind. , 1960), p. 185. 2The U. N. , Deve10pment Decade: Proposals for Action, New York: U. N. Publication 62, 111, B2, 1962, pp. 2-3. 131 Social development may or may not be prerequisite to economic development. Such social changes as increased political participation, national identification, increased lit- eracy, or a lower death rate may well indicate the readiness of a society for economic development or may be the conse- quence of economic development. Though the literature on development has offered few precise conclusions about interaction of schooling or education and social and individual development, yet there are reasonable sup- ports for the notion that education tends to make individuals more responsive to change and that a good education program for develop- ment is that program which provides the clientele the experiences which can help them understand their possible contributions to national development. As an emphasis in a basic consideration to relate educa- tion to development, in January, 196 5, President Johnson closed his educational message to the Congress with these words: "Once again, we must start where men who would improve their society have always known they must begin -- with an educational system restudied, rein- forced, and revitalized. "4 3Hans Singer, "Social Development, Key Growth Sector, " in International Development Review, March, 1965, pp. 3-8. 4Lyndon B. Johnson, Educational Message to the Con- gress, January 12, 1965, Washington, United States Government Printing Office, Division of Public Documents Catalog No. FS 5 ' 210: 10035. 132 Education as an Instrument of Development In recent years a great deal of attention is being focused on the role of education in the development of human resources of a nation. Governments no longer view education solely as a private good. Support is no longer justified exclusively on individual, cul- tural, religions, or political grounds, but is rendered on economic grounds as well. Planners of national development in all countries are more fully aware of the extent to which investment in education and training contributes to the process of economic, political and social growth. Hans Blaise, in emphasizing that the development of human resources through education is the key to development, pointed out any nation, rich or poor, makes two kinds of investments to promote its well-being and growth. It invests in things and it invests in people. Investment in things creates stocks of tangible physical capital. Investment in people creates human capital -- an embodiment of resources devoted to producing, maintaining, and increasing the capabilities of human beings as participants in the social mode of production. Human resource development is the social process of the production, distribution, and utilization of the knowledge, the skills, and the capacities of all the peOple in a society. If a society is ,(mable to develop its human resources, it cannot develop much \else, be it technology, political or social institutions, material or cultural welfare, or its economy. 5 Hans Blaise, "Education and Development, " International Development Review, September, 1965, p. 27. 133 Friedrich Edding, in a masterly analysis of the economic value of education to individual and society, made the following as- sertions: Although there is still much controversy in both economic theory and empirical analysis concerning the measurements of the contribution of education to economic growth, it is obvious that education impinges on the productivity of an economy in a number of ways -- first, through the skill of the work force; second, through professional competence, and the ingenuity and investiveness of technologists and scientists, which enable modifications to be made in the quality and uses of natural resources and physical capital; third, through organizing human activities, the knowledge and understanding of administrators which lead to the more efficient use of physical resources. Beyond and transcending these facets of education is the way in which wide educational opportunities develop humanistic values and good sense so that the great mass of people can do a better —-"ljob of living in an increasingly complex world and can seek social and political cohesion. 6 The UNESCO7 1962 and 1963 Yearbook of National Accounts Statistics, in showing that the developed nations have high income per head, equally revealed that such developed countries have in common certain educational characteristics such as nearly universal literacy, compulsory school attendance, at least through primary school, and high ratios of educational enrollments in relation to respective age groups. The yearbook showed also by contrast that some one billion of the world's adult illiterates reside in less-developed nations. This 6Friedrich Edding, Oekonomie des Bildungswesens Lehren und Lerhmen als Hanshalt und als Investition (Freiburg im Breisgau: Verlag Kombach and Co. , GMbH, 1963), p. 215. United Nations, Yearbook of National Accounts Statistics for 1962, 1963. 134 disparity reveals to a great extent that education and development are closely related. That education is the greatest single instrumentality of development has been well—emphasized by Dean Rusk in his state- ment that "education is not a luxury which can be afforded after development has occurred; it is an integral part, an inescapable 8 and essential part of the development process itself. " Dean Rusk added that while advanced education is the base on which research and development rests, and the foundation of technological progress, it is through education of the mass that the discoveries of the laboratory are applied in the production process, insuring more rapid growth than could occur merely through interest in the acres of land or the number of machines and the total number of man-hours worked. Though knowledge can be found by the few, yet it must be applied and distributed by the many.9 Adult Education in Developgnent Adult education's role in development is more than in- creasing the skills needed for industrialization and agricultural pro- duction. Its main function is to create an attitude of mind and a new mode of behavior. J. K. Galbraith more effectively outlined these functions in the following statements: 8Dean Rusk, "Address at the Opening Session at the De- partment of State, " Policy Conference on Economic Growth and In- vestment in Education (Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Publications, February, 1962), pp. 17-20. 9Ibid., p. 2. 135 Adult education will enable the masses of the people to participate in economic activity. It will open men's minds as they can be opened in no other way, to new methods and new techniques. Apart from its cultural role, popular literacy is a highly efficient thing. Needless to say, it is also the main- spring of popular aspiration. As such it adds strongly to the desire for development. If the development is to depend on popular participation, then there must be a system of popular rewards. There can be no effective advance if the masses of the people do not participate; man is not so constituted that he will bend his best energies for the enrichment of someone else. As literacy is economically efficient, so is sbcial justice. Q I Such barriers as superstitions, taboos 'and dependence upon witchcrafts must be replaced with knowledge, reason, and a rational view of one's environment. Fear and helplessness and a fatalistic view of life must be replaced with self-confidence, initiative, and a willingness to take positive action. Expressed Needs and Education Purposes of Nigeria to which Adult Education Should Relate The most significant contribution that adult education can make to Nigeria is to find ways to motivate the masses to desire a better life. The developmental education program must find ways of synthesizing the desires for an emerging national feeling with demands of modernity not only with respect to the masses living in rural villages, but also with such sophisticated groups as plan and operate research agencies. 103'. K. Galbraith, Economic Development in Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), p. 240. 136 The program should aim at the liberation of the individual from poverty and privation so that he may have equal opportunities to enjoy social justice, to live in dignity, and to participate in a viable political system. It should stimulate the efforts of the people to harness rural manpower for improved production, in participation in irriga- tion, soil conservation, water resource development, family planning, and school projects which have hitherto been fraught with frustration. It should revitalize the combined efforts of institutions of higher education and the ministries to bring to the rural village level a sense of participation in efforts to achieve national goals, It must help in laying a solid base for social and economic growth by developing in the people the skill and attitude for continued strengthening of agri- culture and industry. The program should provide the challenge necessary for bringing different tribes and social groups into contact and to break the barriers of the separate cultural worlds so that there may be continuing communication between respective groups and the masses. The importance of overcoming the great weight of illiteracy by means of adult education was summarized by Alfred Hayes in the following observations: ”Whether the problem is family planning, increasing agricultural production, organizing cooperatives or developing a 137 ' national and scientific attitude, literacy is the precondition for success.”11 Hanson and Brembecklz have emphasized that education, to be truly developmental, must be so related to the needs and purposes of the clientele as to give richness and meaning to their lives. The earliest attempt to determine those educational purposes and needs to which adult education programs should relate was made in 1941 when, as part of a movement in England to prepare the colonies for indepen- dence, the Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies13 ap- pointed a subcommittee to consider the best approach to the problem of mass literacy and adult education in the backward dependencies of the British Empire. The work of the subcommittee was carried on amidst all the distractions and dangers of wartime and its report was published in 1944 by His Majesty's Stationery Office as Colonial 186, Mass Education in African Society. The report outlined the immediate needs which adult education should face in the colonies as follows: 1 Alfred S. Hayes, Recommendations of the Work Con- ference on Literagy (Washington, D. C. : Center for Applied Lin- guistics, 1755 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. , 1964), p. 45. 12 John W. Hanson and Cole S. Brembeck, Education and the Development of Nations (London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966). 13 Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, "Mass Education in African Society, " Colonial No. 186 (London: H. M. S. O. , 1944, p. 4. 138 l. The need for improvement of health. 2. The need for improvement of living conditions. 3. The need for improvement of well-being in the economic sphere. 4. The need for development of political institutions and understanding of political issues. 5. The need for teaching adults literacy. 6. The need for coordination of a welfare plan. In 1945 and 1948 two other committees were set up to study the methods and techniques of Community Development in the Dependent and Trust Territories14 and Conditions of Education in the Colonies15 respectively. These two committees later submitted to the Secretary of State to the Colonies reports which contain such similar elements of needs for development of colonies through the education of adults as follows: 1. The need to study the technique needed to prepare people for responsibility. 2. The need to examine generally the problem of building up a sense of public responsibility, tolerance, appreciation of political institutions and their evolution and purpose. 14C ommittee on Community Development in the United Kingdom Dependent and Trust Territories, United Nations Series on Community Organization and Development, ST/SOA/Ser. /0/21 (New York: United Nations, 1948), p. 10. 15 Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, ”Education for Citizenship in Africa, " Colonial No. 216 (London: H.M.S.O., 1945), p. l. 139 These reports prepared the ground for organization of adult education in Nigeria later in 1946. But Margaret Read ten years later, after studying the situation in Africa in general and in Nigeria in particular, made the following observations: The problem of illiteracy cannot be disassociated from the spread of adult education; and the raising of the standard of living, the conserving of natural resources such as soil, forests and water, the stepping up of the production of food crops and of the commercial crops, the improvement of village hygiene, and the introduction of preventive health measures are some of the needs of the masses which can be igiet through the education of adults in these emerging nations. 1 In recent years the national need for adult education has been emphasized to mean a plan that includes adult education programs which are linked to the total efforts of government agencies concerned with national economic and social development. This new scope of 17 need was outlined by Chief Okeke as the following: Category I. Basic and Fundamental Education: a. To help all citizens to read and write in English and their local dialects. b. To help people transact their daily activities with these languages. c. To help people use numbers and calculations in their daily business. d. To help people read notices, shop, fill out forms, read labels, read and enjoy literature, enjoy culture and study for self growth. 16 Margaret Read, Education and Social Chapge in Trogical Africa Areas (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., 1956), p. 60. 17Chief P. N. Okeke, Minister of Education, Eastern Nigeria, Official Document No. 13, January, 1963, Printed by The Government Printer, Enugu, E. Nigeria, W. T. 1899/363/1, 560. 140 Category II. Vocational Education: a. To help people learn facts and techniques of modern farming and contribute in increasing agricultural productivity. b. To help people learn employable skill. Category III. Civic Education: a. To help people become patriotically aware of their responsibilities and rights in society. b. To help people develop a better attitude for voting, payment of taxes, elections and census. Category IV. Health Education: a. To help people have good health and live in a healthy environment. b. To help people know about and eat nutritive diet. Category V. Education for Home and Family: a. To help people create and maintain a stable family. b. To help people raise healthy children. c. To help people plan for and provide for the future progress of themselves and their family. Professor John W. Hanson18, as an observant participant in education planning in Eastern Nigeria, has listed the needs and purposes of all forms of education in Nigeria as follows: 1. The need for economic democracy that increases a. social mobility. 2. The need for harmonious integration of the best from the past in the building of the future. 3. The need to equip people with the necessary knowledge, attitude and skills for participating and contributing in the modernization of the nation. John W. Hanson, "The Nation's Education Purposes, " Nigerian Education, edited by Okechukwu Ikejiami (Ikeja, Lagos: Longmans of Nigeria, Ltd. , 1964), pp. 28-32. 141 4. The need for developing new attitudes and skills for participating and contributing in the modernization of the nation. 5. The need to show more interest and concern in the political process of the nation. 6. The need of placing national interest and well-being above narrow tribal or local interests. 7. The need of improving the health and well-being of individuals, families, and communities. 8. The need of knowing how to solve and have the means of solving the problems of mental and physical health as they arise. 9. The need to help individuals adjust adequately in new surroundings. 10. The need of relating the new cities with rural com- munities in a spirit of partnership. 11. The need of increasing cooperation and respect between different age groups and tribes. 12. The need to provide training and retraining in employ- able skills. . 13. The need to build new attitudes towards saving, invest- ment, purchase and work. The Addis Ababa19 Conference added to the above needs the increasing need for adult learning as a continuous process. The Ashby Commission report on education and develop- ment in Nigeria emphasized the importance of an educated citizenry for national development by warning that "the quality of the human resources, which so largely accounts for the change in economic out- put, is in turn in very large measure dependent upon the quality of the educational system of the nation. "20 l 9UNESCO, Conference of African States on the Develop- ment of Education in Africa Addis Ababa, 15-25 May, 1961 (Paris: UNESCO, 1961). 20 Investment in Education: Report of the Commission on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria (Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education, 1960), p. 35. 142 Origins and Development of the Conceptual Scheme Through the preceding discussion of individual and social development theory and its relationship to the education process, the concept of development was identified as the basis of a conceptual framework for analyzing the adult education process. This line of thought was pursued through reviewing literature in the fields of both adult education and development. Particular efforts were focused upon the identification of comparable relationships and concepts be- tween education in general, and adult education in particular, and development, and upon identifying the essential elements of adequate adult education programs. During the search into literature related to adult education and development, it became evident that the Adult Education Committee of the World Confederation of Organization of the Teaching Profession (WCOTP), which met in Washington in the summer of 1959, had sug- gested what should be "the essential aspects of any and all adult educa- tion programs, no matter where they were to be put into effect. " The model they suggested was later recommended by the UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education in 1960 as "a plan of action which should make it possible for all countries to agree on what a 21 The UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education, "Blueprint for a Rounded Adult Education Program, " Fundamental Adult Education, a quarterly bulletin, Vol. XII (1960), No. 2. 143 sound adult education program should accomplish and how it is pos- . 22 Sible to create such a program. " With this model as a guide, the essential aspects of the scheme were selected from the reviewed literature and references on adult education, development and the educational purposes and needs in Nigeria. Criteria of Adequacy: Qualitative Attributes of Adult Education Brunner23 included the following as among the many factors in an adequate program: 1. Awareness by the community of the need for the con- tinuous education of adults. 2. An able director. . 3. Adequate financial support by the government. 4. Recognition of the responsibilities of the local community to assist in developing the program. 5. Supervisory help from the State Department of Education. 6. Broad involvement of the community in building the pro- grams. 7. A wide range of offerings tailor-made to meet the need of the community. 8. Willingness to take the program to the people where they are. 9. Increasing use of citizens under adequate staff super- vision. 10. In-service training for all having responsibilities in the programs. 11. Continuous evaluation of the programs. 12. Use of a variety of appropriate materials. 13. Adequate counseling of registrants. l4. Flexibility in schedule as to time of day, length of class period, and of unit or course, thus adjusting so far as possible to the need of participants. 3.Edmund des. Brunner, et a1. , An Overview of Adult Education Research (Chicago: Adult Education Association of U. S. , 1959). p. 223. 144 15. Continuous research. 16. Informal atmosphere. 17. Small classes. 18. Adequate facilities. RichardZ4 described the characteristics of what he con- siders a model program, based on his observations in Mexico, as follows: 1. A coordinating council is accepted, organized and used in an advisory capacity. 2. A philosophy that recognizes the objectives of the program on the local level is adopted. 3. Course offerings based on needs and wishes of the area to be served are deemed imperative. 4. A competent, well-qualified staff of instructors, sufficiently paid, are retained. 5. Methods and procedures of teaching that are applicable to the teaching of adults are used. 6. A definitely planned program of publicizing and interpret- ing adult education is put into effect. 7. A planned program of evaluating all phases of adult educa- tion, in order to insure the development and continuance of a good program of adult education, is maintained. 8. Adequate buildings and facilities are considered essential to a successful adult education program and, hence, are provided. 9. Counseling and guidance services are recognized as essential to a successful adult education program and are, therefore, provided. Criteria of AdeLuagy: Content Areas of Personal and Social Development Both the World Confederation of Organization of the Teaching Profession (WCOTP) which met in 1959 and the World 24 Clarence W. Richard, Administration and Supervision of Public School Adult Education in Cities of 10-25, 000 Population in the State of New Mexico. Publication No. 23, 924 (Lincoln, Nebraska: Teachers College, University of Nebraska, 1957), p. 25. 145 Conference on Adult Education which met in 1960 are reported by Liveright to have recommended that an adequate adult education program for development of individuals and society must include aspects of learn- ing concerned with helping adults to acquire fundamental literacy; aspects of learning concerned with helping adults acquire vocational competency; aspects of learning concerned with helping adults acquire technical and professional competence; aspects of learning concerned with helping adults have enriched individual lives. The Conference further described the following plan of action which should make it possible for all countries and people to agree on what a sound adult education program should accomplish and how it is possible to create such a program. This model program recommended by the Conference, which is used as one of the sources of developing the scheme for this analysis, is as follows: 1. Economic Preparation. —- This component of the learning experience will be concerned with the preparation of adults to meet their responsibilities as citizens and workers in whatever society they live. It will be pri- marily a remedial program to provide training not secured during youth. It will include night and day courses which can permit men and women to continue their education after work. It. will provide literacy and vocational training for adults who never had the oppor- tunity for such training during their youth. This program will also, where required, include basic education for adults in health and citizenship. It should have as its objective the preparation of all adults for useful and productive work in community life. It should be carried 2 5The UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education, op. _c_i:c_., p. l. 146 out by public education systems. It should be entirely underwritten by the government. Vocational Improvement. -- This component of the learn- ing experience will be concerned with continuing technical and vocational education which will provide adults, through- out their working lives, with the new skills and ideas nec- essary for effective operation as workers or as members of a profession. It will be looked upon not so much as a remedial program but as a program to permit adults to keep up with the essential technological and scientific developments which occur during their life span and which they must know about to be effective workers or profes- sionals. This program will, on a fairly specialized basis, provide for continuing education for technicians and pro- duction workers. Responsibility for carrying on such education should be borne primarily by the industries and businesses employing these workers. The financing of this program might well be underwritten by business and industry in cooperation with the government. Some pro- vision for contribution by the individual involved might also be included. Its objective should be the maintenance of the knowledge and techniques required for the continued effectiveness of workers and citizens in a rapidly changing democratic society. Public Responsibility. -- This component of the learning experience will be concerned with providing adults with a continuing knowledge of new research developments, dis- coveries and ideas in physical and social sciences, and with crucial issues and problems in the fields of civic, national and world affairs, which are important to them in arriving at sound decisions about their personal, com- munity and national life. The purpose of this program is very similar to that of an Agricultural Extension program in that it will attempt to keep all citizens informed about other scientific and research developments which they must take into account if they are to make intelligent and wise decisions about their own and their country's future. The objective will be continually to provide adults with information about and understanding of the most important developments in the world which affect their lives away from the job. Liberal Education. -- This component of the learning experience will be concerned with development of indi- vidual intellectual and aesthetic interests and pursuits so as to permit their further cultivation by each individual throughout his life. It will lean most heavily on a wise 147 and extensive counseling program best fitted to the needs, interests and capabilities of each individual. It will be looked upon as that educational activity aimed at develop- ing the full intellectual and emotional capacities of each individual. It will permit individuals to study history, to appreciate art, music, the dance, and literature, to investigate philosophy, to understand and fulfill them- selves. It will help them to appreciate and make use of their own opportunities for leisure development. Govern- ment and foundations can finance this component of the learning experience. In recommending this universal model for an adequate program, the World Conference puts forward the following principles 26 as the foundation for the program. 1. Education is not completed when a man or woman leaves regular school and goes to work. It is a continuing process which goes on throughout life. This continuing education process is concerned with all aspects of life, including the growth of the individual as an individual -— with his aesthetic and intellectual develop- ment, as well as with his physical and vocational develop- ment. Adults want to and can learn, but their capacity to study and learn is weakened by disuse. It is important, there- fore, to provide opportunities for the educational process to continue so that these learning skills are not lost. Government must assume the same financial responsibility for the continuing education of adults that it now assumes for education of youth. Education of adults must be adapted at all times to suit .the interests and needs of the clientele and linked to ef- forts of all government agencies concerned with national economic and social development. In addition, colleges and universities must look upon con- tinuing and adult education as one of their major responsi- bilities and must build adult education into their basic pat- terns and their regular budgets. 26Ibid., p. 1. 148 Selected Criteria: Developmental Content Areas From the expressed needs and purposes of education of Nigeria by Hanson and Chief Okeke, and from the recommended model program of adult education by the UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education, the following elements of subject matter content of an ade- quate program are derived under the following content areas: Content Area I: Civic Education Content Items: a. Nigerian government b. Civic responsibilities c. Nigerian politics and political parties d. Democracy e. International relations Content Area 11: Health Education Content Items: a. Personal hygiene b. Nutrition c. Disease prevention d. Community health and welfare e. Home and community sanitation Content Area III: Economic Education Content Items: a. National economy b. Economic problems related to industry and free enterprise system c. Investment, thrift and savings d. Cooperatives e. Family finance and consumer education 149 Content Area IV: Basic Education (Literacy) -- Basic Skills Content Items: a. b. Local language Other Nigerian languages English Arithmetic and calculation Any other foreign language Content Area V: Liberal Education Content Items: a. Literature (Nigerian and others) History (Nigerian and others) Geography (Nigerian and others) Arts and music (Nigerian and others) World affairs and issues Content Area VI: Vocational Education Content Items: a. d. 8. Principles, techniques and methods in modern farming Crafts (local) Agricultural economy Animal husbandry Mechanical trade 8 Content Area VII: Home and Family Education Content Items: a. b. Child care and welfare Food preparation and preservation Consumer education 150 d. Family finance e. Home management Selected Criteria: Attributes of Adult Education Pr ograms It is assumed that a program of adult education, in order to contribute adequately to the improvement of its clientele, must meet these general criteria. It must have the following: 3.. Objectives which are geared to the needs of the clientele and their society. Instructional activities and materials which are related to the objectives of the program. Personnel who are adequate in number and qualification to teach and administer the program. Methods and techniques appropriate to the instructional content and to the clientele. Financial and physical resources for support of the pro- gram. Administrative policies which make the program effectively available to all who should participate in it. The following criteria, which are basic to the above assump- tion, have been developed for analysis of the programs. 151 Fir st Criterion. —- The objectives of the program must be related to the needs of the clientele and of the society. a. The objective of the program should be the elimination of the political, social and economic stresses and strains which are common to nations trying to overcome deep- rooted poverty and economic stagnation. It should aim at increasing the skilled manpower for improved production. It should provide a platform for the imaginative schemes to bring to the village level a sense of participation in efforts to achieve national goals. It must help in break- ing down the barriers of the separate sub-cultural worlds so that there may be continuing communication between the respective groups and with the masses. It must eliminate illiteracy which keeps the masses isolated from the main- stream of development activity. While trying to gear the output of the educational system to the economic needs of the country and to the values of a democratic society, it must also involve attention to maintaining certain tradi- tional values which contribute to stability of the society. The objectives must satisfy the educational purposes of the sponsor of the program. The objectives must satisfy the national expectation of using adult education to upgrade her human resources and improve institutions through 152 which economic growth and social progress can be achieved. It must help the nation to find the ways of motivating the masses to desire a better life. c. The objectives must be clear and feasible. The nature of the desired change must be made clear to those who will be influenced. The persons affected must be involved in determining the nature and direction of the change. The objectives of the program must not ignore the already established patterns in the society. It must take into consideration all the technical requirements which are necessary for its attainment. The objectives must be adjusted in relation to the capabilities of the educational system and resources available to it. The objectives must be constantly adjusted to suit changing conditions. Second Criterion. -- The instructional activities and materials employed in the program must be related to its objectives. The concerns of adults, which include becoming a good and effective citizen, becoming a good parent, becoming a good husband or wife, becoming creatively employed in a job that is satisfying, becoming socially well-adjusted and economically secure, should be the core for adult education programs. Adult education's role in development is more than increasing the skills needed for industrialization and agricultural progress. Its main function should be to create an 153 attitude of mind and a new mode of behavior. Such barriers as super- stition, taboos, and dependence on witch doctors must be replaced with knowledge, reason, and a rational view of one's environment. Fear and helplessness and a fatalistic view of life must be replaced with self-confidence, initiative, and a willingness to take positive action. The activities must remedy educational deficiencies of the clientele, bridge gaps in their early school years, provide them oc- cupational training, help them to better understand themselves and others, help them to understand their social, political and economic situation in their society and the world. It must provide the clien- tele experiences that can help them to have civic competence, per- sonal competence and enjoy life. Third Criterion. -- An adequate program must have well- qualified teachers to teach the subjects and administer the program. The teachers and administrators must be competent professionally. They must provide enlightened leadership both for the program and for the community. They must have the skill and abilities that can involve people in the program, motivate them to continue in and benefit from it. They must understand the clientele, the society and their subject matter well. They must be able to sell the program to the people. They must provide leadership in encouragement of innovations in the program and society. They must satisfy the qualification requirement for their position and office in their society 154 and must be officially recognized and approved as adult educators by their local government. Fourth Criterion. -- Methods and techniques suitable to the learner. Since adult education ties in with the experiences of adults, with their behavior patterns, with their basic loyalties, with their aptitudes, and with their environment, the teacher's task is to try to discover what kinds of materials mature people can best learn and by what procedures they can learn most effectively. The teacher's job is to arouse in his students a strong desire to learn the materials taught, and to keep this desire alive and strong throughout the course. In order to maximize learning and avoid discouragement to the learner, the teacher must pitch instruction on the level equal to the student's ability to understand. Some of the elements that represent adequate methods and techniques that adult education teachers can use in mak- ing learning meaningful to the clientele are as follows: forum, lecture, debate, panel, symposium, radio, demonstration, field trips, work- shops, institutes, guidance, reports, television and certificates. Fifth Criterion. -- Financial and physical resources and administrative policies which make the program effectively available to all who should participate in it. The perennial limitations faced by the planner of an adult education program are time, money, and physical facilities. The process of identifying resources should include not only the listing, but also the ranking of the people who 155 can be used, considering their ability to communicate effectively. It is up to the educator to get maximum utilization from all resources available. In planning any program, the adult educator must seek answers to the following questions: Will the potential learners commit themselves to the minimum time required to accomplish the objectives? Are there sufficient financial resources to achieve the objectives? Will the available physical facilities meet the minimum requirements of the objectives? The resources which an educator might use for enrichment of his program in a given community are as follows: musicians, pot- tery makers, weavers, craftsmen, game leaders and discussion groups, local artisans, market places, village ponds, church build— ings, school houses, libraries, lakes, islands, parks, local industries, post offices, banks, shops, railway stations, museums, businessmen, age groups, local and central offices and officials, teachers of various grades, housewives and local artists and politicians. Summary of Criteria and Their Characteristics for Analysis The following is the summary of the criteria and their characteristics on the basis of which the programs are analyzed: I. Adequate Objective: a. Objective is related to the expressed need of clientele. b. Objective is related to the educational purpose of the society. II. III. 156 Objective is defined in behavioral aspect. Objective is defined in content aspect. Objective has a built-in provision for evaluation or ap- praisal of the total program. Adequate Activities and Instructional Materials: a. Activities and materials of the program are suitable means of achieving the objective. Activities are related to the needs of the clientele. Activities and instructional materials are adapted to the level of the clientele. Activities and instructional materials are adapted to the social purpose of education. Subject matter content clearly shows that the desired behavior is applied to it. Adequate Teaching Per 5 onnel: a. The teacher has evidence of competency in the subject matter and is officially recognized to teach it . The teacher is recognized by the sponsoring agency for his experience and training to teach adults or work with them. The teacher shows evidence of being engaged and interested in continued learning. IV. 157 The teacher has evidence of training in and understanding of theories and psychology necessary for teaching adults and administering adult programs. The teacher has evidence of his continued study of the clientele and their social situation as a basis of enriching the program. The teacher has evidence of his ability to involve resources in the society for increasing the effectiveness of the adult program. Adequate Teaching Methods and Techniques: a. b. Significant activities are used in teaching adults. Activities designed to serve a variety of educational needs are used in teaching the clientele. Opportunities are provided for adults of diverse back- ground and interest (in age, sex, education and tribal origin). Services are thoroughly adapted to the convenience of people (in time, location, flexibility of scheduling). Various special approaches are being used (forums, television, program service, etc.). Efforts are made to acquaint men and women with educa- tional opportunities and induce their participation (by 158 means of posters, newspapers, radio, exhibits, displays and T. V.) in learning experience. The program is planned with both the sponsors and the clientele. Activities are constantly evaluated in cooperation with the clientele and the program sponsors. Adequate records of all activities and results of activities (such as factual data, enrollment data, attendance records, personnel files, test grades, inventory lists, financial reports and statistical tabulations) are regularly kept. Adequate Res ource s: a. b. Government departments, offices and officers. Personnel and other facilities of voluntary agencies (ministers of churches, school buildings and teachers). Parents and senior or retired citizens. Public buildings (libraries, state and local civic buildings, stadiums, museums). Hospitals, zoos, game reserves, markets, transport lines, projects, factories, shops, post offices, news- papers, radio and T. V. stations, railroad stations, bus lines, industrial plants, colleges, university campuses and personnel, research centers, farms, military and naval depots, historical sites, sports arenas, jails, 159 courts and police stations, banks, power stations, print- ing plants, machine shops, textile mills, telephone exchanges, financial houses, politicians, poor neighbor- hoods, rural communities, nursing homes, docks, clinics and factories. f. Political rallies, public hearings, school boards, lectures, forums, debates, expositions, livestock shows, hobby shows, operas, concerts, native dances and festivals, age groups, art eXhibits, craft displays, town meetings and visitors to the community. The Conceptual Scheme for an Adequate Program As a second phase in the development of a conceptual scheme for the analysis, the various elements of the criteria identi- fied from the model program, the literature reviewed, and the ex- pressed needs for development in Nigeria were checked with five judges selected from Michigan State University faculty members who, because of their experiences in Nigeria, are assumed to be adequate to make the needed contribution for solution of the problems of devel- opment of Nigerian adults. With the help of the judges, a number of elements were selected which, in the opinion of the judges and the writer, were regarded to most adequately characterize the type of adult education 160 program that can make the most effective contribution in the solution of developmental problems of the adult education clientele in Nigeria. These selected elements were used as a framework in developing the grid for each criterion for analysis and scoring of the programs. The items of the content area approved by the judges were assigned to one axis of the general grid and the qualitative attributes of excellence approved by the judges were assigned to the other axis. This general grid (Figure 1 on the following page) repre- sents a conceptual scheme for analyzing adult education programs in a developing country. The grid relates major elements of development in terms of items of the content area as experiences necessary for acquiring the desirable competencies for effectiveness of the individual in a changing society to the qualitative attributes of excellences of the adult education process. Sub-Grids for Analysis in Terms .of Individual Criterion The following sub-grids have been developed for detailed analysis of individual criteria in each of the programs. Each sub-grid has been developed with the same procedure used in developing the general grid. The items of the content areas of each sub-grid represent experiences which have been checked and approved as suitable for Eastern Nigerian developmental needs. In their complete form the grids in Figures 2(a), 2(b), 2(c), 2(d), 2(e), 2(f), and 2(g) on pages 162 through 168 illustrated FIGURE 1. - General analytical grid on adult education program for individual and social development Criteria of Adequate Program m'eJBoxd eqi iii ei'edioiix'ed 131"“qu 0W“ 119 on, atqeneA'e AIeAiioejjs WEISOld sq; exam qoiqm seionod eAiielisiuiuipV 161 urexfioxd am; ;0 ixoddns .io; seoxnossi [soisfiqd pue {eioueuig 3191119313 991 pue iueiuoo [euoiionxisui 91-121 0:) ei'eildoxdde senbiuqoei pus spoqiew urexBoxd , 9‘11 10} uoii'eoijnenb pus .iequxnu ui sienbep'e IGUUOSled seAiioafqo sq; oi painter steixei'eui pus 999414139 ['euoiioniisuI Aieioos pue elaiueip sun 30 speeu 91.1; on, pea/918.1 seAnoquo Content Area Civic Education Health Education Ec onomic Education Basic Education Liberal Education Basic “A 05 '3“: «is. as v3 111‘, Home and Family Education 162 mcofiumfiom stofimcnoufi enomuoogofl moaunmm Heufiflonm paw mow—30m ~820wa nerzaflneoanem 32.6 unmannonwoahu Hmcofimz mfiwxm infidm cowumauofifi mo msofiosdw @9333 was mumouofi: umswsmoa condom man—m find 303 Heaven nouaom enzyme mummwofinmm spammed Anna? unmuuomgfi muoommaea acousoO oumnumsoEoQ o» fixings auwndfiwfinwh mo 636.330va 338.330 esaeeam GOSMUDUH 330 .i H @654. «non—GOO oZuUMFO opmdvopacq ”Gownofiho «mum MOM pwum Hdofitfimnaw it .73 N HMDUHM 163 sofimfismw enuwGSEEO O was 0603 m0ow>h0m 05333 was 5:003 infiggou Gowuc0>0unm 30:8 was m0mm0mwQ coasts/H 0C0fim>m Hmso m H0m 03533 d300 m H030m mflwxm was mum0h0u§ 0n5u08 0umnumGoE0Q >23 uwnmsmgh 090303an on 5:34 COSMEHOHGM mo 0ou50m 3&0 -pneaep £3 assassinate anon—05d was 303 «sen—Homes“ mo 0mp0HBOGM neZeueBo esaeeam 300934. «£0300 sofiusodpm 8:003 it E 00.3w «29:50 038030 0umdv0p< "Gowu0fino umha HOW Bum Hmowffimsafi it .Anvm HMDOHh 164 930.34% @203 A9350 was 30013 03.32 use murder x283 pen anaemazv >£mmnw000 mn0fiO ps0 020373 anoflwfim Am H055 use 020373 0.:50u0fid appears H.300 m n030m mflfixm was mum 0H0ufi 0.2505 0udnumsoE0Q .53 twcwsmég Begging 8 323a. GOdeEHOHGw HO 00h50m 030 -peeaep £3 enhancers msofiogm was 30.3 undunomfifi mo 030035va nezeeeEo esaoeam 30090.4 «c.9500 GOEMUSVH H0u0nhd in a 00H< «£09.qu 033030 0udfiv0p< usofin0fiuo «when MOM 62w anon—>334. u- .A UV N HMDOHW 165 00U0HH. 00300302 >ch0nmsm HOEwn< >898 0H #05530“ 09» 0&0HD H0004 0 usfidflhw‘fi EH0 wfifinfim c.3002 mo 009302 0G0 0053C£00H .00Hmfl0nfinnfi 023?. ~33.“ :030Euofifi mo 98305:“ 06.3300 30 0000000": -mGHG00E 00.0900 030 0:0 030w H0300 n030m 0.3508 0u0mw0390a uvd0m0v nun? «n0uhomcflfi 0000m0< uQ0uGoD 000H00GOE0Q Cu >fifln< >fin0wfia0h mo 0mU0HBOGVH $308.30 30800 £030030H #0003009? nu >H 00.3w «£0300 338.30 3333 “aoflfiflu 25.0 .80 300 Ragga -- .2: N 000on 166 «658303509 >fi§§00 m0>30h0m000 mmaffimm 0G0 SEAR. 3200930 05.5 80095 00:98qu 00Hh 0G0 knuumsvcH 0» U000H0m magnonnu uflEOGOUH >898 0 m quofimz 00333 #200 m H030m 0:33 find mam 0002“ 0.35.08 03.393500 >23 .. 930.00g 0pmmfiofiumm 3 3:34 “530930wa m0 00.350 03,0 -2830 53 bflflmfimm maofiogm 0:0 303 00.3.8me m0 030029.0an {J 330830 003QO ma00mm< 0:00:00 Gomudofivm uflhonoom E. > 00.1% 000300 05.30030 301.0004 "002320 umufl no“ gum 33332 E. A 0VN HMDUHM 167 0m05wc0d H0030 >G< 00303300 000030.92 m0 00D 000 030c§$2< fizwum m0m0smn0d 00:0me 0055 0w05mc04 H0004 00.3300 030 m u0t0m 02me 000 mum 00000“ 0.2505 0003000800 >23 n $30008 000303.30 8 $234 GOwHflEHOwGw m0 000.350 03.0 -0802. 53, 5205800 00330.3 000 300m 0.00:0me m0 0m00~300v~ $308.30 ofiummm 300mm< 0000.000 A>00n0fi4v G030030H 300m nu H> 00.3w ”$80550 $38.30 33304 5380.8 0:0 .80 2.2% 33qu0 -13: 0.0005 168 0G0E0w0c00>0 080$ 0 0G0G0h >3§0h “000000.350. 00950050 G0000>u000nnm 00:0 G0000H0m0nnm vooh 98:85 cam. 0.30 0:20 0:300 000500000 00:0 0000.805 000000 00000m 005005 0000005809 0:3 nwn0G00E 000E 000.00g 3 3:30. GOMHNEHOMGM HO QUHSOm MHQN uvn0m0w :00? 3035800 0.00000de 90 0000.0 0:00.009“: 00 0300030050 $308.30 05800 0000Q0< 00000000 080000de >380h 00:0 0803 .... HH> 00.1% 0000080 03000.30 000Sv0v< 380000000 00.30 .80 Bum 0000300: I. .A 3 N HMDUHM 169 00000 030mm 0:800 0000 90000.0 062330 000000.900H 0000M 0000005050 000000000> 00000030H 008000 0H 00000 000mm 00.000010 0000005050 0000000 00000005050 005.00 0 000w 0500 9000 0000 00000009080 0 00000005 0000000 00000000. 000080 00 0000 03000 0000 0000000000 00300030 0000 000000 00 no >0000 0035 0000000 000003000 0000000000 000000000 00 0:08 -0303: .000 000003000 0000003 0.5005 0500000 00 0000.25 000000005000 000 8 03200 000000000 0000 00 00000: 0000 00 000000000 000000000 00.00 00 00>00 0&0 00 000.0004 000000000 00 0 00000000000000 000 .30 0000000 0000000002 0000 000003004 0000000000000 000dv0v< ”000000000 0000000 000 Sam 0000300000 .3 .m "0000000000 170 the criterion ”Adequate Objective" with its specific objectives or specific behavior patterns desired to be developed as evidence of attainment of the broad educational purposes. These specific objectives are civic competency, vocational competency, individual good health and physical fitness, a sanitary environment, literacy, enriched and satisfied individual living, enjoyment of leisure, economic competency and efficiency, and happy home membership. The other variables of the grids are the content areas with their elements specified according to the Nigerian situation as appropriate means of attaining the desirable objectives. Figure 3 on page 169 illustrated the second criterion, "Adequate Instructional Activities and Materials, " with its charac- teristics, which are derived from the model program and the re- viewed literature. The other variables of this grid are the content areas of an adequate program derived from the model program used in the development of this analytical scheme. Figure 4 illustrated the third criterion, "Adequate Methods and Techniques, " with its characteristics, which are de- rived from the model program and the reviewed literature. The other variables of the grid are the content areas of an adequate program which are derived from the model program used in the development of the analytical scheme. Figure 5 illustrated the fourth criterion, "Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification, " with its characteristics, 171 0.00de Ugfim 0:800 0:00 00000.0 30000001: 000000300. 0000m0 000000.900H 000000000> 000000050000 0080000H 0000005000 00000010 000000.000 000000 0000000050 0030 00 00000000 0000 03003000000 0 000003000 0000m00m 000 00000500 000 000000m0 0000000000 00 0000m00n0 00000w00m 000050000 0000000000000 000000 900000000 90000000000 00000000 00 00 0000000 00000000 0000 >00§00000000 00003 000 0:00 00000300 000000050 0000000000000 000050000 0005m00 0000000000 00000000000 00000000.pm 00000 00004 0005m00 0 0300020000000 00 0000000 $000000? 050000.? 0005m00 0 0 000.0 000000000 00000000002 00000000002 00 0000000 0 0000M 000w 000D 00000000002 0 0000M 0000000002 0000000000 00 00000000000000 30:3. 0003080. 00 800050000 0:8 32022 £3304 £3803 000: .80 200 03000005. -10 000000 172 FIGURE 5. -- Analytical grid for fourth criterion: Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification Characteristics of Criterion Shows evidence of Has $hOWS training in. evidence of evidence of Content Officially . . . methods Of . _ adequate part1c1pat10n teaching Areas certified to . . . . . training 1n 1n-serv1ce adults, teach the . . . . 1n the education in knowledge of subject . , . subject program learning matter planning theory and program ad- ministration Civic Education Health Education Liberal Education Economic Education Vocational Education Basic Education (Literacy) Home and Family Education 173 FIGURE 5. -- Continued Characteristics of Criterion Shows Has evidence of Shows experience training evidence of Has been and/or Content and/or understand- trained in training in Areas experience ing of adult basic group in prepara- psychology, literacy dynamics tion and use guidance and methods and of audio- counseling and processes visual techniques organization and materials in for adults program teaching evaluation Civic Education Health Education Liberal Education Economic Education Vocational Education Basic Education (Literacy) Home and Family Education 174 FIGURE 5. - - Continued Characteristic s of Criterion Has experience Has and under- Has a good Has a experience standing in understand- working Content . . . . A and training community ing of the knowledge reas in extension action study culture and of the methods methods and background clientele's and community of the local techniques development clientele dialect and rural conditions Civic Education Health Education Liberal Education Economic Education Vocational Education Basic Education (Literacy) Home and Family Education 175 000000 0500 00800 000 00000.0 30% 000000500 00000 00000050H 0000000000.? 000000050000V 000000000000 00000050H 0233 00000500 0000000 0000 050M 0000 0000000000 00050050 000 0000 03000500000 0 000.3 000000.00 0300000000 0 00000w 0 0mm 000000m0 >0005500> 000 000000000 0000000000>0m 00 0000050 0000000 0000m00nm 00000000 000000 >00000000 0 >000000000000 00 000000000000 0000 0000050 00.900000 00000m00n0 >00000000 00003 0000000 000000000 0 >000000000000 00 0000000000 0005 00000w00n0 000.00 000000 00000500000000 .3 000000050 000000500 000 0000m00n0 0000500 00000 >0. 00000w0 00 00 00>0w 0000050 000 00000000 0005m000 00000000000>0m >0 00000m000 000 00>0w 0000050 0000000000 00050000 000 0005w0m 0000000000 00 0 00000000000000 000 040. 00000000 000000000 0.000000000000004 0000 0000500000 0000000000 0000 0000000000 0005000040 2000000000 00000 000 000m 00000300500 nu .0 HMDUHM 176 derived from the model program and the reviewed literature. The other variables of the grid are the content areas of an adequate program which are derived from the model program used in the development of the analytical scheme. Figure 6 on page 175 illustrated the fifth criterion, "Adequate Financial and Physical Resources and Administrative Policies, " with its characteristics, which are derived from the model program, reviewed literature, and adapted to the Nigerian situation. The program from each of the selected communities in Eastern Nigeria will be analyzed and scored using each one of these grids. Each element or characteristic of each criterion is arbitrarily assigned a score of one. The scores and analysis will finally be summarized by means of tables. Summary This chapter presented the procedures that were followed in creating the conceptual scheme for analyzing the selected adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria. The steps described in this procedure of the study in- cluded: 1. the discussion of the rationale for selecting development as the focus of this analysis; 2. the identification of criteria of adequacy of adult educa- tion programs for developing nations, as reported in the 177 literature reviewed and as recommended by the UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education in 1960; the derivation, from these sources, of criteria of excel- lence in terms of qualitative attributes of adult education; the derivation, from these same sources, of criteria of excellence in terms of content areas of personal and social development; the construction of a conceptual scheme in the form of an analytical grid, assigning content areas to one axis and qualitative attributes to the other; the construction of sub-grids for more detailed analysis of individual attributes of excellence. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE PROGRAMS IN EASTERN NIGERIA AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS In Chapter III, a general overview of non-University adult education in Nigeria was discussed as a background for the study. In Chapter IV, the conceptual scheme was created in the form of analytical grids with the criteria of adequacy in terms of content areas and qualitative attributes of adult education programs for developing nations. The scheme developed in Chapter IV will be used in analysis of the local government sponsored adult education programs in thirty-four rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. Ten of the thirty-four programs are women's programs and are under the supervision of the Regional Women's Adult Education Headquarters at Uyo. Twenty-four of the programs are mixed programs for men and women under the supervision of the Regional Adult Education Office at Owerri. 178 179 The analysis will be confined to finding out to what extent the expressed objectives, the instructional activities and materials, the number and qualification of the teaching and administrative personnel, the methods and techniques of teaching, the financial and physical resources, and the administrative policies of the pro- gram satisfy the elements of an adequate program which are con- tained in the analytical grids of the scheme developed for this study. As a background to the analysis, the typical geographical condition, occupation and population of the constituencies in Eastern Nigeria in which are located the selected communities whose adult education programs were being analyzed were discussed. An over- view of each of the ten women's adult education programs and twenty- four mixed adult education programs in those communities was presented. The programs were scored on the basis of the elements of the analytical grids and the analyses were summarized. Constituencies in Eastern Nigeria in Which the Programs of their Communities were Analyzed The thirty-four adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria which are analyzed in this chapter were organized in com- munities located in the following geographical constituencies: Owerri South East, Aba Central, Aba North, Aba South, Opobo South, Uyo North East, Uyo North, Uyo South West, and Calabar. 180 Owerri South East Constituengy This is one of the largest constituencies in Eastern Nigeria, consisting of five local council areas of Ezinihitte East, Central and West, Oke Ovorro and Ngu Okpala County Council. This constituency is low land surrounded by the Imo River. The main occupation of the people in this area is farming. The current population is 210, 000. Aba Central Constituency This constituency is made up of Aba Urban Southern Ngwa, and the Eastern Ngwa County Council areas. This constitu- ency is shared between the indigenous Ngwa land owners and the immigrant workers. In Eastern and Southern Ngwa County Council areas there are mainly farmers by occupation, while in the urban area the emigrant workers are mainly employed as either unskilled factory workers or clerks. Few of the people own small businesses. The population of this area is 275, 000. Aba North Constituency This area is the Northern Ngwa County Council area in Aba Division. The land is flat and covered with equatorial rain forests. The rainfall in this area is generally heavy and often asso- ciated with thunderstorms. The inhabitants of this area are generally farmers, traders and hunters. An elite~ class of teachers and local government officials is assuming new leadership in social activities in this area. The population by recent census is 171, 000. 181 Calabar Constituency This area includes all areas within the administrative division of Calabar. The area is almost surrounded by water. The Qua Iboe and the Cross Rivers provide the area with marine service. Mangroves adorn the swamps of the rivers. Thick equatorial forests that cover a great percentage of this area provide good timber and logs. The people of this area are mainly farmers and fishermen. Calabar, which is the principal town and administrative seat of the division, offers business opportunities now. As a seaport, it lost most of its commercial importance when the seaport was closed and trade fell. Scattered logging, rubber and palm oil industries offer employment to about 40, 000 workers in the area. The total population of the area is 267, 000. Opobo South Constituency This constituency consists of the urban county council area of Ibibio, and the county council area of Obolo. Farming and fishing are two principal occupations of the people. Those on the islands are mainly fishermen, while those on the mainland are farmers. There are industries such as boat and canoe building and weaving of fishing nets in this area. The population is 182,200. 182 Uyo North East Constituency This is the county area of Eastern Mait and Ibesikpo Asutan in Uyo Division within the Calabar-Oron-River area. Thick equatorial forests are the main feature of this constituency. The land is low and flat with heavy rainfall. The land is fertile and palm, rubber, cocoa, fruits and eggs are produced in large quantity in this area. The inhabitants are mainly farmers and traders. The popula- tion according to the last census is 161, 900. Aba South Constituency This constituency is made up of the Asa and Ndoki County Council areas. The land is generally flat and the forest is the equa- torial type. The rains are heavy and the land fertile. While the Asa people are predominantly farmers and petty traders, the Ndoki people are mainly fishermen, farmers and weavers of the internationally known "Akwete Cloth. " The population of this area by the latest cen- sus is 96, 000. Uyo South West Constituency This constituency comprises the County Council areas of Western Mait and Iman in the Old Calabar Province in the Calabar- Oron-River area. An equatorial vegetation on flat and low land is the main feature of this area. The soil is very rich and a variety of palms thrive in this area. Farming is the main occupation of the people and 183 trading is carried on in small scale. Few office workers and teachers live in the area and the total population by the last census is 166, 000. Uyo North Constituency The Federated County Council area of Upuan and Uyo make up this constituency. It is located in the Old Calabar Province within the Calabar-Oron-River area. The forests are the thick equatorial type. The constituency contains numerous streams of fresh running water. The prople are mainly farmers. Only.a very few engage in trading. Palm produce and gari are the chief agricultural products of this area. Mixed Programs of Adult Education Ikwere Community Adult Education Program The first class of adult education was organized in Ikwere community in 1949 by I. W. Chindu, a government adult education organizer. Chindu became an elected member of the Ikwere District Council in 1955 and was succeeded by P. E. O. Igboms. Gabriel Wali succeeded Igboms for only one year and was, in turn, succeeded by N. A. Tassie. Each of the organizers who had served in the Ikwere program was a graduate of an Elementary Teachers Training College and had participated in an Adult Instructors' Short Course organized by the Senior Regional Adult Education Officer at Owerri. 184 The expressed objectives of the Ikwere adult education program were annihilation of illiteracy and improvement of the living conditions of the people. The subject matter taught in the program included reading and writing in English, reading and writing in Igbo, arithmetic and civics. The recorded method of teaching was the lecture method. The total number of centers was twenty-six. Refer to Appendix B, Figures 4, 5 and 6. On the basis of the conceptual scheme developed for this study, Ikwere Community Program has an objective which is related to the need of the clientele and the community. Increase in literacy is considered related to increase in economic productivity. The objective was based on the assumption of the program organizer that education by making individuals responsive to change is a consequence of economic development. Since the lecture method is the only method employed in teaching in this program, there is no other indication that the learners are involved in the learning situation through any other activities that are meaningful to them. The only courses shown in Figure 4 of Appendix B are courses in the content areas of Liberal Education and Basic Education. No courses are taught in the content areas of Civic Education, Health Education, Economic Education, Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. Figure 5 of Appendix B shows that only one organizer is in charge of six centers. While according to the Eastern Nigerian government's standard the 185 qualification of the personnel is satisfactory, yet the personnel is inadequate in number for the program's administrative and teaching responsibilities. In Appendices C, D, and E, poor financial resources, poor physical resources, lack of voluntary helpers from the com- munities are listed as the outstanding problems confronting the pro- gram. Poor administrative policies which hinder the development of a good relationship and understanding between the community leader- ship and the personnel of the program result in difficulty in getting voluntary helpers from the communities to participate in the promo- tion of the program. Eastern Annang C ommunity Adult Education Pr ogam Adult education classes were started in Eastern Annang County by 1. Williams in 1950. The expressed purpose of the program is to provide the community with literate citizens who could participate effectively in the improvement of the community. The subjects taught in the program consisted of reading and writing in English, reading and writing in Efik, arithmetic and general knowledge. Williams graduated from a Grade II Teachers College. The recorded method of teaching is the lecture method. Lack of finance is recorded as the main problem confronting the program. Looking at the program on the basis of the conceptual scheme developed for this study, the objective of the Eastern Annang 186 Program indicates that the role of adult education in this community has been conceived of as one of upgrading human resources and improving institutions through which economic growth and social progress can be achieved. Figure 4 of Appendix B shows that only a few courses in the content area of Basic Education are taught in this program. No courses are taught under the content areas of Liberal Education, Civic Education, Economic Education, Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. While the adult education teacher in this program is well qualified according to Eastern Nigerian standards, yet the personnel is inadequate in number for the responsibilities of teaching and administration of the program. There is no indication of involvement of the learners in the learning situation through some meaningful activities. Figure 6 of Appendix B shows that poor finan- cial and physical resources are reported as the main problems con- fronting the program. The program has no teaching materials and is not effectively supported by the county council or any other groups in the community. Ikom Urban C ommunity Adult Education Pr ogr am Adult education classes were started at Ikom by Francis Oga in 1963. Oga was trained as an adult education organizer at Abakiliki in 1962. The recorded objectives of the program at Ikom 187 were to help adults to read, write and make public speeches in Eng- lish. The subjects taught in the program were reading and writing in English, arithmetic and civics. Looking at the program on the basis of the analytical scheme, the Ikom program emphasizes literacy as a precondition for success. The emphasis is purely on personal service to the individual. It tends to separate command of language and opportu-‘ nities and facilities for using it from social and economic develop- ment. The few courses taught in the program are mainly in the content areas of Basic Education and Civic Education. No course is taught from the content areas of Vocational Education, Health Educa- tion, Economic Education, Liberal Education and Home and Family Education. There is no indication of involving the students in the learning situation through such activities as discussion or special projects. In Figure 4 of Appendix B the poor qualification of the teacher and his inadequate salary are reported as the causes of his negligible role in formulating or prescribing either an educational point of view or providing the required leadership for promotion of the program. Poor financial and physical resources, in addition to poor means of transportation, are indicated in Figure 6 of Appendix B as the main problems confronting the program. 188 Mbaise County Council Adult Education Program Adult education classes were started in Mbaise county in 1950 by A. O. Dike, with the objective of helping adults to read and write in English. The subject matter content of the program was English, arithmetic and general knowledge. Dike participated in an Adult Education Organizers Short Course which was organized by the Senior Adult Education Officer at Owerri in 1949. The recorded problems of the program were difficulty in getting the clientele interested in the program, limited classroom facilities, and poor teacher salary. The lecture method was the only recorded method of teaching. Viewing the program with the analytical scheme, the Mbaise Adult Education Program does not have any expressed objec- tives. The adult education program represented merely a way of making some form of education available to people. But if rapid orientation of the nation toward change and modernization is to take place, the program ought to provide experiences to help the indi- vidual understand his possible contribution to social development. The subjects taught in the program were limited to the content area of Basic Education. The program does not include courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Health Educa- tion, Economic Education, Liberal Education and Civic Education. The learners are not helped to participate in the learning situation 189 through activities that are meaningful to them. The only method and technique of instruction in the program is the lecture method and both physical and financial resources were greatly limited. VOwerri County Adult Education Program_ Adult Education classes were organized in Owerri County in 1949, with the objective of annihilating illiteracy in Ahoada County. The subject matter content of the program included reading and writing in English, arithmetic and civics. P. E. Igbons, the organizer of the program, was a participant in an Adult Education Instructors' Short Course. The recorded problems of the program were lack of reading materials, lack of adequate means of transportation, lack of funds, and poor salary. The recorded method of teaching was the lecture method. On the basis of the analytical scheme, the expressed ob- jective of the program in Owerri County is to achieve sustained economic growth through increased literacy. Adult education is looked upon as an instrument for overcoming the paucity of indus- trial, commercial and agricultural skills among the population. But Figures 4, 5 and 6 of Appendix B show the paucity of the pro- gram in the content areas of Economic Education, Vocational Edu- cation, Health Education, Home and Family Education and some aspects of Liberal Education. The program does not provide 190 activities and materials for making the learning situation meaning- ful to participants. The teaching personnel is neither adequate in number nor qualification to either promote the program effectively in the community or introduce the desired changes. The limited financial and physical resources that confront the program make introduction of any innovation difficult. The large number of cases of drop-outs from the program as shown in Appendices C and D shows that the offerings of the program do not provide the adults the skills and preparations they need for solution of the immediate problems that confront them. Ahoada County Adult Education Program An adult education program was organized in Ahoada County in 1953 by H. O. Oheme, who received his training as an adult education organizer by participating in an Adult Education Short Course which was sponsored by the Regional Adult Education Headquarters in 1952. The expressed objectives of the program were to help adults become responsible citizens and participate in community development. The subject matter taught in the program included arithmetic, English, writing and reading. The method of instruc— tion was the lecture method and the expressed problems of the pro- gram were lack of voluntary helpers, low salary, lack of means of transportation and lack of teaching aids. 191 In looking at the program with the conceptual scheme, the objective of the Ahoada Adult Education Program is seen to be based on the assumption that individual and social development are dimensions of the integrated process of development. Adult educa- tion is considered an important, possibly at times even the crucial, variable in determining the rate and foundation of social growth and prosperity. All the courses taught in the program are mainly from the content area of Basic Education. No courses are taught in the program in the areas of Civic Education, Economic Education, Health Education, Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. The teaching personnel is poor in qualification and number to provide the type of leadership that can maximize the program's contribution to social change. No learning activities are provided to assure that the desired objectives are attained. In Figure 6 of Appendix B it is shown that poor financial and physical resources are among the major problems confronting the program. Uyo County Adult Education Program Adult education was started in Uyo County by J. O. Chiekezi in 1958. The expressed objectives of the program were to help the adults to know how to vote for the right man and also to get the adults c iviliz ed . 192 The subjects taught in the program were reading and writing in English and dictation. The method of teaching was the lecture method and the expressed problems of the program were lack of community support, poor salary for teaching staff, lack of opportunity for in—service training for staff and irregular payment of teachers' salary. In viewing the program with the analytical scheme, it is seen that increased political participation is the major behavior change which is intended to be developed in the individual citizens of the community through the existing adult education program. It is surprising that the program does not offer courses in the content area of Civic Education as learning experiences for attaining the above objective. No courses are also offered in the content areas of Economic Education, Vocational Education, Health Education and Liberal Education. The qualification and number of the teach- ingypersonnel of the program are shown in Figure 5 of Appendix B to be inadequate to meet the critical needs ofthe program, such as improvement of the curriculum, adaptation of the program to chang- ing needs of its clientele, projection of the program to its surround- ing environment and creating a climate of understanding in the com- munity for the program which can bring about improvement in and favorably increase its financial and physical resources. 193 Ikwuano County Adult Education Program Adult education was organized in Ikwuano County by A. U. Ibe in 1945. Ibe was succeeded by B. O. Abah in 1960. Both organizers were trained as adult instructors in an Adult Education Organizer's Short Course organized by the Adult Education Head- quarters at Owerri. The recorded objectives of the program at Ikwuano were to increase the number of literate citizens in the com- munity and to help participants live comfortably in a developing society. The subject matter taught in the program included Eng- lish grammar, composition and dictation. The recorded method of instruction was the lecture method. The expressed problems that hindered the progress of the program were lack of adequate transpor- tation, lack of funds, poor teacher salary, irregular payment of teachers and difficulty in getting the community‘s help. Viewing the program with the conceptual scheme, the central purpose of the program in Ikwuano community is to use adult education in promoting social identification and integration. But the subjects taught in the program were limited to the content area of Basic Education. No courses were taught in the areas of Vocational Education, Liberal Education, Economic Education, Health Education and Home and Family Education. Apart from the use of the lecture method, no other activities, methods and situations are used to provide 194 the desired experiences for the learners. The financial and phys- ical resources of the program are shown in Appendices C and D to be very inadequate for supporting the various activities of the pro- gram. ’ Port Harcourt Municiglity Adult Education Program Adult education was originally started at Port Har- court Municipality by a group of businessmen who charged the par- ticipants indiscriminately and left no record of the activities of their program. In 1952, G. C. Kweme, who was trained as an adult in- structor, was appointed as government adult education organizer for Port Harcourt. The recorded objectives of the program of adult educa- tion Kweme organized were to eliminate illiteracy, ignorance and superstition among adults in Port Harcourt Municipality. The method of instruction was the lecture method and the subject matter content of the program included English, arithmetic, drama and art. The recorded problems of the program were insufficient support from leaders in the Municipality, lack of funds, poor means of transporta- tion, and failure to pay teachers regularly. In viewing the Port Harcourt Program with the analytical scheme, the central purpose of the program stands out to be the replacement of such barriers as superstition, taboos, illiteracy, 195 fear, and helplessness with knowledge, reason, self-confidence, initiative, a willingness to take positive action and a rational view of one's environment. No courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Economic Education, Home and Family Education and Health Educa- tion were taught in the program. The program lacked qualified teachers to meet the varied needs of adults in a changing society. The limited financial and physical resources of the program made the tailoring of the program to indigenous needs of the learners impossible. Egon-Okpala County Adult Education Program Adult education was started in Ngor-Okpala County by G. Uwakwe in 1956. He was succeeded by R. O. Anyanwu in 1959. Both received their training as adult instructors by participating in an Adult Education Short Course at Owerri. The recorded objectives of the program at Ngor-Okpala were to help the adults gain the skill and knowledge that were neces- sary for improvement of their standard of living. The subject matter content of the program included English, writing, reading, dictation, personal hygiene, sanitation and civics. The expressed problems of the program were irregularity in payment of instructors, lack of funds, lack of adequate means of 196 transportation, lack of suitable textbooks and teaching materials for adults, and insufficient financial support by the government. In viewing the program with the conceptual scheme, the role of adult education in this community is viewed to be that of promoting productivity and creativity. Courses from the content areas of Basic Education, Health Education and Civic Education were taught in the program. The program did not include courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Economic Education and Liberal Education. Adult learners were not adequately involved in the teaching-learning situation with activities that were meaningful to them. The personnel of the program were not adequate both in number and qualification to provide the diversified situations, ac- tivities and methods for meeting the varied needs of the clientele. The program did not provide the clientele opportunity for prepara- tion for and meeting the challenges of the changing world of work. Figure 6 of Appendix B shows that poor financial and poor physical resources hinder the expansion and promotion of the program. Khana County Adult Education Program Adult education classes were started by R. B. Pepple in Khana County in 1956. E. E. Kina succeeded him as the adult education organizer for Khana County. Both organizers had been trained as organizers through their participation in an Adult Education 197 Instructors' Short Course at Owerri Regional Adult Education Head— quarters. The expressed objectives of the Khana County Program were to teach the adults the techniques and methods of community organization and improvement. The subject matter content of the program included English, geography, reading, civics, arithmetic and hygiene. The method of instruction was the lecture method. The expressed problems of the program were lack of teaching materials, lack of suitable textbooks, insufficient financial support, poor local support and lack of adequate funds for payment of teachers' salary. Viewing the program with the analytical scheme, the ob- jective emphasizes development in the learners' responsible social and political participation. Adult education was regarded as one pf the basic ingredients in the process of total development of the com- munity. The courses taught in the program were derived from the content areas of Liberal Education, Basic Education, Civic Education and Health Education. Courses were not taught in the areas of Eco- nomic Education, Vocational Education and Home and Family Educa- tion. There is no indication of adequate involvement of the learners in the teaching-learning situation through the use of varied but mean- ingful activities and methods in teaching. Financial and physical resources for the program were poor. The qualification and number 198 of the teaching personnel as shown in Figure 5 of Appendix B were highly inadequate for providing satisfactorily the important services that the clientele of the program needed, such as guidance, counsel and job orientation services. Northern Ngwa County Adult Education Prggram Adult education classes were started in Northern Ngwa by A. Leach and F. O. Ihuoma in 1952. After the death of Ihuoma in 1958, Leach resigned and both men were succeeded by S. Ogbonna and T. N. Atasie. The recorded objectives of the program in North- ern Ngwa were to help the people of Northern Ngwa community live better lives. The subject matter content of the program included arithmetic, English, civics, writing, community and personal san- itation, commerce, simple crafts and geography. The recorded method of teaching was the lecture method. The problems of the program were recorded to be insuf- ficient teachers, difficulty in getting voluntary instructors, lack of cooperation from the council, inadequate teaching materials. All the teachers who had taught in the program had been trained in the short course program for adult instructors at Owerri. Viewing the program with the conceptual scheme reveals that even though the program has no written objectives, yet it offers courses in almost all the content areas such as Basic 199 Education, Civic Education, Health Education, Vocational Educa- tion and Economic Education. The program offers no course in the content area of Home and Family Education. The teaching personnel is not very adequate in number and qualification to pro- vide desirable activities, techniques and situations which may serve to motivate the learners and define the learning task. Because of his limited training and experience in adult education, the teacher is not conversant with a variety of instructional methods and cannot identify those which are most appropriate for various learning situa- tions. He is not well acquainted with study materials of all kinds, including books, pamphlets, syllabi, audio-visual aids and equip- ment, and has no efficient method of locating and securing those which are needed by a particular learning group. The financial and physical resources of the program as shown in Figure 5 of Appendix B are also very inadequate because the teachers of adult education have no intimate knowledge of the community resources in people, organizations and institutions which will enrich the learn- ing experience. Izi County Adult Education Program C. N. Nwangbo, a graduate of a Short Course for Instruc- tors at the Regional Adult Education Headquarters, organized an adult education program in Izi County in 1964. The objectives of the program 200 were to help the participants become literate and to help the com- munity to organize and carry out self-help community development activities. The subject matter taught in the program included English, arithmetic, local geography, Nigerian history, civics and simple accounts. The method of instruction was the lecture method. The problems which hindered the progress of the program were reported to be failure of the County Council to support the program financially, difficulty in involving community leaders in the pro- gram's activities, poor teacher salaries, lack of teaching materials, inadequate means of transportation during the rainy season and drop-outs. Viewing the program with the conceptual scheme, social and individual development are seen to be its goal. The program offers courses in the content areas of Basic Education, Economic Education and Civic Education but does not offer courses in the content areas of Liberal Education, Vocational Education, Home and Family Education and Health Education. The limitation in qualifi- cation and number of its teaching personnel is a barrier to its ex- pansion and effectiveness. The learners are not effectively involved in experiences which have educational implications through projects that can bring individuals of disparate backgrounds into a close work- ing relationship so that each becomes alert to points of view and 201 scales of value different from his own. The limitation of the finan- cial and physical resources of the program hinders the introduction of any innovation that can help the program meet the changing needs of its individual clientele and society. Isu County Adult Education Program The first adult education classes were organized in Isu County in Orlu Division by Lo. O. Amadigwe in 1954. The expressed objectives of the program were to help the participants become lit- erate and also to help the adults of the county makes more effective contributions to the communitydevelopment and standard of living. The subjects taught in the program were arithmetic, personal hygiene and community sanitation, writing, English, read- ing, Igbo and civics. The method of instruction was the lecture method. The major problems of the program were insufficient financial support by the council, lack of textbooks and teaching aids, difficulty in involving members of the community as voluntary in- structors and lack of sufficient funds for payment of instructors. Though the program has a satisfactory objective, yet, because of the inadequacy of its personnel in qualification and num- ber, it does not offer courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Home and Family Education and Economic Education. 202 Adequate activities, materials and methods are not used to involve the learners in the teaching-learning situation. Because of its lim- ited financial resources, the program does not have adequate means of alerting the community to adult education opportunities. Western Annang County Adult Education Prcgram J. E. Ibanga and P. U. Akpan organized an adult educa- tion program in Western Annang County in 1949. S. U. Idiong suc- ceeded Ibanga and Akpan in 1960, when both of them resigned because of the inability of the County Council to pay their saélary regularly. The objectives of the program are to help the clientele to acquire information and skill that could enable them to become good citizens. The subject matter content of the program included English, vernacular, arithmetic, civics, geography, history, ac- counting and writing. The method of instruction was the lecture method. The reported problems of the program were insufficient funds, lack of adequate means of transportation and lack of adequate textbooks and instructional materials. Viewing the program with the conceptual scheme, the central purpose of this program is to produce well-informed and skilled manpower for society. Courses from the areas of Basic Education, Liberal Education, Civic Education and Economic 203 Education were taught in the program. Courses in the content areas of Home and Family Education, Vocational Education and Health Education were not taught in the program. Activities, methods and resources of the program are inadequate as shown in Figure 5 of Appendix B . Ogoja County Adult Educ ati_on Program An adult education program was organized in Ogoja County in 1957 by E. O. Obi, who was trained as an adult instructor in a short course at Owerri. The recorded objective of the program was to help adults to become both literate and useful citizens. 3 Subject matter content of the program included civics, arithmetic; history, English, vernacular, hygiene and farming. The method of instruction was the lecture method. The problems of the program were listed as poor means of transportation, scarcity of qualified instructors, low salary for the teachers and lack of con- sistent support for the council. Looking at the program with the conceptual scheme, the objective of the program satisfies the criterion of meeting both so- ciety‘s and individual's needs. This program offers courses in all content areas except in the areas of Home and Family Education and Economic Education. The teaching personnel is not sufficiently adequate in qualification and number for providing the type of 204 educational leadership that can have a more meaningful effect on the individual clientele and society. Methods of instruction, activities, materials and resources of the program are also not adequate for attacking the problem of skillful leadership development for the society which the program must face. Calabar County Adult Education Program An adult education program was organized in Calabar County by G. E. Okon in 1954, with the objective of helping the adults in the community become informed and skilled participants in com- munity improvement and welfare. The subjects of the program were civics, English, ver- nacular, writing, reading, dictation, community sanitation, personal hygiene and domestic science for women. The methods of instruction were recorded as the lecture and demonstration methods. The major difficulties of the program were listed as lack of adequate teaching materials, insufficient funds for administration of the program and difficulty in involving voluntary teachers and organizers. The objective of the program satisfies the criterion of being related to the needs of its individual clientele and society.when viewed with the analytical scheme. The program offers courses in all content areas except in the content area of Economic Education. 205 Though the qualification of the teaching personnel as shown in Figure 4 of Appendix B is adequate according to the prescribed standard of the government of Eastern Nigeria, yet the number of the teaching person- nel is inadequate for the numerous tasks and responsibilities that are required to be fulfilled. Learning is not well related to the life experiences of the people and there is no evidence that learners are given ample opportunity for practice or application of things they learned. Resources from the community are not brought into the program to facilitate learning experience. Owuwa Anyanwu C ountLAr e a Adult Educ ation Pr ogr am A committee of local businessmen organized adult educa- tion classes in Owuwa Anyanwu County in 1945 and appealed to the Regional Headquarters at Owerri for a trained instructor-organizer to be in charge of the program. Owerri Headquarters sent to them F. E. Nwachuku in 1948 as the organizer and chief instructor for the center. The objectives of the program were listed as to help the adult citizens to become literate in English, vernacular, business accounting and management and in community affairs. The subjects taught in the program were accounting, history, geography, business ethics, English, arithmetic, civics, sanitation and personal hygiene. The method of instruction was the lecture method. 206 Problems of the program were recorded as irregularity in payment of the teachers' salary and lack of cooperation from the elementary school teachers in making available to the program their facilities and help. The program, when viewed on the basis of the analytical scheme, has an adequate objective, offers courses in all content areas except in the content areas of Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. Its teaching personnel is well-qualified but very inadequate in number for satisfactorily handling of all the re- sponsibilities of the program. Its resources are very limited for its effective support. Its activities and methods are few and not adequate for attainment of its objectives. Ezzikwo County Adult Education Program In 1954 the Abakaliki Native Administration employed O. E. Orji as adult education organizer in Ikwo clan. After two years the program was closed down because it received very little response from the adults in the communities. After the reorganiza- tion of local government in Eastern Nigeria in 1956, in which Ezzikwo was made a separate County Council, J. I. Azinkpali, a grade III teacher, was employed as the adult education organizer and chief instructor for the county. 207 The objectives of the adult education program which he organized were listed as to help the adults of the county to become literate and help them become effective contributors in their com- munity improvement programs. The subject matter content of the program included English, history, sanitation, hygiene, vernacular, arithmetic, civics and accounting. The problems of the program were listed as poor salary for staff, insufficient financial support from the regional government, and lack of adequate textbooks and other instructional materials. On the basis of the conceptual scheme,:the program has an objective which recognizes the needs of both the individual clientele and the society. It offers courses in the content areas of Basic Education, Liberal Education, Health Education, Civic Educa- tion and Economic Education, but it does not offer courses in the content areas of Home and Family Education and Vocational Educa- tion. Its teaching personnel is adequate in qualification in terms of Eastern Nigerian standards, but not in number. Its methods of instruction, activities, materials for teaching, financial and physical resources are not adequate to help it provide the quality and quantity of service that its clientele and society desire from it. 208 Isi-Uzo County Adult Education Program The first adult education class in this county was organ- ized by M. Enechukwu at Eha Amufu village in 1949. In 1950 O. Abbah succeeded him and in the same year formed the County Assembly, which was comprised of leaders from Obollo, Imilike, Ezimo, Umo- Ndu, Igugu, Ogbodu-Aba and Amala villages. This Assembly, in cooperation with the District Officer, E. C. Powell, and the Pro- vincial Community Development Officer, E. R. Chadwick, planned a new program of adult education for the whole county. The objectives of the new program of adult education were recorded as to eradicate~ illiteracy in the whole county, to build a climate of trust and cooperation between all the villages and the peoples in the county and to help the adults to learn such skills that could make it possible for them to be profitably employed. The subject matter content of the program was listed as English, vernacular, farming, civics, reading, writing, history, geography, domestic science and carpentry. The methods of instruc- tion were the demonstration and lecture methods. Problems of the program were listed as difficulty in obtaining adequate and sufficient textbooks, difficulty in obtaining follow-up reading materials, lack of adequate lights and insufficient financial grants from the county. 209 On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the program has objectives which are related to the needs of the clientele and society, it has adequate methods of instruction and it offers courses in all the content areas except in the content area of Economic Education. Its teaching personnel is adequate both in number, qualification and experience. Its financial and physical resources were the major sources of its problems for expansion and reaching all the people it was expected to serve. Nsukka Division Adult Education Program Samuel Abbah and, Emmanuel Efungwu organized the first adult education program in Nsukka Division in 1955. When, in 1957, Nsukka Division was split into Igbo-Etiti, Uz ouwani, Isi-Uzo and Igbo-Eze counties, A. Efungwu was placed in charge of Igbo-Etiti and Uzouwani counties while 0. Abbah was placed in charge of Isi-Uzo and Igbo-Eze counties. In 1959, E. Nwonu, who was trained as a government adult education instructor in a short course organized by the Senior Adult Education Officer at Aba, succeeded Abbah as the Adult Educa- tion Organizer and Instructor for Isi-Uzo and Igbo-Eze, while in 1964 A. Lawrence, a grade II and one-time elementary school master, succeeded Efungwu as Adult Education Organizer and Teacher for Igb o - Etiti and U2 ouwani . 210 The objective of the program in the four counties in Nsukka Division was recorded as promotion of better living conditions among the people. The subject matter content of the program included English, vernacular, arithmetic, history, hygiene and community sanitation. The method of teaching was the lecture method. Problems of the program were listed as lack of sufficient financial support by the counties and irregularity in payment of in- structors' salaries. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the objective of the program is both distinctively expressed and related to the needs of the individual clientele and the community it serves. Its teaching personnel is not adequate either in number or in qualification to provide the program the education leadership necessary for its effectiveness in the community. The program does not offer courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Home and Family Education and Economic Education; but it offers courses inxthe areas of Liberal Education, Basic Education and Health Education. Its financial and physical resources are not ade- quate . Awka Division Adult Education Program Adult education classes were first organized in Awka Division in 1953 by G. B. O. Nwosu, who was trained at Owerri as an adult education instructor by participating in the Regional Short 211 Course for Adult Instructors. The objective of the course was expressed as to help the people become effective citizens. The subjects taught in the program were arithmetic, English, civics, letter writing, vernac- ular and handicrafts. The methods of instruction were the demon- stration and lecture methods. The problems of the program were listed as insufficient financial support by both the county council and Regional government, refusal of the elementary schools to make their facilities available to the program, lack of voluntary instructors, scarcity of required textbooks and other teaching aids. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the objective of the program is not well specified to indicate the kinds of behavior changes that are aimed at. The teaching personnel is not adequately qualified as to be able to determine the particular kinds of situations, activities and methods in connection with the generalized behavioral objective of the program. The courses taught in the program cover the areas of Basic Education, Liberal Education, Civic Education and Vocational Education. Courses are not taught in the program in the areas of Health Education and Home and Family Education. The resources of the program are inadequate to support it in providing adequate services such as counselling, guidance and job orientation to its clientele. 212 Ishielu County Adult Education Program E. E. Okiri organized an adult education program in Ishielu County in 1961. The expressed objectives of the program were to help the adults to become literates and to help them make an adequate contribution in the needs of their families and com- munities. The subject matter content of the program included civics, hygiene, arithmetic, and accounting. The method of instruc- tion was the lecture method. The expressed problems of the program were inadequate financial support, lack of instructors who were qualified to teach the subject matter and lack of textbooks. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the role of the program in the development of this community is seen as more than increasing the skills needed for industrialization and agricultural progress. Its main function is to create an attitude of mind and a new mode of behavior. Courses were taught in the program from the content areas of Civic Education, Health Education, Basic Edu- cation, Liberal Education and Economic Education. Courses were not taught in the content areas of Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. The teaching personnel is inadequate both in number and qualification to support a multi-purpose terminal program which can provide for the varied training needs of the adults in the community. Its physical and financial resources cannot give it the 213 effective support it needs in providing meaningful activities, methods and materials for attainment of the educational purposes of its clientele and society. Adult Education Programs for Women Etinan Uyo Women's Adult Education Program An adult education program for women was started at Etinan on the 14th of February, 1950, by A. I. Spence, with a class of 100 participants. In 1952 two organizers were appointed and a decision was reached to build a center for the adult education classes. The women of the 'comrnunity contributed 4:100 (one hun- dred pounds), while the men of the community contributed L300 (three hundred pounds) for the building. The building was completed and moved into on November 28, 1953. Spence was succeeded by Mrs. V. Ugorji in 1957. Both adult educators studied Domestic Science (Home Economics) in Eng- land. The objectives of the program were listed as to help the participants gain knowledge and skills which are essential for home and family management and participation in community affairs. The subjects taught in the program were English, vernacular, civics, laundry, sewing, weaving, nutrition and child care, mother-craft and needlework. 214 Methods of instruction were lecture, demonstration and discussion. The main problems of the program were indicated to be lack of teaching equipment and lack of adequate means of transporta- tion. On the basis of the analytical scheme, the objectives are adequately related to the needs of the individual clientele and the society. It provides for the individual opportunity for gaining of the knowledge and for development of the necessary skills that can help her participate more meaningfully in social affairs. Courses are taught in the program from the content areas of Liberal Education, Basic Education, Civic Education, Vocational Education and Home and Family Education. The program does not provide courses in the area of Economic Education. The teaching personnel of the program are well-qualified but inadequate in number. Methods and techniques of instruction, activities and resources of the program are not very satisfactory for the future growth and expansion of the program. (Refer to Figures 1 and 2 of Appendix A. ) Ok/Oron County Women's Adult Education Program G. E. Okon and A. I. Spence organized adult education classes in Ok/Oron County Council Area of Eket Division in 1948. The program was financed by the central government as one of the 215 pilot programs initiated by Jackson, the Chief Adult Education Officer for the colony. G. O. Etim succeeded both G. E. Okon and A. I. Spence as the senior adult education instructor and organizer for the county. The objectives of the program are to help the women of the county become both literate and active in community improvement. The subjects taught in the program were English, vernacular, child care, nutrition, cooking, arithmetic, history and geography. Methods of teaching were the lecture and demonstration methods. The problems of the program were listed as lack of means of transportation and insufficient financial support by both the county and the Regional government. The purpose of the program when viewed with the con- ceptual scheme is to provide the individual clientele the necessary skill and competencies that can help her to become economically secure and useful to society. The teaching personnel has not been adequate in number for development of the various kinds of instruc- tional activities, methods, techniques and materials for attainment of the objective. The program provides courses for the clientele only in the content areas of Home and Family Education, Basic Education and Health Education. It does not provide courses in the content areas of Vocational Education, Liberal Education and Economic Education. 216 The financial and physical resources of the program are not adequate to give the program the necessary support it desires. (Refer to Figures 1, 2 and 3 of Appendix A). Owo-Ahiafoukwu Community Women's Adult Education Program An adult education program was started at Owo-Ahiafoukwu in 1957 by three women adult teachers, Grace nge, Sophia Ekeocha and Offiong Etuk, who were trained at Uyo Women's Adult Education Headquarters. The objectives of the program were recorded to be to help the women of the community become literate and skillful in child care and home management. The subject matter of the program in- cluded mother-craft, cooking, hygiene and sanitation, English, sewing, needlework and arithmetic. Methods of instruction were by lecture and demonstration. The problems of the program were listed as lack of textbooks, lack of adequate means of transportation and lack of sufficient financial support. On the basis of the analytical scheme, the program has objectives with well-specified behavior changes that are to be attained. Its experiences were selected from the content areas of Vocational Education, Basic Education, Health Education and Home and Family Education. It does not offer courses in the content areas of Liberal 217 Education, Civic Education and Economic Education. Its teaching personnel are not well-qualified and also are very few in number for widening the circle of service that the program is expected to provide the community. Its financial and physical resources are not adequate to provide it the support it needs for extending its activities to all types of people and different sections of the community. Aka-Offot-ULo Community Women's Adult Education Program An adult education program was organized in Aka-Offot- Uyo Community by Miss G. Udoh in 1950 with the expressed objectives of helping the women of the community become literates and partici- pate more effectively in their family and community improvement. The subjects taught in the program were cooking, sanita- tion, family care and management, English, arithmetic and personal hygiene. The method of teaching was the lecture method. The problems of the program were listed as inadequate financial support, lack of qualified instructors to teach the subjects, lack of books and other teaching materials. Viewing the program with the conceptual scheme, the objective is seen to be geared to the needs of the clientele and the society. The program offers courses in the content areas of Basic Education, Liberal Education, Health Education and Home and Family Education. But it does not offer courses in the content areas of 218 Economic Education, Vocational Education and Civic Education. Its teaching personnel are not adequate both in qualification and number in providing the desired educational activities by incorpo- rating various approaches to the learning process, including forums, study and action projects, program services to organized or informal groups, radio and television programs, counselling services and opportunity for private study. Its financial and physical resources cannot adequately support it in providing opportunities for training in the varied skills which the clientele need. Uyo Community Women's Adult Education Program A few years before the colonial government decided to sponsore adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria, Miss. I. A. Spence had started organizing adult education classes in Uyo on her own initiative. Carpenter, on being appointed the Chief Adult Educa- tion Officer in 1946, gave a government financial grant to the Uyo program. Through the untiring effort of Miss Spence, another domes- tic science specialist, Mrs. G. Umoeren, was employed as Assistant Women's Adult Educator for the program. A committee, which consisted of Miss Spence, Miss.G. Plummer, former Education Officer for the Eastern Region, and Dr. Haigh of Ituk Mbang Hospital, reviewed the program in 1948 and 219 recommended that its objectives should be to help the clientele to become informed and skillful in home and family affairs. The subject matter content of the program included English, home and family living, sewing, needlework, child care, mother-craft, nutrition, weaving, sanitation and hygiene. Methods of teaching were lecture and demonstration. Problems of the pro- gram were listed as lack of adequate financial support, poor trans- portation facilities and absenteeism. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the program has specified behavior changes that it aims at. The means it provided the learners for attaining the expressed goals are courses in the content areas of Basic Education, Home and Family Education, Health Education and Vocational Education. It does not offer courses in the content areas of Economic Education, Civic Education and Liberal Education. It had well-qualified personnel who, because of their inadequate number, could not serve the needs of the clientele satisfactorily. The teaching methods, instructional activities, materials and resources of the program are inadequate for the increasing chal- lenges that it must face in order to provide the clientele the compe- tencies they need for the changing world of work. 220 Ikot-Abasi Community Women's Adult Education Program An adult education program was organized at Ikot-Abasi by A. B. Essien and Okon Willie Essien in 1951. The two teachers were trained by Miss Spence at Uyo. The objective of the program was to help the women to get the standard literacy and skill which could make them effective housewives and citizens. The subjects taught in the program were sewing, weaving, needlework, nutrition, English and child care. The methods of instruction were demonstration and lecture. The problems of the program were listed as inadequate financial support and teaching materials. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the program Specified behavior changes that it aimed at. It provided the clientele means in the content areas of Vocational Education, Basic Education, Home and Family Education for attaining the specified behavior changes. It offered no courses in the content areas of Liberal Educa-_ tion, Civic Education and Health Education. Its teaching personnel are inadequate both in number and qualification for providing the required education leadership for extending its activities and improve- ment of its methods, techniques and materials of instruction. It also had inadequate physical and financial resources. 221 Oron Community Women's Adult Education Program An adult education program for women was organized in Oron in 1957 by B. Edem. In 1961 poor response to the program by the community caused the centers to be temporarily closed. The com- munity leaders later recognized the usefulness of the program and organized the community to build a center for adult education classes by their self-help efforts. Edem reorganized the program in cooperation with a committee of community leaders. The objective of the program was to help the community women-become literate and assume their re- sponsibilities more meaningfully at home and in the community. The subjects taught in the program were English, vernac- ular, sanitation, first aid and personal hygiene, mother-craft, laundry, weaving and sewing. Methods of instruction were lecture and demon- stration. Problems of the program were listed as lack of sufficient and adequate textbooks, low salary for instructors and lack of adequate means of transportation. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the focus of adult education in this community is seen to be that of increasing develop- ment by increasing literacy in the society. Courses offered in the program covered the content areas of Health Education, Vocational Education, Basic Education and Home and Family Education. Courses 222 were not offered in the areas of Liberal Education, Economic Educa- tion. The teaching personnel of the program was inadequate both in number and qualification for introduction of the experiences, activities, methods and techniques which can rapidly orient the individual clientele and community towards change and modernization. The financial and physical resources of the program are inadequate for the services that the program is expected to provide its clientele. Obio Etoi Community in Uyo Women's Adult Education Program After her graduation from Uyo Women's Adult Education Training Program, Mrs. A. D. Itim was sent to Obio Etoi community, where she organized an adult education program for women in 1956. The objectives of the program were both to help the women of the community become literates and also to help them understand and learn the skills for effective participation in a changing society. Subjects taught in the program were English, vernacular, nutrition, cooking, child care, mother-craft, sewing and needlework. Methods of instruction were lecture and demonstration. Problems of the program were lack of voluntary instruc— tors, insufficient financial support by the county council and lack of means of transportation. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the objective of the program in this community is seen to be based on the assumption 223 that adult education should help the community utilize most effectively its resources to meet imminent social changes. The courses offered in the program are from the areas of Basic Education, Home and Family Education, Vocational Education and Health Education. The program does not offer courses in the content areas of Liberal Education, Economic Education and Civic Education. The teaching personnel of the program is not adequate either in qualification or in number either to teach the desired courses in all the content areas or to introduce the varied methods of teaching, activities, techniques and materials that can satisfactorily satisfy the educational need of the adults in the community. It could be seen in Appendices C and D that the financial and physical resources of the program are inadequate to give it the support it deserves for attacking the problems of the community effectively. Afaha Eket Communiiy Women's Adult Education Program In 1951 a group of prominent women in Afaha Eket re- quested the Women's Adult Education Headquarters to begin an adult education program in their community. M. S. Umanah, who graduated from Uyo Adult Education Instructors' Course, was sent to their com- munity as the adult education instructor and organizer. 224 Umanah cooperated with a committee of the community women in organizing for the community an adult education program which had as its objective to help the women become literate, good homemakers and good citizens. The subjects taught in the program were vernacular, English, cooking, mother-craft, child care, sewing, and weaving. The methods of instruction were lecture and demonstration. The problems of the program were scarcity of textbooks, lack of audio-visual teaching materials, insufficient classrooms for classes and lack of means of transportation duringzthe rainy season. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the program has specific competencies and skills that it is expected to help the clien- tele attain so as to contribute effectively in social development. It offers courses in the content areas of Home and Family Education, Vocational Education and Basic Education. But it does not offer courses in the content areas of Economic Education, Liberal Educa- tion, Health Education and Civic Education. Its teaching personnel is not adequate either in number or in qualification for introduction of the desirable methods, techniques and activities that could satisfy the individual needs of the clientele. The physical and financial resources were inadequate for the increasing and changing needs of the clientele and the society. 225 Ikot Antia Ididep-Itu Community Women's Adult Education Program” In 1945 O. Nwachuku, who was Handwork Instructor in the Boys' Vocational School in Ididep, organized the first adult educa- tion class in the community in an old church building. In 1958, because of increased enrollment, the program was divided into mens' and women's programs. D. O. Udoh and O. E. Bassey succeeded Nwachuku as adult education organizers and instructors for the mens' program, while Mrs. N. B. Akpan and Mrs. S. Emah became the women's adult education teachers for the women's program. The community built a new center for the women's program. The objectives of the total program were to help the adults in the community become literate and responsible citizens. The subjects taught in the women's program were English, hygiene, sanitation, home crafts, mother-craft, weaving, sewing and needlework. The methods of instruction were lecture and demonstra- tion. The problems of the program were lack of suitable text- books, lack of audio-visual teaching materials and lack of follow-up reading materials and drop-outs. On the basis of the conceptual scheme, the objective of the program is to promote social mobility by increasing literacy in the community. The subjects taught in the program are in the content 226 areas of Health Education, Home and Family Education, Vocational Education and Basic Education. Courses are not taught in the program in the content areas of Liberal Education, Civic Education and Eco- nomic Education. The teaching personnel have no intimate knowledge of the community resources in people, organizations and institutions which will enrich the learning experience. The number of the personnel is inadequate for extending the opportunities of adult education to all sections of the rural community. The communities have not been sufficiently made aware of the opportunities for continuing education which are available. Appendix D shows that one of the problems of the program is the increasing rate of drop-outs it faces. This problem stems from the fact that the participants do not receive sufficient encouragement and stimulation to induce their continuation in the activities of the program. The program needs to win the confidence and respect of many individuals in the community if it is to secure the kinds of cooperation necessary for its success. Those who provide or control its financial support must be convinced to deem it a worthy investment. Numbering of Pr ograms In order to facilitate rating, each of the thirty-four pro- grams will be represented on the rating sheet by the following serial number assigned to it: Serial Number of Program 0000000100010.— l-i ll 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 ' 34 227 Program Ikwere Mixed Adult Education Program Eastern Annang Mixed Adult Education Program Ikom Urban Mixed Adult Education Program Mbaise Mixed Adult Education Program Owerri Mixed Adult Education Program Onna Mixed Adult Education Program Ahoada Mixed Adult Education Program Uyo Mixed Adult Education Program Ikwuano Mixed Adult Education Program Port Harcourt Municipality Mixed Adult Education Program Ngor-Okpala County Mixed Adult Education Program Khana County Mixed Adult Education Program Northern Ngwa County Mixed Adult Education Program Izi County Mixed Adult Education Program Isu County Mixed Adult Education Program Western Annang Mixed Adult Education Program Ogoja Mixed Adult Education Program Calabar Mixed Adult Education Program Owuwa Anyanwu Mixed Adult Education Program Ezzikwo County Mixed Adult Education Program Isi-Uzo County Mixed Adult Education Program Nsukka Division (Igbo-Etiti, Igbo-Eze, Uzouwani and Isi-Uzo) Mixed Adult Education Program Awka Mixed Adult Education Program Ishielu County Mixed Adult Education Program Etinan Women's Adult Education Program Ok-Oron Women's Adult Education Program Owo-Ahiafoukwu Women's Adult Education Program Aka Offot-Uyo Women's Adult Education Program Uyo Community Women's Adult Education Program Ikot Abasi Women's Adult Education Program Oron Community Women's Adult Education Program Obio Etoi Women's Adult Education Program Afaha Eket Women's Adult Education Program Ikot Antia Ididep-Itu Women's Adult Education Program 228 Rating of Pr ograms Table 1 Iggy. -— In Table 1 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Civic Education. There were twenty-five derived items of an adequate program for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five derived items it contained. The total score of each program and its percentage score were summarized at the end of the table. Interpretation of Rating in Content Area of Civic Educa- _1_:_i_c_>_n. -- Of the five items classified under "Civic Education, only "Civic Responsibility" was frequently mentioned in the statements of objectives of most of the programs. The item "Democracy" was another popular topic next to "Civic ReSponsibility'l in some of the centers. Except in Owerri and Khana programs, the items "Nigerian Politics and Political Parties" and "International Relations" were not taught. The highest score for adequate objectives in Civic Educa- tion was 36% by the Uyo and Port Harcourt programs, and the lowest was 4% by the Akat Offot-Uyo women's program. Table 2 Key. -- In Table 2 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the 229 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 20020002235356 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a _ _ o a 0 o o 0 o 000000800 .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 003000 0003300 0:0 0032000 00.3.0032 .m m a 0 ~ 0 _ o o o o u a a u 0 0 _ 0 _ 0 _ 0 _ u u o 0 0 o 0 0 _ _ H 00$S~£0CO000M 0300 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 ~ 0 o o o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o 0005000.».00 00:05.02 .0 2.5. .fiddwficaog 0000003000 3 03:30 05 5.0m 00 00000020 05 900000: 00 000500 300000 000.3 80.3000 00.: mo 00300030 .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 32.0230 0223503 .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o n a o o _ o o o 0 328800 .0. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 30.50 080200 0:8 3:500 53.3.9.2 .0 _ 0 0 a a 0 o _ _ a _ _ a a a n 0 0 a 0 o I I _ o o _ 0 0 0 _ a o o 85:58:88.0 3.5.0 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0565080 02332 .0 ":0 003050005 00 000500 030000000 505 0020.83 080000 0000:0000 05 95.000: 00.000300 3.00000 0003 800M900 05 00 00300030 .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o .o o o o o o o o o o o o o 29.2290 3500585 .0 _ o o o o o o o o o 0 _ o o o 0 0 _ _ a o o o o 0 o a o I 0 I o a o 0228800 .0. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o _ o o o o o o o o 0 $0.80 :8:on ES 8530 52.832 .m I I I 0 a 0 0 0 _ n 0 a _ a a _ I _ 0 _ I _ I _ a _ I I a a _ a o _ 802333030 330 .~ 0 o o o o o o o o o o I o o o _ o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Eofifigoo 3:232 .0 "00 000200050 000 00000 00.300000: uo 0m00~30¢x 5.0m 00000020 05 9.5000: 00 005.000 300.000 0003 Ed0m000 00 000500030 .4 vMMMNm~momo~m-~ommm¢mmmwm_Nono~w~:o_m~¢~m~N~:o~o m N. o m w m NH 0000002 00 00 0503 0000852 0000.30.00 003.0000m 00.3.0 00 0004 0:00:00 5. 003000.30 000500000. 09.00500 05 00 00.000 0:0 :0 0500m000 00 9030.0 3. 4 MJQ100? 0003 50.3000 05 .00 00300030 .m o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a 000320m 0000000000056 ~ooooooooooooooo~Hoooooooofiooooooo >0000080O¥ oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 0050mm 08530 23 85200 5289.2 .m _ _ _ _ o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 0 _ 00002000000000MU0>00N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o o o o o o o 00050090000009.0024 ”5 05300 000 3000005. 0030000 00000000000000 00000020 05 $330: 00 005000 >300? 000? Em0m00m 05 00 00300030 .0 0m mm NM 3 om mN wN 0N 0N mN 0N MN NN 0N ON mi 3 .2 f A: 3 2 N0 2 3 m. w n 0 m v m N 0 000000052 800m00m 00000.22 00 00 080: 00352000 nu ._ HAQ£m00m000 0000032 .m .33300 000.0032 .N 003000004 000.0032 .0 "00 333500000 00000000000 00 5:50 05 5.0w 0» 00000030 05 $00.30: 00 005000 3000300000 0003 E00w00n0 05 00 00300030 000. .U 22.30... 2.83 .m 00032 000 0004 000.00w0z .w. >0000w000 000.0032 .m 00000000 000.00m0z .N 00000000010 :0000m0z .0 ":0 0000000000000. 00 0000000 030000000 503 000.3500 00000000. 000000000 000 mfigos 00 005.000 >000000000 0003 c000m000 05 00 0000000030 000.0. .m 0000004 00003 .m 00.032 0:0 0004 00qu .v >0000m000 0000092 .m 03003010 000.0092 .N 0050000004 000.0032 .0 “00 000000030 000 00000 0000009000 00 0m000300x 50w 000000000 05 $5000: 00 0000000 300000000 0003 E00w00a 05 00 00300030 00.0. .< vm mm Nm 2... on «UN wN 0N 0N mN 0N MN NN 0N ON 00 2 E 3 m0 «.0 m0 N0 : O0 O 00000002 50.30000 00000002 00 00 05000 0000.00000m 00000010 00 0004 0000.000 05 5. 00300030 0000000400 000000000 05 00 00000 05 00 0800w00m 00 mc000m u: .N NAQ000050000 0003 E00m000 05 00 00300030 000. .H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 250.... 383 .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2.932 Es 300 52.802 .0. o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o _ o o o o o 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 302080 52802 .m o o o o o o o o o o 0 _ o 0 0 0 0 0 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 .3820 52.892 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 82883 53800.2 .0 ”:0 00000005. 000 0:030 00305 00000000000000 00000020 0000 $00.30: 00 005000 0300000000 0003 E00m00a 05 00 00300030 00.0. .D «.mMMNm0momonNNNONmNVNMNNNONON002:00m000m0N02000 m .0. o m 0 m N 0 000000002 E00m00n0 00000002 00 00 0000000 000000000 nu .N Mdmdffi 233 Content Area of Liberal Education. There were twenty-five de- ~ rived items of adequate programs for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five derived items it contained. The total score and percentage score of each program were summarized at the end of the table. Interpretation of Ratillgin the Content Area of Liberal Education. -- Of the five items, "Nigerian Literature, " “Nigerian History, " "Nigerian Geography, ” "Nigerian Arts and Music, " and ”World Affairs, " which were classified under Liberal Education, "Nigerian History" and ”Nigerian Geography” were the most popular, especially among the mixed programs. Almost none of the programs included the items "Nigerian Literature, " ”Nigerian Arts and Music, " and "World Affairs. " None of the women's programs taught any of these topics. The highest score for adequate objectives in Liberal Education was 36% by the Ikwere mixed program, and the lowest score was 0% by all the women's programs. Table 3 flex. -- In Table 3 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Con- tent Area of Vocational Education. There were twenty-five derived items of an adequate program for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five derived items 234 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo m0vMHH~duMndnu02£ oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo >uvcmnmdm~dewc<é oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo >Eocoumadusugoflum<8 _-L~_qfiouoaooo~doooooooooqooooofio mumduUAmuqud ~000~do“o_ooofiooooqooooooooooofiooo 0.2530734 vcm mic—0.00.0“ £00032 .0 ”5 033350508 0009.00.0qu on .3330 05 5.0m ou 0000:0090 05 3.3.30: 00 p05w0v 300005000 0.00? 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Emquua 0A0 mo 00.230030 029 .< vmmmmmLmomommmwmommwvwmmmmLNONSw“20:20:22 :20 m h b m w m N~ 0.002932 adamanm 000302 02 0» 050: COCMUDvM 000.000.0003, “0 00.300 0:00:00 05 c0. 00.20.000.30 0umsv0p< 0000300300 05 .00 00.009 05 co mEMumoum .No MEN—3w .. .n “304.0. 235 em on 0m. em on on NM on m~ ON 0 ON N~ o~o~o£oooooooo~ooo£o£ 0030050m~ 00050092 5 0000m on. m m o o o m w o b m 0 00°F 000 000 —4 000 II" 000 000 o—C 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 l-I‘ 000 000 000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 000 000 00000 00000 00000 0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 0000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 0000 00000 00000 —1 00:: 00° 00000 0000 00000 00000 ooooo’ ooooo ooooo 00000 00000 mooo 00000 00000 0000:: oooo ooooo ooo 00000 00000 000008 03.000002 . m >u0c0nmzm 0050.94. .0 00080000m d0usugufm< .m 3.000 00004 .N 003307344. 0:0 $58000” 000032 J 35090 0003300 #00000 00300 003000 3000030 000 $5.30: 00 000300 0300030000 0003 E0um00a 0:0 mo 00>500nno 00H. .m 000008 ~00~C0£002 .m >00c0nmam 008130. .0 mumEocon H005330Cm< . m muwdho udUOwH . N 003300.094. 0:0 mcdgumh 000002 .0 "5 00000005 000 02300 0.2505 0003000500 3000020 000 9:30: 00 00Ew00 0300000000 0003 50.3000 05 No 00300030 03H .0 vMMMNm_mommNmNnNonN¢NMNNNHNONMLMZNHAXMEvfimANJ:oflo m N. 0 m v m N 00000002 50.3000“ 000.002 00 on 050: 00:03:00 .- .m Hamming. ..) 236 it contained. The total score and percentage score of each program were summarized at the end of the table. Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Vogfitionai Education. --"Local Crafts" and "Modern Farming" were the most popular items in this content area, especially among the women's programs and very few mixed programs. No center had included the items "Agricultural Economy, " "Animal Husbandry, " and ”Mechanical Trades” in its program as yet. The highest score for adequate objectives in Vocational Education was 36% by the Aka Offot-Uyo women's program, the Ikot Abasi women's program, the Oron Community mixed program, the Ohio Etoi women's program, the Afaha Eket women's program and the Ikot Antia Ididep-Itu women's program. The lowest score was 0% by the Ikwere, Ikom, Owerri, Onna, Ahoada, Ikwuano, Port Harcourt Municipality, Ngor-Okpala, Khana, Northern Ngwa, Izi, Isu and Western Annang mixed programs. Table 4 _I§_e_y. -- In Table 4 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Health Education. There were twenty-five derived items of an adequate program for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five derived items 2.37 sofidficdm >fi§E§oU was 0503 . m our/now 0.330? was 530m 3355500 . a. cowuco>oun~ .323 was nomdunwn— .m. :ofiuduusz .N ocvwm>m gaseouvm .M 2:. >~3uw5cMoE mummflufiuma ou CSZEM on“ flow 3 303030 05 maids: mm «55.on raids? who? Edumoum on» no mmzuooflno 9:. coaumflcmm 5855500 was 050$ .m ouguum 9.3303 was nfimmm >HM§EEOU .v cofico>ounm .305 can mommomdfl .m sofiwbsz .N ocowwrwm 3:0»...qu 4 "co coinage?“ mo amouDOm 032:5.” nov :33 53:53 05035 33533 on» mafia»: mm voswuoc 3.330 was? EMHMOuQ of mo mv>fluomno ugh. cofimflcmm >flcsEEOU can onI .m ooguow 0.3303 can 53mm >ficsEEoU .v coficmgoum Eon“ bum mommmmwQ .m COUCHDZ .N ocofimcnm anaemuonw ._ Go mcofiossu can mood“ ucmunoarg. .«0 09532ch 5mm 302820 on» wfifio: mm vocaop >730? one? 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U00 £5003 >fiCSEEoO .v :03:0>0unw .305 000 m0md0flQ .m 0030.352 .N 0:00.?»3 ~000000nw 4 ”5. 3000005 000 02510 0.2505 0330:0500 30000.20 0:» 95.30: 00 005900 >100? 0003 Edumoua 05 00 00300030 039. .Q vmmmmmHmomomthNonNVNMNNNgmomofimah~o~m~vfimfimfi:ofio w h o m v m. NE 0000552 Emuwoum UOXHME 03 Cu MEUHH 00:50:00 .- .v Mdmjwh 239 it contained. The total score of each program and its percentage score were summarized at the end of the table. Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Health Education. -- Of the five items, "Personal Hygiene, " "Disease and Prevention, " "Nutrition, " "Community Health and Welfare Service, ” and ”Home and Community Sanitation, " classified under Health Educa- tion, ”Personal Hygiene" was the most popular in all the centers. ”Home and Community Sanitation, ” "Diseases and Their Prevention" were next in popularity, mainly in the women's programs. ”Nutrition" was taught by all the women's programs but by none of the mixed programs. Few of the mixed programs and none of the women's programs taught ”Community Health and Welfare Service. " The highest score for adequate objectives in Health Educa- tion was 80% by all the women's programs and a few of the mixed programs. Table 5 Bl.-- In Table 5 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Economic Education. There were twenty-five de- rived items of an adequate program for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five 2.40 DO 000 CO CO 00 00 DO 000 000 00 000 00 CO CO OO 00 OO O 00 O 00 OO GO 000 000 00 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 00 O OO O O CO 0 O OO O O CO 0 O 00 O O O O 00 O 0 «00:0 um0~0>00 000:000M >$§EEOU .m 003002—000 .0 0m5>0m 000 03003. 5005000005 .m 05000>m 0000m0oucm 000m 000 >000005 00 0000?.m 0.000300nm 380000an .N >50000M 00000002 4 2:. >23w5000c0 000903000 00 03:50 05 5.0m 00 0000000? 05 900303 00 005.?0 >100? 0003 G000m00m 0:“ we 00300030 00:. 000E -m0?>0Q 0000000M >00§EEOU .m 00300009300 .0 0w5>0m 0:0 £0009 50000000035 .m 0E0u0>w 000000000M 000m 000 >000505 00 0000H0m 00000300nm 00000000H .N >Eocoom 0000302 .0 :00 003000085 mo 0000000 0300.000 -00 505 0020.50“ 00000000 0000000? 05 900300 00 00.0300 >030? 0003 00.00.3005“ 05 mo 00300030 003. 00000 naofi0>0D 0000000M 3005:0800 .m 00300000000 .0 0m00>0m 0:0 0.2.00; $005000>£ .m 08000>m 000.0Q0020m 000h 0G0 >0u0505 00 0000?.m 00000300m Egocoum .N >Eocoom 0000302 .0 do 0005003 000 033 0000009000. «0 0m000$ocx 50m 0000000.? 05 92.30: 00 005900 >700? 0003 E00m00m 05 m0 00300030 00C. .< 0m mm Nm 2.. on 0N mN 0N 0N mN 0N MN NN AN ON m2 2 S A: m: a; 2 NH : 2 o 00090052 E00w00n~ 00x00; 00 00 0.000”: 0030000H uwgocouw Ho 0004 0:00:00 05 5. 00300030 0000000< 0000000000 05 m0 00.000 05 :0 0500m00m Co 92.0% n: .m M‘Hmsa. 241 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o omo o~o o o o omo o o omo o ONONONO om :050000m0050:00m:00000m$ oooo00000000000momoooomooomoommmom 00008 ooooooooooooooo~o_00000000000000000 «:05 1500.909 000:000M 30.5.5500 .m oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 003000000000 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo mm:0.>0m0:00:00h..0:08000>:H.m ooooooooooooooo0o0oooooooooooooooo 05000>m0000m0000m 000M 0:0 >0um=05 00 0000000“ 00000000n0 00:00:03.0 .N oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo >Eocoom00:030z.~ 30000 0003030 000.000 00300 0.30300 00000020 000 930000 00 005000 >000000 0003 E00w00m 00“ «0 00300030 00H. .m ooooooooooooooo~o~oooo~00000000~00 0:0:0 -0000>0Q 0000000M >00§EEOU .m oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooc 003000000000 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo mwcd>0m0c003008.0:0:0000>:0.m oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo mfiouimomtmuflcm 000k 0:0 >0ums05 00 000000m 050009;“ 00:00:03.0 .N oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo >Eo:oum00:0502.0 ":0 00000005. 0:0 0:30 0030:: 000000:0500 0000:0000 05 m5300 00 00:500 >000000 0003 :000w00a 000 «0 003003.00 00H .0 vmmmmmdmomomwmhwommmvmmwwmZONE3:002:22:So w n o m w M NH 00008.02 E00m00nm 0000002 00 00 0:00: 00:50:00 .. .m mAm54. .m o o o o o o o o o 0 o _ 0 _ o o o 0 o o 0 0 0 o o o o 0 o 0 _ o 0 0050500002 0000mm 0:0 030E£§0< .0 0 _ _ 0 0 0 _ _ _ 0 0 _ _ _ 0 0 _ _ _ 0 0 H 0 0 0 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 _ 002m:w .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m0m0swc0J 0.00.0092 00000 .N _ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _ _ _ _ _ 0 0 _ 0 0 0 0 _ 0 _ _ 0 0 _ 0 0 0 0w05wc01~ 00004 .— "S. .>::.«w::.:00E 000305000 00 0320.00 000 :wmw 00 0000:0000 000 0.5030: m0 005.000 30020 0003 €000.30: 000 mo m0>300>00 00H .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o .0090ch 5.0680 $50 35. .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 "00805000005 300$ 0:0 02.050304 .0. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00:31.0 .m. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 303.0cm 5:392 03:0 .u o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o z o o o z 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00.030000010000010 .0 :0 :050E0005 mo m000SOm 03:00:00 -00 0:3 0001.50.“ 050000 33:02... 000 “00:00.00 m0 0059.00 .3002: 000.5 ~C00m00m 0:0 “0 00>500h00 .EF .3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 010:0ch 0.0000000 00000314. .m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ _ 0 _ 0 0 0 _ 0 _ _ _ 0050;000:002. 300: 0:0 05055204 .0. _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ 0 _ 0 0 _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ _ u _ _ E 0 0 0 0 _ 0 0 0 _ _ Smiucw .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Tumssmcrj 0.00.0032 000.20 .N 0 E 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 0 _ 0 _ _ 0 _ _ _ 0 _ _ 000300004 00004 ._ QC 0:050:30 0:0 500.: 0:300:05. we 0000030030 Edw 33:02.0 0:? “0:00:00 m0 005.000 >100: 00.5.. £000,000 .00: mo m0>500_.0c 00:. .< «.m mm NM 3 OM OM mm. pm. 0“. mm 0N mm. 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004 .m mafidfiwafiz 3.0mm 0cm 030923004 .0 fismam .m mmwm3mcmd 09009.2 00:00 .N owmsmcwd 1304 .0 “Scan 0303:; 1300» 03qu 0.2.150... 33:33 9.3 9:015 mw 005.000 >~0mw~u 0003 Eduwokm 05 mo mo>fiquo QC. ommswcmd 0090000.“ 00:00 50¢ .m 3038232 uwmdm 0cm 000000030004 .v .396 .m memmswcmq 5200?? .350 .N mwdnwcmd 3qu .0 "5. mum0035 0cm 203.0 ”05200 0303:0250 3309.3 9.0. 900.30: mm 032.000 30mm? 0.53 Eduwokm 0:“ mo amt/30030 93. .Q vmmmmm~mom®~wmnmommmvwmmmm-o~m~m0:o_m~v_m~w~:odm w h o m 0 m N— m0vnEsZ EM0w00m 030032 wn 00 mam: 3:50:00 -- .o ”305. 245 Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Basic Educationflsiteracy). -- “English" and ”Local Language" and "Arith- metic and/or Basic Mathematics" were the only popular items out of the five items classified under Basic Education. No program included the two remaining items, ”Other Nigerian Languages, ” and “Any Other Foreign Language. " The highest score for adequate objectives in Basic Educa- tion (Literacy) was 32% and the lowest score was 24%. Table 7 $31. -- In Table 7 each of the thirty-four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Adequate Objectives in the Content Area of Home and Family Education. There were twenty- five derived items of an adequate program for this content area. Each program was given a score of one for any of the twenty-five derived items it contained .. The total score of each program and its percentage score were summarized at the end of the table. Interpretation of Rating in the Content Area of Home and Family Education. -- Five items, "Child Care and Welfare, " "Food Preparation and Preservation, " "Consumer Education, " "Family Finance, ” and "Home Management, " were classified under Home and Family Education. All the women's programs taught the items "Child Care and Welfare, " "Food Preparation and Preservation, " and "Home Z46 unqumdndE 080$ . m .—4 —q —1 F1 H H u—. g—q —. .—a oucdcmh >2c0mh .v 00 CO 00 CO CO CO sauna—0N 00552000 . CO CO 00 CO 0000 COCO 0000 0000 C3000 C3000 0000 0000 0000 0000 000° 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 00°C 0000 M cowud>0mno0nm 0am fiOfldudmoum 009m .N —q —d v-i —‘ 0-1 —I F! .q 5.! .—¢ oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 00mw~v30cd00~003£04 "5. >~gum50muc0 3.233.0me 3 032:? 000 5mm 00 3300030 on“ 930:»: mm 005.0u0 crude? 0003 EM0MO0Q 05 mo mo>fiuonno 00H. .0 usogmmmcmz c.0003 .m oucmcwh Lafismh .w cofimod0m 0200:3000 . m 0000 OOOO 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 GOOD OOOO 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0900 0000 00°C 00°C 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 GOOD cota>§wmv0nm 0cm aoflmummminm 009m .N oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 00m30300d00m00d£UJ ”co 033500.000 mo nvu090m 03m0com -00 :05 03:53 2000qu 3300020 o5 M0330: no 00.0300 3.2300 0003 EM0m00m 05 mo mu>fiuonno och .m EoEomdcva oEom . m oucmcafl >dc0mh .v 00 CO CO CO CO 00 OO 00 00 OO codumus0m 020059000 . n O O O O O O O O O O O O O O o O O O O O O O o O O O O O O o O O O O O o O O o O O o o o o o do 0 o o o O o o O O O O O O o O O o o o o O O O O O O O o O O o O O O o O O O O O O O O O O o O O comum>0omv0m 0cm GOUM0mmo0nH 009m .N 0_-_~_-0oooooooooooooooooooooooo u0mw~v30cmw0mU0Z£UJ Go mcofiocsu 0cm muofi 053009000. 00 ow0m0$ocx 5mm 3392.3 05 maiden mm 005030 03.330 v.33 EMOw00a 05 .00 mo>0uuonno 05. :4. ¢mMMNmEmommNmNFNonN¢NMNNNEmowmim~hqommmwlmfiwd200$ m N. o m «V m N0 030032 on 3 «Eu: "$890034 EM0mO0nm :odumUs0m 305mm 00m 0052 00 no.5. 0:00:00 90 5. aux/0.00030 oumdvo0< 3030.3 v5 .00 9.me of so wEM0m00m mo wcfiwm I- .N. mqm:Ed.m 000 00003 5 0000.0: om. : : : : Z Z : :::ooooooooooooooooo ~00 OH OO 00 OO 00 00 OO 00 OO 00 00 OO 00 00 OO 00 00 CO 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 GOOD 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 OO 00 CO 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 GOOD 0000 0005032022 0802 .m 00:05am >350h .v 0000mus0m 02.5.8000 .m coSm>00000nm 0cm 00:00m000m 009m .N 000203 0:0 0000 0:00 .— Udonm 000000.000 12.00m 00300 0005000 00000020 05 metres 00 005.000 .3000? 0003 50.5000 05 .00 00300030 00:. .m uchommcmE 080$ .m vacuim 3000000 .v 0050000M 0050m000 .m cofim>00mv0m 0cm co0am0mao0m 000m .N 831.3 0E... «30 3:6 .0 2:. 00000005. 000 @233 003000 0000300500 00000020 of mcaaoa 00 005.000 300.000 0003 800w00m of mo 000,500.30 2:. .Q 0m mm NM ~m om 0N mm thNmNAVNMNNN—Nommlwa200m0v0m~N~2o~® w "000000052 500m00n~ 00¢:va 00 00 000: 00550000 .1 .N. HAmHHE0h 000 00003 .H. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 3000001: 00Hu0000m 0Hm0mH .0 H H H H H H H H H o H H o o o H H o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o H o :0Hu0000m H000Hu000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00H00000m ”:50:on .w. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00H00000m H0000H1H .m H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H o H H H H H H H H H H H H H 00H00000m £3002 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o :050000M 00.3.0 .H ”Ho 0000 05 00. 30600 05 Ho 0.0000an H000H000000 05 00 0000H00 0H 800w00m 000 HO 0000000 003000 000300 00:. .U H H H H H H H H H H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00H00000M .HHHE0LH 000 0801 .H. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 3000031: 00:00:0m 030m .0 H H H H H H H H H H o H H o o o. H H o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o :0H00000m H0coHH000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:0m UHEocoum o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H o o o o o H H o o o o o o o :0H00050MH H0000H1H .m. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H o H H H H H H H H H H o H 0030030mH £20.03 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0050000m 00>HU .H “Ho 0000 05 E 302020 05 .3 00.000 05 00 002300 0.. E00m30a .0: H0 00.3000 00:00: 000300 00:. .mH H H H _ H H H H H H o o o o o o o o o o o . o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:0mH >HH0000LH 000 0:00: .... _ H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 30000000: 00:00:0m 0Hm0m .0 H H H H H H H H H H o H H o o o H H o o o o o o o o H o o o o o H o 0020000MH H0.._0HH000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:0m oHEocon .H. H H H H H o H o o H H H H H H o H H H o o H H H H H H o H H H H 00H00000MH H0000H1H .m H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H o H H H H H H H H H o H H 0030000m 02001 .N . H o H H H H o H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H :oH00000mH 030.0 .H ”H0 0000 00.: 5. 0H0HC0HH0 00: Ho H0.)0H 00: 3 0000000 00. E00w00a 05 H0 0:00:00 003000 000.330 0:? .00. 0m mm mm Hm 0m mm mm 0N ow mm Hum. MN NN HM om 0H M: “H OH mH H.H MH NH HH oH o w H. o m H. m N H - 002005 00 00 00000: 0000:0002 E00w00m 0:00:00 00302 000.306 000300044. :0H00HH00 0:0 Ho 00.000 05 co mE00M00Q .00 900.00% I. .m MJmHJfiH. 2.50 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00300000 >HHE0M 000 00003 .H. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H>0000001HH 000000000 0H00m .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00300000 H00000000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 00.000000m .HV 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 00000.4 .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00000000H £0H00I .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 09.000000 00.3.0 .H ”00 0000 05 5. 000000000000 05 no 0000000 00000000 00000000 000 >300 000 03000 0000m00m 05 00 0000000 00308 000300 00H .0H 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00500000 >HHE0h 000 0000: .H. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 3000000.: 000000000 00.000 .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 000000=0M H00000000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 000000000 .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 H000001H .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:00 :0H00I .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 00.30 .H ”.00 0000 00.: :0 00300.30 05 00.0000 00 00 00000 Emit 0000000 000 m0HHH>H000 05 000000000. 0000m000 000 00 0000000 000005 000350 00H.H. .0 H H H H H H H H H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:00 .HHH000h 000 050I .H. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 3000001: 00:00:00 00.000 .0 H H H H H H H H H o H H o o o H H o o o o o o o o H o o o o o H o o 00:00:00 H0003000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:00 00500000 .H. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 00:00:00 H000nHHuH .H. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 05001 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 00:00:00 030.0 .H $0 0000 05 00. 0H0Hc0HH0 000 00 000000.>H0>00 00.0 000.003.0000 000003 00000000 0000w00nH 00: .00 0000000 003000 000.300 00H .0 0m mm Mm Hm cm on mu. 0N 0N mN «.N mm MN Hm on 0H wH .H.H 0H mH H.H mH NH HH 2 o w .0. 0 m 0. m N H 0000552 E00w00nH 0000002 00 00 0000.: 00005000 ..- .w 0.40.4.8 2551 Nm 0m 0m 0m 0m mm mm mm mm 0H 00 00 00 00 OH 00 NM 0_ 0H 00 0 0H 0H 0H 00 00 00 0H 00 0H 0H 0H 0H 00 0:00:00 .0302 000.30m. 00000004 00 0000m om. 0H 0H 0H 0H 0H 0H 0H 0H 0H H. NH NH w w w NH HH 0 m w v m. w m 0 MH w w H. m m H. o w H000H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 000000000 >HHE0h 000 0000i .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o $000031: 000000000 0000m .0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o 0 00300000 H000H0000> .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c 0 00100000 0000000000 :HV 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H, o o o o 0 000000000 H00000..H .m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o c o 0 00500000 03002 .N o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o 0 00200000 003.0 .H ”Ho 0000 000 00 00 00.000 0005 -nHoH0...00 00 30cm 0m000 9.0. 000 0000005000. 0:» 0.500.. 00009000 000 00 0000000 003000 000300 000. .0 vmmmwmHmomomehN0~mNVNMNNNHNomoHwHhHOHmH¢HmHNHHHoHo w _ o m 0 m N . 000202 00 00 0000: 00000002 E00m00nH 00003000 -- .0 04min. 252 Education (Literacy), " ”Health Education, " and "Liberal Education at the level of the clientele. It also showed that only the women's pro- grams offered "Home and Family Education” and "Vocational Education” at the level of the clientele. It further revealed that no program offered "Economic Education" and that very few mixed programs offered "Vocational Education. " The analysis also revealed that none of the thirty-four programs indicated the activities the teacher might carry on to attain the objectives in the content item, the entry or terminal behavior expected of the clientele, and the immediate and long range goals of the program in the content area. It further revealed that only the women's programs indicated the planned activities for involvement of the learner in the learning situation. The highest score for Adequate Subject Matter Content was 32% by the women's programs, and the lowest was 14% by the Ikom, Onna, Northern Ngwa and Ishielu County mixed programs. Table 9 E32. -- In Table 9, each of the thirty—four programs was analyzed on the basis of the criterion Personnel Adequate in Number and Qualification and scored on the basis of eleven derived items considered adequate characteristics for an adult education teacher in Eastern Nigeria. 253 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 0000000000000000000x0 000.3 00 m0000000 000 0000000900 00: 0000000 000. .m _--0_-~__0_-_-~_-~._-0~0-~ 005000.00M000000m00m000 w0000000 >0000fid 050m 00. 0000.00..— 0000 000 0000000 008 .0 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 030000omw0020m0000 000 000000.0w 00 0000000on 000 w0000000 00: 0000000 00:. .h oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 0:000w000000000 0000 00000700000 00 000 000 0030000000 000 00 0000000000 000 “3000.000 000 0000000 000. .m 0_~__~__-—---_o-_~oooo_--- 0:000m050000000000005 000000m 00. m00.00.000 mo 00000050 0000000000 00000000 00h. .Q oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 00500000 2000 00. w0000000 003000-00 00 0000000 00000300 000 0000000 00000 00 #300000: 0000303000 0000000. 00% .U _0_0_____0ooooooooooooooooooo0ooo0 2053202350333 000 00. m0000000 00000000 2.5 No 000000.00 00: 0000000 02% 0_-~__.0_ooooooooooooooooooofiooo~ 0003000500000 00 >000000E 05 >0 000.20000 0300000900 003 0000000 00% Id. vmmmmm~m0mmmmmhmommmvmmmwmamommlm:H._o_va_m~N~:o~o w H. m. m w. m N~ 000.7002 00 00 0000: 0000502 E00w00m 00000000. 000000.00. 000002.00 0f 00 00000 05 00 mE00m00Q Ho w030m .. .m m4m<9 2.54 em on em om 0m 0m cm cm on cm 2 w_ 2 w. 2 mg 2 m: o 2 2 2 w_ o o «0 ma 3 w“ on 2 ma 2 0m. 0000000H 000000040‘ 00. 0000m o0» vvvvwvvaVNNNNMwwmmqmmmwd-NNN¢NNN¢ 00008 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo E05030>00 000 000900000 00000 000000 2000052000 00. w0000000 000 0000000900 000 0000000 000. .vm oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 00300130000 w00EE00m00Q 000000000 2000 00. 0000000900 000 0000000 00:. .m oooooooooooooooooooooocooooooooooo 000900000000 00000000 000.00.000.00 00. M00000: 000 0000000940 00; 0000000 000. A vmmmmmqmomomwmhmowmmvmmmmmANONmL2Sim—almfimfi :oqm w H. o m w m N— 0 0000002 E00w00nm 000.032 00 00 050$ 00003000 .. .0 M4m

numoxn03 E0umoum 05 mo 03.00.3000 “0 0.300." 05080083 .4. .0 oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 05030.3 >300c00000 mo 09.0300 00. >H0>Sumumo >099 00000000." 05 0000 030 000 000.3000.” 30.000.00.50 05 :0 505 0000002000 003 Edquum 9.5. Hm oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo m00£00fim>300§500§0£ 005.030 0000 £05 00000000 >20000000 m0? Emuwofim 00H. .m ~H-~dfifi_Hoooooooofioooooooooofiooom 30.300 -800 05 5. mowucomm 0050 000 E0um000 05 no 090000 00 omofi 0003000 03008 00.300303.” 90.0733 000w < .D ~__~z~_~_Hoaooo_oooooooooooooooooo 88530533528 .3305 000350 05 wfisumou 5. 030000 0.83 .maosmxugp 69.3 30G 00303009000 60303 00:03:03.0 m0 035 $03003 .«0 0.0000008 0.00723 .0 _-__-~aAoooooooooooooooooooooooo m000000300020 5. 3000003000 05 00030.00 0.83 000300.." wEZomcsoo 000 00000003 u03m0m .m ooooooooooooooogoo_~_oooooooo__~_~ "000000000000-0w0005020>0 000 $30003 m: 00. 500 0030: 0053 1.00000 >003>00 #003 0 00: Emqupa 9:. .4 «.mmmmm~mom¢mthNonN¢NMNNN~NONm~w~§o~m~¢~m~N~:29 m N. 0 m 0 m Mg 0.007002 00 00 .3003 0000932 E0um00nw 9300008 00 0.0030000? 000 0000002 0000000< 00:02.00 00» 00 00.000 05 00 mEmumOHQ no mcSmm n. A: mqmdfih 258 95.00008 00 mmsgcsumh 00m. 99999999€€IZIIIEIIEZZIIIIIIIZEZZZE oooooooou..;.zgw.27....271997777777919991 .333 528... 999 9999999 9999999 9 9 mUOfluz UAW. ms vv¢v¢v¢Mfi_N__~m_~m--_--~mmwmm 0300. 0.0.0.5000 0a: 00 000000.200080. 05 00. 000000000 0003000 now 000x 000? 030000 00303.90 05 00 0.00000 0 00m 000030.20 300000000 mm? 0.3.30.3 009 .I mmwmdmomomwwhmommwwwmmwm~Nomo~w~:0_m~v_m_N~:20 w h o m 0 m - 00x002 00 00 06003 00020052 ~000M00n~ 00005000 u- .00 MJQow Hauofi pcm ”mascuw whoEo? pom mascum mwm ma Loam mcofimnficmwuo 3258500 ”mucosa? mm nosm monocowm .wumucgo> mo 355...“qu paw moCSsbmw o5 om: at you mfinmdm.»m pm: EdumOum Hm oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo await/Somfiwusfisupcm 3.3.4 .mficSEEOu 25533.25 m: ho.“ 32.23....m pm: EACMOMQ .m ooooooooooooooooooooo~oooooooooooo EmquuaofiouoBmdm>m ome 0.53 >ficsEEoo 23 5. maoozom >udpcoUom paw .zumucgcgm uo mwfifiaumw .850 «Ed mumzomoh .Q o o a o a o o o o H a o o a o a o a o o o a o o a a o o o o o a a o mttcmesss:::: IEOU No 225:”... can moor/pom >u3:30> ppfibuvu EwquuQ .U oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo :ocsoUfifikdoodmoofiozu >2 gauging or: 0“ swim ma? tom Imam 12.25:: oawsvopm pcm umdsmom .m ooooo~oooooooooooooooooooooooooooo EmE:uo>owHacovaLof up Enhmoum oz» 0... cpfim mm? tom .95 12.35:: 393.com paw “gamma .< «.mmmmm:omonwnNonNvmmNNN~Nowo~w_h~©~m_¢_m~wq:oHo w h \0 Ln v3. M N .—o nexus; on on mEm: muonnczz Emuuoum monouSOmom Saloon/x c0202}: 05 we mdmmn or: :0 mEdquHQ mo wcfimm u- .: quvfiw 261 Each program was given a score of one for any of the six derived items it had at its disposal. The total score and percentage score for each program were summarized at the end of the table. Integpretation of Rating on Financial and Physical Re- sources and Administrative Policies. -- Six items were derived as adequate financial and physical resources and administrative policies for each program of adult education in Eastern Nigeria. The analysis revealed the following: that almost every one of the thirty-four programs had no “adequate financial support either from the regional government or from the local County Council;" that very few programs received "voluntary services and support from the community leaders;“ that “the facilities of elementary and secondary schools in the communities were made available" only to one of the programs; that the "facilities and aids of other agencies in the com— munities were made available" to only very few of the programs; and that no center enriched its program with “the civic and cultural activi- ties in the communities. “ The highest score for Adequate Financial and Physical Resources and Administrative Policies was 16% by eighteen of the thirty-four programs and the lowest score was 0% by sixteen of the programs . 262 Summar y In this chapter, thirty- four adult education programs in Eastern Nigerian rural communities are analyzed with the analytical scheme developed from a model program recommended by the UNESCO World Conference on Adult Education, and literature reviewed on adult education, adult education and development, and on educational purposes and needs of Nigeria. As background to the analysis, an overview of the trends in the development of non-university adult education in Nigeria from the traditional system to the government sponsored systems in com- munities was discussed. Information was given on the main geo- graphical conditions, population and the predominant occupations of the constituencies of the various communities in which the thirty-four programs were located. It was possible not only to identify the percentage ade- quacy of the expressed objectives of each program in the content aspects Civic Education, Health Education, Liberal Education, Economic Education, Home and Family Education, Vocational Edu- cation, and Basic Education (or Literacy), but also to identify the percentage adequacy of the teaching and administrative personnel, instructional activities and materials, methods and techniques of teaching, financial and physical resources and the administrative policies of the programs. 263 mm wm o o om m cm mm NH ma mm ea c o NH ov mm 0H wa vm o o o w ow wN ma mH NM 0 o o w o¢ NH wfi NH mm o o 0 mm o¢ vm mH om mm o o 0N mm ow om NH 0H mm o o c wN 0% 0H AH om vm o o o om oo om 0H mH vm o o 0 ON ow ON 0 mm mm 0H 0 om 0H ow om m 0H mm o o 0 mm 0% pH > NH mm o o o wm ow om 0 cm mm o 0 ON ON ow mm m cm mm 0H 0 cm 0N co ca v ma mm o 0 ON ON ow NH m om wm 0H 0 0 mm om 0H N mm VN o 0 cm om ow NH H norm. 3% 3% any. amok may. mm.% 3% mg m w WWW m w m. W w W W E t. a T. a o a a U. a a 3...” as o ,m imam ms m...“ .m 3.. .02 U B m. e w 2 mu 2 . e an 2 mm a m. m w Arm M I m Tmm H m mp. M . o o ENHOHQ m. 3 P P A A p . mmmhdoa unmucou oz» «0 Loam a: dfiuomfiz Ghoummm E oHoucmSo m5. m0 350: 23 Cu mo>EooFo PEMHwOHQ mo >omdvopm ommfiaoonom .1. .NH Himmioqh. TABLE 12.. - Continued 8914138qu 30 264 Aoenbepvofl) ONOOO‘V‘V‘I‘fl‘OOO‘PO‘OOOOOO NNHHHN—‘NNNNNNMMMM 982.191“; 'PEi’FSPEI ur ood'moooooowroowvmoooovmoooooo - NNMNNNNNNMNNNMNNN Aoenbepvoyo 'PEI I'QUOP’EQOA ur oxoomx-roooooxomxoxoxoxoxoxo . ._.._. .—. N mmmmmmmmmm AoenbepVOA, 'psfinmes OOOOOOOV‘V‘V‘V‘fi‘V‘fi‘Vt‘VfiV‘ PueemoHu? wwwvvwvvww AoenbapVOA, °p3°uxouoog ur ooooooooooooooooo . N. Ao'enbepVOA, 'PHIBJQQVI ur ovwmoooooooooooooooo - NNN—c N Ao'enbapvob 'PEII-HI'QQH In ooooooooooooooooo - 'd‘v‘xoxovxoxooooooooooooooooooooo AoenbepVoA, 'PEIOIAID ur \ommoooowromoowrmoooooo - com—«NNNNr—«H -—4 NNNN AoenbepVOA, “3 . I“*0 boz (XDC‘OHNMV‘LOQFCDO‘Ov—‘de‘ g HHNNNNNNNNNNMMMMM 0., 265 o ms ms ms mm as ea mm a ma ma as as mm ms oz wz ma 0 mN mg m Ms vs o Ms ms vs Na Ms 0 ma ms oz om ms 0 ms a oz AH as ea Ms 0 ws ON oz oz Ma a AN ms o oz Ma as ea mm m Q Ma ms as 0H s O -mN ma wad NH 0 oz mm om oz om m 0 mm ms oz om w AH mm ms we oz m oz mm ms ms on N o mm om cs mm a mwwmww wmww WW%WW mmmww WWW t.m m u.p m. w_p mam u p. m.x.n. p nvp.m mmnmua mime nmo 9 Am... a me... .02 mmuAmm Awqm aim .m mun .m ”we.” lasoe nu..oe e a 9 I91. 2 .42 Smumognfi xsm.t.o pu.m.o DWI 3 saw 3 mo mew? mm A mpm. A f. A .A I. m p . 3.832 Snowman.” E moflfigggoo pom. 33:33 fisvw fies» mo mpoo: 23 Ow manhwoam mo >omsvopm owmacoopmnm I. .mH HAm< shape the policies of government. The adult education clientele in rural Eastern Nigeria need to know how to participate in making judgments on a broader range of issues in the community through a democratic process. They need to be taught how all citizens share in rights and duties in political self- government. In the content area, health education, the analysis revealed that all the women programs were 80 percent adequate while thirteen of the mixed programs were 40 percent adequate in their expressed objectives when compared to the model program. In the content area, liberal education, the analysis re- vealed that all the ten women programs were poor in their education objectives and that only one program out of the twenty-four mixed pro- grams was 36 percent adequate in its liberal education objectives. Such items as ”Nigerian Literature, " "World Affairs, " ”Nigerian Arts and Music, " and "Economic Education, " were not in 275 the program of any of the thirty-four rural communities. It was revealed that the only programs that contained activities in Home and Family Education and Vocational Education are the Women programs. The adequacy of the Women programs in Home and Family Education and Vocational Education when compared to the model were 44 percent and 9 percent respectively. It further revealed that though none of the programs had a satisfactory expressed objective in Basic Education when compared to the model program, yet some items in Basic Education were present in.each.one ofthe progranns. While such items in Basic Education as ”English, " "Local Language, " "Arithmetic, " or "Use of Numbers” were, revealed to be in almost all the programs, yet such items in this content area as "Other Languages, " and "Other Foreign Languages” were not included in any of the thirty-four programs. The need for increasing understanding between the various ethnic groups in the region emphasizes the importance of paving the way for the desired increased social interaction by making the study of all Nigerian languages an essential part of adult education program illthC region. II. (b) In qualification and number of its teaching personnel? 276 The analysis revealed that the limited supply of adequately trained and experienced teachers in adult education is an important handicap in the development of adequate programs. Only eleven prOgrams out of the thirty-four programs scored up to 36 percent in adequacy of the qualification and number of their teaching personnel. Of the eleven programs, ten are women's programs and one is a mixed program. The analysis revealed that no teacher in any of the pro- grams have had opportunity for further in-service training, none has experience in the use and preparation of audio-visual aids, nor in guidance and counselling for adult learners II. (c) In methods and techniques of teaching ? The analysis revealed that all but one of the twenty-four mixed programs used only the lecture method in teaching. The Awka community program which indicated in its records that it uses the "Demonstration Method” in addition to the "Lecture Method" is one of the two mixed programs that included "Local Craft, ” an item of vocational education, in its program. Though all the women's programs scored 50 percent in the criterion, adequate methods and techniques of teaching, yet all the thirty-four programs were very poor in such items of the criterion as ”Enrichment of Their Programs with Information Obtained from Community Situations, " ”Effective use of Community Resources in the 277 Solution of Community Problems, " and in the "Constant Appraisal or Evaluation of Their Activities". Lack of constant appraisal of the activities of the programs had caused them not to be adequately adapted to the changing needs of their clientele and the communities. Also, lack of constant evaluation had caused, especially the teachers of the mixed program, not to realize the desirability of introducing new methods of instruction and new courses when they would have benefited the clientele of the pro- gram. 11. (d) In its physical and financial resources and administrative policies ? All the programs scored very low in this criterion. An example of an inadequate administrative policy was revealed in the case of the women's programs which operate on detailed regulations from remote head offices Uyo and Enugu which all the teachers were required to rigidly observe. This policy left limited freedom to the teachers to try new approaches, to alter prescribed practices, and even to make mistakes. There was no attempt to use the resources in the local communities or to inter-act freely with other agencies except on special occasions and conditions approved by the head- quarters. In addition, the analysis revealed that all the prOgrams Operated on a very limited budget which handicapped b'oth satisfactory 278 payment of salaries of the already employed instructors and recruit- ment of new instructors when needed. All the programs lacked both adequate supply of textbooks and reference library. None of the pro- grams had any audio -visual equipment nor personnel competent in the use of any of the new scientific teaching devices such as over-head projector, slide projector, tape-recorder, in teaching adults. None of the programs had a teacher competent in developing a program for a community of people with varied cultural backgrounds andinterests. Very few of the mixed programs and none of the women's programs had established a cooperative working relationship with such agencies in the communities asthe elementary and secondary schools, the churches, the women's organizations, the different political parties, the age groups, the traditional leaders, the elders and even the county councillors. The highest score of 16 percent was received by the mixed programs at Uyo, Awka, Eastern Annang, Mbaise, Onna, Ishielu, Nsukka (Igbo Ehti) which have advisory committees made up of county councillors. The analysis revealed that the insufficient popularity of these programs in these communities stems from the failure of their committee‘s membership to reflect the cross population of the whole community. This problem emphasizes the necessity of involving all levels of the population in all phases of planning for community de- velopment through adult education. 279 Question Three: What additions and improvements are suggested as the current program is analyzed in relation to the conceptual scheme derived from research and professional judgements? Major Problems Identified by the Analysis From this analysis, the major problems identified as con- fronting adult education in Eastern Nigeria rural communities are as follows: (1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (9) Poor financial support by regional and local govern- ment councils. Lack of adequate training facilities for teachers. Difficulty in locating qualified teachers. Lack of rapport with other agencies in the commu- nities. Lack of opportunity of in-service training for teachers. Inability to use local resources in the enrichment of the program. Difficulty in identifying needs of clientele and com- munity. Inability to appraise or evaluate the prOgrams. Lack of publicity and transportation facilities. 280 "‘ Implications of the Problems and Their Suggested Solutions The analysis presented the following implications for adult education in Eastern Nigeria: (1) Poor financial support. Financial support from the regional government and the county councils was deemed a significant problem by all the pro- grams. There was no indication of a sufficiently cordial relationship between any program and its county council or head office. It would seem that the development of programs which truly meet the needs of adults and serve the majority of people in the community and which also justify the educational purposes and objectives of the local county council (in case of the mixed programs) or of the regional head office (in case of women's programs) is one of the best ways to secure financial support from these sponsors. (2) Lack of adequate training facilities for adult educa- tion teachers. The only provisions for training of adult education teachers in the whole region was a two -week short course usually organized by the adult education head office at Owerri and an occasional sandwich course at Uyo women's headquarters for women teachers. There is no record that any follow-up study has ever been conducted to determine the effect of these courses on the participants. The short courses do not have sufficient breadth to give 281 the participants an adequate preparation as professional adult educa- - tors for meeting the challenges that confront adult education in the region. (3) In-service training for teachers. None of the programs has provision for in-service training of the teachers. No center seemed to recognize the impor- tance of inservice training in developing programs of adult education. Some of the deficiencies of the teachers' qualifica- tions and the education of the teachers such as ”inability to evaluate or appraise programs, " ”lack of knowledge of adult learners, " "lack of knowledge of counselling and guidance service for adults, " "lack of knowledge of methods of adapting teaching situations and materials to adult clientele, " ”lack of knowledge of group dynamics and processes, " and ”inability to prepare teaching aids from available local materials" could be corrected through a well planned and coordinated in-service education jointly sponsored by the regional ministries and the Division of Extra-Mural Studies of the University of Nigeria. (4) Locating qualified teachers. Locating qualified teachers for programs of adult education is also a major problem impeding the development of adult education programs in rural Eastern Nigeria. Almost none of the existing teachers has training or experience in rural and resource development methods. There is a need for adult educators whose 282 education combines knowledge of professional adult education princi- ples with methods, techniques and principles of rural resources de- velOpment. There is a need to develop local resources and to train volunteer workers who can help to combat the problem of adult educa- tion and rural development in the whole region. The adult education director can identify persons who are skilled in special fields. He can assist the new teachers in developing teaching skills. The resources of the experienced teachers in ele- mentary and secondary schools, in business and industries could be well utilized by developing a climate of good will between these agencies and the program. By paying these outside resources some fees or giving them a special recognition, they can be encouraged to teach the subject matter of their speciality in the program regularly. Also, the opinion of the adult education teachers about themselves and their jobs and the opinion of the public about them may be improved by giving the adult education teachers similar certifica- tion and condition of services that are given to their counterparts in elementary and secondary schools. (5) Lack of rapport with other agencies in the communities. Among the mixed programs, conflict with the county councils and competition with other community agencies had proven to be a serious handicap to the development 283 of their adult education activities. As pointed our earlier, an imposi- tion of detailed regulations or general orders from a remote regional headquarters on teachers of the women's programs had tended to stifle their interests in the program and to discourage their initiative to innovate. It is considered imperative that these adult teachers need to be provided an adequate working climate for the development of their creative leadership in the art and science of teaching. One way to reduce conflict and increase cooperation with other agencies within the community is by formulation of adult education advisory committees with membership from all segments of the community. (6) Lack of publicity and transportation facilities. The problem of publicizing the activities of adult programs effectively was a major handicap to all the adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria rural communities. Lack of adequate means of transportation especially during the rainy season is a hindrance to promotion of adult education P I‘Ograms in all the rural communities. But with increasing improve- ment in roads and the introduction of motorbicycles, lorries and auto- I-I)(>biles, each county council should be able to provide an adequate vehicle for campaign to its adult education program. The regional government could make this condition one of the requirements for Continuation of receipt of grants by each county council from the re- gional government. 284 It is also essential for the maximum development of the program that the teachers and organizers establish cooperative relationships with local newspapers, radio and television stations. The teachers also need to develop the skills in presenting information about the programs to the communication agencies. Further Contributions of the Study In addition to providing answers to the basic questions posed as a part of the purpose of this study, the study has also made the following contributions: (1) It has focussed elements of an evolving theory of adult education in national development upon the development problems of Eastern Nigeria by undertaking a comparison of the major elements of the process of development (economic, political, social and indivi- dual) with the major elements of adult education processes. Through this direct comparison, criteria in terms of attributes and content areas were synthesized which were judged suitable for adequate adult education programs for the development of the..people and {communities of Eastern Nigeria. The attributes and content areas were used in con- stl‘lmting the axes of grids of a scheme suitable for analysis of the adult e'iiucation programs of the thirty-four rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. 285 A description of the develOpment of the scheme, the construction of its analytical grids, the derivation and synthesis of the criteria, their attributes and items and also the establishment of the rationale for the study is contained in Chapter IV. The appli- cation of the scheme in the analysis of the programs and the inter- pretation of the results of the analysis are contained in Chapter V. (2) The study has provided a clearer understanding of the existing local government sponsored programs in Eastern Nigeria rural communities and the problems that confront them by (a) identi- fication of the nine major problems that confront the programs and their implications, (b) determining how adequate the programs are in their expressed objectives, activities and materials of instruction, number and qualification of the teachers, methods and techniques of teaching, financial and physical resources and the administrative policies when compared to the model used in development of the analytical scheme. (3) The study has provided some useful suggestions and re commendations both for attacking the identified problems that con- front the program and for providing the desired leadership in the i*Iltlovation of the program so as to make it a more effective instrument for the desired change in the society. (4) The study has contributed to further unification and and refinement of a theory of adult education in national development by 286 choosing development (economic, social, political and individual) as the central focus of its rationale which emphasizes that an adult educa- tion program must be geared to the needs and problems of its indivi- dual clientele and their society in order to contribute towards their effective development and benefit. Implications for Further Research As the data from the analysis were tabulated and inter- preted, the investigator became aware of needs for further studies in the following areas as a basis for organization of in-service training for adult education workers in Eastern Nigeria. (1) (Z) (3) (4) What policies of the regional headquarters and county councils actually promote or limit the development of; adult education programs in Eastern Nigeria ? What procedures could be used in making adult educa- tion programs a part of the regional public school system ? A follow-up study of graduates of women's training programs should be planned to determine the effective- ness of the program in developing them as leaders in their communities. A follow-up study of participants in the short courses conducted by the regional head offices for incoming 287 adult educators as to find out how meaningful the course had been to them as they face their jobs of organizing and teaching adult classes. (5) A study of how to develop a master plan for in- creasing the involvement and support of various segments of the rural community in its adult educa- tion program. (6) A study should be done on how to increase the in- terest and participation of elementary and secondary school teachers in adult education and rural develOp- ment by expanding the existing teachers' training curriculum to include courses in adult education, rural resource development and technique in com- munity development and organization. Recommendations The study revealed some significant problem areas which influence the development of adult education in rural communities in Eastern Nigeria. The degeneration of morale among the adult educa- tion teachers and organizers because of their status and nature of ac- ceptance accorded their role in the community constitutes the greatest threat to the promotion of the program in the region. 288 Though these teachers on interview attributed the cause of their ineffectiveness in the community to the financial insecurity which is associated with their job, yet the data on their academic backgrounds and experiences suggested strongly the need for develop- ment of a leadership training program for these teachers, in which they could be helped to improve their skills as adult educators and their abilities as leaders in the communities. The findings clearly pointed to the need for a series of in-service training for all those associated with adult education pro- grams in Eastern Nigeria rural communities. The government Ministry in charge of adult education in'the region, the county councils and the University of Nigeria need to consider plans for initiatingpsuch pro- grams cooperatively. The in-service program should be based upon problems jointly identified by the adult education teachers and the coordinating body. The joint resources of the University of Nigeria, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Local Government can be effectively utilized in providing leader- ship for the in-service training through workshops, conferences and special university courses which can provide opportunities for learning about the society, the learner and the functions of adult education. The in-service programs should present the latest re- search in the field. It should include as resource people the leaders 289 of all ethnic groups and agencies in the country, experts in adult education, agricultural extension, resource development, community development, both from within and outside Nigeria. New techniques employed in teaching adults such as radio and television should also be demonstrated. The in-service program should help the regional govern- ment, county councils and the University to understand better and perform more satisfactorily their roles in the development of adult education in the region. It should help the adult teachers and organizers to know how to obtain information about the needs of their clientele and the community and how to adapt the programs to these needs and problems. It should help the adult teachers to select skillfully the subject-matters, methods of instructions and resources which would be suitable for the clientele and the program. County council politics has created a complex problem in satisfactory financing of adult education programs in the region. To eliminate future danger of misapplication of adult education grants to other county projects other than adult education and also to eliminate the existing irregularity which characterizes the payment of the salaries of adult education teachers, it is suggested that the regional govern- ment should follow a safer method of paying the annual grant for each community program into the regional treasury which should in turn 290 pay each teacher directly at the end of each month that such a teacher is certified by the local council and regional head office to have dis- charged his duties satisfactorily. The monthly certification statement authorizing the pay- ment of the teacher's salary should be counter-signed by both the teacher and the government treasurer and should be submitted early each month that the teacher is in the employment of the county in order to eliminate delay in payment of his salary. The government treasury should impose a financial sanction on any council that is irregular in submission of its teachers' salary certification forms. It is assumed that the sense of security and the morale of teachers will increase if a procedure such as this is adapted in guaranteeing regularity in payment of their salary. In such a situation which insulates them and their income from threats and victimization of local politics, teachers will feel free to innovate and to create. In order not only to help more of the people become literate but also to help them remain literate, immediate steps should be taken to create a regional adult education textbook committee. The com— mittee, in cooperation with the regional library, should be made respon- sible for adequate purchase and distribution of textbooks and also for establishment of branch reading rooms in every rural community in the region. 291 The textbook committee, in cooperation with the Division of Extra-Mural Studies of the University of Nigeria and the adult education headquarters, should also undertake the publication of a bi- monthly newspaper for adult learners both in English and in principal ethnic dialects in the region. This newspaper should be distributed in all adult education centers to serve as a follow-up reading material to participants. Since the regional government has created a new Ministry responsible for rural development, a community resource development coordinator should be located in each rural community on a joint ap- pointment with both the community elementary and secondary schools and the adult education program in the community. The duty of the coordinator should be to promote commu- nity studies and maximum use of community resources in each com- munity adult education program, to collect and keep constant record of all community needs and problems which should be met with adult education, to act as a liaison between community adult education pro- grams and all community formal and informal organizations and agencies, to increase the effective participation in and appreciation of adult education by elementary and secondary school teachers, local churches and trade unions, to discover and organize community leader- ship in all levels and promote development programs in the rural 292 community and to cooperate with regional ministries and the University in planning and carrying out development projects in rural communities. In spite of the many problems confronting the existing pro- grams, the programs and their leadership should be commended for the many significant contributions they have made in preparing many people in the region for the challenges of change that a people in a developing society must face. The programs have provided opportunity for education for many people whose circumstances would have made it impossible for them to compete successfully in the formal elementary and secondary school systems in the region with their rising costs and selective policies. They have dedicated officers, administrators, teachers and organizers with a growing awareness of their role and responsibilities and who with more support and encouragement have the potentiality of making more contributions in the regional development through adult education. 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APPENDICES APPENDIX A Information on Women's Programs in Eastern Nigeria 309 Figure 1. --Data on women's programs: Information on adult students N f C t No. of ENli-mlll::soin' Number of A e Level List of Subjects ame o oun y Centers n o ' ' Men Women g ' Taught in Center 1963 1964 1965 all Etinan-Uyo Center 1 192 170 195 - women 16-45 yrs. Literacy; cookery; civics; laundry; needle- work; etc. Ok/Oron County C. l 510 630 705 860 895 16-45 yrs. Eng.; letter writing; vernacular; arith. Umuabiakwu Center 1 170 l80 178 - 178 16-45 yrs. Literacy; laundry; cookery; etc. Umuokpo Village C. l 128 130 140 - 140 l6-50 yrs. Literacy; housecraft; cookery; etc. Owo-Ahiafoukwu l 230 200 192 - 300 16-45 yrs. Literacy; laundry; mother-craft; etc. Aka Offot-Uyo l - 57 55 - 55 l6-45 yrs. Literacy; nutrition; laundry; mother—craft. Adult Ed. Vill. C., l 46 53 53 - 53 l6-40 yrs. Literacy; laundry; Uyo cookery; mother-craft. Ikot Abasi l 32 48 49 - 129 16-45 yrs. Reading; writing; arith.; needle-work. Afaha Offiong l 86 90 70 - 70 16-45 yrs. Literacy; cookery; house- craft; laundry. Ibong Center 1 66 90 234 l 234 16-45 yrs. Literacy; house-craft; cookery; laundry. Oron Center 1 30 14 33 - 33 l6-45 yrs. Literacy; mother-craft; cookery. Obio Etoi/Uyo l 90 98 116 - 304 19-40 yrs. Literacy; needle-work; mother-craft. Ikot Obio Etan/Uyo l 65 75 60 - 60 l6-45 yrs. Cookery; laundry; house- craft; literacy. Afaha Ibesikpo l 206 98 70 - 70 l6-45 yrs. Literacy; mother-craft; Village Center needle—work; cookery; nutrition. Afaha-Eket l 35 21 21 - 21 16-40 yrs. Literacy; house-craft; mother-craft. lkot Antia Ididep-Itu l 40 100 100 - 100 l6-45 yrs. 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H8803 H82 H.880? :32 Bow mmhdoU 283539“:an mcoflfin—Euno U 33.0mm .m Houovhumfi 353$ 353$ Ho 02 Umficflnou n n .h muswfih 321 APPENDIX D: ADULT EDUCATION IN EASTERN NIGERIA Figure 8. -- Enrollment figures of adult education centers in Eastern Nigeria 1960 1961 Increase Number of Adult Education Centers 880 1, 299 419 Number of Adult Education Organizers 40 42 2 Number of Voluntary Instructors 2, 309 3, 261 952 Number of Literacy Classes 2, 030 2, 359 329 Number of Advanced Classes Men 15,046 17,757 2,711 Women 12,850 18, 300 5,450 Number in Attendance: Advanced Classes Men 14,585 18,534 5,450 Women 7, 245 11, 007 3, 762 Total Attendance in Literacy and Advanced Classes 49, 726 65, 598 15, 852 Number Made Literate During the Year 18, 562 20, 285 1, 723 Number of Certificates Awarded During the Year Men 7, 599 7, 361 238 Women 5, 564 6, 383 819 Total Certificates Issued 13,163 13, 744 581 Students' Contribution -I:n3, 551 4:4, 205 -I:.856 Councils' Contribution 4:1, 493 4:2, 916 4:1, 423 Number of Adult Education Books Sold During the Year 15, 880 22, 744 6, 864 Figures are copied from the Adult Education Annual Reports and Sta- tistics 1961-62. APPENDIX E LIST OF EXPERT OBSERVERS WHO CHECKED AND APPROVED THE CRITERIA, ATTRIBUTES AND ITEMS OF THE CONCEPTUAL SCHEME The criteria, attributes and items of excellence in adult education derived from the reviewed literature and from the model program and used in development of the general and sub-grids of the conceptual scheme used in this analysis, were checked and approved as suitable for planning adult education programs that are adequately related to individual and social needs for development in Eastern Nigerian rural communities by the following expert observers who are conversant with problems of development in Nigeria: 1. Professor George Johnson, formerly Vice-Chancellor at the University of Nigeria and presently Professor of Education at Michigan State University. 2. Professor John W. Hanson, formerly the Head, Harden College of Education at the University of Nigeria and presently Professor of Secondary Educa- tion Curriculum and Consultant in the Institute of African Studies at Michigan State University. 322 323 3. Professor Jack Bain, formerly Head of Michigan State University Party at the University of Nigeria, and presently Director of the International Communication Institute at Michigan State University. 4. Professor Kirkpatrick Lawton, formerly Head and Dean of the College of Agriculture at the University of Nigeria, and presently Coordinator of the Michigan State Technical Assistance Project in Argentina. 5. Professor Glenn L. Jonson, formerly Director of the Economic Development Institute of the University of Nigeria, and presently Director of Consortium for the Study of Nigerian Development, Michigan State University International Program. The approved items of the content area were assigned to one axis of the grid and the approved qualitative attributes of excellence to the other .axis . 11171111711 Es 6733 “1111111111