DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF GREATER. CONCENTRATION UPON BASKETBALL SHOOTING ACCURACY ThesIs for Ike Dogma GI M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY James A. White 1983 THESIS ' IIIIIILIIMIIIIIMIIILIJIIIIIIIIIIII " Tr .. .1 ‘._.i . :LL 4 ‘ t 3 w 13,, _‘ ‘ ’ 1:1 L I B R A R Y ‘ is? Michigan State I I University 7* L" a w “I“?! '3 3 I\ I ‘ .., ‘S’. I ~ -~4 : DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF GREATER CONCENTRATION UPON BASKETBALL SHOOTING ACCURACY By I James A; White AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Education Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1963 APPROVED: ABSTRACT DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF GREATER CONCENTRATION UPON BASKETBALL SHOOTING ACCURACY by James A. White STATEMENT OF PROBLEM To Determine the Effect of the Use of a Smaller Target in Improving Concentration and Basketball Shooting Accuracy. METHODOLOGY Three different levels of basketball ability were tested. Three groups of ten subjects each were picked by random sample. Group 1 was selected from the developmental classes in physical education at Michigan State University. Group 2 was comprised of freshmen players from the basket- ball team at Michigan State University. Group 3 was selected from members of the East Lansing high school basketball team. In the first three testing periods each subject was permitted a total of one hundred fifty shots at the official size basket. The scores were recorded. Scores which were the same, or nearly so, were placed in a hat. The first score drawn was assigned to the control group. The second drawn number was relegated to the experimental group. This James A. White provided five evenly paired subjects in the control and experimental sections of each of the three main groups. Practice sessions began January 9, 1962. The subjects practiced from an area directly behind the foul shooting circle, twenty four feet from the basket. The control group practiced with the official size basket while the experimental group practiced with a smaller basket. The smaller basket consisted of a device placed inside the regulation rim which reduced the diameter of the rim by three inches. Sixty practice shots were taken by each subject at each session. A testing period was held after every second practice period. The small rim was removed and each subject shot fifty times. The experimental subjects' score and their partners', who always practiced with a normal sized rim, were recorded on a graph. There were six testing periods and twelve practice sessions. The groups practiced at their respective baskets for six weeks. Each subject was instructed not to practice at any other time. Subjects were allowed to shoot using any style, on the condition that the style be continued throughout the experiment. Shooting instruction was not given. At the conclusion of six weeks, each subject had attempted 150 pre—test shots, 720 practice shots, and 300 test shots. This was a total of 1170 controlled shots. James A. White Conclusions 1. Success in shooting at small baskets (diameter 15 inches) requires more concentration than does practice in shooting at official size baskets. Beginning basketball players, according to this study, did improve their shooting accuracy, by use of a smaller rim. This improvement could be due to chance. The ability to concentrate while shooting at a smaller basket, varies amongindividual subjects. DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECT OF GREATER CONCENTRATION UPON BASKETBALL SHOOTING ACCURACY By James A. White A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Education Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1963 1‘ ”2—. , r1 .ch' ACKNOWLEDGMENT Grateful appreciation is extended to Dr. Roy Niemeyer under whose helpful guidance and assistance this study was undertaken. The writer is also grateful for the assistance given him by Dr. Wayne Van Russ and Michigan State Basket- ball Coaches, Mr. Bruce Fossum and Mr. Forddy Anderson. J.A.W. DEDICATION This thesis is respectfully dedicated to my Mother Mrs. Louise H. White TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM The Problem Statement of the Problem Importance of the Study Limitations of the Study Definitions of Terms Used. Purpose of the Study Need for the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE III. METHODOLOGY Developmental Section High School Section. Freshmen Basketball Team (College). Routine. Results. IV. ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary. Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY PAG (hr-EU) 13 13 13 14 1b 19 26 26 27 27 28 CHAPTER PAGE APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . A6 Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . A7 Tally Chart. . . . . . . . . . . 48 Individual Graph . . . . . . . . . 49 Appendix C. . . . . . . . . . . . . SO Official Size Basket. . . . . . . . 51 Official Size Baket with Small Rim . . . 52 Small Rim in Relation to Official Basketball . . . . . . . . . . 53 Appendix D. . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Developmental Computations. . . . . . 55 High School Computations . . . . . . 56 Michigan State University Basketball Team Computations . . . . . . 57 LIST OF TABLES TABLE I. The Individual Between the Section II. The Individual Between the Section III. The Individual Between the Shooting Pairs of Shooting Pairs of Shooting Pairs of Basketball Team Difference the Developmental Difference the High School Difference the Freshman 2O 2O 21 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Pair A-—Developmental Section . . . . 33 2. Pair B—-DevelOpmental Section . . . . 3A 3. Pair C--Deve10pmental Section . . . . 35 A. Pair D-—Developmental Section . . . . 36 5. Pair E——DevelOpmental Section . . . . 37 6. Pair A—-High School Section. . . . . 38 7. Pair B--High School Section. . . . . 39 8. Pair C--High School Section. . .~ . . AC 9. Pair D—-High School Section. . . . . Al 10. Pair A—-Freshman Basketball Team . . . A2 ll. Pair B--Freshman Basketball Team . . . A3 12. Pair C—-Freshman Basketball Team . . . AA 13. Pair D—-Freshman Basketball Team . . . A5 1A. The Percentage of Total Group Shots Made for All Six Tests (Developmental Section) . . . . . . . . . . 23 15. The Percentage of Total Group Shots Made for All Six Tests (High School Section) . . . . . . . 2A 16. The Percentage of Total Group Shots Made for All Six Tests (Freshmen Basket— ball Team) . . . . . . . . . 25 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The basket which is used today in the game of basket— 1 The rim is almost large enough for two ball is big. basketballs to go through it simultaneously since the diameter of the rim is eighteen inches. The diameter of the ball is nine and one-half inches. This leaves eight and one-half inches of leeway between the ball and the rim. (/It is the hope in this study to be able to test a method by which players might improve their concentration while ishooting, thereby improving the perfection of the shot.) This would in turn result in a higher degree of shooting accuracy. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of thefiProblem To Determine the Effect of the Use of a Smaller Target in Improving Concentration and Basketball Shooting Accuracy. lGaylord Curtiss, "The Basket Is Big," Athletic Journal, 32:50, October, 1951. ' Importance of the Study Improving skills, such as shooting, should be one of the aims of every basketball coach. The methods of self- improvement should be recognized and evaluated by each coach. Confidence and determination are gained through the improvement of skill. These attributes are vital to any competitor. Improvement leads to new and higher goals. The goals that are set should be attainable, challenging, and adapted to the capacities of the subjects involved.2 The participants who are aiming at goals usually acquire achievement. Setting goals is one of our most important responsibilities in the field of Physical Education. Limitations of the Study 1. During practice periods, it was impossible to establish the proper "atmostphere" or game situation. 2. Only one shooting area for practice and testing was permitted. 3. It was difficult to determine when shooting fatigue resulted. A. It was difficult to motivate subjects equally. 5. Shooting instruction was not given. 2c. Bucher, Administration of School Health and Physical Education Programs (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1955), p. 63. 6. It was impossible to use the same basketballs each day. 7. The groups were small. 8. The "expert" group was Comprised of university freshmen basketball team members. II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Random sampling. Giving every male student who was enrolled in the developmental activities course at Michigan State University during the 1962 winter term an equal chance to be chosen. Incentivized. A technique used to bring about a desire for improvement. Concentration. The focusing of all possible attention to the improvement of basketball shooting. Small rim. Device used to make the regulation basket smaller; the diameter of this rim was three inches smaller in diameter than the regulation rim. This device was painted orange. Normal rim. The standard device, eighteen inches in diameter, situated on a backboard through which one attempts to shoot the ball. Developmental activities. An activity course offered to students at Michigan State University for the primary purpose of developing the masculature of the human body. III. PURPOSE AND NEED Purpose of the study The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent concentration on and practice with a smaller target would improve basketball shooting accuracy. The Specific objectives of this study were as follows: 1. To determine if a smaller visual cue would improve shooting accuracy. 2. To present statistical data indicating the prob— ability that the skill of basketball shooting could be improved by this method. This study encompassed a total of twenty college stu- dents and ten high school students. Ten boys were chosen from the develOpmental sections of the Michigan State Univer- sity physical education program, ten from the freshmen basket- ball team, and ten from the East Lansing High School basket— ball team. The results of the study and the conclusions derived from it may be applied to the coaching of basketball at either the high school level or the college level. (see page 31) Need For The Study Mental practice probably improves the performance of motor skills.3 The improvement of these skills should be of .__.,._ .V #1 W 3W. E. Twining, "Mental Practice and Physical Practice on Learning a Motor Skill," Research Quarterly, 20:A32—A35, December, l9A9. vital interest to all physical educators and coaches. There may be some combination of mental and physical practice periods that are superior to methods generally employed to- day to develOp motor skillf‘L Many authorities feel there is no limit to motor skill improvement. There is evidence of this in most phases of athletics. Basketball shooting accuracy in the professional ranks has been progressively improving. Desired improvement by high school and college players has therefore resulted. Presently at these levels, a shooting percentage of A0% is considered high. The investigator would hOpe that a shooting percentage of 50% to 60% could be attained. Some device is needed to develop greater concentration which would improve accuracy. The use of the small rim as a coaching technique may be such a device. “c. Verdella, "Effect of Mental Practice on the Devel- Opgent of a Certain Motor Skill," Research Quarterly, 31:568, 19 c. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Recent related literature on the subject of improving basketball accuracy by making the basket smaller is limited. Therefore, most of the literature reviewed was concerned with the "concentration" and "attention" factors. Alley5 and Maaske state that practice in shooting at small baskets (diameter 15 inches) improves accuracy in shooting at official baskets more than does practice in shooting at official baskets. The small baskets used were, except for the diameter, exact replicas of the official baskets. Targets that consist of inner rings superimposed on the official basket present visual cues to the shooter which differ from the cues presented by official baskets. In this study advanced basketball players from the University of Iowa were used. The results were significant at the 5% level. Moreland6 says that it is the mental state of the player which determines whether his shot will be made or "To Improve Shooting Accur— 5L.E. Alley and P. Maaske Athletic Journal, 52:3A—35, acy, Practice at Small Baskets, September, 1961. A 6Richard B. Moreland, "The Free Throw,” Athletic Journal, 31:16-17, December, 1950. 6 missed. The inability of the player to concentrate, More— land relates, is the primary cause for missed shots-~concen- tration is the paSSport to proficiency; unless mastered, it is the reason why potentially good players fail to measure up to expectations. Pfitsch7 believes that a boy must think that every time he shoots he is going to "hit." He must have confidence. He must also have an attitude which is developed and not brought about by fate alone. Concentration is stressed as a basis for the deveIOpment of this attitude, and in Pfitsch's opinion, any shooter, regardless of his innate ability, can improve his basket shooting immeasureably by increasing his power of concentration upon the target. The ability to con- centrate and the ensuing attitude make the difference between a mediocre and an excellent shooter. Many players depend more upon the element of chance than upon the element of skill. Betts8 states that while attention is no doubt partly a natural gift, there is probably no power of the mind more susceptible to training than is attention, and with attention, as with every other power of the body and mind, the secret of 7J.A. Pfitsch, "Concentration in Shooting,” Athletic Journal,3A:22, December, 1953. . 8G. Betts, The Mind and It's Education (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1960), p. 18. ) its development lies in its use. The only way to develop attentiveness is by practice. The zeroing in of the eyes, Baker9 says, is most violated in shooting. In moving quickly into shooting position, the player often shoots huriedly. Even though the movements are second nature, he doesn't actually eye the basket until the ball is on the edge of his fingers ready for release. The result is shots missing by a frac— tion off the front and back rim. Andersonlo says that during practice sessions his players failed to concentrate enough on actually making the shot. Their form was sloppy and it seemed their only concern was to throw the ball at the hoop. Douglasll has written that forced, active, or volun— Kfl tary attention is a state of consciousness sustained toward a particular stimulus that does not inherently attract the organism. This type of attention depends on factors such as sense of value, some purpose, or an ultimate goal. Motor activity of the instinctive variety does not require attentive adjustments as a preparation for its performance but motor activity of a complex, acquired type a. 9P. M. Baker, "Mechanics of Shooting," Scholastic Coach, 30:8 & 28, November, 1960. 10C. A. Anderson, "Raise Those Shooting Percentages,” Athletic Journal, 37:26, November, 1951. 110. B. Douglas, Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938), p. 132. its development lies in its use. The only way to develop attentiveness is by practice. The zeroing in of the eyes, Baker9 says, is most violated in shooting. In moving quickly into shooting position, the player often shoots huriedly. Even though the movements are second nature, he doesn't actually eye the basket until the ball is on the edge of his fingers ready for release. The result is shots missing by a frac— tion off the front and back rim. Andersonlo says that during practice sessions his players failed to concentrate enough on actually making the shot. Their form was sloppy and it seemed their only concern was to throw the ball at the hoop. Douglasll has written that forced, active, or volun- Kfi tary attention is a state of consciousness sustained toward a particular stimulus that does not inherently attract the organism. This type of attention depends on factors such as sense of value, some purpose, or an ultimate goal. Motor activity of the instinctive variety does not require attentive adjustments as a preparation for its performance but motor activity of a complex, acquired type 9P. M. Baker, "Mechanics of Shooting," Scholastic Coach, 30:8 & 28, November, 1960. 10C. A. Anderson, "Raise Those Shooting Percentages," Athletic Journal, 37:26, November, 1951. ll0. B. Douglas, Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1938), p. 132. is initiated and continued by a high degree of attention. In fact, the first step in the process of acquiring motor activity and in all mental activity, is always attention. Fultonl2 states that if we are to improve accuracy, we must emphasize accuracy. However, if the learner is permitted to arrive at an optimal level of accuracy in doing a task then different types of practice should reveal how accuracy is affected by said practice. Burgoyne13 believes that the answer lies in incenti— Y! vized shooting. This will go a long way toward perfecting accuracy. Cronbach14 reports that personality is a factor in concentration. The constructive use of emotion requires a problem centered attitude rather than a self—centered one. He says that fantasy serves the useful purpose of helping the person visualize his program of goals and imagine his future. Anticipating future pleasures gives one deter— mination to strive toward such remote ends. 12R. E. Fulton, "Speed and Accuracy in Learning a~ Ballistic Movement," Research Quarterly, 13:30-36, March, 19A2. l3L. Burgoyne, "Incentivized Foul Shooting," Scholastic 9" Qpaghu 21:18, October, 1952. 14L. Cronbach, Educational Psychology_(New York: by, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 195E), p, 5A2. » 10 Barbara15 indicates that lack of concentration results in situations which are uninteresting and dull to begin with and have been encountered so often that there is no point in being concerned. Steell6 concludes that daily mental practice of a motor skill produces a substantial increase in that skill. 17 Bucher reports that physical activities must be learned. This type of knowledge is acquired through trial and error. Then, as a result of experience, there is a changed meaning in the situation. Coordinations are learned, with the result that an act once difficult and awkward to perform becomes easy to execute. l8 Munn says that attention refers to an act, a process, a function not to a power or faculty. You reSpond in terms of your interests and attitudes. Tredgold19 suggests that active attention consists in the focusing of consciousness upon an object or thought 151). Barbara, The Art of Listening (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 19587, p. 2. 16W. L. Steel, "Effects of Mental Practice on the Acquisition of a Motor Skill," Journal of Physical Education, AA:101-108, November, 1952. l7Bucher, op.cit. p. 128. 18N. Munn, Introduction to Psychology (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962), pf 391. 19A. Tredgold, Manual of Psychological Medicine, (Balti- more: The Williams and Wilkins Co., 19A3), p. 25. 11 which may have no compelling power of its own. It necessi- tates a mental effort, and the intensity of this effort is termed concentration. Morgan2O believes persistence is a mental attitude which arises as a result of a definite environmental situa- tion. It might be defined as that attitude which drives a person once he has undertaken a task, to complete it to his satisfaction. Davis21 states that the more monotonous the stimulus becomes, the more attention wanders, while any change from the habitual tends to attract and hold attention. Prolonged attention is usually reaction to a meaning— ful or changing stimulus. They may be produced by varying the method of presentation. During periods of concentration the individual is performing at capacity rate and any deviation in performance caused by distractors marks the degree of attention. 22 relates that necessary feature of attention McComas measurement is the interest the task arouses. If one becomes bored and indifferent obviously the record is vitiated. 20'J.B. Morgan and H. Hull, "The Measurement of Persis— tence," Journal of Applied Psychology 180, 1926. 21R. Davis, Ppychology of Learning (New York: McGraw— Book Co. Inc., 1935), pp. 3284337. 22H.C. McComas, "A Measure of the Attention," Journal of Experimentalesychology, 5:2, 1922. 12 Thorndike23 reports that mental work (achievement) is the behavior of an organism whereby certain products are produced. Continuous mental work means behavior of an indi- vidual who is producing as incessantly as he can. 2A Box mentions that the only way he has been able to ' is to have long correct the feeling of "lack of confidence,’ shooting practices. Shooting must be a habit. To acquire this habit one must practice from the same position. Smith25 believes that practicing a task with the know— ledge of the principles involved is more effective than practicing without such knowledge. Barlow26 indicates that a good pianist, if he endeavors to think out the various processes as he goes along, will become confused. 0n the other hand a creator whether it be in music, poetry or science--must of necessity concentrate his whole attention on the occupation on which he is engaged. 23E. Throndike, Mental Work and Fatigue and Individual Differences and Their Causes (New York: Teachers College—- Columbia University, 1923), p. 112. 24J.P. Box, "Position Shooting Wins Games,” Athletic Journal, 31:38, November, 1950. 25H. Smith, Psychology of Industrial Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Incfi, 1955), p. 391. 26F. Barlow, Mental Prodigies (New York: Philosophical Library, 1952), p. 153. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The study began in the Winter of 1962 and continued through the school year. All necessary data was collected by May 22, 1963. Subjects representing three different levels of basketball ability were tested. Groups of ten subjects each were picked by random sample from the developmental classes at Michigan State University, freshman players from the basketball team at Michigan State University and members of the East Lansing High School basketball team. Developmental Section The different developmental sections were numbered and the numbers were placed in a hat. One number was drawn from the hat which represented the section to be used in the study. A questionnaire was given to each boy in that section. In this manner, the boys who had no varsity basketball experience were located. From this group the investigator picked from the hat ten boys who would represent the developmental classes for this experiment. High School Team This group was chosen by random sample from the high school teams in the area. Each team was given a number and 13 1A the number placed in a hat. The one drawn represented the team which would be used. East Lansing High School was chosen by lot. Freshmen Members of Michigan State Universigy Varsity Basket— ball Team ' ' ’ Twelve members of the freshmen basketball team parti- cipated in the experiment. Routine For purposes of establishing shooting ability, subjects in each of the three groups were first permitted a total of one hundred fifty shots at the official size basket. The scores were recorded. Scores which were the same, or nearly so, were placed in a hat. Scores could vary by one or two points and still be considered as possible pairs. The first score drawn was assigned to the control group. This gave the investigator five evenly paired subjects in both the control and experimental groups. This process was repeated in each of the three main groups. Practice sessions began January 9, 1962. Each session was directed by the investigator. All subjects practiced from one area, directly behind the foul shooting circle, twenty—four feet from the basket. The control group prac— ticed with the official size basket while the experimental group practiced with the smaller basket. Sixty practice shots every session were taken by each subject. (See Appendix C for photographs of official and small rim). 15 After every second practice session, all subjects were tested in shooting accuracy. The small rim was removed and all subjects in both groups shot fifty times. Scores of each matched pair were recorded on a graph. There was a total of six testing periods and twelve practice sessions. The groups practiced at their respective baskets for six weeks. Each subject was instructed not to practice at any other time. They were allowed to shoot using any style, on the condition that this style be continued throughout the experiment. Shooting instruction was not given. At the conclusion of the six week session, each subject had attempted 150 pre-test shots, 720 practice shots, and 300 test shots. This was a total of 1170 controlled shots. T scores were computed. There proved to be no signifi- cant difference in the three groups at the 5% level. There— fore, additional statistics was not applicable. Results To attempt to hypothesize the reasons for the results obtained from these data is very difficult because of the many factors that can enter into a study of this type. The developmental subjects improved their shooting accuracy the most, with a (t) score of -.AA97. The freshmen basketball team followed with a (t) score of —.38l7. The high school subjects improved the least, with a (t) score of -.0587. In the three tested groups representing different levels of basketball ability, no significant change resulted. 16 One might profit by considering the relative position of the investigator and the influence he had on the subjects. A coach utilizing such a technique on his own group of players would, no doubt, establish closer rapport and there— by be in a position to more closely control the study. The interest factor of the subjects was lacking on different occasions. If this factor could have been better controlled, possibly the results of this study would have been positive. Although this study has no predictive value, shooting accuracy among certain subjects was improved considerably. The investigator noticed marked improvement in the following areas. MOTIVATION Any change from the habitual tends to attract and hold attention. INTEREST Due to the challenge presented by the small rim, a positive change was noticeable. The high school subjects (experimental group) reached their best performance after three weeks of practice. The control subjects reached their best performance after the fourth week of practice. In both cases, after reaching their peak, a decline resulted. The interest period among the high school subjects was shorter than were the other two groups. This may be the reason for the poorer shooting performance during the last three weeks of the study. The subjects of the freshman basketball team performed with a more consistent pattern than did the other groups. 17 There was no sharp increase or decrease in shooting accuracy during any of the test periods. The control subjects per- formed with higher proficiency than did the experimental subjects. This higher performance continued from the second week to the sixth week and is unexplainable. The investi- gator wasn't disturbed at the results of this group. These subjects had apparently reached their maximum shooting proficiency previous to this study. The shooting percentages of the three groups at the sixth test period were as follows: Develppmental Section Control . . . . 28% Experimental. . . 33% High School Section Control . . . . A5% Experimental. . . 45% Freshmen Basketball Team Control . . . . A7% Experimental. . . AA% ‘These figures Show the percentage of shots made for the last test period only. An analysis of the percentage charts reveal that the :fluctuation of the subjects in the developmental and high school sections was high. This could be attributed to the age of the subjects or possibly to the unpredictable nature which this age group possesses. The freshmen basketball 18 team was not as erratic. Improvement in the experimental group was noted at the first test period. The small rim had no effect on accuracy at any of the remaining test periods. The control group continually performed with higher accuracy. The investigator feels that motivation at the college level was lacking during this study. This is the reason given for the control group performing with greater accuracy than the experimental group. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA This study was undertaken in an effort to determine the effect of greater concentration upon basketball shooting accuracy. All subjects were tested over a six week period. The experimental group practiced at a rim fifteen inches in diameter while the control group practiced at the regulation rim which was eighteen inches in diameter. Table I represents the individual shooting differ- ence between pairs of the developmental section. This section was composed of beginning basketball players. They had a limited amount of shooting experience. A (t) score of -.AA97 was calculated at the 5% level. This was the highest (t) score of the three groups but it was not great enough to be significant. Table II represents the individual shooting differ— ence between the pairs of the high school section. This section was composed of subjects with three to four years of high school basketball experience. A (t) score of -.0587 was calculated at the 5% level. The results indi- cate that the small rim did not bring about a significant change. This group showed the least amount of improvement. 19 TABLE I THE SHOOTING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PAIRS OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL SECTION Tests Pairs l 2 3 A 5 6 E (sum) A ~A -18 -8 ~15 -17 -11 -73 B 1 3 7 —11 A 3 7 C 1 -5 0 A 6 -1 5 D -3 —1 -A —3 2 -A -13 E -2 —3 -3 —A 6 5 -1 t — -.AA97 TABLE II THE SHOOTING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PAIRS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL SECTION Tests Pairs l 2 3 A 5 6 E (sum) A -6 2 -3 18 A 1 16 B 6 -2 -6 -3 -5 -3 —13 C -2 3 -7 A 3 l 2 D A -9 -l —l l —2 -8 2O 21 Table III represents the individual shooting differ- ence between the pairs of the freshmen basketball team. This section was composed of subjects with the greatest amount of basketball ability. A (t) score of .3817 was calculated at the 5% level. This was not Significant. Results did Show that this group developed shooting accuracy to a higher degree than did the high school section, but less than the developmental section. TABLE III THE SHOOTING DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PAIRS OF THE FRESHMEN BASKETBALL TEAM fir Tests Pairs 1 2 3 A 5 6 E (sum) A —12 0 O -3 -3 -l -19 B 7 -2 6 6 10 5 32 C 3 A -5 6 -3 -l A D 0 0 3 A 5 A 16 t = .3817 The horizontal figures on tables I, II, and III represent the six test periods which were given during this study. One test was given each week. The vertical figures ( A, B, C, D, E) represent the pairs. Directly across from each pair and under each test period are 22 the differences in shots made between the subjects of every pair for each of the six test periods. The sum shows the shooting difference between the pairs. This is the total difference for the six test periods. Included in Appendix A are figures 1 through 13; figures 1 through 5 illustrate shots made per test for each control and experimental subject in the developmental section. Figures 6 through 9 illustrate the same as the above but in this case for the high school section. Figures 10 through 13 illustrate the same as the above but in this case for the freshmen basketball team. Figures 1A through 16 illustrate the percentage of total group shots made for all six tests in the following order: developmental, high school, and college sections (freshmen basketball team). These figures show that the developmental section improved more than did the high school or college sec— tions. This seems understandable since the develop- mental section had very little previous shooting experi- ence. This difference was possibly due in part to the normal learning process. Interest was sustained longer in this group than in the other groups. Fig. 1A Group scores - deve10pnenta1 section 100 95 90 85’ 8O 75 70 65 60 55 50 #5 L0 35 30 W 25 ’ 20 15 10 0 MQPHZNONW'U NU>3 macaw: Legend Experimental Control ----- Fig. 15 Group scores - high school subjects 100 95 9O 85 80 75 7O 65 60 55 50A 0 MQPHZWOWN'U 1.5 .p x 4.0 x 35 ‘V ’ 30 25 20 15 10 WUD’S (IN-30:30) Legend Experimental Control ----- 25 Fig. 16 Group scores - freshman basketball team 100 95 9O 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 2 .o-*-"“"""_. as ' / , /-__._.. 1.0 ,//\° 35 30 25 20 15 10 o WQPHZWOFUFJ'U (@5353 (Dr-303:0) Legend Experimental Control ----- CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This investigation was undertaken for the purpose of determining the effect of the use of a smaller target in developing concentration and accuracy in basketball shooting. SUMMARY Groups of ten subjects were selected from the developmental activity classes at Michigan State University, freshmen members of the basketball team at Michigan State University, and members of the East Lansing High School basketball team. The subjects practiced from one area which was directly behind the foul shooting circle, twenty four feet from the basket. The control group practiced at the official basket while the experimental group practiced at the smaller basket. .Sixty practice Shots were taken by each subject during every session. A testing period was held after every second practice period. The small rim was removed and each subject shot fifty times. There was a total of Six testing periods and twelve practice sessions. 26 27 The groups practiced at their respective baskets for six weeks. Each subject was instructed not to prac- tice at any other time. They were initially informed to shoot using any style, on the condition that this style be continued throughout the experiment. At the conclusion of the six weeks, each subject had attempted 150 pre-test shots, 720 practice shots, and 300 test shots. This was a total of 1170 controlled shots. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusion seems justified on the basis of the statistical data presented. 1. The use of the small rim during practice sessions does not statistically improve shooting accuracy, although some improvement was evident among the lower skilled subjects. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations are made as a result of this study. 1. The small rim might be painted black to give a more visual cue. 2. Shooting should be practiced from five to ten different areas. BIBLIOGRAPHY 28 BIBLIOGRAPHY Alley, L. E. and P. Maaske. "To Improve Shooting Accuracy, Practice at Small Baskets." Athletic Journal, 52: 3A-35 September, 1961. Anderson, C- A. "Raise Those Shooting Percentages," Athletic Journal, 37:26, November, 1951. Baker, P. M. "Mechanics of Shooting." Scholastic Coach, 30:8, 28, November, 1960. Barbara, D. The Art of Listening. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1958, pp. 201. Barlow, F. Mental Prodigies. New York: Philosophical Library, 1952, pp. 256. Betts, G. The Mind and It's Education. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1906, pp. 265. Box, J. P. "Position Shooting Wins Games." Athletic Journal, 31:38, November, 1950. Bucher, C. Administration of School Health and Physical Pro rams. St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Co., 1955, pp. AER. Burgoyne, L. "Incentivized Foul Shooting,” Scholastic Coach, 21:18, October, 1952. Cronback, L. Educational Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 195A7pp. 628. Curtiss, G. "The Basket Is Big," Athletic Journal, 32 50. October, 1951. Davis, R. Psychology of Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1935, pp. A89. Douglas, 0. B. Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1938, pp. 598. Fulton, R. E. "Speed and Accuracy In Learning a Ballistic Movement,‘I Research Quarterly, 13:30-36, March, 19A2. 29 McComas, H. C. "A Measure of the Attention,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 5:2, February, 1922. Morgan, J. B. and H. Hull. "The Measurement of Persis— tence,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 152180, June, 1926. Morland, R. B. "The Free Throw," Athletic Journal, 31:16-17, December, 1950. Munn, N. Introduction to Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962, pp. 588. Pfitsch, J. A. ”Concentration In Shooting,” Athletic Journal, 3A:22, December, 1953. Richardson, C. H. An Introduction to Statistical Analysis. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 19AA. Smith, R. Psychology of Industrial Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1955. Steel, W. L. "Effects of Mental Practice on the Acqui- sition of Motor Skill,” Journal of Physical é}: Education, AA:101-108, November, 1952. Thorndike, E. Mental Work and Fatigue and Individual Differences and Their Causes. New York: Teachers College--Columbia University, 1923, pp. A08. Tredgold, A. Manual of Psyghological Medicine. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Co., 19A3. Twining, w. E. "Mental Practice and Physical Practice on Learning A Motor Skill,” Research Quarterly, 20: A32—A35, December, 19A9. Verdella, C. L. ”Effect of Mental Practice 0n the Develop- ment of a Certain Motor Skill," Research Quarterly, 31:568, December, 1960. APPENDICES 31 APPENDIX A Fig. 1-13 Illustrate shots made per test for each control and experimental .subject in the developmental, high school, and college sections. 32 Fig. 1 Pair A - deve10pmental section A5 40 35 30 25 WUPK {Dr-30:20) 20 15 10 V” I‘ Legend Experimental Control ----- 33 Fig. 2 Pair B - developmental section #5 to S 35 H 0 T 30 S .M A D E TESTS Legend Experimental ____ Control ----- Fig. 3 Pair C - developmental section #5 LO 35 30 25 [11:16:53 (DD-90:20: 20 10 15 / Legend Experimental ______ Control ------ 35 36 Fig. 1+ Pair D - developmental section A5 AD 35 30 25 WU>3 (DU-30:03 20 , J Legend Experimental Control ----- Fig. 5 Pair E - developmental section A5 LC 35 30 25 (31:53.3 COP-502130) 20 15 10 Legend Experimental Control ----- Fig. 6 Pair A - high school section A5 40 35 30 25 3163.3 mv-aoznm 20 15' 10 Legend Experimental Control ----- Fig. 7 Pair B - high school section #5 L0 35 30 25 MU>3 (LN-30:11“) 20 15 10 Legend Experimental ____ Control ----- TESTS A. Lg: 39 A0 Fig. 8 Pair C - high school section #5 50 35 30 25 MU>3 cor-30mm 20 15 10 m TESTS Legend Experimental Control ----- AS 40 35 30 25 MOPS (Dr-303:0) 20 15 10 Legend Fig. 9 Pair D - high school section :1 J 1 2 3 A 5 TESTS Experimental Control - - Al Fig. 9 Pair D - high school section 45 40 35 30 25 {136393 (DU-303:0) 20 15 10 Legend Experimental Control ----- Fig. 10 Pair A - freshman basketball team A5 L0 35 25 [HOPE (IN-303:0) 15 10 20 J Legend __ Experimental Control ----- “* A TESTS 42 6163’?- (Dr-30:30) Legend #5 L0 35 30 25 20 15 10 Fig. ll Pair B - freshman basketball team l____I____1r____§ TESTS Experimental Control ----- ————— 4. 43 Fig. 12 Pair C - freshman basketball team #5 40 35 . 30 « ,-——.._.. 25 \ 20 (lib-‘93 (fir-3021303 15 10 5 ! Legend Experimental Control ----- 45 Fig. 13 Pair D - freshman basketball team #5 40 35 F 30 / 25 mu>3 maomm 20 15 10 Legend Experimental Control ----- Questionnaire Tally Chart Experimental and Control graph for each pair APPENDIX B Given to each boy in the developmental section. Practice shots made and test scores were recorded for each subject. The score was circled. The results of the six test periods were recorded in the following graphs. Experimental subject was indicated by a solid red line. The control subject was indicated by a solid black line. 146 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY QUESTIONNAIRE NAME 4,7 PAIR NAME: DATE: 1. 2. I played varsity basketball in high school I earned a varsity letter in basketball YES NO YES NO A8 - iazu I OOH Os OO OO OOH O OO OO OOH Os OO OO OOH Os OO OO OOH Os OO OO OO as Oa aO OO as Oa aO OO as Oa aO OO as Oa aO OO as Oa aO oO O oa OO oO Os oa OO oO Os oa OO oO Os oa OO oO Os oa OO sO Os sa OO sO Os sa OO sO Os sa OO sO Os sa OO sO Os sa OO oO Hs oa HO oO Hs oa HO oO Hs oa HO oO Hs oa HO oO Hs oa HO O Os O OO O os Oa OO O os O OO OO Os Oa OO O os Oa OO aO Oo aa OH aO Oo aa OH aO Oo aa OH aO Oo aa OH aO Oo aa OH OO oo Oa oH OO oo Oa oH OO oo Oa oH OO oo Oa oH OO oo Oa oH OO so Oa sH OO so Oa sH OO so Oa sH OO so Oa sH OO so Oa sH HO oo Ha oH HO oo Ha oH HO oo Ha oH HO oo Ha oH HO oo Ha oH OO O oa OH OO Oo Oa OH OO O Oa OH OO O Oa OH OO Oo Oa OH Oo ao OO aH Oo ao OO aH Oo ao OO aH Oo ao OO aH Oo ao OO aH oo Oo oO OH oo Oo oO OH oo Oo oO OH oo Oo oO OH oo Oo oO OH so Oo sO OH so Oo sO OH so Oo sO OH so Oo sO OH so Oo sO OH oo Ho oO HH oo Ho oO HH oo Ho oO HH oo Ho oO HH oo Ho oO HH O Oo O OH O Oo OO OH O oo O OH O oo O OH O oo O OH ao O aO O ao O aO O ao O aO O ao OO aO O ao O aO O Oo oO OO o Oo O OO o Oo oO OO o Oo O OO o Oo O OO o Oo sO OO s Oo sO OO s Oo sO OO s Oo sO OO s Oo O OO s Ho oO HO o Ho oO HO o Ho O HO o Ho oO HO o Ho O HO o Oo O OO O Oo O OO O oo O OO O oo OO OO O Oo OO OO O Os O OO aa Os aO OO la Os aO OO aa Os aO OO la Os aO OO la os OO oO O os OO oO O os OO oO O os O oO O os O oO O ss OO sO O ss OO sO O ss OO sO O ss OO sO O ss OO sO O os HO oO H os HO oO H os HO oO H os HO oO H os HO oO H mHaO OHOO mHam oHaO mHaO szz .mzaz m2az mzaz Ozaz D Hospcoo D Hoocoeflsogxm OOHsoamO msHoz .a omzaa a saHmsm> some smamo OHomos a HOOOEOOocH ocoflpoocsom GRAPH DESIGN PAIR, O Controlled NAMES X Experimental 80 79 78 77 76 75 71+ 73 72 71 7O 68 67 66 65 61+ 63 62 61 60 I: 58 L: 56 55 53 52 51 50 48 A7 A6 45 All 23 22 21 2O Pre Test lst 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th APPENDIX C PHOTOGRAPHS Fig. 17 The official size basket. Fig. 18 The official size basket with small rim. Fig. 19 The small rim in relation to the official basketball. SO Fig. 17 The official size basket 51 The official size basket with small rim 52 Fig. 19 Relationship between small rim and official ball 53 APPENDIX D Statistical Computations "T" Scores 1. Developmental 2. High School 3. Michigan State University basketball team \J'l \J‘l DEVELOPMENTAL SUBJECTS TEST PERIODS 1 2 3 4 5 6 2: PAIRS A -4 -18 -8 —15 -17 —11 -73 B +1 +3 +7 -11 +4 +13 +7 C +1 -5 0 +4 +6 -1 +5 D -3 -1 —u -3 +2 —4 —13 E -2 —3 —3 -4 +6 +5 —1 2E (81) = -75 i (Si>2= 5573 5‘: j§_é§11_ = -15 5' -15 ‘15 t = fM2(d12)—(zdi>2 ‘f5.5573-<-75>2 = 27865-5625 M(M—1) 2o 20 _15 -15 _ -15 _ -15 t = J 22230 = 7 1112 ’ 33.3E6 _ 33.35 20 t = — .4A97 HIGH SCHOOL SUBJECTS TEST PERIODS 1 2 3 4 5 6 2:. PAIRS A -6 +2 -3 +18 +4 +1 +16 B +6 —2 -6 —3 —5 —3 —13 C -2 +3 -7 +4 +3 +1 +2 D +4 -9 -l -1 +1 -2 —8 2 (Si) = -3 2 (Si)2 = 493 E = -.75 -.75 - 5 --75 t = MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY VARSITY SUBJECTS TEST PERIODS 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 PAIRS A —12 o o —3 -3 -1 —19 B +7 -2 +6 +6 +10 +5 +32 C +3 +4 —5 +6 -3 -1 +4 D 0 0 +3 +4 +5 +4 +16 2 (Xi) = 33 1 (x12): 1657 - = 33 z , d 4—. 8 2 8.2 -+— 8.2 8.2 t : 7416574332 \/6628-1089 . ./461.58 12 12 = 8.2 21.48 4-1? in nufl‘l I —'fi% £777! . . ._