ABSTRACT SURVEY OF THE EDUCATIONAL AND MEDIA BACKGROUND OF MICHIGAN TELEVISION NEWS PERSONNEL By Rosemarie J. Alexander The typical television journalist in the state of Michigan is a 30-year-old male with a bachelor of arts degree in broadcasting. He has approximately two and one-half years experience as a radio newsman. Since becoming a television newsman, he has worked for two television stations. He has been working at his current job for two years. Like other broadcasters, this newsman is highly mobile. His immediate goal is to work in a larger TV station and to assume more responsibility and prestige in TV news than he presently has in his job. The average Michigan broadcaster desires to work in a major market, such as Detroit, which has more news to cover, offers larger news operations, a chance to specialize in one aspect of TV news, and offers him better pay. Eventually, he wants to become a news director 10,3 major market station, or work for a television network news operation. One major factor contributing to his mobility may be money--the average yearly salary for a TV newsman in Michigan is under $10,000. Rosemarie J. Alexander This composite drawing of Michigan television news personnel is the result of a survey conducted in l5 commercial television stations in January 1974. More than 64 percent of the American public uses TV as a major source for daily news. The purpose of this research is to define the educational background, media experience and professional goals of the men and women who are responsible for bringing TV news to the public every day. The news responsibilities as identified in the thesis include news directors, assistant news directors, assignment editors, producers, reporters, writers and anchormen. When the survey was conducted in l974, l93 held these positions in Michigan. Questionnaires and letters of explanation were sent to the journalists in 16 commercial television stations. One hundred seventeen persons from l5 stations responded, which is 61 percent of the survey population. Fifty-three percent of the respondents were reporter-writers. The research concentrated on these areas of interest: (1) the educational background and professional media experience of television journalists in Michigan; (2) their daily responsibilities in their news departments; (3) their professional mobility, i.e., goals they wish to achieve within broadcast news; and (4) their interests in professional activities which are related to their career. The biographical data will benefit news directors in their search for news staff members. The information could serve as a profile in de- termining standards fOr television news journalists in Michigan markets, so news directors will know what to expect from the employezmarketplace. Rosemarie J. Alexander The results of the Michigan survey closely follow those of other surveys conducted on a national level by Irving Fang and Vernon Stone. This study should serve as a catalyst for future research in broadcast journalism. For example, the results of this survey could be compared to the educational background, media experience and professional mobility of journalists in the print media. A similar survey could also be conducted to determine the char- acteristics of television weather and sportscasters, who are an integral part of every newscast. Other research could determine the extent of influence television station managers, owners or salesmen may have on news department budgets, equipment, the hiring and firing of personnel, and on news content and objectivity. Accepted by the faculty of the School of Journalism, College of Communication Arts and Sciences, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Direc or f Thesis SURVEY OF THE EDUCATIONAL AND MEDIA BACKGROUND OF MICHIGAN TELEVISION NEWS PERSONNEL By Rosemarie J. Alexander A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS School of Journalism T976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank all the Michigan news directors, operations managers and news department personnel who participated in this study: WJBK-TV, WXYZ-TV and WWJ-TV in Detroit; HDTV and WZZM-TV in Grand Rapids; WKZO-TV in Kalamazoo; WUHQ-TV in Battle Creek; WNEM-TV and WEYI-TV in Saginaw; WJRT-TV in Flint; WJIM-TV in Lansing; WILX-TV in Jackson; WWTV in Cadillac; WGTU-TV in Traverse City; and WLUC-TV in Marquette. My thanks to my thesis director, Dr. George A. Hough, III in the School of Journalism at Michigan State University, and to Roy Gibson, Associate Professor of Journalism and Mass Communications at the University of Utah, for his valuable assistance. ii LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TABLES .......................... v INTRODUCTION: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE ...... l The Literature ...................... 3 Methodology ....................... 5 The Survey Questionnaire ................. 8 THE HISTORY OF BROADCAST NEWS .............. lO Broadcast Regulations .................. 12 Network Radio News .................... 14 The Growth of Television News .............. l7 The History of Michigan Television News ......... 20 THE TYPICAL MICHIGAN TELEVISION NEWSMAN ......... 22 Survey Results ...................... 25 A Newsman's Profile ................... 26 Age ........................... 27 Education ........................ 28 Media Experience ..................... 29 Mobility ......................... 29 Responsibilities ..................... 31 PROFILE OF THE NEWS STAFF ................ 34 News Directors ....................... 34 Assignment Editors .................... 38 Reporter-Writers ..................... 40 Producers ........................ 44 Anchormen ........................ 46 STATION ANALYSIS ..................... 51 Detroit ......................... 5l Detroit's Newsmen .................... 55 Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo-Battle Creek ........... 58 Newsmen in Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo-Battle Creek ...... 62 Lansing-Jackson ..................... 64 Newsmen in Lansing-Jackson ................ 66 1'11 Chapter Page V. STATION ANALYSIS (Continued) Flint-Saginaw-Bay City ................. 68 Newsmen in Flint-Saginaw-Bay City ........... 7O Traverse City-Cadillac-Marquette ------------ 71 Newsmen in Traverse City-Cadillac-Marquette ...... 74 VI. WOMEN IN TELEVISION NEWS ................ 77 VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 86 Future Research Possibilities ............ . 9O APPENDICES A. Questionnaire to News Directors ............ 93 B. Pretest Questionnaire ................. 95 C. Letter and Final Questionnaire to All News Personnel ....................... lOO SOURCES CONSULTED ....................... lOS iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page l. Age of TV news personnel ................ 27 2. Education of TV news personnel ............... 28 3. Previous media experience of TV newsmen ......... 30 4. Responsibilities of news directors ........... 36 5. News directors' salaries ................ 37 6. Undergraduate major--reporter-writers .......... 42 7. Educational level of respondents ............ 49 8. Salary level of respondents ............... 50 9. Market comparisons ................... 76 lO. Newswomen in Michigan television stations, January l974 ...................... 80 ll. Michigan women—~weekly pay scale ............ 84 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION: PURPOSE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE This study attempts to describe the biographical background and the potential mobility of Michigan television news personnel by examining their education and media experience in relation to their primary role in a news department. The study reviews the development of television news, defines and explains most of the newsmen's responsibilities in Michigan opera- tions, and shows how Michigan TV news personnel fit into the structure of their news departments. Results from a survey of l5 commercial TV news departments in Michigan, conducted in January and February l974, are reported in the study. It describes the roles the journalists play in the daily process of gathering, writing and producing news for broadcast. The survey results were used to develop a biographical profile of the participants. The survey encompassed these areas: (l) formal education and professional media experience of TV journalists; (2) their responsibil- ities in their respective news operations; (3) the professional goals they want to attain within broadcasting, i.e., mobility from television market to market, or from job to job within the same station or other stations in the same city; and (4) their interests in activities related to their profession. The original research was conducted in 1974, when figures from the Federal Communications Commission showed 928 television stations broadcasting in the United States. Seven hundred and five were com— mercial stations and 233 were public or educational stations. Twenty- one commercial TV stations (including three satellite stations) and six public and educational stations were operating in Michigan.1 This study concentrates on 15 of the 21 Michigan commercial television stations in 1974 which had news departments. These are WXYZ-TV, WWJ-TV, and WJBK-TV, Detroit; WJRT-TV, Flint; WNEM-TV and WEYI-TV, Saginaw; WJIM-TV, Lansing, WILX-TV, Jackson; WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek; WKZO-TV, Kalamazoo; WOTV and WZZM-TV, Grand Rapids; WWTV, Cadillac,with satellite station WWUP-TV in Sault Ste. Marie; WGTU-TV, Traverse City; and WLUC-TV in Marquette. WPBN-TV, Traverse City, with satellite station WTOM-TV in Cheboygan, did not participate in the research. Satellite operations relay the station's signal and seldom originate local programming. They were not included in the survey, but any news stringers were included. Approximately 193 employes in these stations gather, write, produce and deliver local news every day. Unless they are also re-; porters or writers, this figure does not include photographers, film processors and editors, technical directors and secretaries. Specifically, the study investigated the education of each news man and woman, the type and duration of prior media experience, 1BroadcastingYearbook 1974 (Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications, Inc., 1974), p. 12. and plans for future professional endeavors. The biographical profile examines the specific responsibilities of each newsman, salary and work- load, and the major reasons for working at the present station. The study is a report of these results. It also compares the typical Michi- gan TV newsman with newsmen from across the country. The results should benefit each station that participated in the survey, and could be valuable information to news directors in locating and hiring news personnel. In discussing the survey with several news directors, the writer was told the information would be useful in arguing employe salary structures with the station's general management. In order to hire experienced people, news directors need to know what the market requires. It would also be valuable, news directors said, to have a stan- dard profile of broadcast journalists against which to measure prospec- tive employes. News directors need to know what to expect from the employe marketplace. One news director said this information would be particularly useful in minority hiring and minority law suits. If a person is not hired and subsequently sues the station, the defense must include hard facts about other broadcast journalists and how this person compares with the norm. The Literature Television news programs are the number one source of news for the American people. At the time the Michigan research was conducted, the most recent study, a 1972 Roper poll, indicated 33 percent of the viewing public relied only on TV for their news and 65 percent used television as the source for most of their news. Forty-eight percent of the viewing public thought television the most believable news medium.2 For purposes of this study, the writer assumed these figures apply to Michigan. Most of the literature written about broadcast journalism centers around the news process, or often focuses on the listening audience rather than the men and women who produce the daily newscasts. Literature on the background of the journalist is mainly limited to surveys done in the early l970s. Until this survey was conducted, no research focused directly on Michigan broadcast news personnel. Three recent and relevant studies are (l) "Radio-Television News Directors and Operations," by Vernon A. Stone, (2) "A Survey of Salaries and Hiring Preferences in Television News," by Irving Fang and Frank Gerval, and (3) "A Survey of Women in Broadcast News," by Stone and Abigail Jones Nas. Stone's 1972 study conducted for the Radio-Television News Directors Association surveyed a random sample of TV news operations, joint TV-radio news operations, and radio news operations. In relation to their respective news departments, news directors answered questions about biographical data, salaries, media experience and problems of the media. Stone's study was the most valuable guide the writer found in a survey of the literature and will be presented later in this thesis in zBurns W. Roper, What People Think of Television and Other Mass Media,,l959-l972 (New York: Television Information Office, 1972), pp. 2-3. comparison to the description of Michigan TV news directors. Vernon Stone's profile of women in broadcast news is also referred to later in this study. Irving Fang and Frank Gerval of the University of Minnesota conducted a nationwide survey of employment opportunities and salaries in the television news field in 1970. Their study, "A Survey of Salaries and Hiring Preferences in Television News," provides data on the salaries available, employment opportunities and the educational background news directors expect of the journalists they hire. In later chapters, Michigan news data will be compared with Fang's data. Although these are relevant studies, the RTNDA study by Stone, and Fang and Gerval's study primarily deal with responses from news directors. From the results of the Michigan survey, the following chapters draw a typical profile of television news broadcasters in Michigan; specifically, news directors, assistant news directors (often referred to as managing editors), assignment editors, producers, reporters, writers and anchormen. Methodology All commercial television stations with news departments in Michigan were surveyed for this news personnel study. An initial question- naire seeking a description of each news operation was sent to news direc- tors or general managers in 18 stations. The 1974 edition of Broadcasting Yearbook was used as a source for the names of the persons in charge of the news departments. A list of employes in each newsroom was supplied by them. This questionnaire helped the writer determine the structure and size of each news operation before designing the second and third questionnaires, which were sent to the persons previously described. Such an investigation was necessary to determine which news respons- ibilities should be presented in the questionnaire sent to employes. It was decided that the daily news stories which get on the air are usually controlled by news directors, managing editors, assignment editors, producers, reporters and writers. Which stories get covered and how they are presented during the newscast is more likely to be determined by these people than by photographers, film editors, pro- cessors, secretaries or technical directors also involved in each newscast. Anchormen were included in the survey because they often have other responsibilities in the news process and are normally the major personality the audience associates with the newscast. The first questionnaire was followed by telephone calls to each news director, unjng him to participate in the study and asking for a list of news department personnel. At this time it was found that two commercial stations in Michigan had no news operations. Nine news directors responded to this questionnaire. Those who did not answered the same questions during personal interviews conducted later. A pretest of the second questionnaire was conducted at four stations: WJRT-TV, Flint; WOTV, Grand Rapids; WZZM-TV, Grand Rapids; and WILX-TV, Jackson. The pretests were delivered by the writer to each news department employe with a personal explanation. During the same visit the writer conducted a personal interview with the news (lirector to find out more about the news operation and news personnel. Although the pretest included many open-ended questions, response \Nas high. The pretest gave insight into how the final questionnaire should be structured for a high rate of response and what questions were relevant to the study. Comments from the pretest such as "irrelevant,” "unclear," "too long" were taken into consideration. Multiple-choice questions were used throughout the final ques- tionnaire to ensure high return and to facilitate coding of responses. The questions required that the respondent check an answer or answers from a list of responses. Five questions directed the respondent to "check all those answers that apply.“ Although most questions asked for only one answer, many respondents refused to make a choice and checked more than one. Seven open-ended questions asked for one word answers, such as station call letters, respondent's age, or the number of years respondent had worked for the current station. For coding purposes, they were categorized according to those answers. The third questionnaire was personally delivered to all news directors in the 16 Michigan commercial stations with news departments except WLUC-TV in Marquette. Due to the great distance to that Upper Peninsula city, a telephone interview was conducted with a member of the news department to discuss the station's structure and organization. The final questionnaire was mailed to each employe at the station. See Appendix I for the three questionnaires used in the research. All news directors or general managers except one cooperated by distributing the surveys and cover letter to their personnel, or by making the names available so the surveys could be mailed. WPBN-TV in Traverse City did not participate in the survey, cutting the population to 15. The station has no news director and has only three men in the news department who answer directly to the opera- tions manager. He refused to let the writer talk with any of the news staff members and would not distribute the questionnaire because, he said, it was "too personal." During an interview the operations manager described the news department structure for the writer and this is included later in this thesis. The Survey Questionnaire The final questionnaire is divided into four parts, focusing on both the newsman and his job. Part I examines the educational background and professional media experience of news personnel. Responses included the age, sex, the station the newsman currently works for, the educational level achieved, the total years of media experience and the years of experience with the present station. The information from Part I, entitled Back- ground, is a general biographical description of each category of news personnel. Part II, Responsibilities, is devoted to job analysis. It examines the primary and secondary duties involved in the categories of news responsibilities previously outlined, each newsman's salary, his reasons for working for the present station, and his rationale for hold- ing another job outside the station, if he finds it necessary. Part III, Mobility, looks at the potential mobility of news staff members. In an effort to measure this, respondents were asked the number of stations for which they have worked, and their desire to move into other positions in their own station or larger news departments. The final section, Professional Interests, attempts to determine the interests these news people take in their profession and in other news media. To gauge this activity, respondents were asked to list the professional organizations of which they were members and the extent of their participation in them. In addition, Part IV examines how closely they monitor television news and the print media. Each questionnaire was accompanied by a cover letter explaining the research and by a pre-addressed, stamped envelope. They were delivered to 15 stations between January 21 and January 31, 1974. Four weeks were allowed for returns. One hundred ninety-three questionnaires were distributed and 117 persons responded, a 61 percent rate of return. Mail surveys commonly bring a 40 to 50 percent response.3 The national RTNDA survey, conducted in both radio and TV newsrooms, had a 65 percent response rate for TV only and joint TV-radio news operations. The high return from Michigan newsmen is believed to be partially due to the interest of the respondents in the results of the survey. The per- sonal visit with each news director may also be a major reason for high response. The interviews centered around a full explanation of the study, the stations' news organizations and facilities. Due to the 61 percent response, mail follow-ups were not con- ducted. After the personal interviews, a brief telephone call to remind each news director about the survey was the only follow-up performed. Responses were tabulated in the Michigan State University Computer Center. 3Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: New York University, 1964), p. 397. CHAPTER II THE HISTORY OF BROADCAST NEWS The broadcast media have the advantage of immediacy. Since their inception, both radio and television have been perfectly suited to bring news to the public instantaneously. News by "wireless" began in 1897 with a live report of the Kingstown Regatta in England. Guglielmo Marconi, the inventor of the wireless, was commissioned by the Dublin Daily Express to broadcast the race. Broadcasting has advanced much since then, but its course as a news medium was set with that first timely broadcast. Much experimentation with radio took place after that, and by 1912 Congress found it necessary to enact the Radio Act of 1912, estab- lishing governmental regulation of wire communication. The act gave the Secretary of Commerce and Labor the power to grant licenses to United States citizens "upon application therefor."4 In Michigan, the Detroit News began experimenting with radio about 1920. Known as the Detroit News Radiophone and licensed as 8MK, the station broadcast local election returns on August 31, 1920. About 500 amateur radio operators had receiving equipment in the Detroit area. Only these people were aware of this 8MK broadcast. 4Frank J. Kahn, ed., Documents of American Broadcasting(New York: Appleton—Century-Crofts, 1968), p. 8. TO ll KDKA, the first licensed radio station, owned by the Westing- house Company, began broadcasting from a rooftop shack in East Pitts- burg, Pennsylvania. It went on the air November 2, 1920, officially marking the beginning of commercial radio. KDKA and station 8MK in Detroit broadcast returns of the presidential election of Warren G. Harding. That same year, 8MK became WWJ radio, the first station in Michigan. By 1922, there were more than 500 radio stations on the air across the country. The first evidence of a regular newscast appears in 1921, when the log from WJZ radio in Newark, New Jersey, showed five minutes of news and weather every day, mostly gathered from newspapers. According to Erik Barnouw, a broadcast historian, H. V. Kalten- born was the first broadcast journalist. In 1921, while he was associate editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle, Kaltenborn broadcast half-hour analytical reviews of news issues over WEAF, New York City. His program was one of the first news programs on radio, establishing him in radio journalism. In 1926, he became one of the first voices of CBS radio news. The first multiple station hook-up was engineered by American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1923 to broadcast a speech by President Harding. AT&T connected stations in St. Louis, New York, and Washington, D.C., for the occasion. In 1924, both the Democratic and Republican national conventions were broadcast over the same interconnected stations. WJZ, Newark, and WEAF, New York City, sent their first two broad- cast field reporters to Washington in March 1925 to cover, live, the inauguration of President Calvin Coolidge. NBC started the first regular network with 24 stations in 1926. 12 Broadcast Regulations Although the Radio Act of 1912 gave the Secretary of Commerce and Labor the power to grant broadcast licenses, it did not provide regulation for the growing industry or designate the grounds on which the Secretary could exercise discretion in granting the licenses. Frequency allocations were becoming more difficult to regulate. The Radio Act of 1927 called for the temporary formation of the Federal Radio Commission to (l) classify radio stations, (2) prescribe the nature of the service rendered by each class, (3) assign radio frequencies and call letters. These and other regulatory duties were performed within the requirement of the “public interest, convenience and necessity."5 These requirements were not clearly defined. Not all situations where regulation would be needed could be anticipated, thus Congress granted broadcasting considerable freedom of discretion. The Radio Act did not mention news, public affairs or other types of programming. These were generally considered to be included in the phrase "public interest, convenience and necessity." But Congress did provide that "radio broadcasting is a form of expression protected by the First Amendment."6 The constitutional guarantees of freedom of press and speech were extended to radio broadcasting, although they are subject to special limitations, such as Section 315 of the Communications Act 5Kahn, Documents, p. 37. 6Sydney W. Head, Broadcasting in America (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1956), p. 131. 13 of 1934, and the Fairness Doctrine of 1949.7 The FRC was supposed to be a temporary regulating body, but in 1920 Congress made it the regulating agency for broadcasting. The Communications Acts of 1934 called for more regulation and established the FRC as the Federal Communications Commission.8 Broadcasters also felt the need for regulation, and in 1929 they voluntarily imposed self-regulation through a trade association known as the National Association for Broadcasters. The majority of stations now subscribe to the NAB Code, which prescribes a code of ethics, commercial practice, and programming standards for both radio and television. 7Section 315 provides that if a station gives time to one legally qualified candidate for public office, it must afford equal opportunities to all candidates for that office, except in a bona fide newscast, news interview, documentary and on-the-spot coverage of bona fide news events. Section 315 states that such action should not be construed as relieving broadcasters ". . . from the obligation imposed upon them under this Act to operate in the public interest and to afford reasonable opportunity for the discussion of conflicting views on issues of public importance." The Fairness Doctrine deals with "reasonable" opportunity for presenting contrasting viewpoints on controversial issues of public importance. The licensee must make reasonable judgments in good faith. See Kahn, Documents, pp. 361-451. 8The Communications Act of 1934 is based primarily on the Radio Act of 1927. It is the statute Congress currently uses to regulate interstate communications by wire and radio. The Act creates the seven-member Federal Communications Commission to enforce it and generally provides that the FCC grant licenses to radio (and television) stations and regulate frequencies, etc., "as public convenience, interest or necessity requires.” See Kahn, Documents, pp. 54-94. 14 Network Radio News The development of national broadcast networks made radio more competitive with other media and stations more competitive among them- selves. In 1926, General Electric, Westinghouse and the Radio Corporation of America organized the National Broadcasting Company in New York. WEAF became the first NBC owned and operated station. Two years later the Columbia Phonograph Broadcasting System was formed. The same year the word "phonograph" was dropped from the title. Iime_magazine pioneered radio news in 1928 by offering scripts called newscasting to radio stations. In 1931, Ijm§_began weekly reenactments of scenes from news of the week on a program known as "The March of Time." By 1933, news had become a regular part of network radio schedules: H. V. Kaltenborn at 6 p.m. On CBS; Lowell Thomas at 6:45 p.m. on NBC; Boake Carter at 7:45 p.m. on CBS; and Edwin C. Hill at 10:45 p.m. on CBS. The networks did not have any news gathering organizations. The element of timeliness was maintained by broadcasting live news events and current events talks, but commentators and newscasters generally took daily stories from newspapers and wire services. About 1930, CBS organized a full news operation with correspon- dents in major cities and exchanges with various overseas news agencies. Newspapers felt threatened by CBS and determined to boycott the network by rejecting advertisements from companies who sponsored CBS programs. Many of the sponsors reacted to the boycott by taking their business to NBC or cancelling their accounts at CBS. 15 Newspaper pressure on the networks forced a joint session of newspaper publishers, wire services, and broadcasters to resolve their differences. An agreement, called the Biltmore Program, was reached in December 1933 among NBC, CBS, the National Association of Broadcasters, the Associated Press, United Press, International News Service, and the American Newspaper Publishers Association. The Biltmore Program was supposed to end the possibility of strong broadcast news agencies. CBS agreed to disband its news operation, and NBC agreed that it would not build a news gathering organization. Network news was to be limited to two five-minute newscasts per day, no earlier than 9:30 a.m. and no later than noon; and at 9 p.m. or later. This schedule could not pose a threat to morning and afternoon newspaper editions. A Press-Radio Bureau was organized to supply broad- casters with news bulletins from AP, UP, and INS at network expense. No items broadcast could exceed thirty words. Non-network stations were welcome to join the news service, but no radio news program, whether network or not, could have commercial sponsorship. Radio could not continue to live with the conditions of the Biltmore Treaty. Independent news services, such as Transradio, were formed despite the agreement to provide news to subscribing stations. Pressure from broadcasters and sponsors eventually forced UP, INS, and AP to sell their news to radio in 1934, and the networks formed news departments to serve the entire country. By 1938, CBS, NBC and the Mutual Broadcasting System,created in the early 19305, were broadcasting the start of World War II from Europe. In 1943, another network was formed, the American Broadcasting 16 System, Inc. WJZ, Newark, became WABC, the network's first owned and operated station. News operations were growing but the opinions of early radio commentators such as Kaltenborn were coming under fire. Many were still editorializing while reporting the daily news. Kaltenborn of CBS insisted on commentary, so CBS generated a policy stating it would broadcast only news analysis, not news commentary. Kaltenborn moved to NBC, continued his commentary, and in 1940 CBS, NBC, and Mutual found it necessary to issue a joint policy of wartime news coverage: News analysts are at all times to be confined strictly to explaining and evaluating such fact, rumor, propaganda, and so on, as are available. No news analyst or news broadcaster of any kind is to be allowed to express personal editorial judgment or to say anything in an effort to influence action or opinion of others one way or the other.9 The NAB adopted a code similar to the networks: "Since the number of broadcasting channels is limited, news broadcasts shall not be editorials. . . ."'° The "Mayflower Decision" was handed down in 1941 by the Federal Communications Commission, stating: "A truly free radio cannot be used to advocate the causes of the licensee . . . the broadcaster cannot be an advocate."H 9Erik Barnouw, The Golden Web, Vol. II, 1933-53 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 136. 10 11 Ibid., p. 136. Kahn, Documents, p. 350. 17 The Growth of Television News Television made its debut to large numbers of the public at the New York World's Fair in 1939. That same year, Allen B. Dumont, an independent television researcher, marketed the first home tele- vision receivers. By May 1940, 23 stations were telecasting in the United States, but the restricted World War 11 economy forced most of them to leave the air. RCA put its first sets on the market in 1946 and opened the doors for the RCA-NBC surge into the television era. CBS moved more slowly, waiting for the development of color TV. In January of 1947, NBC telecast the opening of Congress for the first time. The first network television news program, the NBC "Today Show," was introduced in 1952 with Dave Garroway as host. The two-hour news and variety program has become the longest running network program on television today. Another major event covered in 1952 has continued through the years: election coverage by all three television networks. During every national election year, Democratic and Republican party conventions and election returns are broadcast by ABC, CBS and NBC. According to Barnouw, "Television news, at the start of 1953, was an unpromising child. It was the schizophrenic offspring of the theater newsreel and the radio newscast, and was confused as to its role and future course."12 12Erik Barnouw, The Image Empire, Vol. III, 1953-present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 40. 18 Outside production companies who produced newsreels for theaters initially provided newsfilm for the networks. The voices came from the newsmenku)had become well-known in radio. The theater newsreel tradi- tion carried over into NBC's and CBS's first 15 minute evening newscasts in 1953. Both networks maintained film crews in principal news centers: New York, Washington, D.C., Chicago, Los Angeles, London and Paris. Stringers covered other major cities. Newscaster John Cameron Swayze dominated NBC news for its first years with the "Camel News Caravan," sponsored by Camel cigarettes. CBS-TV countered with "Television News with Douglas Edwards." ABC-TV did not have a regular newscast until October 1961. Many local TV news programs began with staff announcers reading wire copy, rewritten newspaper stories and bits of information gleaned from telephone interviews. Many subscribed to the same syndicated news- reel services which helped supply the networks. Only gradually did they develop their own local film sources during the middle and late 19505. The visual elements of television should have quickly broadened news coverage, but it actually curtailed the scope of news. The staple of radio news in its finest days was analysis, which television pushed aside because it was non-visual. Since television news adhered closely to the newsreel tradition, newsfilm was primarily used to depict predictable events, many of them staged for the camera. News conferences, beauty contests, banquets and speeches were a great part of these early 15 minute TV newscasts. Floods, fires, wars and other catastrophes were covered by early news- film teams--if the event lasted long enough for a crew to get there. 19 The newsreel did not have a permanent effect on network news. Networks developed their own film systems in the 19505. Sixteen mm. film camera equipment replaced the bulky 35 mm. cameras, allowing more maneuverability and making the visual element of news a much easier process on both the network and local level. CBS news correspondent Edward R. Murrow and producer Fred Friendly developed a more analytical approach to examining the issues in their program "See It Now," which combined analysis and visuals. That program may be best remembered for its analysis of Senator Joseph McCarthy's Senate hearing during 1954. The regularly scheduled "See It Now," an innovator in special news programming, was cancelled by the network in 1958. CBS replaced it with documentaries, and by 1960 all three networks were producing them, some of the most famous being Murrow's "Harvest of Shame" and the NBC "White Paper" series. Documentaries usually employed visual impact with information and analysis of news events. These special public affairs programs are now standard TV news fare, although they are most often scheduled outside prime time hours. Network news expanded in the 19605, spurred by the Nixon- Krushchev tours of the United States and Russia, and the United Nations meetings for peace during President Eisenhower's administration. Net- work news coverage of news events became the rule at that time, such as the live broadcast of the "Great Debates" between presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon. President Kennedy changed presi- dential news conferences by permitting live question and answer sessions. . During this time, the television industry became aware of a 20 new dignity because of its news coverage capability. By 1963, the net- works had expanded the evening news to 30 minutes. All three networks now have two weekday newscasts, weekend newscasts, and special weekly news programs. The History of Michigan Television News WWJ, the oldest radio station in Michigan, went on the air in 1920. WWJ-TV began broadcasting on March 4, 1947. These stations were the first broadcast news operations in the state. The youngest news department in Michigan is WGTU in Traverse City, which started broad- casting in August 1971. Most Michigan television news operations began with an anchor- man reading stories from wire copy, and one or two field reports with little or no film. Although each news department started small, they are now all competitive within their markets. Not all stations had news departments from the time they went on the air. The growth of television news on the local level is more difficult to document than network growth. The 16 stations with news departments, all initially contacted for this study, went on the air between 1947 and 1971: WWJ-TV, Detroit, March 1947; WJBK-TV, Detroit, October 1948; WXYZ-TV, Detroit, October 1948; WOTV-TV, Grand Rapids, August 1949; WJIM-TV, Lansing, May 1950; WKZO-TV, Kalamazoo, June 1950; WEYI-TV, Saginaw, April 1953; WWTV, Cadillac, January 1954; WNEM-TV, Saginaw, February 1954; WPBN-TV, Traverse City, September 1954; WLUC-TV, Marquette, April 1956; WJRT-TV, Flint, October 1958; WILX-TV, Jackson, March 1959; WZZM-TV, Grand Rapids, November 1962; WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek, 21 July 1971; WGTU—TV, Traverse City, August 1971. The financial stability of the local station and management's attitude toward news programming tends to determine the size, efficiency and commitment of the station's news operation. The FCC demands only that licensees broadcast within the "public interest, convenience, and necessity.“ News is assumed to be a part of this definition, but some stations across the country fulfill FCC requirements without daily news programming. However, stations without news programming tend to be exceptions. CHAPTER III THE TYPICAL MICHIGAN TELEVISION NEWSMAN In order to understand the results of the Michigan television news survey, it is necessary to understand the responsibilities of each newsman in a news department. The size of a television news staff usually depends upon the size of the station, the attitude management has toward news, the ability of newscasts to generate revenue, and the availability of news in the station's market. A typical large news operation will have many employes, each responsible for a particular aspect of the daily news operation. In a smaller station, these responsibilities are combined and handled by fewer people. The largest news operations in Michigan are in Detroit, the largest TV market in the state, and the seventh largest in the country. WXYZ-TV, owned by the American Broadcasting Company; WWJ-TV, owned by the Evening News Association; and WJBK-TV, owned by the Storer Broad- casting Company, employ more than 60 staff members in their news departments. About 20 comprise the journalistic personnel described in this thesis. For example, when the survey was conducted in January 1974, WJBK-TV had a news staff consistingcfl’the news director, a manag- ing editor, two producers, three assignment editors, four writers, nine reporter-anchormen, a consumer affairs editor, and one full-time 22 23 anchorman. The other members of the staff included cameramen, film processors, film editors, technical directors, and secretaries, who are vital to the news operation but are not included in this study. By contrast, the smallest Michigan news department participating in the survey was located in Traverse City and had four employes. All four functioned as news reporters, cameramen, editors, producers, and anchormen, and also broadcast weather and sports. The following is a breakdown of the chief responsibilities within a news department, according to Irving Fang in his book Television News.13 News Director. Oversees the entire news operation and its administration, including the budget. In some stations he is a member of the editorial board or may be completely in charge of editorials. In a small news department he may also act as a reporter, writer, pro- ducer, and anchorman. Managing Editor. Sometimes called the assistant news director, the managing editor is responsible for the general minute-to-minute supervision of the newsroom. This position is often eliminated in small news departments. Assignment Editor. Responsible for organizing and dispatching all reporter-cameraman crews and makes most of the daily story assign- ments. He knows the locations of reporters and crews so he can keep up with the progress of stories or quickly dispatch a crew to another story. He is aware of current wire stories, monitors police and fire radios for news tips, and keeps the file of future news stories up-to-date. He is 13Irving E. Fang, Television News (New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1972), pp. 13-36. 24 directly responsible to and works closely with the news director, managing editor and producer. In smaller stations, the assignment editor might be the news director, the managing editor, producer, or even a reporter. Field Reporter. Gathers news stories every day. In a larger or a labor union operation (e.g., WJBK-TV, Detroit), he will work with a cameraman and soundman; in a smaller station (e.g., WJRT-TV, Flint), he might film and edit his own stories. The reporter describes his stories on film at the scene (called stand-ups), reads over film (called voice-over), and does filmed interviews in the field. He keeps abreast of events in the station's coverage area and remains a chief source of story ideas for the assignment editor. A reporter also writes most of his own stories. News programs which incorporate the "eyewitness" format often bring some reporters into the studio to describe their stories during the live newscast. EEEIEE: Many stations do not distinguish between reporters and writers. In a large station, such as WJBK-TV, the distinction is clear. The writer screens the film as soon as it is processed, tells the film editor which scenes he will need for the story and writes the story from information field reporters may have telephoned to him. Writers also rewrite wire copy and may choose video tape clips from network feeds or news services which will be used in daily newscasts. Producer. Responsible for the content and production of the newscast, the producer's main work begins when he starts building daily newscasts from the day's news scripts. Depending on the particular format of the newscast, how many stories the producer himself must write, 25 and what network news feeds he must watch and edit, the producer might begin working anywhere from three to seven hours before actual air time. The producer chooses the major stories and fits them into his station's news format. In a 30-minute newscast, the time devoted strictly to news will vary according to the commercial load of the day. Actual news time in the program might average between 13 and 19 minutes. It is likely that the staff will produce more than 19 minutes of news during a 24-hour period. To keep within that time limit, the producer must trim and edit within the copy, table undated stories for future newscasts, and discard some stories. In some operations the news director makes these decisions. Anchorman. The anchorman, weather and sportscasters are often the major persons the viewer identifies with the news program. Many anchormen do little more than read news, but the anchorman could also be a reporter, the news director, or have some other major responsibility in the news department. This is usually the case in small news operations. Survey Results One hundred seventeen employes of Michigan television stations responded to the writer's survey, 61 percent of the 193 working in the categories described in the survey during 1974. The purpose of this study is to design a biographical profile of these newsmen and women. Thirteen respondents (11 percent) were women. The majority of Michigan news broadcasters, 104 respondents (89 percent) were men. Survey results were analyzed according to (1) general biographi- cal characteristics of the entire population of newsmen described above; (2) characteristics of news directors, assignment editors, reporters 26 and anchormen, each as a group and in comparison to other groups; and (3) by market. Throughout the survey all percentages have been rounded to the nearest whole number. A Newsman's Profile The typical Michigan television journalist responding to the survey was a male, 30 years old, with a bachelor's degree in broad- casting and approximately two and one-half years radio news experience. According to survey results, the television newsman had worked for one or two television stations and had been at his current job for two years. His average work week lasted 41 to 45 hours. His annual salary was less than $10,000. He desired to assume more job responsi- bility and work in a larger television market. He wanted eventually to become news director in a major market station or work for television network news. This newsman, whether he was a reporter, assignment editor, anchorman or news director, read the Detroit Free Press as his major daily newspaper, and read his local newspaper for one hour or less every day. He read major weekly national news magazines such as Iimg_ or Newsweek, and spent an average of eight hours each week watching television newscasts, documentaries or public affairs programs. He belonged to professional organizations connected with his work, such as the Radio-Television News Directors Association (RTNDA) or the Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi (SPJ, SDX), or a local press club, although he was not active in these organizations. 27 In this chapter, analysis of the news department employes will be discussed according to three of the four parts of the questionnaire: age and background, responsibilities, and mobility. Age The average age of respondents was 30.6 years. Fifty-nine per- cent (68 respondents) were between the ages of 19 and 29. Only 15 percent (18 persons) were over 40. The oldest respondent was 57 years old. Michigan TV news staffers were slightly younger than those in the 1972 RTNDA study conducted by Vernon Stone. According to Stone, at least half of those in the study were under 30, a third were in their 305 and very few were over 40.14 Table 1. Ages of TV news personnel. 19 to 29 30 to 39 40 and over % % % Michigan 59 25 13 National (RTNDA) 51 34 15 There were no employes over age 39 in 53 percent of the Michi- gan stations. These stations were located in the medium to small markets and employed three to twelve people on their news staffs.15 14Vernon Stone, "Radio-Television News Directors and Operations," RTNDA Communicator (June 1973), p. 8. 15According to the RTNDA, market size is categorized as follows: Small--under 50,000; Medium-~50,000-250,000; Medium/Large--250,000-1,000,000; Major--over 1,000,000. See Stone, Ibid., p. 5. 28 Education Results of the Michigan survey indicated 57 percent of the news employes (67 respondents) had a bachelor's degree, 27 percent (32 respon- dents) attended college, and 13 percent had only a high school diploma (15 respondents). Seven respondents (6 percent) had master's degrees. Only eight attended technical schools of broadcasting, usually in addi- tion to attending college. Stone's study disclosed similar percentages. Table 2. Education of news personnel. Bachelor's Degree Attended College No College % % % Michigan 57 27 13 National (RTNDA) 58 28 14 Television news staffers majored in broadcasting or journalism in college; many respondents studied both. Thirty-six percent majored in broadcasting (42 respondents), 29 percent (34 respondents) majored in journalism, 22 percent (26 respondents) majored in speech, and 18 percent or 21 respondents were liberal arts majors. The total percentage is greater than 100 because it includes both respondents who graduated from college and those who attended college. Some respondents checked two majors on the questionnaire. 29 The remaining 34 responding to the question (28 percent) majored in communication arts, social sciences, sciences, and business. Stone surveyed only news directors about college majors and found that journalism ranked number one. Approximately 14 percent (17) of the Michigan respondents attended graduate school, but only 7 persons (6 percent) had earned master's degrees. Eleven of the 17 respondents who had pursued gradu- ate work majored in broadcasting. The others studied communications, journalism, and political science. No one reported more advanced graduate study. Media Experience The majority of TV news personnel in the Michigan study had at least two and one-half years radio news experience, which they got before working in television or at the same time in a joint TV-radio news operation. Table 3. Previous media experience of TV newsmen. Radio News TV News Newspaper P.R. Othera Respondents 67% 51% 20% 13% 26% Number of Years Experience 2-1/2 l-1/2 1-1/2 2 aThese include magazine and wire service writing, sales, management, advertising, staff announcing, producing, and d1rect1ng in a television operation in departments other than news. 3O One-half of the respondents started their journalism career in television news. Those who worked in TV news prior to their present jobs averaged one and a half years in one station. Most of the respon- dents had previous experience in more than one communications field, accounting for the high total percentage. Mobility Michigan news personnel with previous television news experience got that experience by working in one or two news departments. At the time this survey was taken, 37 percent (44 respondents) were working in their first television news job and had been at this job for two years. Twenty-six percent (30 persons) were in their second television news job. The typical newsman of age 30 or younger had not had the time to move to several stations or markets, but he wanted to. His average salary of less than $10,000 a year may contribute to this desire. More than half (58 percent) of the respondents were working at their present jobs because they offered opportunities for employment in their field. They did not feel tied to the station or market and would move elsewhere if there were an opportunity. One quarter (26 percent) viewed their present jobs as training for future career goals. Accord- ing to newsmen participating in the study who had experience, a person who wants to work in television news seldom has much choice about where he will work. If an opportunity comes along, he must take it if he wants to get the experience he needs to move into the market or posi- tion he desires. The goals of most Michigan TV newsmen included becom ing news directors, moving into station management, or moving into larger markets 31 in positions similar to those they now hold. Thirty-seven percent (43) wanted to work in one of the nation's top ten markets in a similar posi- 16 Twenty-four percent (28) of the respondents tion or as a news director. wanted to work for one of the three television network news operations. Thirty-six news staff members (30 percent) said they would leave their present career in television for another area of the media. Fif- teen said they would like to work in public relations. The remaining respondents preferred advertising and radio. Only 19 percent (23) of the respondents said they were satisfied in their present positions and did not want to move elsewhere. These newsmen averaged 39 years of age and were news directors or reporters in a market they preferred. In contrast, the most mobile group of respon- dents were reporters who averaged 28 years of age. Responsibilities The news personnel who participated in the study were news directors, managing editors, assignment editors, producers, reporters, writers and anchormen. The greatest number of respondents were reporter- writers who outnumbered other news personnel two to one. So few assis- tant news directors-managing editors responded that they were not included in a separate analysis, but were categorized by what they described as their major function--either assignment editor or producer. 16These markets are (1) New York City, (2) Los; Angeles, (3) Chicago, (4) Philadelphia, (5) Boston, (6) San Francisco, (7) Detroit, (8) Washington, D.C., (9) Cleveland, (10) Pittsburgh. Broadcasting Yearbook 1976 (Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications, Inc., 1976), p. B-80. 32 The clearest separation of responsibilities is found in Michi- gan's larger news departments-~Grand Rapids and Detroit. In smaller stations most employes perform more than one duty; e.g., news directors are often reporters, anchormen, assignment editors, photographers, and film editors. In stations with small staffs, it is often necessary for everyone to be able to perform these duties. In larger news markets, such as Detroit, there is a distinction between reporters and writers, but in most small stations the functions are usually synonymous. A11 reporters write stories, but in the Detroit market there are those whosbprimary responsibility is to write stories from wire copy, the network or news service feeds, telephone interviews, and information from reporters who are on the scene of a story. Sixty-two of the newsmen in Michigan (53 percent) in January were reporter-writers. Forty-four said they were primarily reporters (38 percent), and 18 respondents (15 percent) said they were primarily writers. Several Michigan stations had no assignment editors or pro- ducers. Those who said their primary responsibility was producing the newscast comprised nine percent of the population-~on1y 11 respondents. The smallest group of respondents were assignment editors--eight percent, or nine respondents. Anchormen comprised 16 percent of the participants--l9 persons. There were 12 news directors in Michigan's 18 commercial TV stations having news departments. All were male. WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek; WPBN-TV, Traverse City; WJIM-TV, Lansing; and WLUC-TV, Marquette had no news directors or news administrators. At these stations, the operations 32 The clearest separation of responsibilities is found in Michi- gan's larger news departments-~Grand Rapids and Detroit. In smaller stations most employes perform more than one duty; e.g., news directors are often reporters, anchormen, assignment editors, photographers, and film editors. In stations with small staffs, it is often necessary for everyone to be able to perform these duties. In larger news markets, such as Detroit, there is a distinction between reporters and writers, but in most small stations the functions are usually synonymous. All reporters write stories, but in the Detroit market there are those whosbprimary responsibility is to write stories from wire copy, the network or news service feeds, telephone interviews, and information from reporters who are on the scene of a story. Sixty-two of the newsmen in Michigan (53 percent) in January were reporter-writers. Forty-four said they were primarily reporters (38 percent), and 18 respondents (15 percent) said they were primarily writers. Several Michigan stations had no assignment editors or pro- ducers. Those who said their primary responsibility was producing the newscast comprised nine percent of the population--only 11 respondents. The smallest group of respondents were assignment editors--eight percent, or nine respondents. Anchormen comprised 16 percent of the participants--l9 persons. There were 12 news directors in Michigan's 18 commercial TV stations having news departments. All were male. WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek; WPBN-TV, Traverse City; WJIM-TV, Lansing; and WLUC-TV, Marquette had no news directors or news administrators. At these stations, the operations 33 manager or others on the news staff shared the responsibilities of a news director. The majority (63 percent) of Michigan's television journalists had duties in addition to their primary and secondary jobs, but most of these were related to news. Nearly one-third (32 percent) of those answering the question assisted in producing documentary and public affairs programs. In the smallest markets in Michigan, the average news operation had four members. These people reported news, weather and sports, plus recorded commercial and public service announcements. Three Michigan stations, WWJ-TV, Detroit; WWTV, Cadillac; and WKZO-TV, Kalamazoo, had joint radio and television news staffs, and most reporters, anchormen and news directors worked for both radio and television news. Most all reporters in Michigan's TV news departments were classi- fied as general assignment reporters. Fifty-nineof the 71 persons whose primary and secondary job was reporting said they did not have a beat. Thirty had special topics they frequently covered, but news directors were reluctant to call these specialties "beats." They agreed that reporters must be able to cover all stories. The following chapters profile each group of respondents accord- ing to biographical data, media experience, and mobility. CHAPTER IV PROFILE OF THE NEWS STAFF The results of this survey can be analyzed according to the duties of members of the news staff. Although these vary from station to station, the primary journalistic responsibilities in any station lie with the news director, assistant news director (sometimes known as managing editor), assignment editors, producers, reporters, writers and anchormen. News Directors There were 12 news directors in Michigan's commercial TV news departments, which was 10 percent of the 117 respondents in the 1974 survey. Eleven participated in the survey. Four stations did not have news directors at that time: WPBN-TV in Traverse City, WJIM-TV in Lansing, WLUC-TV in Marquette, and WUHQ-TV in Battle Creek. At these stations, the operations managers supervised the administration of the news departments. The news director is directly responsible to the station's management and is considered the administrator of his department. All news directors interviewed for this study started in less responsible positions on news staffs, usually as reporters, before becoming the chief administrators. 34 35 The average Michigan television news director was a male, 38 years old, with a bachelor's degree. He had worked as a news director about three and one-half years. Before working in TV news, he had two and one-half years experience in radio news. Michigan news directors averaged 17 years experience in the mass media. They were the oldest group of respondents. According to Stone, the average news director in the national survey was 36 years old, college educated in journalism and had held his job four years. Seventeen percent of Stone's television respondents had attended a technical school of broadcasting, whereas 34 percent of the 17 Only two of radio news directors had attended a technical school. the Michigan news directors had attended a technical school, in addition to some undergraduate study. Four Michigan news directors (36 percent of the 11 responding) majored in broadcasting; two majored in journalism and liberal arts; the others in speech, social sciences and the sciences. News directors in the three Detroit and two Grand Rapids stations were exclusively administrators of their news operations. Writing editorials was the only secondary responsibility some of them had. But in Michigan's small markets, news directors were often assignment editors, writers, producers, reporters, photographers, editorial writers or anchor- men. Six were hosts for local public affairs programs. One-half of the news directors worked 51 to 60 hours each week. One man of a four-person operation said he worked over 60 hours each week. 17Stone, "Operations," p. 6. 36 Table 4. Responsibilities of news directors. Duties Number Percent Editoriala 7 64 Assignment Editor/Producer 6 54 Public Affairs Host 6 54 Writer 4 36 Anchorman 3 27 News Director only 2 18 Reporter 1 9 Photographer 1 9 aMember of station editorial board or editorial writer. Sixty-four percent (seven) of the news directors worked for their present stations because that is where they found job opportunities. But 27 percent (three) of the news directors considered the geographical locations of their jobs the most important factor, and 45 percent (five) said their salaries were a major reason they worked for their present employers. News directors salaries were not always commensurate with their responsibilities. The majority of salaries ranged between $10,000 and $20,000 per year. Three news directors (27 percent) earned between $20,000 and $25,000, and one earned over $30,000. 37 Table 5. News directors' salaries. Annual Salarya Number Percent $1o-13,ooo 2 18 $13-16,000 2 18 $16-20,000 2 18 $2o-25,ooo 3 27 Over $30,000 1 9 aEleven news directors responded to the survey. One did not reveal his annual salary. According to Stone, 49 percent of the news directors made $13,000 or more each year, while 80 percent of Michigan's news directors drew salaries of $13,000 or higher.18 Ninety percent (nine) of the news directors in Michigan were satisfied working at their stations at the present time, although five (50 percent) said they desired to move into management positions within their stations. The other five were satisfied being news directors. One expressed a desire to work for another station as soon as possible. Fifty percent eventually wanted to move into larger markets. No one expressed a desire to work for a network. The Detroit Free Press was the most widely read daily Michigan newspaper among these administrators, and a majority of them also read 18Stone, "Operations," p. 7. 38 the Wall Street Journal. Six (54 percent) read both local and regional papers every day, three (27 percent) read only regional and two only local newspapers. Their average reading time was one to one and one- half hours daily. They also regularly read weekly national news magazines such as Iimg_or Newsweek. They kept in touch with their professional counter- parts through mass media publications like Broadcasting_and the Radio- Television News Directors Association's Communicator. News directors who were members of this organization indicated that they also attended association conventions. Two (18 percent) had held national offices in RTNDA. Four (36 percent) belonged to a local press club. News directors generally watched their station's news and the news of their competitors daily. Assignment Editors The assignment editor generally opens the news shop every day, perhaps as early as 6 a.m. He coordinates all assignments and crews. Nine respondents said they were primarily assignment editors, eight percent of the 117 respondents. This was the smallest group to respond in the primary job category. In many stations, especially in smaller markets, the assignment editor worked a combination of jobs, such as news director, managing editor, producer or reporter. The position was often eliminated in stations where reporters were always responsible for originating their own stories. The typical assignment editor was a 31-year-old male. All the respondents had some college training and more than one-half had 39 bachelor's degrees. Thirty-three percent (three assignment editors) majored in journalism or broadcasting, which is consistent with the total group of respondents. These newsmen had an average of nine years experience in broadcast news: four years in radio and five years tele- vision news experience in two stations. In addition to their coordinating duties, six of the nine assignment editors responding (67 percent) were writers, five (56 per- cent) were reporters, and four (45 percent) also worked on radio or television news documentaries for their stations. One delivered the station's editorials on the air but did not write them. This group of newsmen worked long hours, usually opening the news shop before the first reporters arrived. Half of them worked 46 to 50 hours, and two said they worked more than 60 hours per week. Consistent with the total group of respondents, assignment editors considered their present positions good job opportunities and training for future career goals. Only three (33 percent) thought their jobs would help them actually move into management within the station, although 78 percent (seven) indicated a desire to do 50. Four (45 percent) preferred to be news directors, two (22 percent) wanted to go into station management, and one wanted more on-air work. There were five members (55 percent) of the group who preferred a news director's job or station management positions in one of the top ten markets, and two preferred to work for network news. Only one assign— ment editor was satisfied with his present position. He was one of the oldest in the group. Assignment editors were better paid than reporter-writers, and 40 were paid about the same as producers. Salaries for assignment editors ranged between $10,000 and $20,000 per year, with the four (44 percent) making $20,000 to $24,999. Three of the four were from the Detroit stations, where employes averaged higher salaries than in other markets. Two assignment editors (22 percent) made $13,000 to $15,000, two made $16,000 to $19,999, and one made $10,000 to $12,999. Like news directors and the entire group, assignment editors read the Detroit Free Press and Detroit News more often than any other newspapers. Although an assignment editor must be constantly aware of the market his station covers, less than half read local and regional newspapers. The average read one and one-half to two hours each day. Few read news magazines, but they viewed television news programs approximately ten hours each week. Assignment editors were the least active respondents in professional organizations. Reporter-Writers The largest number of Michigan news personnel responding to the survey were reporters and writers. Most stations do not distinguish between the two jobs, and therefore they were tabulated together. There were 62 respondents in the two categories, 53 percent of the 117 respon- dents. Forty-four percent said they were primarily reporters, and 18 (15 percent) said they were primarily writers. A television reporter spends most of his day covering news stories. In large stations such as those in Detroit, he will work with a photo- grapher and a soundman. Labor union rules will not allow a reporter to shoot or edit film. In smaller stations, the reporter often shoots his 41 own silent film, although a photographer will shoot sound film for the story. In the smallest markets in Michigan, such as Traverse City, the reporter must research the story, shoot silent and sound film, then set up the sound camera, turn it on and run around in front of the lens to do the interview or stand-up, or he will work with another reporter who shoots sound film for him and vice-versa. When he returns to the station, he must write his story, process and edit his film and might even anchor the newscast. Despite the varying responsibilities of each reporter, his basic job is to gather information: he must know where to go to get a story, how to ask the appropriate questions, and how to write the story from the facts he has accumulated. A television reporter must also understand film techniques since his story is written as an adjunct to film. TV reporters generally write their own copy. The writer normally spends his day in the news shop, gathering information for stories by the telephone, rewriting wire copy, and writing stories from information a reporter may have brought or tele- phoned into the newsroom. Many writers said their secondary duty was producing all or parts of newscasts. The median age for reporters and writers in Michigan was 28. Fifty-two of the 62 respondents (84 percent) were male. All but nine reporter-writers had some college education, and 39 (63 percent) had bachelor's degrees. Three (five percent) had master's degrees in broad- casting, 12 (19 percent) reported they had taken some graduate courses, but did not complete a master's degree. This was the best educated group. 42 Table 6. Undergraduate major--reporter-writers. Major Number Percent Broadcasting 18 29 Journalism 17 27 Othera 11 18 Speech 10 16 Social Sciences 6 10 Liberal Arts 4 6 aMost of the subjects listed as "Other" are included in cate- gories one through seven on the questionnaire. The exceptions are engineering, music, and business. bThe high total is due to multiple answers. Reporter-writers were communications majors: 17 (27 percent) majored in journalism, 18 (29 percent) majored in broadcasting. The only other college major drawing significant numbers was speech. Reporters and writers followed the pattern of previous media experience set by the total group. Thirty-two (51 percent) said they worked almost three years in radio news before they moved into television news. Twenty-four (39 percent) worked less than one year in television news, and 11 (seven percent) had worked as newspaper reporters for approximately six months. Many television reporters had the secondary responsibilities of shooting and editing their own 16 mm. news film: 17 (27 percent) said' 43 they shoot film, while 15 (24 percent) said they edit news film. Thirteen (31 percent) said they also produced newscasts. In Michigan's small news departments, reporters were both anchormen and weather or sports announcers during the newscast. Sixteen reporters (26 percent) also produced documentary and public affairs programs. Almost all television news reporters in Michigan were classified as general assignment reporters. There were 49 persons who said their primary and secondary jobs were reporting. Thirty-nine did not have a particular news beat. Eighteen (37 percent) said they had special topics they frequently covered, but the news directors interviewed were reluctant to call these specialties beats. Twenty-nine reporters and writers (47 percent) said they worked for their present employers simply because they were offered those jobs. They preferred to work somewhere else. Their present job was viewed as 'training for future career goals by 29 percent (18 reporters). Salary did not seem to be an incentive. Their average annual salaries ranged between $8,000 and $10,000. Only 16 of the 62 respondents (26 percent) said they earned more than $13,000 per year. Eleven (18 percent) made less than $8,000. To increase their incomes, six reporters were moon- lighting as free-lance writers. Reporters were the most mobile of all respondents. Thirty-one percent (19 respondents) desired to become news directors. Those who wanted to move into larger markets or the networks said they would be satisfied to do so as a reporter. Sixteen reporter-writers (26 percent) expressed enough dissatis- faction with their present roles to want to leave television for other 44 work, preferably public relations. This group monitored the print medium more than any other group. Eighty-six percent of them read the Detroit Free Press. More than one- third read the Detroit News and local newspapers for almost two hours each day. Ninety percent also read major national news magazines each week. Reporter-writers watched nearly nine hours of news programs every week. These employes were more inclined to be members of professional organizations than other groups surveyed. They joined such organizations as local press clubs, Society of Professional Journalists-Sigma Delta Chi or RTNDA, but their activity was often limited to reading association publications. Producers The producer is responsible for the content and production of each newscast. He must organize the day's stories into the station's news format and time schedule. He works closely with the assignment editor and reporters to keep informed of the stories he might expect to have for the newscast. Only 11 producers (nine percent) in Michigan's television stations said they primarily produced and wrote daily newscasts for 41 to 45 hours each week. Producers averaged 27 years of age, three years younger than the average of all newsmen in Michigan. Only one producer did not have a bachelor's degree. Three (27 percent) had attended graduate school, and one had a master's degree in journalism. Two producers (18 percent) majored in social sciences and liberal arts, while eight (73 percent) 45 emphasized broadcasting or journalism in their undergraduate study. Five members of this group (45 percent) had two previous years experience in television news. Four producers (36 percent) had worked approximately six months in radio news before moving into television. Five (45 percent) worked for two television stations, but for five others their present job was their first in TV. They had been with their company's news department about two and one-half years. Although 70 percent (seven persons) considered their current employment merely a job to help them get enough experience to move up the ladder, producer's salaries were higher than the average Michigan newsman's. Fifty-five percent (six producers) drew $13,000 to $15,999 annually. One producer in Saginaw earned more than $16,000 each year. Four producers (36 percent) stated that salary was a major factor in their satisfaction with their company, and two of the four said they were satisfied with their salaries and working conditions and had no desire to move at that time. But producers are on the move to larger markets and the top positions in news departments. Seventy percent envisioned their careers taking them to major markets as news directors. Two expressed enough dissatisfaction in their work that they might leave television for public relations and radio work. Producers read the Detroit Free Press approximately one hour each day. They viewed TV news programs about eight and one-half hours each week and read major news magazines and professional publications such as the RTNDA Communicator. Five (45 percent) belonged to local press clubs but were inactive members. 46 Anchormen The final group that responded in significant numbers to the Michigan survey was news announcers. Although it takes all of the persons just described and many others to put together a newscast, the anchorman, weather and sports personalities are often the only people the viewing audience associates with a news program. In some stations, particularly in larger markets, anchormen are merely readers who have little to do with the daily flow of news. But in most Michigan stations anchormen perform combination jobs-~producers, reporters, writers, and/or news directors. Nineteen persons in Michigan's news operations said their primary responsibility was reading the news, which was 16 percent of the respond- ing population. They were 35-year-old males who worked 41 to 45 hours in the newsroom each week. The anchormen generally anchored both early and late evening newscasts and also produced the late newscasts. Only two women in Michigan stations said they primarily anchored newscasts. The majority of the newscasters (eight respondents--42 percent) attended college. Nine had bachelor's degrees. Broadcasting was again the major course of college study. One man had a master's degree in broadcasting, and two attended technical schools of broadcasting after they dropped out of college. Eighteen anchormen had an average of four and one-half years in radio news. The eleven anchormen with previous experience in TV news worked for the same stations an average of two years. They had worked four years for their present stations. 47 Although 42 percent (eight persons) said their salaries were drawing cards, 63 percent (12) were waiting for a better offer to come along. Anchormen were among the highest paid persons in each Michigan television news department. The annual salary ranged between $10,000 and $16,000 each year. Detroit's three anchormen were paid more than $30,000 each year. By contrast, the two women who anchored earned less than $8,000, worked in Michigan's medium markets, and had the secondary responsibility of being a reporter. Anchormen were not as mobile as reporters, writers and assignment editors. One-third (six) were satisfied with their present jobs. Ten preferred to move: two as anchormen into network news; five in the top ten markets; and three in markets 11 through 25. These ten respondents were working in markets other than Detroit, the seventh largest TV market in the United States. The total group of anchor respondents read the Detroit Free Press and local and regional newspapers for approximately one hour each day, but those who read the most were anchormen-reporters. All read a major national news magazine each week. Anchormen read less than other respondents and watched TV news programs (other than their own show) an average of seven and one-half hours each week. These Michigan newscasters were not active in professional organizations. In summary, news directors were the oldest group and had the most media experience, but they had spent the least amount of time working in radio, which is where the majority of Michigan's news personnel received their media experience. Reporters and writers, comprising 53 percent of the total respondents, were the youngest group with the least 48 amount of total media experience and most education. Assigment editors had less education than any group. News directors and anchormen made more money than any other group. In Stone's survey of entire TV news staffs, he noted that the median salary was $132 to $210 per week, an approximate range of $6,800 to $10,900 per year.19 19Stone, "Operations," p. 8. 49 Ampcmucoammm mpv cop F— N Nu m nu m cmegocuc< Amucwucoqmmm PFV oop m _ Fm op mgmusuogg Amucmucoammm Nov oo_ e, m mm e_ mm mm meepeez-eaeeoaem Ampcmucoammz my oo_ ea 8 mm m meoueem “easememm< Ampcmucoammm FPV oo_ m8 m mm m mcopomcwo m2oz & fi 4 a w x * Pmpop mmmPFOU oz mmm__oo umucmpw< mpmsumgw mmwppoo .mucmvcoammg mo Pw>m_ _aeaweae=em .N ePQae 50 .zowpmmzc mzu vmgmzmcm mpcmucoammg am>gzm Ppm pozm mF we mm mm w_ mp mm mm m— mm mm my FF m_ Ampcmccoammm mpv cmELosoc< Amucmucoqmmm FFV mcmuzuoga Amucwucoammm Nov memuwgz ugmugoamm Ampcoccoammm my mgouwvm ucmscmwmm< Ampcmucoammm F_V N mgouowgwo mzwz & OOO‘O€$ JaAO .02 & OOO‘OE-SZ$ .oz 666‘VZ-OZ$ .02 & 666‘61-9l$ .oz 666‘91-£l$ .02 & 666‘Zl-Ol$ .02 x .02 & .oz OOO‘Ol-8$ OOO‘8$ Japun a.mucmucoammg mo Fm>wp Acmpmm .w wpnmh CHAPTER V STATION ANALYSIS When the Michigan broadcast survey was conducted in 1974, there were 18 commercial television stations in the state, but only 16 had news departments. Fifteen participated in the study. Interviews were conducted with 12 news directors and three operations managers in charge of news department administration in three stations. Survey results can be analyzed according to each station and the trends within station markets. Michigan's television markets include Detroit with three stations which produce news, WWJ-TV, WXYZ-TV and WJBK-TV; Grand Rapids- Kalamazoo—Battle Creek with four stations, WOTV, WZZM-TV, WKZO-TV and WUHQ-TV; Lansing-Jackson with two stations, WJIM-TV and WILX-TV; Flint- Saginaw-Bay City with three stations, WJRT-TV, WEYI-TV and WNEM-TV; Traverse City-Cadillac with three stations, WWTV, WGTU-TV and WPBN-TV; and Marquette with one station, WLUC-TV. All the stations participated in the survey except WPBN-TV, Traverse City. Detroit Detroit is the seventh largest television market in the United States. In 1974, it had five commercial stations and one public broadcasting station. Two commercial stations did not produce local 51 52 newscasts. WJBK-TV, Channel 2, is a CBS affiliate owned by Storer Broad- casting Company. It maintains a full-time state capital and statewide bureau. A six-man Washington, D.C., bureau serves Channel 2 in addition to all other Storer stations. WJBK maintains a full-time Detroit city bureau, Wayne County and surrounding area bureau, and Recorder's Court bureau. The remaining reporters were on general assignment, although there were three specialties: education; technical, labor and automotive news; and police. The station employs stringers throughout Michigan and in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. This CBS affiliate subscribes to the Associated Press and United Press International state and broadcast news wires, a news slide service and Newsweek News Service. Weekday news in 1974 on Channel 2 began with "Eyewitness News at 7:00," a one-hour morning news and feature program. The station programmed 30 minutes of news at noon and five minutes at 1:25 p.m. The major newscast of the day, from 6 to 6:30 p.m., included weather and sports and was followed by "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite." A 30-minute late night newscast ran at 11 p.m. seven nights a week. On Saturday, WJBK had one hour of news, weather and sports at 6 p.m. and 30 minutes on Sunday at 7 p.m. Each newscast was called "Eyewitness News." According to the news director interviewed at the time of the survey, a 30-minute newscast incorporated approximately 12 to 15 minutes of news, and three to four minutes each of weather and sports, depending 20 on the commercial load. This seemed to be a standard for all 30-minute newscasts in Michigan. 20The news director at WJBK interviewed for this study has since resigned, but the times remain the same. 53 Twenty-two members of the WJBK news staff, 17 men and 5 women, were asked to respond, not including newsfilm photographers, sound engineers, processors, film editors, secretaries, technical directors and other technicians involved in the daily newscast. Twelve returned the questionnaire. The news director at WJBK was mainly an administrator, but he was also a member of the editorial board. The rest of the news staff was composed of a managing editor, six assignment editors, two producers, seven reporter-writers and four writers. Reporters normally traveled with a photographer and a soundman. Four reporters were also anchormen. Channel 2 had one anchorman who was exclusively a reader. Including photographers, soundmen and others mentioned above, WJBK had more than 60 members on its news staff. WWJ-TV, Channel 4, an NBC affiliate, is owned by the Evening News Association, a newspaper corporation which also owns the Detroit News. The promotional slogan used for both the radio and television stations in 1974 was "WWJ--The Detroit News Station," implying joint management; but the news and editorial policies of the broadcasting stations were separate from the Detroit News. There were 20 members on the WWJ-TV news staff, 17 men and 3 women, not including photographers and technicians. Ten participated in the survey. All reporters and anchormen also worked for WWJ radio news. The news staff could be broken down into several combinations: the news director, who was administrator of the news department and also a member of the editorial board; one executive producer; one assignment editor; five coordinators commonly known as producers; five 54 reporter-writer-announcers; three reporter—writers; and four anchormen. Daily crews included a photographer and sound engineer who rode together, meeting the reporter at the scene of a story. Including these crew members, techinicians, and secretaries, the WWJ news staff had approx- imately 60 members. Reporters were basically general assignment, although some con- centrated on automotive and business news, government, education, police and courts. There were two five-minute news inserts in the NBC "Today Show" at 7:30 and 8:30 a.m., a 30-minute 12:30 weekday report, and 30 minutes of news at 6 p.m., Monday through Friday, called "News Forum," followed by the ”NBC Nightly News." At 7 p.m., "News Forum" returned with another half hour of local news. WWJ-TV produced 30 minutes of local news, weather and sports at 11 p.m., seven nights a week. On weekends, the 6 p.m. show was 30 minutes long. WXYZ-TV, Channel 7, is owned and operated by the American Broad- casting Company. At the time of the survey, the 24-member news staff included the news director, three producers, three assignment editors, ten reporters, five writers and two anchormen. Thirteen answered the survey questionnaire. The news director was primarily an administrator and a member of the station's editorial board. Daily crews consisted of a reporter, photographer and soundman who traveled together. All reporters were general assignment. At the time of the survey, there were 18 men and 6 women who were asked to respond. Channel 7 news programs are called "Action News," the same name 55 all seven ABC owned-and-operated stations use for their news programs. WXYZ's early morning news began with three short newscasts in a local program, "A.M. Detroit." At 10:15 a.m., weekdays, there was a 15-minute news report. There were 30 minutes of local news, weather and sports at 6 p.m. every weekday, followed by the "ABC Evening News." At 11 p.m. weeknights and Sunday, there were 30 minutes of local news, and 30 minutes at l a.m. Monday through Friday. On Saturday, Channel 7 carried the "Reasoner Report" from ABC, with local news at 11 p.m. Detroit's Newsmen The three news departments of WJBK, WWJ, and WXYZ are similar in size, structure,and salary scales. Thirty-four news people in the Detroit market responded to the questionnaire, which was 29 percent of the total survey population. The average Detroit newsman in 1974 was a 32-year-old male with a bachelor's degree in journalism or broadcasting. He had approximately two and one-fourth years experience in radio news and one and three- fourths years in television news. He had worked for at least two tele- vision stations and had been at his present station for two years. Detroit newsmen had a variety of other media experience, includ- ing newspaper and news wire reporting, sales, and management. One- third had attended graduate school, but only four had completed master's degrees. News responsibilities in Detroit tend to be more exclusive than in other Michigan stations. News directors are administrators and advisers to the station's editorial board. Assistant news directors, 56 commonly called managing editors in this market, were more actively involved in the daily news flow than the news director. They functioned as assignment editors, copy editors and producers. Assignment editors were also writers. Producers put together the news programs, assigned stories, edited copy and wrote stories. Reporters, most of whom were general assignment, wrote their own copy and sometimes anchored news- casts (this is the exception). Normally, anchormen were exclusively news readers. Detroit is a union market, so reporters do not shoot or edit film, although they direct each process, if necessary. According to labor union rules, news photographers must always work with sound engineers. Newsfilm is processed and edited by film editors and not by photographers. Detroit news personnel worked at their jobs an average of 41 to 45 hours each work week. Although each station had its own documentary division separate from the news department, a few newsmen in each depart- ment were assigned to work on documentary-public affairs research and writing. Almost every newsman in Detroit belonged to a labor union, which explains why the highest paid news people in Michigan in 1974 were in Detroit. Seventy-five percent (25) of the 34 respondents said their good salaries were a major reason they worked for Detroit stations. News directors earned more than $30,000 each year. Assistant news directors, or managing editors, were paid between $20,000 and $30,000, producers between $13,000 and $20,000. Reporters' salaries ranged from $16,000 to $30,000, depending on their seniority with the station and their secondary responsibilities (e.g., a reporter who 57 anchors a newscast was given an extra talent fee). Writers made $10,000 to $20,000 and assignment editors $10,000 to $13,000, the lowest salaried group reported for the Detroit market.21 But high salaries did not account for job satisfaction. Although 25 respondents said they were working at their stations because of high salaries, the same number looked at their positions as a career training opportunity. They would move up to higher pay scales or larger markets. Sixteen respondents, 47 percent, wanted to become news directors or do more on-air work in their present news departments. Those who said they did not do enough air work were reporters and writers whose secondary responsibilities were producing and assignment editing. The nature of these tasks in news departments as large as those in Detroit usually excludes air work. Twenty-one (62 percent) of Detroit's TV newsmen were ready to .move into other stations as news directors or to the networks. Seven reporters and news directors (21 percent) were satisfied in Detroit and,would move to other stations in that market if the opportunity arose. Detroit's TV reporters, in contrast to news directors, assign- ment editors, producers and anchormen, were the most mobile group and the most satisfied with their job responsibilities. All Detroit newsmen read the two Detroit newspapers, the Detroit Free Press and the Detroit News, an average of two hours each day. They viewed television news programs about 10 hours each week. 211t is impossible to compute an average salary here because of the range in the salary categories in the survey. (Note question- naire at end of study.) 58 These respondents were quite active in professional organizations. Almost one-half belonged to the Detroit Press Club and at least one other organization. They attended meetings, read association publications, and 20 percent held offices in professional organizations. Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo-Battle Creek The Grand Rapids-Kalamazoo-Battle Creek market is the second largest television market in Michigan and ranks 36th in the United States. In 1974, when the survey was conducted, it had four commercial stations and one public broadcasting station located on the campus of Grand Valley State College. WZZM-TV and WOTV are located in Grand Rapids, WKZO-TV in Kalamazoo, and WUHQ-TV in Battle Creek. In 1974, WZZM-TV, Channel 13, an ABC affiliate, began its news broadcast day with four minutes of news during a weekday noontime public affairs program. Its weekday major news program, 30 minutes of news, weather and sports, ran at 5:30 p.m., followed by the "ABC Evening News." On Monday through Friday, WZZM carried 30 minutes of news at 11 p.m., and on weekends, 15 minutes at 11 p.m., followed by "ABC Weekend News." The WZZM-TV news staff included a news director; an assignment editor who functioned as a producer, writer, copy editor and anchorman; six reporter-writers and three sound photographers. Two reporters doubled as anchormen. All reporters shot their own silent film and usually edited their newsfilm. The news director was an administrator, adviser to the editorial board and co-host of a weekday public affairs program at noon, which included four minutes of news. 59 Six men and two women were asked to respond, but all 11 members of the WZZM-TV "Eyewitness" news team participated in the survey. The Channel 13 news department subscribed to UPI and AP broadcast wire services, a news slide service, Newsweek Feature Service and the Nancy Dickerson News Service. WZZM-TV went on the air in 1960, the youngest commercial station in the market. Its antenna is located near Grant, Michigan, north of Grand Rapids, so its prime coverage area is Grand Rapids and north. WOTV, its primary competitor, has a coverage area of Grand Rapids and south. The only time WOTV and WZZM-TV came head to head in news competi- tion was 11 p.m. WOTV, formerly WOOD-TV, Channel 8, is an NBC affiliate owned by the Time-Life Broadcasting Corporation. Eighteen members of the 19- member news staff participated in the survey, including three photographers. Eleven men and one woman were asked to respond. The station had a news director and assistant news director, an assignment editor, one producer, eight reporter-writers, five photo- graphers and one film editor. One photographer doubled as a writer. On weekends, one man wrote and produced the 11 p.m. report. The two anchor- men were readers hired by the programming department, and had nothing to do with the daily flow of news. They had other announcing duties for the station. The news director was an administrator and the chief editorial writer. The assistant news director was responsible for general super- vision of the newsroom and functioned primarily as the chief assignment editor, while the assignment editor coordinated the crews. 60 The producer was responsible for 30 minutes of news at 12:30 p.m. weekdays and the weeknight "6 p.m. Report" from 6 to 7 p.m. He was the chief copy editor and a writer. Channel 8 reporters worked with photographers and advised the film editor which clips to use for their stories. Although there was no union at the station, reporters did not shoot or edit film. All eight reporters covered general assignments, but five also had a specific beat: city government, suburban government, police, education and medicine. In January 1974, WOTV was the only station in Michigan with one consecutive hour of local news, weather and sports at 6 p.m. weekdays. It scheduled two hours and forty minutes of news time per day: two five-minute breaks in the NBC "Today Show," 30 minutes at 12:30 p.m., one hour at 6 p.m., followed at 7 p.m. by NBC's "Nightly News," and the "11 P.M. Report," news, weather and sports. The WOTV news department subscribed to all NBC news feeds, AP and UPI broadcast and newspaper wires, and a national slide service. WKZO-TV, Channel 3, a CBS affiliate, is owned by the Fetzer Broadcasting Company. Channel 3's studio facilities are located in Kalamazoo, but its antenna is located between Grand Rapids and Kalamazoo, and its prime coverage area includes Grand Rapids and southwestern Michigan. Thirteen people, 12 men and one woman, were employed in WKZO's joint TV-radio news operation in 1974 and eight responded to the survey. The news director was mainly an administrator. He also moderated a Sunday night public affairs program and wrote and delivered all radio editorials. WKZO-TV did not air editorials. 61 The news editor made daily story assignments, anchored a newscast and was a reporter. Two anchormen produced the newscasts they anchored, and often served as reporters. Nine reporter-writers shot, processed and edited their own newsfilm. All reporters wrote and voiced their daily stories for WKZO radio. Every reporter covered general stories, but three had beats in addition to general assignments: county government, police and education. The director of WKZO-s farm service bureau, a department outside news, also covered city hall as a radio-TV news reporter. WKZO began its news day with four minutes of local news following the "CBS Morning News" at 8 a.m. The "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite" at 6:30 p.m. preceded the 30-minute WKZO "News Watch 3" at 7 p.m. Thirty minutes of local news, weather and sports were scheduled at 11 p.m., seven nights a week. At 6 p.m. on Saturdays a half-hour weekly review of happenings in the state, called "Michigan Report," included five minutes of local news followed by CBS news at 6:30 p.m. In addition to all CBS news feeds, the WKZO news department subscribed to AP broadcast news wire and Newsweek News Service. WUHQ-TV, Channel 41 in Battle Creek, was the newest commercial station in the state in 1974. The ABC affiliate went on the air in 1971 with network programming and five-minute news capsules. When the survey was conducted in 1974, the news schedule had expanded to 30 minutes at 6 p.m. weeknights followed by "ABC Evening News" at 6:30 p.m. There were one minute news headlines at 11:15 p.m. weekdays. The WUHQ antenna was near Battle Creek. Its prime coverage area normally included Kalamazoo, Battle Creek and southwestern Michigan. 62 It did not conflict with WZZM-TV, the ABC affiliate that served Grand Rapids and north, although they are considered the same television market. The WUHQ program director served as news director when necessary, but the three-man one-woman news staff usually ran itself. All members of the news team were reporters, writers, photographers, film editors, producers and anchorpersons. They were also responsible for weather and sports. The news department subscribed to the UPI broadcast wire. WZZM- TV in Grand Rapids relayed ABC network programs to WUHQ-TV. Newsmen in Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo, and Battle Creek Forty people, the greatest number from any market, responded from the Grand Rapids area market. They represented 34 percent of the total response. Although the coverage area of all four stations somewhat overlaps, the size and structure of the four news departments were quite different. Despite WUHQ-s lack of news facilities and small size, the four respon- dents had similar biographical characteristics to those in the other three stations, so they can be safely grouped with the others. Sixty-five percent of the newsmen in Grand Rapids, Battle Creek, and Kalamazoo were 29 years old or younger. The average newsman was a male, age 29, with a bachelor's degree in a communications major. The average newsmanirlthis market had one and one-half years experience in radio news and worked in news at one television station for about six months before he accepted his current position. He had 63 worked at his present station for about three and one-half years and worked 41 to 45 hours each week. Fourteen of the respondents in this market (41 percent) majored in broadcasting in college, ten (29 percent) in journalism, six (18 per- cent in speech, and five each (15 percent) in liberal arts and the social sciences. Nine of the respondents, 22 percent, had attended graduate schools and two had master's degrees in broadcasting. Salaries in the four stations varied a great deal. Starting salaries at WZZM-TV and WOTV were higher than in the Battle Creek and Kalamazoo stations, beginning somewhere between $8,000 and $10,000 each year, usually depending on previous experience. Reporters at WZZM, even those who anchored newscasts, did not make more than $12,999. Reporters at WOTV started just below $10,000 and progressed to $15,000. The assistant news director at WZZM was paid between $13,000 and $15,999, while the assistant news director at WOTV made between $16,000 and $19,999 per year. The news director at WOTV also made more money than WZZM's news director--$20,000 to $24,999 and $16,000 to $19,000, respectively. 9 Salaries were much lower in the Battle Creek and Kalamazoo (stations. The four news people at WUHQ-TV earned less than $8,000 per year. The salaries at WKZO were also low, ranging from under $8,000 for reporters with little experience to $12,000 for those in positions of greater responsibility. Salaries were not major incentives to persuade these newsmen to work for their stations, but job opportunities and training for future opportunities were. Some newsmen in Grand Rapids and Kalamazoo seemed 64 satisfied with their jobs because they liked the geographical location and the qualities of their stations. Twenty-two percent (nine respon- dents) said they were satisfied with their present positions. Five (15 percent) said they expected to move up within the organization, and 11 (32 percent) wanted to become news directors or do more on-air work. One-half of the respondents in this market wanted to work in one of the nation's ten largest markets or for the networks. Sixty-seven percent of these newsmen read the Grand Rapids Press, the regional newspaper for this market. They read such other local and regional newspapers as the Kalamazoo Gazette, Battle Creek Enqgirer and Ngw§_and the Muskegon Chronicle for about one hour each day. These newsmen watched news programs on television for almost nine hours each week. More of these newsmen were members of the Radio-Television News Directors Association than in any other Michigan TV market. One-third of the Grand Rapids newsmen belonged to the Grand Rapids Press Club and attended meetings. Most of those who belonged to RTNDA attended association conventions and regional meetings. The news director at WZZM-TV and the former news director at WOTV had held executive offices in the RTNDA. Lansing-Jackson The Lansing-Jackson area is the 89th television market in the country. There are two commercial stations in the area and one public broadcasting station locaed on the campus of Michigan State University. WILX-TV, Channel 10, an NBC affiliate in Jackson, had a news 65 staff of ten: the news director, four reporter-writers, two anchormen and three photographers. The news director was administrator, assignment editor and occasionally a reporter. The anchormen co-produced both the 6 and 11 p.m. reports Monday through Friday. The station had a two-man Lansing bureau responsible for Lansing city news, Michigan State Univer- sity, and Michigan state government. Five men and two women were asked to participate in this study. During the week, WILX had two local five-minute news breaks in the NBC "Today Show," and five minutes of NBC news at 12:55 p.m. At 6 p.m., 30 minutes of news, weather and sports were called "Action 10 News," fol- lowed by "NBC Nightly News" at 6:30 p.m. WILX ran 30 minutes of news, weather and sports at 11 p.m. Monday through Friday, and two minutes of lo- cal news at 2 a.m. The station had no weekend news programs. A local pub- lic affairs program moderated by the news director, ran at 10:30 p.m. Sundays. At WJIM-TV, Channel 6, Lansing, a CBS affiliate, the operations manager was in charge of news department administration. Five men and two women on the news staff were given questionnaires. A reporter func- tioned as the assignment editor. One producer, five reporter-writers, one anchorman and three photographers made up the rest of the news staff. Reporters anchored the noon news, and photographers occasionally gathered facts for stories. WJIM radio had its own news operation, although TV reporters sometimes wrote and voiced radio news stories. The reporter-assignment editor read station editorials on the air, but they were written by the operations manager under the supervision of the station's owner. All reporters covered general news stories and, in addition to 66 those assignments, three reporters specialized in state government, Lansing metropolitan government and Michigan State University news. Reporters sometimes helped write and produce "30 Minutes," WJIM's Sunday night public affairs program. WJIM carried 30 minutes of news at noon. The 6 p.m. news, weather and sportscast was followed by "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite.” The 11 p.m. weeknight report was 30 minutes long. There was no Saturday night news, but WJIM ran 15 minutes of news Sunday at 11:15 p.m., followed by CBS Sunday news. All WJIM-TV newscasts were called "Six Star Edition." WJIM subscribed to the AP broadcast wire. Newsmen in Lansing-Jackson Eleven newsmen, nine percent of the Michigan survey population, responded from WILX-TV and WJIM-TV. Their average age was 27, younger than those in Grand Rapids and Detroit. Ninety-nine percent had attended college, and 54 percent graduated with bachelor's degrees in communication arts, with a high concentration of majors in radio and television. Most of the respondents had attended Michigan State University. Only one pursued graduate study in broadcasting, but did not complete his degree. The average newsman in Lansing-Jackson had two years experience in radio news and two years in TV news. He had been employed by two television stations and had worked at his present station for an average of one and one-half years for about 41 to 45 hours each week. Salaries were low at these two stations, averaging under $10,000. Only the news director at WILX-TV and a reporter-anchorman who had been 67 with WJIM for about five years reported salaries between $10,000 and $12,000. Almost one-half of the respondents in this market supple- mented their income by free-lance writing or photography or holding second, part-time jobs. Employes seemed obviously dissatisfied with their positions in these two stations. Seventy-two percent wanted to move into other stations and looked at their current jobs as training for future goals. Less than one-half (five) said they were willing to advance within the company in departments other than the news department. One employe at WJIM-TV aspired to become news director at his station, but the station had not employed a news director for several years and, according to the operations manager, the station would not hire a news director. Not one newsman in either station said he was satisfied with his job. All of them hoped to move to larger markets. Seven said they were even willing to leave television news for another area of work in the mass media. These newsmen read the LansingAState Journal, the market's major newspaper, and the Detroit Free Press for about one hour each day. One- half of them read the Jackson Citizen-Patriot and the Michigan State News, They viewed television news programs approximately seven hours each week. Seven people (64 percent) were members of professional organiza- tions. Most of them belonged to the Capital Correspondents Association, a group of newsmen who generally cover state affairs. Activity in these organizations was limited to reading publications and attending meetings. 68 Flint-Saginaw-Bay City The Flint-Saginaw-Bay City area has three television stations, WJRT-TV in Flint and WEYI-TV and WNEM-TV in Saginaw. It is considered the 49th television market in the country. WJRT-TV, Channel 12, an ABC affiliate owned by Poole Broadcasting, went on the air in 1958 operating as an affiliate of WJR radio in Detroit. It is now a separate entity. When the survey was conducted, there were eight men on the news staff. The news director was considered an administrator, anchored the 6 and 11 p.m. weekday reports and wrote station editorials. He was often a field reporter. The news manager was also a writer and occasionally a reporter. The assignment editor assigned daily stories, produced the 6 p.m. newscast and was a reporter. There were four general assignment reporter-photographers who shot all their own silent and sound film and edited their film. One reporter produced and co-anchored the 11 p.m. news with the sports reporter. WJRT-TV had two newscasts a day called "Area 12 News," 30 minutes at 6 p.m., followed by "ABC Evening News," and 30 minutes at 11 p.m., which the news director described as a "rehash" of the 6 p.m. newscast. On weekends, the newscasts were put together by one man who filmed, processed, edited and wrote all the stories and anchored the Saturday and Sunday 11 p.m. reports. WJRT news subscribed to the AP broadcast news wire and a slide service. It maintained a one-man Saginaw news bureau. WEYI-TV, Channel 25, Saginaw, had one of the smallest news departments in the state. Until its purchase by Rustcraft, Inc., in 69 1972, WEYI's newscasts were not regularly scheduled, and the news department lacked adequate facilities and equipment. The station moved into a new building in 1973, and a six-man news department was established. WEYI-TV started its news day with five minutes of local news at noon on weekdays. The "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite" began the nightly news hour at 6:30 p.m., followed by local news, weather and sports from 7 to 7:30 p.m. It was called the "Action News Hour." WEYI had 30 minutes of news at 11 p.m. during the week and no weekend reports. The WEYI newsteam was composed of four men and two women--the news director and five reporter-photographers. The news director was an administrator, assignment editor, producer and anchorman for the 7 p.m. newscast. Two reporters anchored the 11 p.m. newscast, plus read weather and sports on both newscasts.' All reporters were on general assignment and filmed their own news stories. The station's commercial photographers edited the newsfilm. The Channel 25 news department used the AP broadcast wire, a slide service and the regular CBS news feeds. Saginaw Valley's third station, WNEM-TV, Channel 5, had a well- established and much larger news staff than WEYI-TV and WJRT-TV. There were nine men and two women in the news team. The news director was the administrator of the department and assignment editor, but he relied on reporters for daily story ideas. The anchorman for both the 6 and 11 p.m. newscasts produced those programs. Nine reporters were also photographers, film editors and were assigned to cover general news stories in the geographical areas of Flint, Saginaw, Bay City and Midland. 70 Channel 5 weekday news began at 6:45 a.m. with an English-Spanish newscast. There were two five-minute breaks in the NBC "Today Show" and 30 minutes of news at noon. The 30-minute "6 O'Clock Edition" was followed by the "NBC Nightly News." Another 30 minutes of news, weather and sports comprised the "11 O'Clock Edition." The WNEM-TV news department produced 10 prime time documentaries each year. Two reporters and one photographer were assigned to these programs. Newsmen in Flint-Saginaw-Bay City There were 14 respondents from these three stations, 12 percent of the total Michigan survey respondents. The average age of the newsmen was 35, the oldest group in any market. The average level of education achieved was a bachelor's degree in journalism or broadcasting. Four had attended graduate school in broadcasting; one had a master's degree. Most of these newsmen had about three and one-half years experience in radio news and two and one-half years in television news. They had a variety of other media experience, including broadcast production and sales, newspaper reporting and public relations. Since these newsmen were much older than the average, they had time to pursue other interests before beginning their current jobs. They had worked for only two stations; however, they remained with their present station more than four years, two years longer than other groups. Salary levels in this market were comparable to newsmen's salaries in the Grand Rapids stations. Only one person reported making less than $8,000 a year. Almost one-half said their salaries were 71 major reasons why they stayed with their stations. Fifty percent of these newsmen also viewed the opportunity to move up within the company as a major factor. Eight wanted to become news directors or reporters in major markets. Judging by their age, length of time with their present station and salary levels, these newsmen seemed more satisfied in this market than those previously discussed. The Saginaw News, Bay City Times and Flint Journal are the major newspapers in this area. Area newsmen read these newspapers and the Detroit Free Press for about one hour every day. This group viewed television news programs less than any other. They did not belong to professional organizations because there were no local chapters of professional associations in the area. Traverse City-Cadillac—Marqgette The two smallest TV markets in Michigan are Traverse City- Cadillac, the 1315t market in the country and Marquette, the 175th market. The Traverse City-Cadillac market has three commercial stations, all with news operations. Since WLUC-TV is the only commercial station in Marquette, and the news operation is similar to those in the Traverse City-Cadillac market, the two markets were grouped together for coding and reporting purposes. WWTV, Channel 9, Cadillac, had the largest news operation of the two markets--ten men and two women. The news director served as administrator, assignment editor, producer, reporter, photographer and anchorman. The station had six combination reporter-photographer-fi1m editors; three in Cadillac, one in Traverse City and two at WWUP-TV, 72 its satellite station in Sault St. Marie. Two anchormen functioned as film editors and writers, three secretaries were often reporters, and WWTV had six part-time stringers in its northern Michigan coverage area. The weatherman wrote news and edited film; the sportscaster also wrote news copy and anchored the late news and sports show. The 6 p.m. report, "TV 9 and 10 Evening News," and the "11 O'Clock Report" were the only weekday newscasts. At 6 p.m., Saturday, there was a news and public affairs program called "Eye on Michigan," which depended on stories from stringers. WWTV carried all CBS news broadcasts and used the Associated Press broadcast wire. WWTV, WWUP-TV, Channel 10 in Sault St. Marie, radio stations WWTV-FM and WWAM are jointly operated and owned by the Fetzer Broad- casting Company. WWUP rebroadcasts all WWTV's programs. WGTU, Channel 29 in Traverse City, was the only news department in the state that did not use newsfilm at the time the survey was conducted. All story visuals were shot on one-half inch black and white videotape, then dubbed on two-inch black and white tape for the news broadcast. The system is far from mini-cam, but it was less expensive for a struggling news department.22 There were four people on the WGTU news staff. The news direc- tor was a reporter who videotaped his own stories and anchored both the 22Mini-cam is a small, portable videotape camera which can microwave transmissions to its base station or can be plugged into a portable videotape recorder. At the time the survey was conducted, none of the Michigan stations were using this portable videotape system. Except WGTU-TV, all were using 16 mm. film. 73 early and late evening newscasts. Three other news reporters, two men and one woman, alternated as weather and sports announcers. WGTU scheduled its 30-minute "Eyewitness News" at 5:30 p.m., followed by "ABC Evening News" at 6 p.m., and 30 minutes of news, weather and sports at 11:00 p.m., Monday through Friday. One of the newest stations in Michigan, WGTU did not yet produce weekend news, public affairs or documentary programs. WPBN-TV, Channel 7, Traverse City, was the only station that refused to cooperate with this research. The operations manager said the questionnaire was too personal and refused to let his newsmen respond to it. All other stations left it up to the discretion of individual newsmen. The WPBN-TV operations manager did submit to an interview about the news operation, which is one of the smallest news departments in the state. Four men reported, filmed, produced and anchored the newscasts. They alternated news, weather and sports respon- sibilities. One of the newsmen also reported and anchored news for WTCM radio in Traverse City, owned by the same company, Midwestern Broad- casting Company. WTOM-TV, Channel 4, Cheboygan, is a satellite for WPBN, which had a one-man bureau responsible for news, sports and all film from the Cheboygan area. WPBN-TV broadcast five minutes of local news at 7:25 and 8:25 a.m., 40 minutes at 6 and 11 p.m. weekdays, and 15 minutes at 11:30 p.m. Satur- day and 11 p.m. Sunday. WPBN aired no editorials. The news department at WLUC-TV, Channel 6, Marquette, produced 14 half-hour newscasts and two public affairs programs each week. All eleven members of the news staff (10 men and one woman) were reporters, 74 photographers, film editors and producers. Two also anchored the news, and two other reporters wrote, produced and anchored weather and sports. On weekdays, WLUC broadcast five-minute news capsules at 7:30 a.m. and during a noon public affairs talk program called "Upper Michigan Today." "TV 6 News“ included 30 minutes of news, weather and sports Monday through Friday. "CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite" ran at 6:30 p.m. weekdays. On Saturday, local news ran at 6 p.m., and "ABC Weekend News" at 11 p.m. WLUC-TV ran only local newscasts on Sunday at 7 and 11 p.m. "Camera 6," a twice weekly local public affairs talk program, was moderated by various members of the news department. Newsmen in Traverse City-Cadillac-Marquette Fifteen percent of the Michigan survey, a total of 18 news employes, responded from these four stations. The typical newsman was a 27-year-old male, with a college education in liberal arts. Fifty percent of the respondents from these markets (nine) had bachelor's degrees, 33 percent (six) had attended college, but did not complete a degree. Only 28 percent (five respondents) majored in broadcasting, differing from the average in other markets. The average length of experience for these newsmen in radio and TV was one year. The year was spent in their present station, their first and only job in broadcast news. Several newsmen said they took this position immediately after they were graduated from college. Five had an average of six months experience as newspaper reporters, acquired while they were attending college. 75 Salaries in this market fell under $10,000 a year. The starting salary was less than $8,000. Six people found it necessary to supplement their income through a second, part-time job. The majority of the respondents considered their jobs as training opportunities for future work in larger markets. But these northern Michigan newsmen were not on their way to the top ten markets. Nine preferred to move into stations in markets smaller than the tenth, which is Cleveland. Over half said they were willing to leave television news, many for public relations work. The signals of the Traverse City-Cadillac television stations cover most of the northern lower peninsula. The major newspapers in this area are the Traverse City Record Eagle and the Cadillac Evening News, but newsmen said they tried to read all the local dailies and weeklies in the area they covered. The Marqgette Mining Journal was the Upper Peninsula paper read by newsmen at WLUC-TV, but they, too, said they attempted to read all Upper Peninsula papers. Newsmen in both markets read the Detroit Free Press daily. They read these newspapers for about one hour each day and viewed television newscasts an average of seven hours each week. There were no local professional broadcast or journalism societies in these areas, so these newsmen were not affiliated with any professional groups. Only one news director belonged to the Radio-Television News Directors Association. 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S .A .mcomeceaeou umxcmz .m mPamh CHAPTER VI WOMEN IN TELEVISION NEWS Women have joined men as equals at more and more stations in recent years.23 The national television news survey conducted by Vernon Stone for the Radio-Television News Directors Association in 1972 indicates that women are employed in 50 percent of the television and combination radio-television news staffs. At least one full-time newswoman worked in each of these news departments. Television news operations employ women more often than radio news operations.24 This is a recent trend. In 1960, only one-fourth of the broad- casting jobs in the United States were held by women, and these were 25 Men dominated mainly secretarial, traffic and continuity positions. the news airwaves until Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination on account of sex. In the late 19605, the women's lib- eration movement called attention to the lack of female talent on broadcast news, and in 1971, the FCC ruled that the Equal Employment Opportunity Act applies to women. 23Stone, "Operations," p. 9. 2"Luna. , p. 10. 25Don C. Smith and Kenneth Harwood, "Women in Broadcasting," Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 10 (Fall 1966), 339-355. 77 78 By 1970, newswomen worked in 45 percent of the television news- rooms, and at that time, 94 percent of the news directors surveyed said they would hire women as reporters.26 Women are acceptable to news audiences. In 1972, Stone conducted a survey to define the attitudes of viewers to television newswomen. He also questioned news directors about viewer‘s attitudes and proved that they, who thought audiences would prefer men, were wrong. More than one- half of the viewers questioned said it did not matter whether the news- caster was a woman or a man. Except in war and sports reports, most people did not care who reported stories from the scene. Stone indicated that the news directors thought the audience would consider a male anchor more believable, but again, the audience disagreed. Those who did prefer men delivering the evening news specified two major reasons: the male voice and habit. More than 90 percent of the news directors agreed that women could handle most news jobs as well as men. The exception: anchoring. Less than two-thirds thought women were as good as men in anchor posi- tions.27 Perhaps this explains why there are still fewer women anchoring than there are in other aspects of news. According to Stone's survey for the RTNDA: 26Irving E. Fang and Frank W. Gerval, "A Survey of Salaries and Hiring Preferences in Television News," Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 15 (Fall 1971), 430. 27Vernon A. Stone, "Attitudes Toward Television Newswomen," Journal of Broadcastigg, Vol. 18 (Winter 1973-1974), 52-61. 79 Newswomen are clearly more than tokens at major TV stations. About half of them reported two or more, another fourth had only one newswoman, and a fourth remained all male. In medium- 1arge market TV, 35 percent of the stations had no newswomen, 44 percent had one, and 21 percent had two or more. At medium- small market TV stations, there was no newswoman at 61 percent, one at 27 percent and two or more at 12 percent.28 In the Michigan survey 12 of the 16 television news departments employed women in the categories described in this thesis, but it made little difference what size the market. When the survey was conducted in 1974, there were 31 female TV journalists in Michigan's news departments. The three Detroit stations reported two or more women in the journalistic responsibilities of reporting, writing, producing and anchoring. The majority of them were black. Only two stations in Michigan had no women working in their news departments. They were WPBN-TV in Traverse City and WJRT-TV in Flint. Thirteen (43 percent of the total) responded to the news person- nel survey. Nine of the women were primarily reporters. Three women often anchored but it was seldom on the station's major newscast. There were only two full-time anchorwomen in Michigan: at WILX-TV in Jackson and WJBK-TV in Detroit. The other women responding to the survey were writers whose secondary responsibilities were producing, weather reporting or booth announcing. In one medium-market station, three secretaries were part-time reporters. 28Stone, "Operations," p. 10. 80 Table 10. Newswomen in Michigan television stations, January 1974. Station Men Women Totala WXYZ-Detroit l8 6 24 WJBK-Detroit 17 5 22 WWJ-Detroit 17 3 20 WOTV-Grand Rapids 11 l 12 WZZM-Grand Rapids 6 2 8 WKZO-Kalamazoo 12 1 13 WUHQ-Battle Creek 3 l 4 WJRT-Flint 8 O 8 WNEM-Saginaw 9 2 11 WEYI-Saginaw 4 2 6 WJIM-Lansing 5 2 7 WILX-Jackson 5 2 7 WWTV—Cadillac 10 2 12 WGTU-Traverse City 3 1 4 WPBN-Traverse City 4 O 4 WLUC-Marquette lO 1 ll aThis includes the journalists described in this thesis: NEWS directors, assistant news directors, assignment editors, producers, reporters, writers, and anchormen. 81 According to Irving Fang's study, "A Survey of Salaries and Hiring Preferences in Television News," this rule generally applies: the larger the news staff and the television market, the more likely a woman will be working as a reporter.29 In a 1970 survey, Fang found that three out of four major metro- politan TV stations employed women as reporters. In medium to large cities, the ratio was three out of five. The chances that a woman would be hired in smaller markets was less likely because "reporters were required to tote heavy camera gear, and they (the news directors) would not hire a woman for this reason."30 This trend was clearly defined in the Michigan survey. The only two stations which did not hire women had similar explanations. WPBN'x operations manager said there was no need for a woman on the air because news was not a major part of the WPBN broadcast day, and he needed men 3] The news director at WJRT-TV in Flint said who could "do everything." he had yet to find a woman who was willing to carry the heavy sound-on- film camera equipment that all his news people were required to carry. He said if he could find a woman who could do all the things he asked of his staff members, he would certainly hire her.32 In 1973, Vernon Stone conducted a survey discussing the nation's newswomen, which was a follow-up of the 1972 RTNDA study. Stone reported the median age for a broadcast newswoman was 26. She had two years 29Fang. "Salaries," p. 430. 3OIbid., p. 430. 3IInterview with WPBN operations manager, May 31, 1974. 32Interview with WJRT news director, June 4, 1974. 82 experience and had been on her present news staff for one year. More than 75 percent had college degrees with journalism the major area of study. The majority were reporters.33 Michigan newswomen averaged age 24, the youngest group of respon- dents in the survey. Seventy-six percent (11 women) had bachelor's degrees but none had graduate degrees. During their undergraduate years, most women were communication arts majors. Four majored in broadcasting, two in journalism, one each in communications and speech. Three news- women had degrees in liberal arts, two had attended secretarial schools. These 13 newswomen had less previous media experience than male respondents who made up the 89 percent of the total respondents. Three averaged one year of experience in public relations and newspaper report- ing. Seven women were one-year veterans of radio news, whereas the majority of the total respondents had about two and one-half years experience in radio news. Four had worked one year in television news. The state-wide average was one and one-half years. All the women had been at their present jobs for about nine and a half months, just under the one year average. In Stone's follow-up study, he reported that half of the nation's newswomen expect to work in broadcast news for eleven years or more, and those who leave the business do so mainly for other jobs. More than one-third of Stone's respondents had managerial aspirations, but most doubted their chances for advancement.34 33Vernon Stone, "A Survey of Women in Broadcast News," RTNDA Communicator (March 1975), p. 4. 34 Ibid., p. 4. 83 The mobility of Michigan's newswomen was more difficult to decipher because most respondents refused to make choices in answering mobility questions. (See Appendix C, Part III, questions 23 through 28.) All the women wanted to continue working in broadcast news, either in larger markets or for networks. But three of the thirteen respondents also wanted to write for magazines or work in public relations and advertising. One woman sought to become a broadcast sports reporter. All respondents indicated their willingness to leave their present situation for better jobs, although most could not identify their next goal. The majority considered their present job as training for future jobs in television news. Nearly 70 percent of the nation's newswomen, as identified in Stone's survey, reported discrimination in pay, promotions and story assignments. Stone asked newswomen to compare their salaries with those of men in their news departments. Forty-eight percent said they were "about the same," and 27 percent believed them to be lower. Twenty-one percent didn't know. The women reported an average weekly salary of $195, with a median of $163.35 In Michigan, almost one-half of the newswomen earned less than $8,000 a year, or less than $153 a week. These women were working in medium and small market stations. One-quarter (three of the thirteen respondents) made $8,000 to $10,000 a year, which is $153 to $192 a week. 35Stone, "Survey," p. 4. 84 Only one woman, a reporter/co-anchor in Detroit, reported a salary of more than $20,000 a year, about $385 a week, or more. The yearly salaries described by twelve of the thirteen female respondents in Michigan can be broken down into weekly pay on the following scale. One respondent did not answer the question. The numbers are rounded off. Table 11. Michigan women--week1y pay scale. Pay Per Week Number of Respondents Percentage Less than $153 6 46 $153 to $192 4 30 $193 to $250 1 7 $385 to $480 1 7 TOTAL: 12 9O Many respondents, both men and women, refused to answer the salary question. It was broken down into yearly increments of $2,999, so it is difficult to pinpoint an average salary or define a weekly pay scale. It is also difficult to note any real discrimination between men's and women's salaries. Several women did note discrimination, however, believing they received less money for the same job held by men at their station. In comparing women's responses with men, there were noticeably lower salaries in non-union news departments in medium to small markets 85 with one or two newswomen on the staff. As an example, the four men responding from WLUC-TV in Marquette drew annual salaries of $8,000 to $10,000. A young woman with comparable responsibilities but less previous experienced earned less than $8,000. The WLUC news department was small enough that the duties were similarly divided among all full-time staff members. At the time of the survey, there was ohe woman on the news staff at WJIM, Lansing. Her major responsibilities were reporting, film editing, producing and anchoring the noon new5 program. Her salary was less than $8,000 a year. A man with similar responsibilities earned between $10,000 and $12,999. . Salaries for women in larger market stations were more competi- tive with those of men who did the same work. In Grand Rapids, for instance, the beginning pay scale for a male or female reporter was the same, between $8,000 and $10,000, depending upon the amount of experience he/she brought to the job. In Detroit, a market where newsmen belong to labor unions, a female reporter at WXYZ earned over $20,000 a year, about the same as her male counterparts. Her salary was higher than those of male assignment editors who wrote and co-produced news programs. The questionnaire was not designed to look at the status of women in Michigan's television news departments, but the facts above emerge. No other conclusions could be drawn. There are always variables which define the opportunities of women in the media, such as the tele- vision market size, station management's co-mitment to news, and news directors' attitudes toward women working in news. It would require a more extensive study to bring out these things. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Mobility appeared to be the key factor which motivated the Michigan broadcast newsmen who participated in this study. Respondents in the survey represented a well-educated group of communicators, but they worked in the market to acquire the necessary skills and experience to enable them to m0ve up to better jobs, larger television markets and more pay. Broadcasters are known to be a highly mobile group of peOple, and Michigan TV journalists fell into the same category. Fang and Gerval's 1970 survey of hiring practices indicated that news directors want to hire people "who can do the job from the day they walk in: either graduates in broadcast journalism or experienced reporters even though they lack a college education."36 Results of Vernon Stone's RTNDA news directors survey noted a similar preference. In that study, one Reno, Nevada news director said: I look for and prefer the newsman to the disc-jockey-wants- to-break-into-news type. I find it's easier to train people with solid news backgrounds to be broadcasters than to train the broadcaster to be a good newsman. Along the same lines, I much prefer a person with a journalism degree than some other major.37 36Fang, "Salaries.“ 37Stone, "Operations," p. 12. 86 87 If this is indeed the case, the average Michigan newsman had the appropriate training to move up in TV news. He had a degree in broad- casting or journalism and two years experience in broadcast news. The majority of respondents considered their present job as training for the future. Combine job training with education, and the typical Michi- gan newsman is on his way to being typical of a national norm--working for one television station for an average of two years, then moving to a larger market. In the Michigan study, some respondents said the best place for an aspiring TV newsman to get experience is in a small market station which requires each person on the staff to be master of all skills-- reporting, writing, photography, film editing, producing, and anchoring. Most respondents indicated that work toward a bachelor's degree in broad- cast journalism, with course work in political science and liberal arts is necessary. But as one reporter wrote, "Enough (education) to avoid grammatical errors and enough to avoid mental mistakes. That is, he or she should have an open mind. No college can guarantee that."38 Michigan TV journalists were well-educated; the average had a bachelor's degree. They were also mobile, seeking better jobs and higher pay as they moved. They wanted to get enough experience so they could move into larger markets. Most realized that a person who has worked in broadcast journalism is more apt to move up the job ladder ‘than someone who seeks advanced academic degrees. The average Michigan TV newsman had two and one-half years of 38Comment on Michigan survey questionnaire from reporter at WOTV, Grand Rapids. . 88 radio experience, most of it in news. Older, well-trained newsmen were generally found in larger, better paying markets, while smaller markets seemed to draw young people who became "jack-of-all-trades" in their news departments. They moved on eventually to news operations where they were allowed to specialize. The opposite was also evident among some of the respondents. Several newsmen in smaller stations started working immediately after they graduated from college in large labor union stations, only to leave those jobs for smaller markets because large stations did not allow them to work in all aspects of TV news. They felt they had specialized too early in their careers and wanted opportunities to learn other facets of the business before settling into one area. The mobility of these broadcast journalists can also be seen in their stated occupational goals. The majority of respondents wanted to become news directors. According to Stone, a news director usually rises out of the ranks of newsmen, with training in many aspects of the news operation. In his survey, 52 percent of the news directors in joint TV-radio newsrooms came from other broadcast news jobs. Stone also found that news directors in the Midwest, which includes Michigan, were likely to have been promoted from within a station's ranks.39 Forty-one percent of the news personnel in the Michigan survey wanted to become news directors in their respective stations, while one-half of the news directors previously held other positions in the same department. 39Stone, "Operations," p. 6. 89 Both surveys indicated that TV news directors were older than other news personnel. Nationally, the average age was 36. In Michigan, it was 38. The average age of a broadcast staff member nationally was under 30.40 In Michigan, it was 30. News directors tend to earn more money than other staff members, except anchormen. This may be a major reason why so many reporters, who form the most mobile group of respondents, aspired to become news directors. Salaries of Michigan news directors were well distributed between $10,000 and $20,000, with eight of the eleven respondents earning more than $13,000. In Stone's RTNDA survey, 68 percent of the television news directors made from $10,500 to more than $16,000. By comparison, reporters' salaries in Michigan averaged between $8,000 and $10,000. News staff members in Stone's survey (which included reporters and other personnel and excluded news directors) averaged $6,800 to $10,900 per year.41 Reaching the status of news director was apparently quite satis- fying to Michigan newsmen. None of the eleven news directors responding to the survey said they were content working at their present stations. None wanted to move into network news. Where do news directors go when it is time for a change? All nine respondents said they would be willing to move into a higher manage- ment position within the companies they worked for. Career goals, market sizes and salaries seemed to be the main motivations behind Michigan broadcast journalists. These were the forces 40Stone, "Operations," pp. 6 and 8. 41Ibid., pp. 7-8. 90 that kept most newsmen so mobile. Education opens the door, but experience makes progress toward goals possible. Future Research Possibilities What kind of person is a television journalist? According to one Michigan TV reporter, . . a journalist of any kind is a different type of person. It takes a special person, for the most part, to stay in this business. You develop at your own speed. The hardest part of broadcast journalism is teaching yourself to be yourself. Once that's accomplished, the rest is easy.42 A television journalist carries the weight of informing a vast audience every day. Sixty-four percent of the American public uses TV as its primary source for news, and 33 percent rely on it for all of their news.43 Therefore, the journalist's role of informing the public accur- ately and objectively is a great responsibility. A producer in a medium- large market station in Michigan said: Hard work and experience are the most important. Someone who will get out on the street and hustle. Someone objective, someone who will ask an intelligent question and keep on asking it until it gets answered.44 A news director of a smaller mid-Michigan station said, I'When logic begins and instinct ends, one will find the heart of the news 42Comment on Michigan survey questionnaire from reporter at WJRT-TV, Flint. 43Roper, What People Think, pp. 2-3. 44Comment on Michigan survey questionnaire from producer-writer at WOTV, Grand Rapids. 91 broadcasting business."45 In Television News, author Irving Fang quoted James Bormann of WCCO-TV in Minneapolis as saying a broadcast journalist should have these characteristics: ". . . the ability to remain objective in his observations--to feel deeply the emotions of people and the significance of events without becoming personally involved."46 It is impossible to measure the effectiveness, accuracy or objectivity of newsmen according to the results of the Michigan study. But it is important to identify the educational background and media experience of the people who bring the news to the public every day because effectiveness, accuracy and objectivity are learned in the class- room and on the job. This was the intent of the survey, but it indicates that further research needs to be done. There were areas of research opened in the Michigan survey that should be carefully explored for a more detailed description of the Michigan broadcast journalist. Some of the following areas need further research: --Sports and weather are normally integral parts of local TV Inewscasts. What are the educational backgrounds, experience and career mobility characteristics of sports and weatherpersons? --The managers and owners of every station influence their various departments. How much is the news operation affected in such 45Personal interview with news director at WNEM-TV, Saginaw, February 1974. 46James Bormann, in Fang's Television News, (New York: Hastings House), p. 408. 92 areas as budget, equipment, and the hiring and firing of personnel? How much do managers, owners, or the station's salesmen influence news program content, objectivity and editorial decisions? --Further research should also examine the equal opportunities given to women and minorities. Do station sizes, market sizes or loca- tions affect these opportunities? Is there a quota system at work in hiring men, women or racial minorities? Is there reverse discrimination? --The current study could also be compared with similar research of print personnel. For example, how does the education and media experience compare for reporters in television and reporters on daily newspapers? Are salaries comparable? How mobile are newspaper reporters? What are their average career goals? Most research leaves unanswered questions, and the Michigan broadcast news survey is no exception. Although the questionnaire was pretested (See Appendix B) and corrected from pretest results, more work is necessary to avoid ambiguity. Survey questions and answer choices need to be structured to avoid ambiguity, and to be able to determine immediately available careers andlwwvfast these journalists are reaching them. It was also difficult to pinpoint salaries, because the range given in each choice was too wide (See Appendix C, question 20). The number of responses to salary questions was lower than the number of responses to other sections of the questionnaire. However, there were enough answers from every market to draw a conclusion. The Michigan television news personnel survey is valuable to this writer. It will be useful to others in the broadcast journalism field because it forms the foundation for more study into other aspects of the subject. APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE TO NEWS DIRECTORS News Director: Please answer the following questions concerning the personnel in your news department and mail as soon as possible. I. II. III. The categories in Part I are mutually exclusive. Please put each person in only one category, that of his primary responsibility, even if his responsibilities overlap. Please state the number in the following categories: (1) (2) (3 (4 (5 (6 (10) (ll) (12) (l3) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) News reporters News writers Anchormen (if not included in other categories) Photographers Producers Assignment editors How many full time employees in your news department? How many part-time employees? How many news personnel are employed in some other area of the station (for example, as an announcer or producer for another local program, etc.) Please state length and time of early evening newscast (for example, 6:00 p.m.) Please state length and time of late evening newscast (for example, 11:00 p.m.) How many men employed in your news department? How many women employed in news department? How many minority persons in news department? Do any news, weather or sports personnel exchange functions or overlap in their responsibilities? a. If so, how? Do reporters ever shoot their own newsfilm? a. How often does this occur? How often do reporters function as news announcers? How often, if ever, do photographers double as reporters? 93 94 (19) If newsfilm is edited by someone other than the photographer who shot it, how many film editors in your news department? (20) How often do they double as photographers? (21) Are any news personnel involved in the writing and production of public affairs programs, documentaries or editorials? (22) If not, how are these special programs (excluding editorials) produced? (23) Who is responsible for writing station editorials? (24) Who presents the editorials on-air as representative of the station? (Title, not name.) (25) Comments: APPENDIX B PRETEST QUESTIONNAIRE Name Sex Age Station EDUCATION Educational Background: Completed High School College: 1 to 2 yrs. Name of University 3 yrs. 4 yrs. Degree Graduate work University Did you ever attend a technical school of broadcasting? How long? Name of School Major emphasis of study in undergraduate education Major emphasis in graduate education EXPERIENCE What major jobs outside broadcasting have you held? What is your final job goal in the mass media? How many times have you moved in the broadcasting business? Do you hold any jobs outside the station? If so, what? .95 96 Why? STATION EMPLOYMENT Present job description How long have you held this position? What news broadcast(s) are you responsible for? Are you a full time employee? Part time? What other duties, if any, do you now perform at your station? Have you ever worked in a different capacity for the same station? If so, what? How long did you hold this position? Why did you change positions within the station? Are you satisfied with your present position? Wy or why not? 97 Do you desire to move into another position within the station? State position and why? Why are you working for this particular station? Do you feel adequately prepared to handle your work? Do you think your present level of experience and ability is sufficient to move into a larger market and station? Explain Present salary: $ 6,000 - $ 8,000 $ 8,000 - $10,000 $10,000 - $13,000 $13,000 - $16,000 $16,000 - $18,000 $18,000 - $20,000 $20,000 - $25,000 $25,000 - $30,000 $30,000 - $40,000 $40,000 - $50,000 Over $50,000 98 NEWS OPERATION How much time do you spend gathering news? (Approx. how many hours per day?) How much time do you spend filming news? Writing news? Compiling news? Editing news copy? Producing the news program? How would you evaluate the news operation at your station? OPINION PLEASE What kind of educational background do you think a broadcast news reporter should have? What kind of media experience do you think a broadcast news reporter should have? Comments: 99 MORE BACKGROUND, PLEASE Where did you work before coming to this station? What position did you hold? What size market would you like to work in? Specific location and station? THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION! APPENDIX C LETTER AND FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE TO ALL NEWS PERSONNEL MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN 48823 SCHOOL OF JOURNALISM - JOURNALISM BUILDING Dear Broadcaster: Please take ten minutes to fill out this questionnaire and return it today. It is not long, but the information it will disclose is vital to the television news profession. I am conducting a statewide survey of all television news personnel to become more familiar with other news departments and their employees. As a member of the broadcast news profession, I am concerned about the lack of descriptive information about us and our profession. This study will develop a general biographical profile and description of all news directors, assignment editors, reporters, anchorpersons and photographers within Michigan. Your answers will remain confidential. You are asked to state your name so I will not send you another questionnaire. Thank you in advance for your cooperation. Sincerely, Rosemarie J. Alexander Graduate Student in Journalism Michigan State University 100 TELEVISION NEWS PERSONNEL SURVEY RESEARCH DEPARTMENT Michigan State University Winter 1974 PLEASE RETURN TO: Michigan State University School of Journalism 113 Linton Hall East Lansing, Michigan, 48824 To be filled out by all television news personnel and returned as soon as possible. IPART I’-- BACKGROUNDJ 1. Name 2. Station 3. Age 4. Sex: [1] ___ Male 2 ‘___ Female 5. cation: Some high school High School graduate Attended college Bachelors degree Graduate study Graduate degree(s) Technical school of broadcasting ummwa—ao. |_n_n_n_n_n_.u._1c WHH—fl'qfl 1'11 6. Major emphasis of undergraduate education: El] Journalism 2 Radio/TV [3] Speech/English Communications Liberal Arts 6] Social Science 7 Sciences 8] Other (Specify) 7. Major emphasis of graduate education: 8. Graduate degrees completed: [1] Masters [2] Doctorate What media experience did you have before coming to this station? Please specify the number of years in each category in the spaces provided. Number all those answers that apply. [1] Public relations 2] Radio News [3] Television news [4] Newspaper reporting 5] Magazine writing [6] Wire service work (AP/UPI) [7] Sales: (specify type of sales) [8] Management: (Epecify type of) [9] Advertising: _ (Epecify type of) DO] Other: (specifyT How many television stations have you worked for? 1] ___ One 2 .___ Two 3] ___ Three [4] Four or more Total number of years with this station: Are you: [1] Full time employee [2] Part time employee 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 102 2 LPART II -- RESPONSIBILITIES] What is your primary job title? [1] ___ News Director [6] ___ Anchorperson [2 ___ Assignment editor [7 ‘___ Photographer [3] ___ Producer [8] ___ Film editor [4 s__ Writer 9 ___ Other [5] ___ Reporter (specify) What are your secondary responsibilities within the news department? (Check all those answers that apply.) [1] ___ Assignment editor [6] ___ Photographer [2] ___ Producer [7] ___ Film editor 3] ___ Writer 8 ___ None [4] ____Reporter [9] ___ Other (specify) What other duties do you perform at this station? If you perform these duties for radio, place an "R" in the blank. (Check all those answers that apply.) [l] On-camera commercials [7] Station ownership or [2] Booth announcing management 3 Weather [8] Documentary/public affairs [4] Sports research and writing [5] Editorial writing [9] Other 6] Editorial delivery lspeciTy) Howm man y hours do you work in the news department each week, [”11” udi ing time in preparation? 1 Under 20 hours pi : .. .. 33 121— 21 I: :3 223:: 3 30 to ours [4] ——— 4] to 45 hours [7]: Over 60 hours per week Please estimate the number of hours you spend each week in the following activities. (Include only NEWS related hours.) 7 Shooting Processing Writing Producing Gathering News . News & Editing News The News Other Information Film News Film Stories Program Hours Spent fl, What are your particular specialities as a reporter? (Check all those answers that apply.) [l] ___ General assignment reporter [5]_ Courts [2] City government E6]:— Education E3]'_—— Regional and state government 7]_ Other 4 :Z: Police (speéTfy) Why are you working for this particular station? (Check all those answers that apply.) [1] Job opportunity [5] ___ Geographical location 2 '_—'Salary E6] ____Good station management [3] ___ Chance of mobility within 7 ___ News department personnel ___ the company [8] ___ Other [4] ___ Training position for (specify) future employment 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 103 3 Present salary: [1] ____Under $8,000 [5] ___ $16,000 - $19,999 [2] ___ $8,000 - $10,000 [6] $20,000 - $24,999 3 ‘___ $10,000 - $12,999 7 ::::$25,000 - $30,000 [4] ____$13,000 - $15,999 [8] ___ Over $30,000 If you hold any employment outside the station, what is it? [1] ___ Freelance reporter/writer [3] ___ Freelance photographer [2] ___ Teaching 4] ___ Other (Specify) Why do you work outside the station? [PART III -- MOBILITYI Do you desire to move into another position within this station? Yes No AIf h' h d ref r. 1 News director [4] Advertising and sales E2] Station management [5] Other 3] More on-air performance (Specify) Do you desire to move into a position within another station? Yes No I i hdd r f r? 1 News irector [2] Station management E24 ——— ggxgrtising and sales [3 Similar position to your -——- present one (spechy) If you plan to remain in broadcast news, what size television market do you desire to eventually work in? [1] One to ten [4] Above 50 [2] 11 to 25 [5] Network 3] 25 to 50 6 Satisfied in present market If you desire to leave television for work in another area of the mass media, which do you prefer? [1] ___ Advertising E2] ___ Public relations 3] ___ Radio (specify position) [4] ___ Newspaper (Specify position) [5] Magazine (specify position) (Specify) [6] Other 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 104 PART IV -- PROFESSIONAL INTERESTS] Which daily newspaper do you read? [1] Major national papers such as New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, etc. [2] Detroit Free Press E3] Detroit News 4 Regional Paper(s) (specify) T [5] Local newspapers (specify) Approximately how much time do you devote to newspaper reading each day? What magazines do you read that are related to your position in broadcastipg? [1] Major news magazines, e.g., Time, Newsweek, New Republic, etc. [2] Special interest magazines devoted to sports, entertainment and the arts. [3] Special interest magazines devoted to news and commentary, e.g., Harpers, Atlantic, Commentary, The Humanist, Foreign Affairs Quarterly, etc. [4] Special interest magazines devoted to the mass media, e.g., Broadcasting, Journalism Quarterly, Advertising Age, etc. [5] Other (specify) Approximately how many hours of news, public affairs programs and documentaries do you watch on television each week? What active interests do you take in your profession? _l] ___ Member of the Radio- Television News Directors Association :2] Member Sigma Delta Chi :3]:::: Member of Alpha Epsilon Rho :4] ___ Member of Women in Communications ;5] ____Member of Michigan News Broadcasters Association _6] ___ Other ‘ (specify)T [7] ___ Local press club (specify)* How active are you in these organizations? [1] ___ Read association publications [2] ___ Attend local meetings [3] Hold office in local chapter of organization [4] :Z: Attend association conventions [5] ___ Other (specify) SOURCES CONSULTED SOURCES CONSULTED Books Backstrom, C. H. and Hursh, G. D. Survenyesearch. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1963. Bagdikian, Ben H. The Information Machines. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1971. Barnouw, Erik. A Tower in Babel,_A History,of Broadcasting in the United States. Vol. I, to 1933. Oxford University Press, 1966. . The Golden Web, A History of Broadcasting in the United States. Vol. II, 1933-1953, Oxford University Press, 1968. . The Image Empire, A History of Broadcasting in the United States. Vol. III, l953-present. Oxford University Press, 1970. Bliss, Edward, Jr. and Patterson, John M. Writing News for Broadcast. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971. Bluem, A. William. Documentary in American Television. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1965. Fang, Irving E. Television News. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1972. Green, Maury. TV News: Anatomy and Process. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1969. Head, Sidney W. Broadcasting in America. Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1956. Kahn, Frank J., ed. Documents of American Broadcasting, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968. Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. MacNeil, Robert. The People Machine. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, Inc., 1968. 105 106 Ray, Verne M. Interpreting FCC Broadcasting Rules and Regulations. Roper, Burns W. A Ten-Year View of Public Attitudes Toward Television and Other Mass Media. New York: Television Information Office, 968. What People Think of Television and Other Mass Media 1959- 1972. New York: Television Information Office, 1973. Skornia, Harry J. Television and the News. Palo Alto: Pacific Books, 1968. Tyrrell, Robert. The Work of the Television Journalist. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1972. Theses Graziano, Joseph 0. "Local News Operations of WOOD-TVJ' Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1961. Tesar, Denise R. "Case Study: News Department Management in a Midwestern Middle Size Market." Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1971. Yearbooks and Directories The Alfred I. DuPont--Columbia University Suryey of Broadcast Journalism. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1968-1973. Broadcastipg Yearbook 1976. Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications, Inc., 1976. Broadcasting Yearbook 1974. Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications, Inc. 1974. Mike and Screen Press Directory and Newsguide. 1972. Television Factbook. Radnor, Pa.: TV Digest, 1973. Government Publications FCC Document, News. No. 20697. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, December 31, 1968. 107 Periodicals and Research Articles Blonston, Gary. “TV News as Show Biz." Detroit Magazine. Feb. 25, 1973, pp. 6-10. Fang, Irving E. and Gerval, Frank W. "A Survey of Salaries and Hiring Preferences in Television News." Journal of Broadcasting. Vol. XV, No. 5 (Fall 1971), pp. 421-433. Hudson, Robert V. "A Descriptive Study of Oregon TV Newsmen." Journalism Quarterly (Spring 1967), pp. 136-137. . "TV News Operations in a Two-Station Market." Journalism Quarterly (Autumn 1966), pp. 542-544. "Public Again Gives High Marks to TV." Broadcasting Magazine. April 2, 1973. Smith, Don C. and Harwood, Kenneth. "Women in Broadcasting." Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 10 (Fall 1966), pp. 339-355. Stone, Vernon A. "Radio-Television News Directors and Operations." RTNDA Communicator (June 1973), pp. 5-12. . "Attitudes Toward Television Newswomen." Journal of Broad- casting. 18:1 (Winter 1973-74), pp. 49-61. , and Dell, Barbara. "More Women in News Broadcasting According to RTNDA Survey." RTNDA Communicator (August 1972), p. 4. , and Nas, Abigail Jones. "A Survey of Women in Broadcast News.“ RTNDA Communicator (March 1975), pp. 4-5. Personal Interviews Since the research was conducted, many of the broadcasters personally interviewed for this study are no longer in these positions or working for these stations. Alvey, Charles -- Operations Manager, WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek. Cederburg, Carl -- News Director, WJBK-TV, Detroit. Cheverton, Richard -- News Director, WOTV, Grand Rapids. Choate, Luke -- News Director, WJRT-TV, Flint. Crane, Thomas -- News Director, WNEM-TV, Saginaw 108 Douglas, Fred -- News Director, WKZO-TV, Kalamazoo. Fabian, Richard -- News Director, WEYI-TV, Saginaw. Gill, William -- Assistant News Director, WOTV, Grand Rapids. Harris, Daryle -- News Director, WGTU-TV, Traverse City. Hogan, Jack -- News Director, WZZM-TV, Grand Rapids. Jones, Thomas -- Operations Manager, WPBN-TV, Traverse City. Lee, Robert -- News Director, WWTV, Cadillac. Lipson, Harry -- Operations Manager, WPBN-TV, Traverse City. McCauley, Nancy -- Reporter, WUHQ-TV, Battle Creek. Nye, Phil -- News Director, WXYZ—TV, Detroit. Prato, Louis -- News Director, WWJ-TV, Detroit. Saizan, Thomas -- Assignment Editor, WZZM-TV, Grand Rapids. Steuber, Richard -- Producer, WOTV, Grand Rapids. Tallerico, John -- News Director, WILX-TV, Jackson. Williams, John -- Reporter, WLUC-TV, Marquette. 11] 1111191 111111 111111; 1 11 11111 1“ 692