,3 r ., v. .T t '5 u.-. . . . 2 .' . . 'i - - . O _ . O f . . ‘ . _‘ - . -. - . . C c . - . . - . f U 'a' 1' . C - . .. -. o . .D C 5- . L— . ‘ . . v ; . . C .. . . . . . . ‘- . . 1 . . . . ' . . . u ‘ L .. c D . . . - . 3 o . O . ' ’ . ~ I - . .0L,,.‘ :"‘v I ‘\ua..., ' .0 '5 .0 l . ‘. :56? 3'. ‘.'.').OI‘:Q.O:'I ' O '3 I , 0 t O. ‘ I .'.‘v 0.. . In .. V g. 2 I ' ‘ ‘53.. a: i ’53"... C. ,. 'f '. IQ It i." a z ' ..~ 0:. - _,- A'-‘ *f‘ ...‘ _m-~.’ "‘-‘fir~- ~—‘.“--t'-v—. “.5 a “-0- ~““ On‘fl" *v“..‘ Nfimv- .eo..”n -Oiwl‘U-o ' AN ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE UNDERGRADUATES- AND MUSIC IEAOHERS IN RELATION TO STUDENT ATTITUDES‘ TOWARD MUSIC : ’ ' ‘ ‘ Thesis-for the Degree Of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GORDON RAYMOND MEHUNG 1972 - o ' - O O . o O . — ‘ O o . - _ o c n . . 0 ' . r - o - . 2 - - . . - - '. ' , . _ ‘.. ‘ O , a . ' o ' , ' , p, c "I ‘ “ < . - o t . - a . ', ‘ n . .' . . - . a d u o o ' I ' - ' i ' - . ’ . .‘ ' , ' ‘ . o I . . . _ - “ . . . ' a * . ‘ ‘ .» - — t ‘ . 9 - A a ' ' , . 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I'I- W 3 1293 100 8886 ,J I 6le I II This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE UNDERGRADUATES AND MUSIC TEACHERS IN RELATION TO STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD MUSIC presented by Gordon Raymond Mehling has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph o D 0 degree in MUS 1C DREAM/fl DEN 3133'; ‘_ _ Major professor .s 1“ O' u .. ". "’. “q 7» Opt) 0-7539 ‘ ‘91 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE UNDERGRADUATES AND MUSIC TEACHERS IN RELATION TO STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD MUSIC BY Gordon Raymond Mehling The purpose of this study was to examine differences in (l) attitudes toward music in college undergraduates who were not music majors, (2) musical needs of college under- graduates who were not music majors, and (3) music faculty perception of undergraduate nonmusic major attitudes and needs. The population consisted of one thousand, seven hundred and thirty-four college undergraduates from five state universities in Michigan. The faculty sample was made up of the music faculty and graduate assistant staff at the same institutions. Two original instruments were developed for the study: the Music Attitude Scale (MAS) and the Musical Needs Profile (MNP). A Multivariate Analysis of Variance, programed for the computer by Jeremy Finn, was used to analyze the data. . . Gordon Raymond Mehling Findings I. There are no significant differences in either musical attitudes or needs between the four levels of college undergraduate nonmusic majors. 2. College undergraduates who have had music train- ing outside the public school, consisting of private vocal or instrumental lessons, demonstrate more positive musical attitudes and needs than undergraduates who have not had such training. 3. Students who have taken one or more college music courses reflect a more positive attitude toward music than students who have not had a college music course. 4. There are no statistically significant differences in relation to musical needs between students who have taken a college music course and those who have not. 5. College music teachers perceive the musical attitudes and needs of college undergraduates to be less positive than they actually are. 6. College undergraduates correctly rate their musical experiences and training in comparison with their peers. 7. There is less variation at the junior level between students who, in comparison with their peers, rate their musical experience and training as inferior and those who rate themselves as average or superior. AN ANALYSIS OF COLLEGE UNDERGRADUATES AND MUSIC TEACHERS IN RELATION TO STUDENT ATTITUDES TOWARD MUSIC BY Gordon Raymond Mehling A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1972 To Marilyn, Kathy and Don for their infinite patience and encouragement. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to thank the members of his guidance committee: Dr. Dale Bartlett, Dr. Harold Brown, Dr. Myron Colber, and Dr. Theodore Johnson. A special note of appreciation to Dr. Robert Sidnell, my committee chairman, for his personal and professional encouragement. I would also like to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. William Crano, Department of Psychology, and Mr. James Maas, Counseling Personnel Services and Educational Psy- chology, for their invaluable statistical assistance and advice. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . Chapter I. OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM . . Background to the Problem . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . Scope of the Study . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . II. SURVEY OF THE RELATED LITERATURE Introduction . . . . . . . Attitude Theory . . . . . The Behaviorist School . . . The Gestalt School . . . Attitude Measurement . . Paired Comparisons . Equal Appearing Intervals . . Scalogram Analysis . . . Summated Ratings . . . . . Semantic Differential . . . Other Methods . . . . . . Attitude Measurement and Music . Summary . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . Development of the Instruments . Sample . . . . . . . . . Design . . . . . . . . . Analysis Procedures . . . . . iv Page ii iii vi vii viii FJH I—Joxoxom 13 l5 17 24 46 47 47 49 50 51 52 53 58 6O 60 63 65 69 Chapter IV. ANALYSIS OF RIKSUIIFS . . . Discussion of Interactions . Proportional Design Analysis Interactions of the E Variable V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . Summary Findings and Conclusions . . Discussion and Suggestions for Future Research BIBLIOGRAPHY Recommendations Page 71 88 89 91 95 96 10. ll. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES ANOVA of the MAS Between College Under- graduates on the Experience Variable . . ANOVA of the MNP Between College Under- graduates on the E Variable . . . . . . Proportional Design (N = 976) . . . . . . ANOVA of the Interactions of the T, C, and L Variables . . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MAS Between Levels of College Undergraduates . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MNP Between Levels of College Undergraduates . . . . . . . . . . Standard Errors of Least Square Estimates of Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MAS Between Students With and Without Music Training . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MNP Between Students With and Without Music Training . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MAS Between College Undergraduates With and Without a College Music Course . . ANOVA of the MNP Between College Under- graduates With and Without a College Music Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANOVA of the MAS Between College Under- graduates and Music Faculties . . . . . ANOVA of the MNP Between College Under- graduates and Music Faculties . . . . . vi Page 73 74 75 75 76 76 77 78 79 79 8O 81 82 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Experience and Training Interaction . . . . 84 2. Experience and Course Interaction . . . . 85 3. Experience and Level Interaction . . . . . 87 vii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix I. Music Attitude Scale and Musical Needs Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . II. Rotated Factor Loadings for the MAS and MNP . III. Reliability Computations for MAS and MNP . . IV. Cell Identification, Frequencies, and Means . viii Page 104 112 115 117 CHAPTER I OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM It has been predicted that by the year 2000 the average work week in the United States will have been reduced to a mere thirty hours.l Provision of the ele— ments necessary to sustain life is no longer a major concern for the majority of people. However, the effect of man's technological progress, in terms of increased amounts of leisure time, has become a crucial issue in contemporary society. Leisure time no longer belongs only to the upper strata of the social structure but has become characteristic of society in general. Thus, the use of leisure time is of the highest importance if man's development is to keep pace with the scientific and technological advances of the present. Kaplan states: So large is the bulk of free time and so deeply is it enmeshed in a radical change of social institutions, that the deepest dimensions of personality, group life, and human values are involved. Indeed, since the familiar controls of family, church, neighborhood, and even work itself have lost much of their hold, new sources lMax Kaplan, Foundations and Frontiers of Music Education (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966), p. 12. of personal stability, new channels and direc— tions of growth are needed.2 Most educators would agree that the arts provide for the new sources mentioned above. Greater involvement in the arts is considered by many to be one of the solutions to the problem of leisure time in society. Hence, education in the arts, for the entire population of this country, is of paramount consideration at the present time. The fact that some form of music is part of the daily life of nearly everyone reveals the significance of music education to society. When one considers the numer- ous opportunities for participation in music at various levels, it becomes evident that music could well be con- sidered the most important form of all the arts. The existence of many amateur orchestras, bands, and choral groups demonstrates that music is already being pursued during leisure time by some people. However, music edu- cators are concerned about the significantly larger per- centage of the population who are not presently involved in the making of music. What is to become of them? What are they doing during their increasing leisure hours? Is it possible to give them the skills needed to pursue the art of music as a leisure-time activity? PeOple tend to participate in activities which. provide some kind of successful, satisfying or rewarding 21bid., p. 16. experience. Music can provide these kinds of experiences. However, in order to receive such experiences an indi- vidual requires the knowledge and ability to perceive musical events as they are occurring. Music education is important, to the society not only as a solution for leisure time, primarily because it teaches the individual how to make participation in the art a personally satisfy- ing and enriching experience. Acceptance of the fact that the majority of Exeople are not involved in actual music making has caused UHJSiC educators to look in other directions for new a\7enues of musical involvement for these people. This Seaarch for other dimensions of growth has resulted in the at:tempt to make music education aesthetic education. It is; believed that teaching music in a manner that provides 51 person with aesthetic, musical experiences will result ill the individual desiring and seeking these experiences ffor himself. Through the perception of aesthetic ele- ITlents in music, then, those people who do not engage them- E“Elves in the performance aspect of music can still be i-hvolved in the art as intelligent listeners. Efforts toward educating individuals to become ~intelligent listeners, through aesthetic experiences, has cZaused music educators to describe objectives in the affective domain. The affective domain deals with the emotional responses of an individual. The problem, confronting educators concerned about learning in this domain, involves determining content and method of teach- ing in order to assure that affective responses are actually occurring. Furthermore, the techniques of measurement and evaluation in the affective domain are, at the present moment, relatively unsophisticated. Thus, at least in the quantitative sense, one can seldom be positive that affective learning has taken place. One method of ascertaining whether a person has luad an emotional experience with music is simply to ask tfliat individual. However, it seems obvious that one can- nc>t divorce affective experiences from the total person- alnity. In other words, skills, knowledge, experiences, atrtitudes, values, and opinions all contribute to the Stzructure of a person's affective growth. Assuming the Eflbove elements do contribute to an affective response, it: then seems reasonable to conclude that measurement (Df one or more of these elements would help determine tile occurrence of affective learning. The directions taken by music education in the FNist indicate that music educators have been inclined to aSsume that affective learning will occur if components Of the psychomotor and cognitive domains are taught. rThe psychomotor domain categorizes the learning of InUscular or motor skills while the coqnitive domain is ‘3Oncerned with intellectual tasks using previously or newly learned material. Present emphasis on aesthetic elements in music indicates a concern by current music educators about the relationship of psychomotor and cognitive learning to the affective domain. Can differ- ent emotional responses to musical stimuli be effected through physical and intellectual tasks? The question is posed as an illustration of the issue confronting con- temporary music educators. Gagne has defined learning as "a change in human ciisposition or capability, which can be retained, and hfliich is not simply ascribable to the process of growth."3 Thug foundation of the definition would appear to be the weird "change." From the definition, it becomes evident trust one must be aware of any existing dispositions or ceqoabilities before attempting to teach for a change in tilese. Only by possession of this knowledge can an edu- CEitor be confident that learning has occurred. Therefore, jJE a greater proportion of people is to become interested Enid involved in the pursuit of music as a leisure—time Eictivity, and if the method of assuring this is through EuEsthetic experiences in the affective domain, then it SSEems logical that music educators must be aware of the eXisting levels in this domain in order to effect any <2hanges in it. \ 1Robert Gagne, The Conditions of Learning (2d ed.; New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970), p. 3. Although measurement in the affective domain poses numerous difficulties, there are ways of approaching the problem. The discovery of an individual or group atti- tude toward some object would be one method of attack. Disclosure of various attitudinal dimensions of an indi- vidual such as salience, intensity, favorableness, and generality will assist an educator in the discernment of at least a part of that person's affective stance. The attitudes brought to a situation by an individual will arffect the way he interprets experiences in that situa- tixon. Thus, knowledge of existing attitudes could prove tc> be an excellent starting point for educators attempt- irng to direct learning in the affective domain. Further- mcxre, changes in attitude can be discovered only if one 155 aware of the original disposition. It is hOped that tile following study, by the exploration of attitudes tlOward music by college undergraduates, will contribute tCD the efforts of music educators in gaining greater uhderstanding by more people in the art of music. Background to the Problem In recent years there has been a trend by college Students to question the practicality of college courses. Students believe that certain areas exist in which it is IROssible to justify increased student participation in (jetermining the content of courses. This conviction is ‘Drcbably stronger in areas where students have had I.--‘ . o. . a". - a. s. 'u‘.. - \ _ --au\, "'VOH ". vol ". an a. "wn .. ~...A_A . \ ~. previous experience than in those where they have not. It appears evident that this previous experience has served to shape attitudes and opinions to the degree that students feel qualified to voice their beliefs about further experiences in a particular area. Whether an educator is willing to structure a course on the basis of student desires is an individual matter. However, it seems logical that teachers who are not cognizant of stu— dents' experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and desires, with rxegard to a course or field, are less likely to be able tc> communicate effectively than those who are. Thus, an efffort to discover students' attitudes in an area where a include several definitions. The definitions, which hwere read by subjects before responding to the question- naiire, were as follows: 1. When a statement includes the word "music" it is intended to mean all kinds of music (popular, jazz, folk, art, etc.). 2. The term "popular music" should be inter- preted as music written for mass or commer— cial consumption. Some examples would be rock, folk, country and western, jazz, hit parade music, movie music, background or mood music, etc. 3. The term "art music," for the purposes of the questionnaire, is opposite to "popular music" and should be interpreted as music written for aesthetic rather than commercial reasons. 4. The words "appreciation" and "appreciate" are intended to mean something more than casual 12 listening or mere enjoyment of music. Appreciation involves conscious involvement and attention to the musical characteristics of a composition. The concept of attitude has been defined in numer- ous and diverse ways. The variability in defintions is often attributable to different theoretical points of view held by researchers and the area of concentration to be pursued by their particular investigations. For the purposes of this study, attitude is defined as "the intensity of positive or negative affect for or against a psychological object. A psychological object is any sym- txal, person, phrase, slogan, or idea toward which people Gena differ as regards positive or negative affect."5 5L. L. Thurstone, "Comment," American Journal of Sociology, LII (1946), 39. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF THE RELATED LITERATURE Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to review the perti- nent literature related to the measurement of attitudes toward music. Considering the amount of research that has taken place in music education in the last two decades, it appears that a relatively small percentage has been Imbported in this area. Perhaps a reason for hesitancy to IJTVOIVC music in this particular branch of psychology is CkDubt, on the part of music educators, regarding the possi- lDility of accurately measuring an attitude. If this is indeed a contention music educators certainly do not stand alone. It seems apparent, therefore, that several pre— lindnary steps must be taken in order to fulfill the purpose (3f this chapter. Prior to reviewing specific measurements and Studies of musical attitudes, a brief theoretical discus- ESion of attitudes and attitude measurement is necessary. The basic issues involved here would seem to be related to, and summarized by, the question "Is it possible to measure the thoughts of an individual about some object, 13 14 person, or idea?" Thurstonel gave an affirmative answer in 1928. Since that time social and experimental psycholo- gists have attempted to provide solutions to problems encountered with the concept of attitude and its measure- ment. The purpose of this chapter is not to give a com- plete history of various attitude theories. However, it does seem important that the reader be introduced to the major schools of attitude theory, as well as the research inspired by these theories, in order to appreciate the directions taken by contemporary psychologists and social psychologists in this field. The first section of this chapter contains a discussion of attitude theory held by Inajor schools in social psychology today. Thurstone, in that same article of 1928, presented (Dne of the first methods for measuring attitudes. Since then many systems have been devised and tested. The second part of this chapter includes a presentation and discus- Sion of the recognized approaches to attitude measurement and scale construction. The third and final section of this chapter con- ‘tains a review of attitude measurement in the field of I“Usic education and research related to the present study. 1L. L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," American Journal of Sociology, XXXIII (1928), 529—554. 15 Attitude Theory The history of the concept of attitude seems to be divided into two divisions. In an article, written in 1935, entitled "Attitudes"2 Gordon Allport gives a clear picture of the directions taken by early psychologists and sociologists in dealing with the concept. These pioneers appeared to be most interested in achieving a suitable working definition of attitude and in the development of methods to measure specific and general attitudes. The literature in this area indicates that definition and measurement of attitude received greatest emphasis until about 1945. Since then, although new and highly sophisti- Isated measurement techniques continue to appear, the Stxress appears to be on effecting and measuring changes in Eittitude. Allport credits Herbert Spencer as one of the earliest psychologists to use the term attitude. In 1862 Spencer wrote: Arriving at correct judgments on disputed questions, much depends on the attitude of mind we preserve while listening to, or taking part, in the con- troversy: and for the preservation of a right attitude, it is needful that we should learn how true, and yet how untrue, are average human beliefs.3 2Gordon W. Allport, "Attitudes," in Handbook of Eiggial Psychology, ed. by C. Murchison (Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press, 1935), pp. 798-839. 3Op. cit., p. 799. 16 It is obvious that Spencer was referring to a mental atti- tude. Nearer the turn of the century, as psychologists changed from a strict mentalistic point of view, the idea of motor attitudes became prevalent. Allport gives an indication of the situation in 1935: In recent years it is uncommon to find explicit labeling of an attitude as either 'mental' or 'motor.‘ Such a practice smacks of body-mind dualism, and is therefore distasteful to con- temporary psychologists. In nearly all cases today the term appears without a qualifying adjective, and implicitly retains both its original meanings: a mental aptness and a motor set. Attitude connotes a neuropsychic state of readiness for mental and physical activIty.4 Since 1935 psychologists have shown greater concern for Chafining the concept of attitude within the particular :Eramework adopted by them. Most of these theories have tflie learning process as the main area of interest. Thus, attitude is usually considered in relation to its affect CH1 learning. "We can distinguish the various learning theories along so many dimensions that it can almost be said that there are as many learning theories as there are learning theorists."5 The above statement gives an indication of tile difficulty encountered when attempting to discuss attitudes in relation to general schools of thought in \ 41bid. 5C. A. Kiesler, B. E. Collins, and N. Miller, Effiitude Change (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1969), p. 89. l7 psychology. However, it appears that nearly all learning theorists can be classified in one of two recognized schools: the behaviorists and the Gestaltists. The Behaviorist School Another name for behaviorism, which indicates the train of thought involved in the theory, is stimulus- response or simply the S-R psychology of learning. This theory, beginning in 1898 with Thorndike's connectionism, dominated all others in America during the first half of the twentieth century. Bigge and Hunt indicate that the mechanistic approach, which characterizes the S-R psychologist, grew out of an attempt to make psychology nxare scientific. They state: Among S-R theorists, much use is made of the concepts reflexes, reactions, objective measure- ment, quantitatiQe data, sequence of behavior and reinforcement schedules. Theyghave used these and similar expressions in an attempt to be rigidly scientific. To them, stimulus and response in psychology are equated with cause and effect in physics.6 Fromthe above it can be seen that the S-R school believes that all learning and behavior can be reduced to some sort (3f S-R situation. One of the earlier attempts to explain shad relate attitudes within the specific framework of behaviorism was made by Leonard W. Doob. \— 6 . _ _ M. L. B1gge, M. P. Hunt, Psychological Foundations E§_Education (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1962I, p. 270. 18 Doob's definition of attitude demonstrates his acceptance of S-R beliefs. He defines attitude as: an implicit, drive-producing response considered socially significant in the individual's society. This definition states, in effect, that from the psychological point of View attitude is an implicit response with drive strength which occurs within the individual as a reaction to stimulus patterns and which affects subsequent overt response.7 In order to demonstrate the line of thought involved in relation to attitude and S-R theory, Doob's definition will be examined in greater detail. Doob views an implicit response as one which occurs within an individual and which therefore cannot be (directly observed by another person. While observable (avert behavior can be evoked by an attitude it is not tfliought to be the attitude itself. Attitude is the implicit iresponse to a stimulus pattern. This response increases ‘the tendency for further responses to occur through a jprocess known by most S-R psychologists as "chaining." 'The chain gradually lengthens until some sort of overt action can be observed. The overt action thus becomes a function of the implicit attitude—response within an individual. Furthermore, this implicit response is Characterized by the fact that it anticipates the overt action. Hull, an earlier S-R theorist, called it an 7 ll - L. W. Doob, The BehaV1or of Attitudes," Psycho- lpgical Review, LIV (1947), 136. l9 "antedating" response.8 Doob describes the formation of the anticipatory response in typical S-R language: An anticipatory response is one which originally preceded another rewarded response and which, as a result of being associated with or producing this reward, has been reinforced so that it occurs before its 'original time in the response series.‘ Perhaps an example will clarify the process of the antici— patory response. An individual has an unfavorable or negative experience with some person. According to Doob, the S-R psychologist views this experience as punishing. Thus, withdrawal from the situation has a rewarding and therefore reinforcing effect. The individual then attempts to avoid meeting the person again and thus anticipates the Luinishing situation. Doob maintains that this anticipatory fined implicit response constitutes an attitude. Another attribute of the implicit response is Characterized in terms of the function it can serve for the individual. Using the above example, suppose the individual is unsuccessful in his attempt to avoid the Ciisliked person. Rather than hurting him, the individual makes an implicit response involving feelings of avoidance Enid dislike. Thus in spite of overt action the individual has substituted an implicit response to provide reward while enduring the punishing situation. Doob describes this kind of implicit response as one which mediates or \ 81bid., p. 136. 91bid. “I .I ”EU-uh? “- 20 substitutes for the actual goal response which cannot be made. He states: "A mediating response is made in an attempt to increase the likelihood of the occurrence of reward rather than punishment in connection with a goal "10 response. S-R theorists in general, pursuing a line of reasoning similar to Doob's for the formation of attitudes, emphasize the importance of the learning process in attitude formation. An exception is Sherif and Cantril who state in their article on "The Psychology of Attitudes:" "Just what the psychological or physiological mechanisms of this learning may be are irrelevant to the present . . ll discu581on." To eXplain the effect of the learning process on eattitude formation, the S-R school uses a great number of <:oncepts which relate the various ways an individual can respond to a stimulus. The literature often quotes -A11port's summary in relation to this point. He gives four common conditions for the formation of attitudes. rThese conditions are: 1. integration of numerous specific responses, 2. individuation, differentiation, or segregation, lOIbid., p. 137. 11M. A. Sherif, and H. Cantril, "The Psychology Of Attitudes," Psycholpgical Review, LII (1945), 21 3. trauma, and 12 4. adoption of 'ready-made' attitudes of others. It seems clear, from the conditions given above, that the implicit response can be aroused by a great variety of stimulus patterns. Furthermore, previous learning and experience will be a determining factor in the arousal an attitude. Doob states: An attitude is an implicit response . . . which is evoked . . . as a result of previous learning or of gradients of generalization and discrimination. . . . If an individual likes or dislikes one particular Negro, there is stimulus discrimination; if all Negroes are involved, there is stimulus generalization along a gradient, for example, of skin color; if only certain 'types' of Negroes arouse the attitude, there is generalization and discrimination.13 The final two characteristics of an implicit of response discussed by Doob are first that it is in itself cuie- and drive-producing, and second that it is considered Socially significant in the individual's society. In Ixaference to the first attribute he states: An attitude has cue—value in the sense that it acts as a stimulus to produce another response, but it also is a drive in the sense that its tension is reduced through subsequent behavior leading to a reward. It is proper, consequently, to refer to the drive strength of an attitude as well as to the strength of the bond between the attitude and the responses it evokes.l4 ‘2Allport, op. cit., pp. 810-811. l3Ibid., p. 140. 14Ibid., p. 142. 22 Regarding the second quality of an attitude given above it seems that the social significance of a response is needed in order to distinguish between an attitude and other types of psychological responses. In order to do a thorough analysis of an attitude, within Doob's S-R framework, knowledge of the seven follow- ing factors is needed. Doob indicates that the knowledge should be quantitative whenever possible. The factors are: 1. Goal response: the response pattern or patterns which the attitude anticipates and mediates and which determine its reinforcement or extinction. 2. Perceppion: the drive orienting the individual to pay attention to the stimulus pattern evoking the attitude. 3. Afferent—habit strength: the strength of the bond between the attitude and the evoking stimulus patterns, including the gradients of generalization and discrimination. 4. Efferent—habit strength: the strength of the bond between the attitude and the evoked responses, including overt ones. 5. Drive strength: the drive strength of the stimuli produced by the attitude. 6. Interaction: the strength of the other attitudes, drives, etc., with which the attitude interacts to evoke overt behavior. 7. Social significance: the evaluation in the society of the attitude and its direction (e.g., whether positive, negative, or neutral; favorable, unfavorable, or ambivalent; friendly or unfriendly; desirable or undesirable; good or bad).15 It should be noted that all S-R psychologists do not agree with Doob's approach to the problem of the attitude. Isidor Chein wrote an article of refutation within a year ¥ 15Doob, op. cit., p. 145. 23 of the presentation of Doob's theory.l6 However, in spite of disagreements among the S-R camp, the literature indi- cates acceptance to varying degrees of specific parts of Doob's theory. Bernice Lottl7 focused on the mediating and general- izing factors of Doob's definition. Staats and Staats18 have done several laboratory experiments within a theo- retical framework similar to Doob's. Their experiments are based on the belief that attitudes are acquired by classical and higher-order conditioning. Many of their studies have used the semantic differential technique to measure the meaning of various concepts. Through the process of conditioning, they have effected changes in attitude toward some concept as measured by the same semantic differential. Scott19 has worked with reinforce- ment of an overt reSponse as a means of attitude formation and change. _—¥ l61. Chein, "Behavior Theory and the Behavior of Attitudes: Some Critical Comments," Psychological Review, LV (1948), 175-188. 17 B. Lott, "Attitude Formation: The Development of a Color-Preference Response Through Mediated Generalization,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, L (1955), 321- fi 26. 18 II ' A. W. Staats, and C. K. Staats, Attitudes Established by Classical Conditioning," Journal of Abnormal ggg Social Psychology, LVII (1958), 37-40. 19W. A. Scott, "Attitude Change Through Reward of Verbal Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LV (1957), 72-75. 24 Although only a few researchers within the S-R framework have been cited, the general approach of most other S-R psychologists appears to be similar. The most important aspect of S—R theory, in relation to attitude formation, is the acceptance of attitude as some sort of response. Through this acceptance, the S-R school can then link its theory of learning with the formation and acquisi— tion of an attitude. The Gestalt School Gestalt psychology is usually considered to be the leading rival of the S-R school. The first proponent of the theory which came to be known as Gestalt was Max Wertheimer. "The central idea of Wertheimer's point of view is expressed in the German word Gestalt, which means an organized pattern or configuration, or, more simply, an organized whole in contrast to a collection of parts."20 From the above it can be seen that the Gestalt school Opposes the reduction of learning and behavior to S-R situations. A fundamental Gestalt principle is that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." One can see that the Gestaltists, also called c0gnitive-field theorists, view learning and behavior as a function of the total situation of each individual. They __ 20M. L. Bigge, and M. P. Hunt, Psychological Foundations of Education (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1962), p. 265. 25 developed and use the term life space to represent this total situation. Of the life space, Bigge and Hunt state: It represents the total pattern of factors or influences which affect behavior at a certain moment. A person's life space represents the total world in which the person lives. This may include his precepts, knowledge, and beliefs; his forward and backward time perspective; and abstract ideas as well as concrete objects. Man's universe has become largely symbolic in nature. Thus, a life space includes not only physical reality but also language, myth, art and religion.21 It seems obvious that attitudes would certainly be a part of an individual's life space. Most of the developments in attitude theory since the 19508 have been concerned with changes in attitude. However, most of these theories are concerned with changes in attitude as they occur within the life space of an individual. In other words, the attitude is viewed as something more than a response to a specific stimulus or chain of stimuli. The follow- ing will be briefly discussed: consistency theories, dissonance theory, social judgment theory, and functional theories. Consistency theories.-—Kiesler, Collins, and Miller indicate that consistency theories are built upon an assumption of the existence of a basic "need for consistency within individuals. In reference to this assumption, they state: 21Ibid., p. 350. . {ID-u. El...” 5. — a 26 The focus of this striving for consistency varies somewhat from theorist to theorist. Some stress a basic 'need' for everyone to be personally con- sistent (i.e., personality develops as a con- sistent whole); others emphasize the maintenance of consistency between attitudes, between behaviors, and among attitudes and behaviors; and still others emphasize the perception of the world in a consistent, unified manner. Usually, most of the theories further assume, that the presence of inconsistency produces 'psychological tension,‘ or at least is uncomfortable, and in order to reduce this tension, one 're-arranges'2 his psychological world to produce consistency. The original concept of consistency is usually attributed to Fritz Heider. Heider's theory,23 commonly referred to as a balance theory, "is concerned with the relationships among three things in a given person's phenomenological world; the perceiver P; another person O; and some object X."24 In defining both the balanced and unbalanced state, Heider continually emphasizes P's perception of the situation. In other words, it is the perceiver, in light of his interpretation of a particular situation, who determines whether his attitude will be favorable or unfavorable. However, Heider does not state how an unbalanced or unfavorable situation will be rectified. 22Kiesler, Collins, and Miller, on. cit., p. 155. 23F. Heider, "Attitudes and Cognitive Organiza- tion," Journal of Psychology, XXI (1946), 107—112. 24Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 157. 27 Heider's balance theory was the first of many consistency theories. Kiesler, et a1. provide a good summary of its value and contribution to attitude theory: The model lacks much of the precision we have come to eXpect of a formal theory. Also, the model has not stimulated much research with directly testing it as a theory, and this research, although sparse, has not supported the theory unequivocally. All of these are negative points about the model. The positive point, and perhaps the most important point, is that the theory has stimulated a great deal of thinking about cognition and cognitive con- sistency. In this sense the model has been important to psychology and to the study of attitude change.25 The authors state further that most other consistency theories are variations of Heider's balance theory and represent attempts to improve upon the inadequacies. Dorwin Cartwright and Frank Harary26 attempted a generalization of Heider's theory, which extended the concept of balance beyond three entities. They refer to their variation as "structured balance." Robert Abelson and Milton Rosenberg27 have pursued another path. They ¥ 251bid., p. 168. 26D. Cartwright and F. Harary, "Structural Balance: A.Generalization of Heider's Theory," Psychological Review, LXIII (1956), 277-293. 27For a more detailed explanation of the direction taken by the authors the reader is referred to the follow- ing articles: R. P. Abelson and M. J. Rosenberg, "Symbolic Psycho-logic: A Model of Attitudinal Cognition,” Efipavioral Science, III (1958), 1-13; and M. J. Rosenberg and R. P. Abelson, "An Analysis of Cognitive Balancing," in Attitude Organization and Change, ed. by M. J. Rosen- berg, et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1960), 112-163. 28 have hypothesized about the method used to correct an unbalanced state. Kiesler et a1. state: Abelson and Rosenberg emphasize that there are a number of possible alternative ways of restoring balance and suggest further that one may rank the alternative ways according to probability of outcome. They hypothesize that the probability of using a particular method of restoring balance is inversely related to the psychological effort necessary for the method. Necessary effort is Operationally defined as the number of Sign changes that the person must make to restore balance. Thus the more difficult it is for a subject to use a particular way of restoring balance, the less probable it is that he will do so. This assumption is very important because one 28 simply cannot make specific predictions without it. Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum29 have developed still another variation. Although similar to Heider's balance theory, the congruity model, as they have labelled it, was developed "to account for changes in evaluations that result from outside information linking cognitions that have different valences."3O Osgood and Tannenbaum 8Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 172. 29The following articles are recommended to the reader interested in theoretical developments of the authors: C. Osgood and P. Tannenbaum, "The Principle of Congruity in the Prediction of Attitude Change," Egychological Review, LXII (1955), 42-55; C. Osgood, G. Suci, and P. Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957); and C. Osgood, "Cognitive Dynamics in the Conduct of Human Affairs," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (1960), 341-365. 3OW. McGuire, "The Current Status of Cognitive Consistency Theories," in Cognitive Consistency: Motiva— Eipnal Antecedents and Behavioral Consequences, ed. by 8. Feldman (New York: Academic Press, 1966), p. 3. w“. Id 29 have placed greater emphasis on the acceptance of a communi- cation by an individual and the relationship of its affect on a change in attitude. They have used the evaluative dimension, as opposed to the affective, of Osgood's semantic differential to quantify the individual links or cognitions which compose a particular communication. However, a limitation, which has resulted in criticism of the theory, is that "it only attempts to deal with one particular situation."31 The consistency theories discussed above, as an approach to the problem of attitude change, have inspired a sizeable amount of experimental research. Heider's theory served as the basic model, and deviations led each theorist in a slightly different direction. However, they all "had in common the notion that the person tends to behave in ways that minimize the internal inconsistency among his interpersonal relations, among his intrapersonal cognitions, or among his beliefs, feelings and actions."32 McGuire lists several sources of inconsistency within an individual. Some of these are: r—l O occupying two or more conflicting social roles, . a change in environment, behaving in ways that are inconsistent with one's attitudes due to external pressures, and (.0 N O lKiesler, et al., Op. cit., p. 178. 2McGuire, op. cit., p. 1. 30 4. changing an attitude which causes inconsistency with other existing attitudes.33 In the same article, McGuire also summarizes the various methods used by individuals to resolve cognitive incon- sistencies. Some of these are: l. Repression—-putting the inconsistency out of mind, 2. Bolstering-—making the inconsistency seem less important by engulfing it among a larger body of consistencies, 3. Mote method-~pointing to greater inconsistencies in other people to rationalize a personal incon- sistency, and 4. Changing the object about which the opinion is held rather than changing the opinion about the given object.34 He points out that the above methods are not mutually exclusive and, in fact, most individuals use a combination of methods depending upon the strength of the inconsistency. Thus, one can see the dilemma of the consistency theorist who wishes to predict what a person will do when attempting to resolve or reduce inconsistencies. Although con- sistency theories are criticized for their lack of pre- cision in the area of prediction, probably because it is difficult to quantify the strength of an inconsistency among individuals, they "appear to be the most exciting Ckvelopnmwm;in.attitude research in the last ten years." 3 3Ibid., p. 8. 3 4Ibid., p. 10. 5Kiesler, et al., Op. cit., p. 190. 31 Dissonance theory.--Dissonance theory is actually just another type of consistency or balance theory. The assumption that individuals are motivated to restructure in some way the existence of inconsistent elements is the same. However, in light of the large amount of research it has generated, the literature usually treats dissonance theory as a separate entity. As was the case with the consistency theories, dissonance theory has also develOped from the statements of one man: the name "dissonance" was derived from Leon Festinger's36 theoretical formulations called "cognitive dissonance." The similarity between Festinger's concept of cognitive dissonance and the consistency theories is Obvious. Regarding the theory of cognitive dissonance, Hollander states: The main assumption of this work is that psycho- logical structure is made up of an organized set of cognitions. In maintaining this structure, individuals avoid dissonance and seek consonance among their cognitions, including attitudes.37 According to Festinger, cognitive elements are related to each other in the three following ways: (1) they are irrelevant to each other and therefore need not be related; (2) they are consistent with each other, thereby ¥ 3 . . . . 6L. Festinger, A Theory of Cogn1t1ve Dissonance (Palo Alto: Stanford UnIversity Press, 1957). 37E. P. Hollander, Principles and Methods of Social Sil§§§§3gy_(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), . 2, 32 creating a consonant relationship; and (3) they are incon- sistent causing a dissonant relationship. It has been frequently pointed out that the consonant or dissonant relationship of elements can be either psychological or logical. In other words, although a relationship of elements should be consonant, according to logic, an individual can place a psychological interpretation on the relationship and View it as dissonant. Festinger cites three other sources of dissonance: (l) cultural mores; (2) the inclusion of a specific opinion in a more general opinion; and (3) past experience. The methods of reducing dissonance are so similar to those given above by McGuire that they need not be repeated. However, Kiesler et al. emphasize that it is difficult, within the framework of Festinger's presenta- tion of the theory, to determine which of the cognitive elements causing the dissonant relationship will be changed or receive greater emphasis. The problem is stated as follows: Theoretically, when one changes a cognitive element involved in a dissonant relationship, one always changes the less resistant element. Hence to derive predictions from the theory, we must be able to specify in advance which element is least resistant to change.38 38Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 199. 33 Dissonance theory has stimulated a large body of research in diverse experimental situations. It appears that theorists and experimenters have selected a particular situation, as it relates to some aspect of Festinger's theory, in order to test for the power of the theory to predict specific behaviors and/or changes in attitude. One area that has been explored by several indi- viduals concerns the relationship of dissonance and a decision making process. Festinger maintains that dis- sonance is created when a choice is made from two or more alternatives. Furthermore, he specifies four variables that affect the resulting amount of dissonance after the decision or choice has been made. The variables are as follows: 1. The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. 2. The less attractive the chosen alternative (relative to the unchosen), the greater the dissonance. 3. The more attractive the unchosen alternative (relative to the chosen), the greater the dissonance. 4. The greater the cognitive overlap between alternatives, the less the dissonance.39 Research and experiments in this area of Festinger's theory have been concerned with testing the above Theoretical implications of dissonance theory for decision 39Festinger, op. cit., pp. 37-41. '. ¢.| ‘— ‘u '. n I 'l 34 making. The results have shown that: "Generally, the predictions of dissonance theory are supported by experi- mental data about decision making." A second major area of research, inspired by Festinger's theory, involves the relationship between dissonance and forced compliance. The latter involves, through the promise of reward or punishment, having a person behave contrary to his beliefs or attitudes. Festinger's hypothesis is as follows: . the less inducement or force used to elicit overt compliance, the greater will be the under- lying opinion change toward that position.42 40The reader is referred to the following selection of research data and discussion materials for a more detailed examination of dissonance predictions for decision making: J. Brehm, and A. Cohen, Explorations in Cognitive lfipsonance (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962); E. Walster, "The Temporal Sequence of Post-Decision Porcesses," in Conflict, Decision, and Dissonance, ed. by L. Festinger (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1964), pp. 112-118; M. Deutsch, R. Krauss, and N. Rosenau, "Dissonance or Defensiveness?" Journal of Personality, XXX, No. l (1962), 16-28; and L. Festinger, Conflict, Decision, igd Dissonance (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 64 . lKiesler, et al., Op. cit., p. 205. 42The reader is referred to the following studies: L. Festinger and J. Carlsmith, "Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol— 231, LVIII (1959), 203-210; J. Brehm, "An Experiment on Coerc1on and Attitude Change," in Explorations in Cognitive Qgssonance, ed. by J. Brehm and A. Cohen (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962), pp. 84-88; A. Cohen, "An Experiment on Small Rewards for Discrepant Compliance and Attitude ghange," in Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance, ed. by - Bnfiun and A. Cohen (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962). pp. 73‘78; and A. Cohen, "A 'Forced Compliance' Experiment 35 A number of studies support the postulate as given above.43 However, criticism of the role-playing feature involved in these studies has resulted in other individuals pursuing different aspects of the forced compliance situation. Kiesler et a1. indicate that these other aspects fall into the following classifications: l. The character of persons inducing a subject to perform the inconsistent act. The findings have generally shown that a greater attitude change results . 44 from a more negat1ve character. 2. The amount of coercion used. It has been found that the "less 'coerced' the subject is to perform the act, the greater the subsequent attitude change.45 on Repeated Dissonances," in Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance, ed. by J. Brehm and A. Cohen (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962), pp. 97-104. 43The following data are relevant to this aspect: E. E. Smith, ”The Power of Dissonance Techniques to Change Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXV, No. 4 (1961), 626-639; and K. Weick, "Reduction of Cognitive Dissonance Through Task Enhancement and Effort Expenditure," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVIII, No. 5 (1964), 533-539. 4Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 210. 45The following studies explore coercion and attitude change: E. Aronson and J. Carlsmith, "Effect of the Severity Of Threat on the Devaluation of Forbidden Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVI (1963), 584-588; and J. Freedman, 1rLong-Term Behavioral Effects of Cognitive Dissonance," Journal of Experimental MPsychology, I, No. 2 (1965), 145-155. gig-Niall 3w... Iva-Mi \ ... a 36 3. The amount of dissonance as related to the actual discrepant behavior that is to be performed. In other words, the more negative the behavior is in relation to an individual's attitude the greater is the amount of dissonance. It is impossible, within the scope of this chapter, to include the vast number of specific topics presently being researched as a result of dissonance theory. How- ever, from the above presentation, the reader can appre— ciate the value of the theory to the problem areas of attitudes. Kiesler et a1. provide an excellent summary: It is obvious that the theory has been useful to social psychology and the study of attitudinal change. It has certainly generated more experi- mental work than any other theory of attitude change. Also, the theory has stimulated research in a surprisingly wide variety of topical areas. The breadth of situational application is one of the theory's more attractive features. Further, many of the data the theory's advocates have pro- duced are not easily explained by other theories. Perhaps most important, future theory will have to account for many of these data in order to be judged minimally adequate.47 46The reader is referred to the following studies: PL Gerard and G. Mathewson, "The Effect of Severity of Initiation on Liking for a Group: A Replication," gpurnal of Experimental Socialyfsychology, II, No. 3 (1966), 278-287; and J. Brehm, "Attitudinal Consequences Of Commitment to Unpleasant Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVI (1963), 318-324. 47Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 230. 37 Social judgment theogy.--In their book Social Judgment: Assimilation and Contrast Effects in Communica— tion and Attitude Change, Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovland express the position that attitude research should make a stronger attempt to derive theoretical principles from experimental psychology and psychophysics. They state: It is the writer's belief that attitude research should be more solidly based on previous work in basic psychological processes, particularly of judgment. What appears to be seriously needed is more extensive exploration of the underlying principles governing attitudinal evaluations by the individual and the factors by which such evaluations are modified.48 From the above, one can see that Sherif and Hovland View the factor of judgment as being critical to understanding the concept of attitude. Kiesler et a1. label the theory as social judgment because the majority of studies con- ducted by the above authors and their associates have dealt with attitudes and changes in attitudes toward social issues. However, the basic concern is with judg~ mental processes and problems of attitude. An important viewpoint emerging from Sherif and Hovland's work is that . . an attitude toward an Object, person, group, or social issue is not directly observable but is inferred from a persistent and characteristic mode 4 . . ' 8M. Sherif, and C. Hovland, Soc1al Judgment: 5E5}mllation and Contrast Effects in Communication and Zhflutude Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961), p. 3. 38 of reaction to that stimulus or stimulus class. This characteristic mode of reaction signifies differential treatment of the object of attitude. It is inferred that the object of attitude is placed in a category or class favorable or unfavorable in some degree, high or low in some degree, acceptable or unacceptable in some degree in the individual's scheme of things. In short one essential aspect of the attitudinal reaction is a categorization process, whether or not the individual is aware that he is passing a judgment. Thus, it becomes apparent that attitudes, according to judgment theorists, are not single points on a scale. The individual is viewed as having "a range of positions which constitute his latitudes of acceptance, rejection, and non-commitment for the topic area represented by an attitude.50 Concentration on judgmental processes in the under— standing of attitude and attitude change has resulted in the emergence of several assumptions or postulates of the theory. Kiesler et a1. summarize the principles as follows: 1. When confronted with a series of stimuli, humans tend to order or arrange them on a psychological dimension even in the absence of explicit standards. 2. To the extent that explicit standards are absent, the ordering or judgments are less stable. This is particularly so for stimuli that are intermediate or between the extremes of a dimension. 49Sherif and Hovland, op. cit., p. 5. 50E. P. Hollander, Principles and Methods of Social BEngglggyL(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), P- 3. 39 Both internal factors (motivation, learning, attitude) and social factors (instructions, demand characteristics) influence judgments. This influence is greater when objective standards for judgment are lacking or when the set of stimuli do not form a well- ordered series. The extreme or end stimuli serve as particularly potent reference points (anchors) when (a) a person has had little experience with an ordered stimulus series on a particular dimension, (b) the potential range of stimulus values is unknown, or (e) no explicit standards for judgment are provided. 'Anchors' are strong reference points. Introducing an anchor at either end (or just beyond the end) of a prior series produces assimilation. Introducing a new anchor con- siderably distant from (beyond) the previous range of stimuli produces contrast. The respondent's own stand on an issue serves as a strong reference point or internal anchor for judging attitude statements or persuasive communications. When he is 'involved' in the issue, his own 51 stand produces even stronger anchoring effects. The above principles have strong implications for the present study which will be discussed in depth at a later point. Functional theories.--The functional approach to the study of attitudes attempts to relate the opinions of an individual to other facets of his behavior. In other words, the functionalists concentrate on that aspect of an attitude which relates "to the way in which attitudes are lKiesler, et al., Op. cit., pp. 241-243. 40 . . . 5 . . . integrated in personality." 2 The literature indicates several variations of functional theory. However, the two most prominent theoretical statements are those given by M. Brewster Smith, Jerome S. Bruner, and Robert W. White in their book Opinions and Personality,53 and Daniel Katz and his associates in several articles.54 Although there are differences between the various functional theorists, only one difference will be discussed here in order to demonstrate the approach. The functions that attitudes may serve fall into a number of categories which Katz and associates have grouped according to their motivational basis for the personality. In other words, the person is motivated to hold a particular attitude because of the function it serves for him. Katz expresses the point in the following manner: 52E. Hollander and R. Hunt, eds., Current Perspectives in Social Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 323. 53 M. Smith, J. Bruner, and R. White, Opinions and Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956). 54D. Sarnoff and D. Katz, "The Motivational Bases of Attitude Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLIX (1954), 115-124; D. Katz and E. Stotland, A Preliminary Statement to a Theory of Attitude Structure and Change," in Psychology: A Studyyof A Science, ed. by 5- KOCh, \kfld III (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), pp. 423‘475; and D. Katz, "The Functional Approach to the Eggdgoif7.Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (1960), 41 Stated simply, the functional approach is the attempt to understand the reasons people hold the attitudes they do. The reasons, however, are at the level of psychological motivations and not of the accidents of external events and circumstances. Unless we know the psychological need which is met by the holding of an attitude we are in a poor position to predict when and how it will change. Moreover, the same attitude may not perform the same function for all the people who express it. And while many attitudes are predominantly in the service of a single type of motivational process other attitudes may serve more than one purpose for the individual.55 According to Katz, the functions which an attitude can serve are as follows: 1. The instrumental, adjustive, or utilitarian function. Essentially this function is a recognition of the fact that people strive to maximize the rewards in their external environment and to minimize the penalties.56 Although he does not Specify the manner in which attitudes in this category are formed, the process seems to be similar to conditioning as used by the behaviorists. 2. The ego-defensive function. The mechanisms by which the individual protects his ego from his own unacceptable impulses and from the knowledge of threatening forces from without, and the methods by which he reduces his anxieties created by such problems, are known as mechanisms of ego defense.57 . 55D. Katz, "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV (1960), 170. 56Ibid., p. 170. 57 Ibid., p. 172. 42 The similarity and relationship of the above to psycho- analytic thinking is obvious. 3. The value-expressive function. In this instance, attitudes ”have the function of giving positive eXpression to his (an individual's) central values and to ..58 the type of person he conceives himself to be. Other aspects of this function are to help an individual define his self—concept and account for the socialization or internalization process which occurs upon entering a new group or organization. 4. The knowledge function. Individuals not only acquire beliefs in the interest of satisfying various specific needs, they also seek an unorganized chaotic universe. People need standards or frames of reference for understanding their world, and attitudes help to supply such standards.59 The similarity between this function and cognitive- dissonance theory is apparent. Attitudes, formed by the efforts of an individual to understand the environment, are used when he encounters a problem that uses the information associated with the attitude for its solution. Katz states: People are not avid seekers after knowledge as judged by what the educator or social reformer would desire. But they do want to understand the events which impinge directly on their own life. . . . It follows that new information 581bid., p. 173. 591bid., p. 175. 43 will not modify old attitudes unless there is some inadequacy or incompleteness or inconsistency in the existing attitudinal structure as it 6 relates to the perceptions of new situations. Kiesler et a1. indicate that most of the research stimulated by functional theories of attitude have centered around exploration of the ego-defensive function. In their criticism of the theories, in relation to attitude change, they maintain that a change in attitude cannot be effected unless one has knowledge of the function a particular attitude is serving. The problem is magnified even more in that functional theory "is essentially an individual difference theory, that is, the same attitude can serve different functions for different persons."62 To date, an instrument capable of determining the function of attitudes has not been develOped. In 1935 Gordon Allport called the concept of attitude ". . . the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary American social psychology."63 Considering that all the theories discussed above have 6OKatz, Op. cit., p. 175. 61M. Wagman, "Attitude Change and the Authoritarien Personality," Journal of Psychology, XL (1955), 27-45; D. Katz, D. Sarnoff, and C. McClintock, "Ego-defense and Attitude Change," Human Relations, IX (1956), 27-45; and E. Stotland, D. Katz, and M. Patchen, "The Reduction of Prejudice Through the Arousal of Self-Insight," Journal of Personality, XXVII (1959), 507-531. 62 Kiesler, et al., op. cit., p. 326. 63Allport, op. cit., p. 798. 44 been develOped since that time, it is logical to assume that the concept of attitude has not waned in its importance at all. The foregoing presentation of attitude theory has been included in this chapter for the benefit of the reader not familiar with the vast body of literature generated by the concept of attitude. It is hoped that the brief review will demonstrate the importance presently placed on atti- tudes in psychology and especially in social psychology. The rapid growth of laboratory research, inspired by the various theories mentioned above, indicates that attitudes toward objects are indeed measurable to some degree and that they do play an important role in the life of an individual. Therefore, the concept of attitude is an important one, worthy of consideration by persons involved in the process of education. Is there a relationship between attitude theory and music education? The one basic point emerging from the theories discussed above seems to be that attitudes are learned. Thus, it must be possible to teach for develOp- rnent of specific attitudes toward some object. Given Inusic as the object toward which it is desired to generate specific attitudinal responses, a relationship between attitude theory and music education does exist. It is possible to apply most attitude theories to musir: in some manner. However, the theory which seems most peuatinent to music education is the judgment theory. 45 According to the theory, people judge series of stimuli in order to arrange them on a psychological dimension. In other words, they decide what their response is to the stimuli. Often these judgments are made without explicit standards upon which the decision is made. An individual reSponds to musical stimuli of some sort nearly every day of his life. Based on these responses he develOps a pattern of reaction to various kinds of musical stimuli resulting in the development of an attitude toward music. The task of music education is to teach musical standards and criteria upon which responses and judgments can be made. Judgment theorists View an attitude as a range of positions and a mode of reaction toward some object. Considering the diverse kinds of musical stimuli that can be eXposed to an individual, it seems that such a view can best serve the purposes of the music educator. When one thinks about the almost infinite realm of musical experiences encountered by undergraduates in college, it seems logical to conclude that these past experiences have created a rather complex reference scale upon which judgments are made in relation to an attitude about music. Most research involved with judgmental processes have emphasized the area of attitude change. However, in order to know if an attitude has changed one must hm: able to determine, either as an anchor point or as 46 a range of positions, what the original attitude level was. The present study is an attempt to discover these anchor points in relation to music. Attitude Measurement Paralleling the various attitude theories has been the develOpment of techniques to measure them. Although a detailed examination is not possible within the scope of this chapter, it is worthwhile to include some discus- sion of the most recognized techniques for attitude measurement. Before discussing them, however, the dif- ferentiation between scales of opinion as opposed to scales of fact should be mentioned. Factual scales are instruments employing test items which have a correct answer. General achievement tests and IQ tests qualify as factual scales. On the other hand, scales of opinion are those for which there is no external criterion of correct— ness. Instruments that measure attitudes naturally fall into this latter category. A personal reaction to some stimulus is required in opinion scales. However, the responses or scores are viewed and compared upon hypo- thetical or subjective dimensions rather than on an external standard. The techniques presented below repre- sent a selection of the most common methods used to measure attitudes. 47 Paired Comparisons There are several ways in which the paired compari- sons technique may be employed64 but only the basic model will be discussed here. Once a group of stimuli from an area of interest has been compiled they are presented in all possible pairs to a group of judges. These respondents are required to choose, according to some defined quality such as pleasantness, excellence, or beauty, one stimulus of the pair. Through the use of statistical techniques a single scale is devised by selection of stimuli according to the response pattern of the judges. Each stimulus is then assigned a scale value. When the instrument is used subjects are requested to check the stimuli with which they agree. The researcher then simply totals the scaled values of the checked stimuli to attain an attitude score. Equal Appearing Intervals A disadvantage of the paired comparisons method is that if comparative judgments are required for more than ten or fifteen statements, and the researcher fulfills the requirement of presenting all possible pairs, the number of judgments to be made becomes rather unwieldy. 64The interested reader is referred to the follow- ing source for a more detailed discussion of the assump- tions and statistical techniques involved in various cases of the model: J. P. Guilford, Psychometric Methods (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954), pp. 154-176. 48 For example, twenty statements require 190 comparative judgments before all items have been paired with each other. Thurstone and Chave65 described a solution which required only one comparative judgment for each statement. Their method, known as equal appearing intervals or the Q—sort technique, has been used extensively to obtain scale values for a large number of statements. Once an area of interest has been established, the researcher collects many potential items which must not only seem to be related to the object or attribute of interest, but should cover, as nearly as possible, the complete range of possible reactions. An ll-point scale has been used most frequently, with the boundaries usually represented by the statements ”extremely favorable" and "extremely unfavorable." The statements are then sorted by several judges according to the degree of favorability expressed by the item toward the attitude object. There is provi- sion for a neutral or zero point in the continuum, and the subjective distance between contiguous points on the scale is treated as equal. The investigator uses a computed median score to assign a scale value to each statement. Thurstone and Chave have also used the interquartile range or Q, con- taining the middle 50% of the judgments, to measure the 65L. L. Thurstone and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitude (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929). may. R I...Q e-n- a I ”‘1... ..‘.., u “.11: ’41 (v. s u... I4». .\ m." u.._ .n, g c'. u“, 49 variation of the distribution of judgments for each state- ment. A low Q value indicates a high degree of agreement between judges and therefore a good item. The attitude scale is constructed from the remaining items in a manner which covers the entire range of the continuum. When the instrument is administered subjects are instructed to choose a Specific number of items, usually about three on a twenty item scale, which best express their feelings on the attitude object. The total of the average scale values for the three selected items is viewed as an approximation of the respondent's attitude. Scalogram Analysis Developed by Guttman66 this method attempted to improve upon Thurstone's model. The Guttman scale utilizes the concept of cumulative items. Other authors describe the items as monotone or univocal. When a scale is constructed Of items containing essentially the same content in relation to an object of interest it is said to be unidimensional. Guttman's method involves generating a number of unidimensional items that are cumulative in 66The following articles provide a more detailed description of Guttman's model: L. Guttman, "A Basis for Scaling Qualitative Data," American Sociological Review, IX (1944), 139-150; L. Guttman, "The Cornell Technique for Scale and Intensity Analysis," Educational and Psygho— logical Measurement, VII (1947), 247-279; and L. Guttman and E. Suchman, "Intensity and Zero Point for Attitude Analysis," American Sociological Review, XII (1947), 57-67. ....'.LL A An, 4 s ‘ ‘ ”JR: ‘OLW: .tu..t ‘7V. -..~l "1 .(j‘ :1: ‘v-K 50 their extremity to the attitude object. In other words, a subject favorably endorsing the fifth item on the scale should have also endorsed the preceding less-extreme four items. According to Guttman, if the scale is reproducible, an investigator would be able to accurately predict a subject's response pattern when given that subject's total score. Furthermore, "two persons receiving the same score should have responded in the same way to all items."67 Guttman's major concern was to have a highly reproducible and therefore a unidimensional scale. How- ever, many critics Of the method68 indicate that such an assumption is not necessarily correct. Summated Ratings The method of summated ratings, developed by Likert69 employs a "multiple choice" format to select items for the scale and to measure attitude with the developed 67Guilford, op. cit., p. 460. 68E. Clark, P. Kriedt, "An Application of Guttman's New Scaling Technique to an Attitude Questionnaire," Educational and Psychological Measurement, VIII (1948), 215-223; A. Edwards, "On Guttman's Scale Analysis," Educational and Psychological Measurement, VIII (1948), 313-318; and L. Festinger, "The Treatment of Qualitative Data by 'Scale Analysis,'" Psychological Bulletin, XLIV (1947), 149-161. 69R. Likert, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," Archives of Psychology, No. 140 (1932). 51 instrument. A five-point scale using the following labels is most common: "Strongly Agree," "Agree," "Undecided," "Disagree,' and "Strongly Disagree." With this type of scale the respondent can indicate his level of agreement or disagreement. An attitude is reflected by the total score received on all items. Like the Thurstone model, the construction of a Likert scale begins with a large number of potential items. However, instead of categorizing the ideas along a succes- sive interval continuum, the investigator administers all items to a large number of respondents using the five point scale. The total score for each subject is computed in such a manner that a high score value is assigned for an agreeable response to a positive item. Similarly, a high score is assigned if the subject responds "Strongly Disagree" to a negative item, as this response would be viewed as a favorable attitude. By computation of a complete matrix of correlations, both between items as well as item and total scores, the investigator determines and selects the best items for the instrument. Semantic Differential In their book The Measurement of Meaning,7 Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum pioneered a new and unique 70C. Osgood, G. Suci, and P. Tannenbaum, The .Measurement of Meaning (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957L 52 method for measuring attitudes known as semantic differen- tial scales. The technique represents study of the meaning of various concepts or words. Instead of present- ing a subject with a series of statements about a particu- lar attitude object or concept, Osgood confronts him with the concept directly. The individual is requested to react to several scales which are bounded by what Osgood calls bipolar adjectives. These are simply antonyms. Factor analysis of a great number of scales, employing diverse concepts, administered to a large number of respondents results in certain bipolar adjectives ”loading” on the same factor. Researchers concerned with attitude scale construction have concentrated on the cluster of evaluative scales. Examples of evaluative clusters would be good—bad, valuable-worthless and similar pairs of adjectives. Two assumptions appear to be involved: (1) scales which cluster together when factor analyzed are centering on the same psychological attribute or concept; and (2) a respondent's evaluation of some object is the same or similar to his attitude toward that object. Given these assumptions, a subject's attitude can then be defined as the total of his evalua— tive scale responses toward a particular concept or object. Other Methods The methods presented above represent the most frequently used techniques for measuring attitudes. ever] ,. .s“ _u' _ in Ort u -.v u‘ ‘\ . 1):; .‘h K L.‘ .u" Nil" 53 However, other models do exist. For example, another way of scaling statements, similar to the Thurstone method of equal appearing intervals, is the method of successive intervals.71 Furthermore, several indirect methods are utilized by researchers concerned that subjects tend to distort their true attitude in order to present a good image of themselves in relation to social norms.72 Attitude Measurement and Music The literature specifically concerned with investi- gation of attitudes toward music, especially at the college level, represents a very small portion of research in music education. In their summary of competent research done between 1930 and 1962, Schneider and Cady73 cite only three studies focusing on musical attitudes. None of the above studies centered on the area of the present investi- gation. Thus, the majority of studies reviewed in this section are related to the present study only in so far as they are concerned with attitude measurement in music. 71For a description of this method the reader is referred to A. Edwards, Techniques of Attitude Scale Con- struction (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1957), pp. 120-145. 71A presentation of indirect methods can be found in L. Kidder and D. Campbell, "The Indirect Testing of Social Attitudes," in Attitude Mesaurement, ed. by G. Summers (Chicago: Rand McNally Co., University of Illinois, 1970), pp. 333-385. 73E. Schneider and H. Cady, Evaluation and Synthesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Education, USOE Coop— erative Research Project No. E-016, (Columbus: The Ohio State University Research Foundation, 1965), P. The earliest attempt followed quickly after Thurstone's first efforts. During the early thirties Kate Hevner and Robert Seashore developed their Tests for Attitude Toward Music.74 It consisted of two scales with 25 statements in each. The test was constructed in accord- ance with the procedures set forth by Thurstone. Gaston75 moved in a slightly different direction. He investigated the attitudes of high school students toward several phases of their musical experiences. Some findings of this study, as given in Schneider and Cady's summary, are included, as other studies have yielded similar results. Gaston found the following: 1. A majority of students revealed a positive attitude toward most phases of their musical experiences. 2. Positive attitude toward music declined as grade level increased. 3. Females indicated a more positive attitude than males. 4. Music experiences outside the school appeared to play a more important role in development of positive attitudes than did the music program of the school. 4 . 7 K. Hevner and R. Seashore, Tests for Attitude Toward Music, in Studies in College Teachipg, I, No. 3 (Eugene: University of Oregon Publications, 1934), 83—151. 75E. T. Gaston, "A Study of the Trends of Attitudes Toward Music in School Children with a Study of the Methods Used by High School Students in Sight-reading Music" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kansas, 1940). ~r~a 4.|i\1 . ‘ y. uv‘ I 5. A significant relationship existed between home musical influences and musical scholarship. A study of junior high students by Park76 also found a positive attitude toward music. Although prefer- ence for an instrumental school program was evident, the study revealed that students would rather listen than perform. In her study of musical attitudes and interests of high school students in Texas, Barry found that "There is a tendency toward improvement in musical attitudes as I.77 students progress through high school. The results of the above study stand in direct conflict with those of Gaston. However, a study by Brandstetter78 also supports Gaston's finding of a decrease in positive attitude in relation to the grade level variable. Braunagel79 used both a questionnaire and an interview to investigate effects of pre-college influences *1 76S. N. Park, "Attitudes of Adolescents in Music" (unpublished Master's thesis, Colorado State College of Education, 1944). 77M. L. Barry, "A Study of the Musical Attitudes and Interests of 479 High School Students" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1945), p. 49. 78W. C. Brandstetter, "A Study of Attitude in Relation to Musical Accomplishment" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1944). 79 R. T. Braunagel, "Some Effects of Pre-College Influences upon Musical Interests of College Students" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1957). 56 upon musical interests of college students. Although not specifically a measurement of attitude, his findings corroborate with previously-mentioned studies in the area of home influence being more dominant than that of the school. Esquivel's8O study of 263 high school students in Texas is similar to Gaston's in that he attempted to measure the influence of general music courses on attitudes. The majority of the study was concerned with ranking students according to their scores on the Kwalwasser-Ruch Test of Musical Accomplishment. From the results of his survey Esquivel found that "General Music is a rarely offered course (in high schools), but it is well accepted "81 A majority of students in the junior high school. (85%) felt that general music should be a required course for all senior high students. Compared to Esquivel's investigation, Foreman82 made a more thorough examination of attitudes toward music education practices of high school students in 80J. Esquivel, "The Influence of General Music on Attitudes and Scores of 263 High School Students" (unpub- lished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1957). 81Ibid., p. 56. 82R. Foreman, "Extent of Agreement in Attitudes Toward Music Education Practices Among Southern Illinois High School Students as Measured by Kendall's Tau" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1958). 57 Illinois. One is immediately impressed by the author's efficient method of scale construction and analysis. Foreman used the Thurstone technique to generate his scale. Kendall's Tau Coefficient of Correlation, a measure of consistency and of agreement based upon paired comparison data, was used to analyze the data. The study considered the extent of agreement in attitudes toward music educa- tion practices among students in music and students not in music. The test devised by Foreman exposed no significant differences in attitudes between the two groups. The Tau coefficient for the two groups was .84, where 1.0 repre- sents perfect correlation and therefore no difference. The subjects agreed that the most important practices for a music program, in order of preference, were: (a) teach- ing instruments, (b) music fundamentals, (c) singing, and (d) providing musical programs for the community. The least important activities or practices were: (a) develop- ing a self-supporting music program, (b) teaching songs that would be sung later, (c) correlating music with other subject areas, and (d) illustrating the poor examples of music utilized by disc-jockeys and jazz programs. 58 fl A study of elementary school children by Broquisth yielded findings similar to earlier studies. An interest- ing result, in addition to a decline in favorable attitude with grade level advancement, a better attitude toward music from girls, and a preference for performance activi- ties, was that no significant difference in attitude was exposed between students taught by a classroom teacher and those instructed by a music specialist. However, the study has been criticized for poor scaling procedures and low reliabilities which leads one to question the findings.84 Summary Numerous studies of musical preference in relation to many different variables have been investigated by researchers. However, as these studies usually focus on selected musical examples or some other variable rather than a general attitude toward music they were not included in the literature review. A few concluding remarks should be made at this point. 83O. Broquist, "A Survey of the Attitudes of 2594 Wisconsin Elementary School Pupils Toward Their Learning Experiences in Music" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1961). 4A critical review of this study may be found in R. Colwell, "A Critique of Research Studies in Music Educathon," USOE Research Project 6-10-245, Arts and Humanities Branch, Reviewed by J. E. McGrath, pp. 60-64. 59 Based on the numerous current theories reviewed earlier, it seems logical to conclude that the concept of attitude is an important variable worthy of consideration by individuals involved in the educative process. Further- more, the measurement of a subject's attitude is possible. Although some studies related to attitude measurement and music do exist, conclusions are somewhat inconsistent and many questions remain unanswered. The present investiga- tion represents an effort to answer some questions about college-student attitudes toward music. ‘I‘I Arl j-nsvln ?-~--E‘d{ ., q .. v-le .-. rm , ,._. -.‘_ ' L "1 A” De. it I. a,‘ h .nA‘ I ~ -.§ Q C. *\.. .‘YW‘A I K- _‘\. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Development of the Instruments Two instruments were developed for the investi- gation. The first of these instruments, the Music Attitude Scale (MAS), was constructed using a combination of the Thurstone and Likert techniques. The reason for this procedure was to avoid the criticism that Likert scales often do not represent a full continuum of favor- able and unfavorable items.1 The Thurstone technique was used to obtain items representative of the full continuum. A fifty—one item questionnaire was administered to twenty- three judges who assigned values from l-ll for each item in terms of the amount of favorable attitude reflected by the statement. The judges were candidates for the Master of Music Education and Doctor of Music Education degrees at Michigan State University. A scale value for each item was computed using the formula as given by Edwards:2 For a more detailed explanation of this criticism See EdWards, op. cit. 2Ibid. 60 61 (.50 - Zpb)i S=L+ PW where S = scale value L = lower limit where the median falls Zp = the sum of proportions below the interval in which the median falls Pw = the proportion within i = 1 From the fifty—one items nineteen were selected to make up the MAS. The selected items represented the entire continuum. A pilot study was conducted at Hillsdale College. The MAS and the MNP were given to 44 students registered in a nonmajor music course. Students were requested to criticize and comment on the statements. Space was pro- vided under each item for students to relate ambiguities, to provide suggestions for improvement, and to suggest alternate wordings. At this point the words "apprecia- tion" and "appreciate" had not been included in the definitions. Perusal of comments suggested that these words be defined. Other than the above definition the items were clear to the subjects at Hillsdale College. The MAS was administered to seventy-three under- graduate students enrolled in Music 135 at Michigan State. Iqusic 135 is a nonmajor music course required for elenmantary education majors. Of the seventy-three 62 subjects reSponding to the questionnaire, sixty-four could be used: nine subjects were eliminated because they did not answer all questions. Cronbach's "Coefficient Alpha," used to determine the average interitem correlation of all items constitut— ing a scale, was used to estimate the content validity and reliability of the questionnaire. "Coefficient Alpha" is computed in the following manner: 2 k 2:01 r :— tt k-l '1 ' 2) 0T where k = the number of items in the total scale 0; = the variance of the total scale 20% = the sum of the variances of each item in the scale, and rtt = "Coefficient Alpha," the estimate of full- scale reliability. The computed alpha value for the MAS was .73. The second instrument, the Musical Needs Profile (MNP), was constructed in the same manner as the MAS. Thirty-three students registered in Music 271, a music course for nonmajors at Michigan State, served as the judging group to scale the statements. Once the scale was constructed the instrument was applied to the same SUbjeCtS at.Hillsdale and at Michigan State. Both QUGEHHLWnaaires were administered at the same time to n-y 9“ -“ s . '- v‘ ( “- 63 both groups. The computed "Coefficient Alpha" for the MNP was .78. Sample The population from which the sample was drawn consisted of college undergraduates at five state uni- versities in Michigan. The study was limited to state institutions only in order to make possible a generali- zation of the findings. The original intention of the investigator was to gain admittance to a number of classes representative of various disciplines at the five universities selected for the study. However, this procedure was followed only at Central Michigan University. At the above school the author had a contact who was willing to assist him in getting into classes to administer the questionnaire. The author had contacts at other institutions to be used in the study. However, the lack of cooperation at the remaining four schools necessitated a different procedure for the gathering of data. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to gain admittance into classes at the second University visited, it was realized that this method of data collection was not feasible. Conducting the questionnaire by mail did not seem to be the solution either. Thus, it was decided that the data would be col- lected in student cafeterias and dormitory dining rooms. Students were approached by the researcher and requested 64 to assist in the project. Most students were COOperative and demonstrated an interest in the study. Several days at each university produced the following sample: School Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors Total Central 125 76 138 124 463 State 55 44 76 79 254 Eastern 82 103 116 127 428 Northern 93 57 58 82 290 Western 27 52 88 132 299 Totals 382 332 476 544 1,734 All faculty members and graduate assistants at the same five institutions were polled for the faculty perception of undergraduate attitudes and needs toward music. The distribution of questionnaires and of per- centage returns is shown below: . Number Number SChOOl Distributed Returned % Of Return Central 30 l 4 State 70 39 56 Eastern 50 9 18 Northern 16 10 63 Western 40 25 63 This table shows a rather disappointing return by music faculty members. The results are discouraging as the investigator put forth considerable effort to increase returns. The questionnaires were delivered in 65 person to each music department office for placement in faculty mailboxes. The music department secretary served as distributor and collector in all cases. A "reminder sign" was given to each secretary to post if returns were not forthcoming. Several phone calls to secretaries and department heads were made by both the investigator and his committee chairman to insure a good return. Consider- ing the results in light of the effort, it is obvious that many musicians and educators are not yet concerned enough with research in music. The department head of one institution would not permit the questionnaires to be placed in the faculty mailboxes and was very reluctant to provide the investigator with a mailing list of his faculty. Such an attitude is most discouraging to edu- cators who are convinced of the importance of research in the field of music. One can only hope that time will change such an attitude. In order to gain knowledge of faculty perception of undergraduate attitudes the same statements of the .MAS and MNP were used. However each item was prefaced tvith the phrase "college students believe that . . ." Design The study was designed primarily to examine for ciifferences in attitude between the four levels of college inadergraduates. The MAS was developed for the above pur— Exase. The second dimension, that of "need," resulting 66 in development of the MNP, was added to the design for two reasons. First, the literature indicates that there is not always a strong relationship between measured attitudes and observed behavior. In other words, a subject may, for various reasons, present himself as having a very favor- able attitude toward some Object. However, when observed, he often demonstrates behavior reflecting a different attitude than that which was measured. By addition of the "need" dimension to the study it was hOped that differ- ences in attitude could be supported by exposing differ— ences in needs. Second, an intense desire on the author's part to reach more college students outside the music department provided the initial motivation for the study. It was believed that knowledge about differences in musical needs of undergraduates would aid in partially fulfilling this desire. Belief that differences in attitudes and needs do exist between the levels of college undergraduates caused tine investigator to hypothesize about some other vari— ables which might aid in explaining the differences. Thus several variables other than the class level of each undergraduate student were included in the design. The other variables are as follows: 11. n4v .. . .I... .nv \1 67 1. Musical training. It was believed that musi- cal training outside of public school, consisting of private voice or instrumental lessons, would have an effect on musical attitudes and needs. The four levels of this variable which were included in the design are: a. No formal training outside of public school music. b. Private voice or instrumental lessons for 0-3 years. c. Private voice or instrumental lessons for 4-6 years. d. Private voice or instrumental lessons for more than 6 years. 2. Subject rating of musical experience and training. This variable was included to discover whether the subjects accurately rated themselves in comparison with their peers. Three levels of rating were included: a. Inferior b. Average c. Superior 3. Public school musical training and participg- Eigfl- Subjects chose one of the following descriptions 0f their public school musical training: a. Took only required courses in elementary and junior high school. q .IHLP‘C .‘..A'-»Au . an 1“, I51“; "ffiw ‘~Ul~ .‘q --.C 7?. .‘L 14- J 68 b. Played in a band or orchestra without taking private lessons. c. Pursued extra-curricular musical activi- ties. It was believed that the above would also reflect the kinds of musical attitudes and needs expressed by indi- viduals. 4. The number of college music courses taken. The hypothesis involved with this variable was that stu- dents who have had music courses in college would express a more favorable attitude and desire different experiences from music than those who had not. The design provided the following choices: a. None b. One c. Two 4. More than two The student part of the study consisted of a single presentation of both the MAS and MNP to one thousand, seven hundred and thirty-four college under- graduates from five state universities in Michigan. Each subject was coded and his total score for each instrument key-punched on IBM cards. The faculty part of the study also consisted of a single presentation of both instruments to two hundred six music faculty members and graduate assistants. The 69 totals of those returned were key—punched on IBM cards. Other than faculty perception of college undergraduate attitudes and needs there were no other variables in the design for this part of the investigation. Analysis Procedures The hypotheses were tested and the data analyzed by means of the "Multivariate Analysis of Variance," programmed for the computer by Jeremy Finn at the State University of New York at Buffalo. This program was used because it is capable of doing an analysis of variance with unequal or prOportional cell sizes. The original design consisted of four categories of undergraduate years from freshman to senior, four levels of musical training, three levels of public school musical training and participation, and four levels of college music courses. However, after the data were collected it was found that many cells were without a sufficient sample to make the analysis possible. Thus, due to a low frequency distribution in some cells and nothing in others it was necessary to collapse the variables into fewer levels. The variable of musical training was reduced to tnvo levels: those who had no training (T1) and those who (did (T2). Due to the similarity of the above variable and tflie one labelled "public school musical training," it was checided to eliminate the latter variable from the analy- :sis. 70 The collected data showed that very few under- graduates rate their musical training and experience as superior. Thus, this variable also had to be reduced to the following two levels: El--those who rate themselves as inferior, and E2—-those who rate themselves as average or superior. The variable concerned with the number of college music courses taken was also reduced to two levels: C1-- those who had not taken a college music course, and C2-- those who had taken one, two, or more than two college music courses. The table below represents the variables used in the analysis. Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 B1 C1 66 14 41 9 73 14 89 7 C2 15 5 11 5 20 4 42 10 E2 Cl 103 109 77 81 109 128 131 96 C 17 53 38 70 49 79 78 91 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Discussion of Interactions The data were analyzed according to the cell dis- tributions given at the conclusion of Chapter III. Before presenting each hypothesis with the findings it is neces- sary to explain certain procedures which must be followed when doing an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The method used to test the hypotheses in Finn's program, in relation to the present study, will also be discussed. The procedure followed when doing an ANOVA involv- ing multiple independent variables and multiple hypotheses is to examine first for significance among interactions. If the test of the interactions is found to be signifi- cant then it is necessary to know which variables are interacting. Only then is one justified in testing hypotheses involving main effects. Using the cell frequencies presented earlier, all possible 4-, 3-, and 2-way interactions were grouped and tested by the investigator. One test was used for all the interactions, and the results showed P < 0.0089. The variables were interacting. However, as only one test was used for all interactions, it was impossible to 71 72 determine whether the interactions involved were between 2, 3, or 4 variables. Furthermore, the factor of signifi- cant interaction meant that tests Of the hypotheses about the main effects could not be legitimately used. There- fore, it was necessary to do an ANOVA which would provide independent tests for the interactions and main effects. The Finn program reports results of a test in terms of an error probability statement (P). In other words, the figure P = .05 (alpha level) is interpreted as meaning that if no differences exist the results would be due to chance happenings only 5 times out of 100. For the purposes of this investigation, P = .05 or less will be regarded as a significant finding. In ANOVA, independent tests cannot be achieved with unequal cell sizes. The cells must be either equal or proportional. The vast differences between cell fre- quencies in the present design meant that approximately 75% of the data would have to be destroyed in order to make all cells proportional. In order to avoid the destruction of such a large amount of data the investigator decided to isolate one other variable for separate study. Such a procedure would then allow, through the elimination of the isolated variable from the design, the construction of a pro- portionally—balanced design without the loss of so many subjects. After a careful examination of the .. -t'nAL :l \J L _‘7‘-~ H I- ‘i‘~‘) (I) 73 interactions by graphing of cell means, the E variable (subjects' self-rating of their own musical experiences in comparison with their peers) was isolated for separate study. The null hypotheses for the E variable are given below. Hypothesis I Ho: There is no significant difference in attitudes toward music between students who rate their musical training and experience as inferior (E ) and those who rate it as average or superior (E2) in comparison with their peers. TABLE 1.--ANOVA of the MAS Between College Undergraduates on the Experience Variable. Subjects Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 131 425 1207.849? 1, 1732 32.9229 0.0001 F: 1,309 'Fhe null hypothesis that no significant difference in attitudes toward music exists between students rating their musical training as inferior and average or superior was rejected. 74 Hypothesis II Ho: There is no significant difference in musical needs between students who rate their musical training and experience as inferior (E1) and those who rate it as average or superior (E2 ) in comparison with their peers. TABLE 2.—-ANOVA of the MNP Between College Undergraduates on the E Variable. Subjects Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom El 425 509.5897 1, 1732 4.5849 0.0324 E2 1,309 The null hypothesis concerning musical needs and the Experience Variable was also rejected. In other words, when all other independent variables are disregarded and all subjects in one of the two categories are pooled, students who rate themselves as average or superior do in fact score higher on needs and attitudes than those who rate their musical experiences as inferior. The remaining part of this chapter will present the tested hypotheses in relation to the proportional- balanced design. Each independent variable will be examined in relation to the MAS and MNP. Since there was no significant interaction found among the variables included in the proportional design it was concluded that the interaction exposed in the original design was the 75 result of the E variable. Following the presentation of the main effect hypotheses the interaction of E with the other variables will be graphed and discussed. Proportional Design Analysis with the E variable eliminated it was possible to obtain the following proportional design. TABLE 3.--Proportional Design (N = 976). Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 Cl 30 50 45 75 48 80 60 100 C2 30 50 45 75 48 80 60 100 The interactions for the design given in Table 3 are as follows: TABLE 4.——ANOVA of the Interactions of the T, C, and L Variables.* Inter- Depend- Between Degrees acting ent Mean of F P Variables Variable Square Freedom T X C X L MAS 10.9352 3, 960 0.3096 0.8185 T X C X L MNP 108.7392 3, 960 0.9462 0.4177 T X C MAS 102.6691 1, 960 2.9068 0.0886 T X C MNP 19.9180 1, 960 0.1733 0.6773 L X T MAS 9.6582 3, 960 0.2734 0.8446 L X T MNP 39.2151 3, 960 0.3412 0.7956 L X C MAS 9.1283 3, 960 0.2584 0.8554 L X C MNP 218.9464 3,960 1.9053 0.1271 *T = musical training outside of public school, C = the number of college music courses taken, and L = the four levels of college undergraduate years. 76 From the above it can be seen that none of the inter— actions attained a level of significance. The main effect hypotheses will now be presented. Hypothesis III Ho: There is no significant difference in attitudes toward music between the four levels (L) of non- music major college undergraduates. TABLE 5.--ANOVA of the MAS Between Levels of College Undergraduates. Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 43.2268 3, 960 1.2238 0.2999 The null hypothesis that no significant difference in attitudes toward music exists between the 4 levels of nonmusic major college undergraduates was not rejected. Hypothesis IV Ho: There is no significant difference in musical needs between the four levels (L) of nonmusic major college undergraduates. TABLE 6.--ANOVA of the MNP Between Levels of College Undergraduates. Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 206.3123 3, 960 1.7953 0.1464 77 Table 6 indicates that the null hypothesis concerning musical needs between levels of college undergraduates was not rejected. Although no significant differences in either attitudes or needs were exposed between the 4 levels of college undergraduates, a study of the variance (standard errors of least square estimates of effects) for both the MAS and MNP does provide information about the freshmen population. TABLE 7.--Standard Errors of Least Square Estimates of Effects. Group MAS MNP Junior - Senior 0.498347 0.898891 Sophomore - Senior 0.507492 0.915385 Freshman - Senior 0.575442 1.037949 From the above one can see that when measured against the senior subjects, freshmen are more divergent in their opinions than are either SOphomores or juniors. This variability could be due to the fact that probably a more select group exists at the level of senior than that of freshman. When both the MAS and MNP are combined together ffor multivariate analysis of differences between the 78 levels the P value is P < 0.2171, when F = 1.3845. Again a significant difference was not found. Hypothesis V Ho: There is no significant difference in attitudes toward music between college undergraduates who have had music training outside of public school and those who have not (T). TABLE 8.—-ANOVA of the MAS Between Students With and ' Without Music Training. Between Mean Degrees of Square Freedom 801.7402 1, 960 22.6987 0.0001 The null hypothesis that no significant difference in attitudes toward music exists between college students who have had music training outside public school and those who have not was rejected. As measured by the MAS, students who have had music training outside public school do score higher in positive attitudes toward music than those who have not had such training. Hypothesis VI Ho: There is no significant difference in musical needs between college undergraduates who have had music training outside public school and those who have not (T). 79 TABLE 9.—-ANOVA of the MNP Between Students With and Without Music Training. Between Mean Degrees of Square Freedom 797.0667 1, 960 6.9361 0.0086 The null hypothesis concerning the existence of no significant difference in musical undergraduates who have had music school and those who have not was by the MNP, students who have had needs between college training outside public rejected. As measured music training demon— strate greater needs in music than those who have not had such training. Hypothesis VII Ho: There is no significant difference in attitudes toward music between college undergraduates who have had one or more college music courses and those who have had no college music courses. TABLE 10.--ANOVA of the MAS Between College Undergraduates With and Without a College Music Course. Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 454.4631 1, 960 12.8667 0.0004 1101C 2::1t -:.I'p‘ ”nit... "’.‘-\ 4 I ”1‘”. -. ."v- a "‘\, rx) 1'. . r1) 80 Table 10 indicates that the null hypothesis concerning attitudes toward music between students who had taken one or more college music courses and those who had not was rejected. As measured by the MAS, those students who had taken a music course demonstrated a more positive attitude toward music than those who had not. Hypothesis VIII Ho: There is no significant difference in musical needs between college undergraduates who have taken one or more college music courses and those who have had no college music courses. TABLE ll.-—ANOVA of the MNP Between College Undergraduates with and Without a College Music Course. Between Mean Degrees Of F P Square Freedom 272.8033 1, 960 2.3739 0.1238 The null hypothesis that no significant difference in musical needs exists between college undergraduates who have had one or more college music courses and those who have had no college music courses was not rejected. As measured by the MNP, students who have taken a college music course do not demonstrate any greater musical need than those who have not taken a college music course. Table 11 indicates a P value of 0.1238. In other words, there are only 12 chances in 100 of 81 Obtaining differences as large as the above if indeed no differences existed. Therefore one may be hesitant to base a decision on the above finding. The evidence indi- cates that most students who have had a college music course do in fact have more positive musical needs than those who have not had such a course. However, if one believes that an alpha level of .05 is the absolute maximum of allowable error the null hypothesis must not be rejected. Hypothesis IX Ho: There is no significant difference in attitudes toward music between college undergraduates and music faculty perceptions of these attitudes. TABLE 12.--ANOVA of the MAS Between College Undergraduates and Music Faculties. Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 1862.6149 1, 1816 49.5394 0.0001 The null hypothesis that no significant difference in attitudes toward music exists between college under- graduates and music faculty perceptions of these attitudes was rejected. As measured by the MAS, college music teachers perceive the musical attitudes of college 82 students to be less positive than was reflected by the student sample. Hypothesis X Ho: There is no significant difference in musical needs between college undergraduates and music faculty perceptions of these needs. TABLE l3.—-ANOVA of the MNP Between College Undergraduates and Music Faculties. Between Mean Degrees of F P Square Freedom 573.3655 1, 1816 5.2358 0.0223 The null hypothesis that no significant difference in musical needs exists between college undergraduates and music faculty perceptions of these needs was rejected. As measured by the MNP, the various faculties perceived the musical needs of college undergraduates to be significantly less than was demonstrated by the student sample. Interactions of the E Variable Based on the graphs given below it was concluded that the interaction found in the original analysis (unequal and nonproportional cell sizes with N = 1734) was due to the E variable. Analysis of the interactions 'f‘l .A n ‘l . '1' “O (f\ lu 83 of the other variables (T, C, and L) in the proportional design proved the conclusion to be correct. Thus separate tests of the interactions with the E variable were not done. When examining interactions by using graphs, one is concerned with the distance between various points. The points are joined by lines in order for one to per- ceive differences in space between them. If the points are an equal distance apart for two variables the lines will be parallel. Parallel or close to parallel lines indicate that the interaction is probably not signifi- cant. The graph of E X T on page 84 is an illustration of the case where the interaction is not significant. The lines are close to being parallel and one can observe that E (students rating themselves as average 2 or superior) was higher than El (an.inferior rating) for both cases of T (musical training). Based on the above graph, it was concluded that the E X T inter- action was not causing the significant interaction found in the original analysis. From the graph of the E X C interaction (page 85) one can see that again there is probably no significant interaction. For both cases of C (Cl being those stu- dents who had not taken a college music course and C2 being those students who had taken one or more college music courses) students again rated themselves 73.0[ 72.0" E (71.8) 2 71.0F (70.1) 70°0r El (69.9) 69.0” (68.9) 68.0’ T1 T2 Figure l.--Experience and Training Interaction. 85 72.0.. E2 71.9 71.0.- 70'4 El 70.14 70.04L 69.0«— 68.6 68.0-5 67.0 K 5 i C1 C2 Figure 2.--Experience and Course Interaction. A () m b. I“ L_" I‘M- 1 ‘9‘ 86 accurately on the E variable. Those who thought them- selves to be inferior in comparison with their peers did score lower on the MAS and MNP. Examination of the E X L graph (page 86) indi- cates that these two independent variables are definitely interacting. The basic cause of the interaction is L3 or the junior pOpulation included in the study. The graph shows that the junior population scored higher than the other 3 levels on El and lower on E2. The means for L3El’ and L3E2 were 70.11 and 70.13 respec— tively. Based on the graph, several questions can be asked. The most pertinent questions, for which the author is hesitant to attempt any hypothetical explana- tions are: (1) Why are juniors higher in the E1 category and lower in E2 than the other three levels? and (2) Why is the difference between El and E2 so small only for the junior population? Perhaps a later investigation focusing on junior populations can provide answers to these questions. 87 71.2 71.0 E ‘ 70.7 70 7 E E "0.0- r;9.0~ 18,0_ 0 I L1 L2 L3 L4 Figure 3.--Experience and Level Interaction. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summar Two original instruments, the Music Attitude Scale and the Musical Needs Profile, were developed to measure differences in musical attitudes and needs between four levels of college undergraduates at five state universities in Michigan. These two instruments were also administered to music faculties at the same institutions to discover whether college music teachers correctly perceive the musical attitudes and needs of college undergraduates who are not music majors. Several hypotheses were made about factors which might contribute to differences among subjects regarding musical needs and attitudes. These hypotheses resulted in the addition of the following independent variables to the final design: 1. Musical Training (T)--two levels, 2. Subject Rating of Musical Experience and Training (E)--two levels, and 3. College Music Courses Taken (C)--two levels. The MAS and MNP were administered to 1734 college undergraduates and 84 faculty members. The nature of the 88 89 distribution on certain independent variables made it impossible to use all 1734 subjects for the major portion of the analysis. Hypotheses concerning the E variable were tested using all the data. However, the remaining hypotheses about L, T, and C were tested within a pro- portionally balanced design using 976 subjects selected randomly from the total sample. All tests were independent of each other, and the alpha level for significance was set at .05. The data were analyzed using the 3600 computer at Michigan State University. The program used was Jeremy Finn's ”Multivariate Analysis of Variance." Findings and Conclusions The population used in the study was not a randomly drawn sample. Therefore caution must be exercised if one is applying the conclusions formed on the basis of this study to pOpulations other than state universities. For various reasons, a small liberal arts or junior college could yield entirely different results. The study was purposely limited to state institutions to avoid the pos- sibility that the type of institution one attends could affect musical attitudes and needs. The findings of the present investigation make the following conclusions possible: 1. There are no significant differences in either Inusical attitudes or needs between the four levels of col- lege undergraduate nonmusic majors. 9O 2. College undergraduates who have had music training outside the public school, consisting of private vocal or instrumental lessons, demonstrate more positive musical attitudes and needs than undergraduates who have not had such training. 3. Students who have taken one or more college music courses reflect a more positive attitude toward music than students who have not had a college music course. 4. There are no statistically significant dif- ferences in relation to musical needs between students who have taken a college music course and those who have not. 5. College music teachers perceive the musical attitudes and needs of college undergraduates to be less positive than they actually are. 6. College undergraduates correctly rate their musical experience and training in comparison with their peers. 7. There is less variation at the junior level between students who, in comparison with their peers, rate their musical experience and training as inferior and those who rate themselves as average or superior. The above conclusions are based on the instruments developed for the investigation and the sample obtained at the institutions used in the study. While it is dangerous to generalize, the investigator believes that, based on the computed reliabilities of the instruments, it is 91 probable that results would be similar for other state institutions. However, if one must be specific, the con- clusions herein presented then can apply only to the subjects included in the present study. Discussion and Recommendations Although this study did not expose any differences in either musical attitudes or needs between the four levels of college undergraduates, there are findings related to other independent variables which may stimulate thought in the minds of college music educators concerned about teaching music to the general college pOpulation. It is the author's contention that greater positive gains in attitudes toward music by nonmusic college undergraduates can be engendered by approaching music education as aesthetic education. If one accepts this contention, it seems clear that such an approach would be enhanced through the use of some of the findings in the present study. Before putting forth ideas about nonmajor music courses a word must be said about music faculty relation- ships to nonmajor students and courses for them. This study discovered that faculty members partici- pating in the investigation perceived both attitudes and needs of college undergraduates to be significantly lower than that demonstrated by the student pOpulation. The investigator cannot state that the above discovery is 92 true for all college music teachers. However, that possi- bility does exist. If true, then it is time for music faculties, especially instructors of nonmajor courses, to "get in touch" with this large population. The real world, from a music educational point of view, is the world of the nonmajor. If one takes the view of being primarily a composer or performer, the nonmajor represents only potential audience. However, the music educator looks at the nonmajor as an individual person. The musical develOpment and growth of that person through aesthetic discoveries and experiences in music is the prime concern. Considering the important services that a music department can provide in the aesthetic growth and develop- ment of college undergraduates, who are not music majors, it is recommended that music faculties make a greater effort to (1) become more aware of the musical attitudes and needs of nonmusic majors; and (2) enhance these attitudes and fulfill these needs by providing a selection of courses and performances that will provide the neces- sary tools for the nonmusic major to become a more intel— ligent listener. Assuming music departments see their role in the university as being much more than servicing students who Wish to pursue the art of music in the capacity of a music major, it is recommended that more courses be Offered for the nonmusic major. Furthermore, these 93 courses should go beyond the usual music appreciation approach to include listening and analysis of all types of music, skills in performance, creating, and improvising. As music departments attempt to develop new courses or modify old ones for the nonmajor, teaching for aesthetic experiences in music should become a primary objective. Given the relationship between aesthetic experiences, atti- tudes, and the affective domain, consideration of the follow- ing findings of this investigation may help achieve that objective: 1. As the musical needs and attitudes of the four undergraduate levels do not differ, the first course should carry recognized credits appropriate to the level of the student taking the course. Furthermore, there should be no {prerequisite knowledge needed to gain entrance to this loasic course. 2. Since the study indicates that the majority of Stuadents rate their past musical experiences accurately, ir“Structors, who obtain this information about their stu— dehts, can adopt course content and objectives in a realis- til: manner to suit each student. It would of course be iékaal to have enough staff to teach separate levels of thfii basic course. 3. The study revealed different musical attitudes afui needs for students who have had private lessons of some SOrtoutside of public school. Here is another factor to 94 be seeking to further their musical knowledge. To teach such a student the same material as one who has had no additional training may create a negative rather than a positive reaction. While conducting the research contained in the foregoing chapters, the author was asked one question in different ways by several faculty members. The basic issue involved in this question concerned the responsibility of a college music department to serve the nonmusic major. It seems that a thoughtful response to the question "Why should a university have to serve the musical needs of the nonmajor?" provides a fitting conclusion to this study. Many reasons have been given in earlier chapters tfliat answer the question from the point of view of a music Efliucator. However, a philosophical response can be made Which encompasses all earlier responses. Assuming a bafxic goal of the educational process to be the prepara- tiCni of a person for a satisfying life as an individual, mUSixz, for this person, belongs in the preparation. MquJZ is a contributing factor, in both the emotional and intlellectual sense, to a satisfying life. However, to go bGSWDnd the most elementary level of musical response or Satlisfaction requires learning. Therefore, it should be tifié responsibility of a university to provide facilities and staff which can make this learning possible. "'h‘ A .,0e I0. 2~+i ‘5. inst 'VA (.1! ~ .r- ‘~ I LI) 7. .. "v: 95 Suggestions for Future Research 1. As the population used in the study was a representative rather than a randomly drawn sample, a replication of the study using random selection of StUdean and music faculty members would be of value. 2. It would be interesting to discover if the type of institution one attends has an effect on musical attitudes and needs. Thus, a replication of the study at institutions other than state universities is suggested. 3. The study was limited to 5 state universities in Michigan. An interesting research problem would be a comparison of similar institutions from various geographical locations in the country. 4. This study exposed differences in attitudes and rueeds with regard to certain independent variables. It is Stuggested that an investigation into what these differences 3113 would be of value. 5. The concept of attitude is a complex one. It is Ipossible to generate a seemingly infinite number of S‘tatements. More studies of undergraduate populations are neEKied with different instruments. BIBLIOGRAPHY 96 . q 4“" vo'vt 5"" an). :1 .uu .1” l ..0 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Bigge, M. L. and Hunt, M. P. Psychological Foundations of Education. New York: Harper and Row, 1962. Brehm, J. and Cohen, A. Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance. New York: John Wiley and Sons, I962. Burns, S. T. Music Programs for Non-music Majors in State Universities. Madison, Wis.: School of Music, College of Letters and Science, University of Wisconsin, 1967. Chaplin, J. P. and Krawiec, T. S. Systems and Theories of Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960. Edwards, A. Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. Farnsworth, P. R. Musical Taste: Its Measurement and Cultural Nature. Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1950. Festinger, L. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957. . Conflict, Decision, and Dissonance. 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Broquist, O. "A Survey of the Attitudes of 2594 Wisconsin Elementary School Pupils Toward Their Learning Experiences in Music." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1961. Burmeister, C. A. "A Study of Community Attitudes Toward Music Education in the Public Schools of Selected Communities in Missouri." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kansas, 1953. ESquivel, J. "The Influence of General Music on Attitudes and Scores of 263 High School Students." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Univeristy of Texas, 1957. 100 Foreman, R. "Extent of Agreement in Attitudes Toward Music Education Practices Among Southern Illinois High School Students as Measured by Kendall's Tau.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Florida State University, 1958. Gaston, E. T. "A Study of the Trends of Attitudes Toward Music in School Children with a Study of the Methods Used by High School Students in Sight-Reading Music." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kansas, 1940. 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"An Experiment on Small Rewards for Discrepant Behavior," In J. Brehm and A. Cohen, Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1962. Deutsch, M., Krauss, R. and Rosenau, N. "Dissonance or Defensiveness?," Journal of Personality, 1962, 30(1), 16—28. Doob, L. W. "The Behavior of Attitudes," Psychological Review, 1947, 54, 135-156. Edwards, A. "On Guttman's Scale Analysis," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1948, 8, 215-223. Festinger, L. "The Treatment of Qualitative Data By 'Scale Analysis'," Psychological Bulletin, 1947, 44, 149-161. . and Carlsmith, J. "Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1959, 58, 203-210. Freedman, J. "Long—term Behavioral Effects of Cognitive Dissonance," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1965, I(2), 145-155. Gerard, H. and Mathewson, G. 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"A Preliminary Statement to A Theory of Attitude Structure and Change," In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of A Science, Vol. 3, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959, pp. 423-475. Likert, R. "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes," Archives of Psychology, 1932, No. 140. Lott, B. "Attitude Formation: The Development of a Color" Preference Response Through Mediated Generalization," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1955, 50, 321-326. McGuire, W. "The Current Status of Cognitive Consistency Theories," In S. Feldman (Ed.), Cognitive Consistenggi Motivational Antecedents and Behavioral Consequences, New York: Academic Press, 1966. OSgood, C. "Cognitive Dynamics in the Conduct of Human Affairs," Public Opinion Quarterly, 1960, 24, 341-365. . and Tannenbaum, P. "The Principle of Congruity in the Prediction of Attitude Change," Psychological Review, 1955, 62, 42-55. 103 Rosenberg, M. J. and Abelson, R. P. "An Analysis of Cognitive Balancing," In M. J. Rosenberg et al., Attitude Organization and Change, New Haven, Confi??_ Yale University Press, 1960, pp. 112-163. Sarnoff, D. and Katz, D. "The Motivational Bases of Attittdt Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 68(5),’533-539. Schneider, E. and Cady, H. Evaluation and Synthesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Education, Columbus, Ohio: USOE Cooperative Research Project No. E-Ol6, The Ohio State University Research Foundation, 1965. Scott, W. A. "Attitude Change Through Reward of Verbal Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1957, 55, 72-75. Sherif, M. A. and Cantril, H. "The Psychology of Attitudes," Psychological Review, 1945, 52, Smith, E. E. "The Power of Dissonance Techniques to Change Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, 1961, 25(4), 626-639. Staats, A. W. and Staats, C. K. "Attitudes Established by Classical Conditioning," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1958, 57, 37-40. Stotland, E., Katz, D., and Patchen, M. "The Reduction of Prejudice Through the Arousal of Self-insight," Journal of Personality, 1959, 27, 507-531. Thurstone, L. L. "Attitudes Can Be Measure," American Journal of Sociology, 1928, 33, 529-554. . "Comment," American Journal of Sociology, 1946, 52, 39-40. Wagman, M. "Attitude Change and the Authoritarian Personality," Journal of Psychology, 1955, 40, 27-45. Walster, E. "The Temporal Sequence of Post-Decision Processes,‘ In L. Festinger, Conflict, Decision, and Dissonance, Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1962. Weick, K. "Reduction of Cognitive Dissonance Through Task Enhancement and Effort Expenditure," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychologx, 1964, 68(55, 533-539. APPENDIX I MUSIC ATTITUDE SCALE AND MUSICAL NEEDS PROFILE 104 INSTRUCTIONS The purpose of this questionnaire is to obtain information from college undergraduates about their attitudes toward, and needs for, music in college music courses for nonmusic majors. Please read carefully the definitions on the first page before answering the questionnaire. Respond to all items as honestly as possible. There are no right or wrong answers. All that is desired is your opinion. It is not necessary to identify yourself for the purposes of this study. Please do not make any marks on the questionnaire as it must be used again with other students. Also, please note that the numbering on the answer sheet moves horizontally across the page rather than vertically. Thank you for your cooperation. 105 .laamkiiffi. .n a 106 PLEASE READ CAREFULLY BEFORE PROCEEDING TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE: DEFINITIONS 1. When a statement includes the word "music" it is intended to mean all kinds of music (popular, jazz, folk, art, etc.). The term "popular music" should be interpreted as music written for mass or commercial consumption. Some examples would be rock, folk, country and western, jazz, hit parade music, movie music, background or mood music, etc. The term "art music," for the purposes of the questionnaire, is opposite to "popular music" and should be interpreted as music written for aesthetic rather than commercial reasons. The words "appreciation" and "appreciate" are intended to mean something more than casual listening or mere enjoyment of music. Appreciation involves conscious involvement and attention to the musical characteristics of a composition. 107 Identify your class standing (freshman, sophomore, etc.) by filling in the appropriate number: (1) (2) (3) (4) Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Fill in the category which best described your musical training outside of public school: (1) (2) (3) (4) No formal training outside of public school music. Private voice or instrumental lessons for O - 3 years. Private voice or instrumental lessons for 4 - 6 years. Private voice or instrumental lessons for more than 6 years. Indicate your public school musical training: (1) (2) (3) How Took only required courses in elementary and junior high school. Played in a band or orchestra without taking private lessons. Pursued extra-curricular musical activities. would you rate your musical experience and training in comparison with your peers? (l) (2) (3) How inferior average superior many college music courses, including private lessons, have you taken? (1) (2) (3) (4) None One Two More than two 108 MUSIC ATTITUDE SCALE Below are several statements about music. Please respond to all items as honestly as possible. There are no right or wrong answers. All that is desired is your opiniEn. Please use the following scale to respond: 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 1 - — strongly agree 2 - - agree 3 - - undecided or neutral 4 — - disagree 5 - - strongly disagree Popular music changes so fast it cannot establish musical characteristics worth studying. A11 art music sounds the same to me. Popular music should be reduced to a fraction of its present status in American society. Enjoyment of music is directly related to knowledge about music. A greater knowledge of music would be beneficial but I feel it is not really necessary for everyone. It is not necessary that everyone share the same musical tastes or like the same kinds of music. I have never felt, nor do I now feel, the need to know more about music. Popular music is more relevant to me than art music. Only the musically talented should study music. Music has the power to affect the value structure of a society. One cannot like popular and art music at the same time. Appreciation of popular music is better than no musical appreciation at all. I believe that it is not worth spending my time listening to music as I get such little pleasure from it. Music is needed to help fulfill society's needs for spiritual expression and beauty. 109 SCALE: 1 - - strongly agree 2 — — agree 3 - - undecided or neutral 4 — - disagree 5 - — strongly disagree 15. The most important function of music is self-expression. 16. 17. 18. 19. Music has lost its place as a necessary part of our civilization. A person ought to be able to appreciate equally all kinds of music. I need to know more about music before I can appreciate it. I do not need music in my life at all. MUSICAL NEEDS PROFILE The purpose of this questionnaire is to obtain your opinion regarding possible course content of a music course for nonmusic majors. Again there are no right or wrongganswers. Use the same scale for answering the items in this part. The course should teach me how to read music. Art music should not be studied at all in such a course. The course should instruct on how music is composed. The reasons why music is essential to my life should be taught in the course. The course should show the value of listening to music for its own sake. The course should teach about the relationship of music to the culture of today. American music, both past and present, should be the core of the course. The course should demonstrate how music has evolved to the present. 110 SCALE: 1 - - strongly agree 2 — — agree 3 - - undecided or neutral 4 - - disagree 5 - - strongly disagree 9. The course should provide information about mus1c of 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. various periods. The course should teach only the recognized great composers of music. The course should teach techniques of listening to music for greater appreciation. The course should concentrate on the emotional and aesthetic values of all types of music. The course should include music in the twentieth century. The course should emphasize only one type of music; having this taught in great depth. The course should begin with an analysis of popular music. The relationship of music to the other arts should be included as a main area of emphasis. Attendance at several concerts of various kinds should be a course requirement. The course should include a demonstration of all instr“- ments emphasizing how the sound is produced on each one. Discrimination between good and bad compositional characteristics of all types of music should be taught. The course should teach the cultural heritage of man in relation to music. The course should cover instrumental music only. The course should teach about the various musical cultures of the world. The course should emphasize the function of music both past and present. 111 SCALE: 1 - - strongly agree 2 - — agree 3 — - undecided or neutral 4 - - disagree 5 — — strongly disagree 24. The course should provide the opportunity to learn music through performance. 25. The course should include discrimination of the various instruments through listening. 26. A course requirement should be the learning of one of the social instruments such as guitar. 27. The course should teach how to distinguish music of various periods and types through listening. 28. The students should help determine the course content. 29. The course should emphasize listening abilities regardless of the type of music used. 30. The course should give students a basis for making musical judgments. 31. The course should demonstrate the necessity for preserving art music. 32. The basic knowledge required in the music course should be taught through the use of popular music. APPENDIX II ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS FOR THE MAS AND MNP 112 ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS FOR THE MAS l 2 3 4 1. 0.2113 -0.0324 0.1979 -0.5518 2. 0.4930 0.1305 0.0996 -0.4054 3. 0.6531 -0.0104 0.0270 -0.l7‘w 4. 0.3301 -0.0242 0.6340 -0.1054 5. 0.1403 -0.1010 0.6772 -0.1702 6. 0.0190 -0.1981 -0.5182 -0.2889 7. 0.2789 -0.4938 -0.0446 -0.3786 8. -0.l652 -0.0952 0.0772 -0.5831 9. 0.3921 -0.3699 -O.4387 -0.0449 10. 0.1277 -0.4295 0.6163 -0.3106 11. -0.0221 -0.1434 -0.2844 -0.5252 12. 0.0023 -0.6675 0.0507 0.0448 13. 0.7009 -0.0186 0.0717 0.1366 14 0.2004 -0.7115 0.0952 -0.1226 15 0.6236 -0.2760 -0.0579 0.1492 16. 0.2739 0.2411 -0.4716 -0.3661 17. -0.4445 -0.4158 -0.2037 -0.3560 18. 0.4264 -0.0762 0.1319 -0.0931 19. 0.4936 -0.5607 0.1460 -0.6138 113 ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS FOR THE MNP 114 l 2 3 1 0.2075 0.7192 -0.0645 0.1167 2 —0.0745 0.1531 -0.1228 0.5735 3 0.0733 0.7401 -0.1140 -0.2181 4. 0.0158 0.1715 -0.2553 -0.8056 5. 0.3639 0.0644 -0.0788 -0.6414 6 0.7310 0.0693 -0.0592 -0.2266 7 0.1261 -0.6571 -0.2892 -0.C34: 8 0.6771 -0.2178 0.0254 -0.0594 9. 0.5593 -0.5162 0.3355 0.07C6 10. -0.0514 -0.6484 0.0951 -0. 72C 1]. 0.5941 0.0978 -0.l373 -0.1356 12. 0.6509 -0.0894 -0.3123 0.0205 13. 0.6954 0.0459 -0.1854 0.2005 14. -0.0312 -0.7138 -0.3288 -0.0507 15. 0.0945 -0.2950 -0.5817 0.4336 16. 0.0673 -0.1553 -0.0685 -0.6467 17. 0.4249 -0.0486 0.4291 0.1307 18. 0.4290 -O.1747 -0.3291 -0.0336 19. 0.2063 0.2318 -0.2408 -0.3319 20. 0.5328 0.0101 -0.0167 -0.2976 21. -0.l408 -0.0960 -0.3203 0.4403 22. 0.6118 -.0704 -0.0353 -0.2512 23. 0.7787 0.1468 0.1152 0.0145 24. -0.2141 0.3825 -0.1558 -0.4401 25. 0.1972 0.0792 -0.5992 -0.1349 26. -0.1545 -0.1360 -0.5939 -0.3675 27. 0.3937 -0.6549 0.1441 -0.1405 28. -0.0148 0.0890 -0.4485 0.1872 29. 0.2005 0.0607 -0.4849 -0.l6l2 30. 0.1327 0.2305 -0.4413 -0.0o,7 31. 0.4078 -0.l650 -0.0479 -0.4590 32. 0.0940 -0.3296 -0.6346 0.1575 APPENDIX III RELIABILITY COMPUTATIONS FOR MAS AND MNP 115 tt ZO HNP-NI—JW RELIABILITY COMPUTATION FOR THE MAS 2 \ T 19 13 3964 (.11....) z 18 18 42.8043 = 13.3964 = 42.8043 rtt = '73 RELIABILITY COMPUTATION FOR THE MNP O2 :___ Ci ‘2— = 32 32 1 _ 106.5257 = 31 3I 40113I3I = 106.5257 = 401.3131 r = .78 116 APPENDIX IV CELL IDENTIFICATION, FREQUENCIES, AND MEANS 117 "5831319-. -_ . Cell Level Training Course Experience MAS MNP N l 1 1 l l 67.23 112.47 66 2 1 l 1 2 69.66 111.81 103 3 l 1 2 1 70.60 112.13 15 4 l l 2 2 70.59 113.59 17 5 l 2 l l 69.71 112.29 3« 6 l 2 l 2 70.91 114.17 3C- 7 l 2 2 l 71.20 110.20 S 8 l 2 2 2 72.38 113.74 5‘ 9 2 l l 1 69.56 114.90 41 10 2 l 1 2 69.18 111.29 77 11 2 l 2 l 69.09 109.00 11 12 2 l 2 2 70.18 113.09 38 13 2 2 1 1 70.44 112.56 9 14 2 2 l 2 70.83 112.99 81 15 2 2 2 l 61.60 114.80 5 l6 2 2 2 2 72.51 116.54 7O 17 3 l 1 1 69.66 113.45 73 18 3 1 l 2 70.48 115.10 109 19 3 1 2 1 70.35 116.20 20 20 3 1 2 2 71.06 111.84 49 21 3 2 1 l 73.17 122.43 14 22 3 2 1 2 71.42 114.46 128 23 3 2 2 l 66.75 111.00 4 24 3 2 2 2 72.03 115.94 79 25 4 1 l l 67.52 109.88 89 26 4 1 1 2 69.54 112.60 131 27 4 1 2 l 71.17 114.79 42 28 4 l 2 2 71.68 113.06 78 29 4 2 l l 68.71 109.29 7 3O 4 2 1 2 71.44 114.28 96 31 4 2 2 l 70.90 106.20 10 32 4 2 2 2 72.96 118.23 91 «pm 118 APPENDIX V INTERCORRELATION MATRICES FOR THE MAS AND MNP 119 -A ,1 120 wmmm.o Hmnm.o mmnm.o wmmm.o vomm.o omnm.o mmvm.o nhmv.o Hmmv.o mnme.o om omma.o momo.o| mmmH.o ommo.on Nmmm.o vnma.o Hmom.o owha.o mwvm.o momo.o ma ovmo.o| moma.o mmmm.o vmmm.o ommo.ou wmma.o1 moma.ot omma.on veno.ot Namo.o ma Hmv~.o mHNo.o mmoH.o mHHH.o maao.o vmma.on Hmmm.01 whoa.o Hmom.o veho.o SH Hamm.o mnao.o| ovom.o vavo.o vmvm.o mono.o mhho.o Nmmm.o mva»o mamo.o ma Hmvm.o mmHH.o momv.o HmNH.o mome.ou HHmH.o mmmm.o mhwa.o ommo.o mana.o ma OHNH.o hmom.01 bmvo.o mmwo.o mmmo.o nema.o nmmm.o Hmmv.o mmmm.o hmmo.o «a omvo.o mmmo.o: mmwm.o moao.o mamm.o Nano.o memo.01 mmvo.o: hooo.01 mmao.o| ma mHhH.o mmmH.o ommH.o mvvm.o mmvo.o ammo.01 mmoo.o onmo.o mooa.o mmma.o NH meoo.ou Hmmm.o mhmm.o, vmma.o: oamo.o Nmmv.o hhhm.o mvma.o hwmm.o ommm.o Ha oooo.H Nmmo.o mvmm.o vmma.o mHNo.ou moma.o: mmno.o: omHN.o mmmo.o mmwo.o OH oooo.H bvoa.o Hmma.o anH.o mmma.o momo.o: meao.on nmma.o nmmH.o m oooo.H vwma.o wmmo.ou omvH.o memo.o mmam.o mvmm.o anom.o m oooo.a maoa.o ooam.on HHNN.OI mmvo.o omho.o mmmo.o n oooo.a omao.o wamo.o momo.o mmao.o mmma.o w oooo.H mmmm.o momo.o mwmo.o vmma.o m . oooo.a mmmm.o womm.o nmmm.o v oooo.H omam.o mmmm.o m oooo.H mnmm.o m 0000.4” H 0H m w h o m v m N a may mo xfluumz COHpmHmHHooumch .mg 121 A4. 41a? oooo.H wme.o ommH.o mmoa.o vomm.o mmhm.o mvmm.o oooo.H mHOH.OI hmma.o mmvm.o Nmmo.o mwma.o oooo.H hmoo.OI omvH.OI moma.o onmm.0I oooo.H vmmo.o mgwo.ol vmmo.o oooo.a namm.o mmhm.o oooo.a mmva.o oooo.H om ma ma NH ma ma Va mmmm.o mmhm.o mohm.o mwvH.o tho.o Noom.o ova.o hmmm.o mava.o ommo.OI oth.o hmmH.OI mmmo.o vmoa.ol mova.o mnmm.o mHoa.o vmmm.o vwno.o vooo.o mhmo.o oooo.a vvma.o ommm.o ( oooo.H mhoo.0I oooo.H ma ma Ha 122 i. .1 4 .2. 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OOOO.H mNN0.0 OOOO.H mm Nm Hm Om ON ON 5N ON mm VN MN NN AN ON OH OH NH MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRQRIES 31293100628886