SOME CRITEREA FOR DETERMINENG UNIT AREA

CONTROL EN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON

MUNECIPAL AND ENOUSFREAL WATERSHEDS IN
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS

‘flmsls for N12 Degree of M. Sc.
MECHHGAN STATE UNEVEBSETY
Glendon W. Smalley

1956

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SOME CRITLNIA Foa ULTLRMINING UNIT ARLA CONTROL
IN‘WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON MUNICIPAL
AND INDUSTRIAL WATERSHEDS IN

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS

By
Glendon'w. Sgalley

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Forestry

 

Approved

GLENDON W. SMALLER ABSTRACT
The ultimate goal of the Southern Appalachian regional watershed
management research.program.is to discover and establish a sound and prac~

tical basis for a forest management program directed toward the maximum.
utilization of all forest resources. In this integrated practice the
utilization of one forest product will be carried out without Jeepardy

to other forest products. This study (a pilotostudy by nature) was under»
taken in an effort to find a rational approach to this integrated manage-
ment of water and timber resources.

The study is composed of two major parts: (1) development of cri-
teris on which to base the integrated management, and (2) application of
the criteria to determine their practicability.-

The concept of unit area control as used in the management of Cali-
fornie forests is thought to offer a rational approach to the integrated
management of water and timber resources in the Southern Appalachians.

The original concept (based on silvicultural factors) is broadened to in-
elude hydrologic factors espressed in terms of topography and soil char.
acteristics.

A.thorough review of literature and an intensive soothe-ground study
of conditions existing within the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory is made
in an effort to find suitable criteria whereby the “unit areas” could be
delineated. The criteria selected are: aspect, slope, soil depth and
vegetation. Each criterion is discussed from.both hydrologic and silvi-
cultural standpoints with particular reference to the Southern Appalachians.

The criteria are then applied to a smell unit-watershed to determine

their practicability. A survey is made of this small watershed to measure

GLENDON w. SHALLE! ABSTRACT
each of the criteria. The data are summarized in a series of maps and
tables. The data are analyzed by using four overlays (one for each cri-
terion) and the watershed is divided into unit areas, each one homogeneous
with respect to aspect,.slope, soil.depth and vegetation.

Controls or management practices designed to achieve an optinum.com~
binetion of water and timber production are prescribed for each unit area.
In essence, these controls are silvicultural management practices modi-
fied by hydrologic factors.in order to achieve the optimum combination of
water and timber production.

The concept of variable levels of stocking is presented as a means
of describing the intensity of vegetation manipulation. It is founded
upon basal area and the recognition that tiers exists a wide range of
basal area in which high rates of timber growth can be obtained.

The concept of unit area control provides a satisfactory approach to
an integrated management of water and timber resources if hydrologic char»
acteristics as well as silvicultural characteristics are considered.

Aspect, slepe. soil depth and vegetation were selected as suitable
criteria for describing the silvicultural and hydrologic characteristics
of a watershed in the Southern Appalachians.

The criteria resulted in the delineation of many very small unit
areas which were combined in the office to meet a mdnimum size of'unit
area requirement .

A knowledge of the fundamental.relationships existing between plants,
soil and water is essential before management practices can be prescribed

for the unit areas. "The characteristics of each.unit area must be scru-

GLINDON w. SMALLE! ABSTRACT
tinized and management practices prescribed based on this knowledge of
fundamental relationships. In some cases similar treatments are prescribed
for different unit areas because the watershed characteristics produce

compensating influences.

SOME CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING UNIT AREA CONTROL
IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON MUNICIPAL
AND INDUSTRIAL WATERSHEDS IN

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS

By
Glendon‘w. Smalley

A THESIS
Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Forestry

1956

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Robert E.
Dils for fostering in him a deep interest in forest influences and wa-
tershed management. In deep appreciation of the inspiration, instruc—
tion, and unfailing interest given to him by Dr. Dils, the author here-
with dedicates the results of this investigation.

He is greatly indebted to Mr. Edward A. Johnson and Dr. Jacob
Kovner of the United States Forest Service for their kind guidance and
constant supervision in formulating this investigation and for their
helpful suggestions and valuable assistance in reviewing the disserta-
tion.

Grateful acknowledgment is also due to Dr. Terrill D. Stevens,
Head of Department of Forestry, Michigan State University, for his in-
spiration and guidance of formal graduate studies.

The author extends sincere thanks to all his professors for their
instruction and guidance rendered during graduate course work.

The author is also greatly indebted to his wife for her encourage-
ment, unfailing interest, and invaluable assistance in typing and proof-

reading.

TABLE OF

_ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . .

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .

INTENT AND SCOPE OF STUDY. .

CONTENTS

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . .

COWEETA HYDROLOGIC LABORATORY.

Physioggaphy and Soils. .

Climate and Precipitation

 

Vegetation. . . . . . . .

DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA. ; . .

Unit Area Control . . . .

Original concept . . .

Application to watershed

Criteria. . . . . .
ASpect . . . .
Soil Depth . .
Slope . . . .
Vegetation . .

APPLICATION OF CRITERIA.

management.

Brief History of watershed No. 49 . . . .

Field Methods ... ....... . ............._

Discussion of Criteria. . . . . . . . . .

Slop e O O O O O O O O I O I O O O O O

18
18

21

23
23
23
23
2h
25

30
32
38
38
39

Aspect . . . .

Soil Depth . .
Vegetation . .
Delineation of Unit
Controls. . . . . .
FUTURE SURVEYS . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
APPENDIX . . . . . . . .

LITERATURE CITED . . . .

Areas

Page

48
50
62

71.

2331

97

iii

INTRODUCTION

‘Water is one of the most important of the natural resources basic
to our national economy. Yet little thought was given this valuable re-
source until a few decades ago. Its prominence is the result of an ever-
increasing demand for high quality water by municipalities, industries,
and agriculture. The Southern Appalachian Mountain Region is a prime
example of an area where great demands are being made upon the water
resource.

This southern mountain region is the source of water supplies essen-
tial to the great aluminum.and textile industries. An expanding paper
and rayon industry is continually looking for additional water supplies.
Municipal expansion has already led to rivalry for watershed areas. Hy-
droelectric power developments rank among the foremost of the Nation.
Sportsmen from the great papulation centers of the East are making in~
creasing and more exacting demands on the streams and lakes for recrea-
tion uses.

‘Within this region are numerous high unit-yield streams to furnish
the needed water resource. This means that the amount of streamflow cons
tributed from each acre of watershed is considerably above the average
(Fig. 1). For many sections the local commodity value of water far exp
ceeds the total value of harvested timber and other wood products.

Notwithstandingvthsir importaneemin.the economy of the region. the

watersheds of the southern mountains have suffered much from min-manage-

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A typical stream channel of the Southern

Fig. l.
Appalachian Mountain Region a

elevation.

ment, from indiscriminate cutting and burning, from.soil depleting types
of mountain agriculture, and grazing. There has been a progressive de-
terioration of water resources as a result of land exploitation over a
period of more than a century. Reduced water quality is evident in the
sediment and pollution now carried by the streams. Floods are of fre-
quent occurrence, with losses to craps and livestock and destruction of
fertile valley land. Stream channel control is becoming increasingly
necessary to prevent the cutting away of valuable land, loss of roads
and bridges, and the debouchment of rubble debris into the valley land
below (6).1

The ultimate goal of the regional watershed research program is to
discover and establish a sound and practical basis for the management of
forest land in the interest of water resources. Research problems in
water resource management all relate directly to the use of the land.
Practical application of research findings will come about through im-
provement or change in land use practices. Hence, the real problem in
water resource management is to determine and understand the relation of
different land use practices to weter, and ultimately to apply this knowb
ledge to land management designed to restore and maintain favorable sup-
plies. As the facts of forest-streamflow relations become better known,
they will be integrated into a forest management program directed toward
the mathwm utilization of all forest resources. In this integrated
practice the utilization of one forest product will be carried out with-

out Jeopardy to other forest products (6).

 

1Numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited.

0n areas where the water resource will receive primary consideration,
the timber resource will be of secondary importance. Any utilization of

the timber resource must be consistent with the maintenance of water yield,

soil stability, and water quality.

INTENT'AND SCOPE.OF STUDY

The intent of this study is to devise some criteria for the appli-
cation of the principle of unit area control to the integration of tim-
ber and water production in forests of the Southern Appalachians.

The silvicultursl concept of unit area control (homogeneous stand
units based on age class, species composition, stocking, and the pres-
ence or absence of seed trees) is broadened to include hydrologic unit
areas as delineated in termw of source of streamflow, soil depth, slope,
and aspect. Simdlarly the proposed treatments of unit areas incorpo-
rates silviculturel objectives of timber production and water resource
management practices. I

The study is composed of two major parts. The first concerns the
deve10pment of the criteria. These criteria are based on past research
and conditions existing within the Ooweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, an
area typical of the Southern Appalachian Region. The second deals with
the application of these criteria to a watershed to determine their prec-
ticebility. Uhit areas are delineated on the basis of the criteria de-
ve10ped, and controls (management practices) prescribed for each unit
area to achieve an optimum.combination of water and timber production.
The practices prescribed are broad in outline. They will be the basis
for future development of stocking requirements, marking rules, and tin-
ber stand improvement instructions. Such detailed instructions will be

the first step in the actual treatment of a watershed by unit areas to

determine the effect of variable levels of stocking upon water yields
and timber production. The actual application of treatments is not con-
sidered in this study.

The watershed used in this study is a ”unit-watershed" of fifty
acres within the Coweeta Laboratory.- This small drainage basin can be

considered a municipal or industrial watershed in miniature.

REVIEN OF LITERATURE

Lassen, Lull, and Frank (23) presented a thorough analysis of plant-
soil-water relations in watershed management. The principles enumerated
are essential for an understanding and appraisal of the effects of land
conditions, treatments, and uses on streamflow behavior. Of particular
help to the writer was the material in the section entitled "Application
to‘Watershed Management."

Unit area control as discussed by Hallin (12) is the common sense
application of silviculture to the individual unit areas of the forest
stand. It is a silvicultural concept in which the essential character-
istic is "detailed control of stocking on small areas." Forest stands
are composed of unit areas and the forester controls his stand by applyb
ing silvicultural treatments to each unit area.

Kittredge (21) discussed the concepts of protection forest and water—
shed management. A protection forest, a term familiar in forestry liter-
ature, was defined as "an area wholly or partly covered with woody vege-
tation, managed primarily for its beneficial effects on water or soil
movement rather than for wood or forage production.” It implied that
the vegetation was natural and the management consisted only of fire
protection. ‘Watershed management, suggested as a more suitable term,
was defined as "the administration and regulation of the aggregate re-
sources of a drainage basin for the production of water, and the control

of erosion, streamflow and floods." This term permitted including the

objective of production of a maximum.yie1d of usable water and assumed
that a manipulation of the vegetation would be necessary. The phases
and objectives of watershed management, and methods to be employed in
order to obtain the objectives were also discussed.

Kittredge (20) further pointed out that the need for increased
water supplies may require forest management in which the objective
would be to obtain a cover of trees with minimum foliage and transpira-
tion, and to maintain the trees at minimum sizes and densities compat-
ible with protection of the soil.

Toumey and Koratien (31) provided considerable information perti-
nent to this study. Soil depth is discussed in Chapter VI. The chapter
on physiographic condition provided information regarding slope and as-
pect. Of particular importance was the classification of forest areas
with reference to gradient. The material present in Chapter XI dealing
with reaction of forest vegetation on its physical environment was of
great value to the writer.

In Chapter III of their text, Wisler and Brater (35) considered the
effects of physiographic factors upon the rainfall-runoff relation on
any particular drainage basin. Among the factors discussed were: area
of basin, shape, elevation, slaps, orientation, and drainage net.

Hoover and Hursh (16) reported on the influence of topography and
soil depth on runoff from forest land at the Coweeta Hydrologic Labora-
tory. Of particular interest was the classification of watersheds by
elevation based on similar depth of soilpprofiles. Hydrologic charac-

teristics of each soil depth group were discussed.

Lutz and Chandler (27) in their discussion of soil depth presented
a depth classification of soils presently used by forestere.

Fletcher (5) described soil reservoirs, presented the factors which
influence opportunities for storing water in these reservoirs, and brief-
1y discussed their significance from the standpoints of (a) decreasing
the stage and frequency of peak stormflows for flood and sediment con-
trol, and (b) increasing watershed yields of high quality water for mu-
nicipalities and industrial consumption.

Investigations were conducted.jointly in the Wagon Wheel Gap area,
in southern Colorado, by the united States Perest Service and the Weather
Bureau, during the period June 1, 1910 to October 1, 1926 to determine
the effects of deforestation on streamflow and erosion (2). The treat-
ment increased totaLwater yields 15 percent. The effect was not very
pronounced because the area was originally thinly forested, and because
the aspen sprouted after deforestation and rapidly restored the cover.
The increase in.flow was greatest in spring periods, but an excess was
maintained throughout the drier summer months. The soil removed from.the
treated watershed by erosion averaged only 1.3 cubic yards per’yeer.

Wilm and Dunford (34) investigated the effect of timber cutting on
water available for streamflow from a lodgepole pine forest on the head-
waters basin of the Colorado River near Fraser, Colorado. Four intensities
of timber cutting were applied plus an additional treatment for timber
stand improvement. Both.winter snow, and spring and summer rain, reached
the ground in greater quantities, owing to the progressively decreasing
loss by interception.as more trees were removed from.the stand. On the

average, the initial-storage of snow was increased 26 percent by

10

the heaviest timber cutting, and 5 percent by timber stand improvement.
Regardless of the intensity of cutting, the snow disappeared from all
plots at approximately the same time. It was apparent that melting was
more rapid on the cut-over plots. During the spring periods (before
July 1 each year) the average amount of net precipitation was increased
32 percent as a result of the heaviest timber cutting; and the corre-
sponding figure for the summer periods was 35 percent. Autumnal soil
moisture deficits were also affected by timber cutting. The influence
of timber cutting on these deficits depended largely upon the amounts of
net rainfall which reached the ground to replenish these losses. 0n the
uncut plots the amount of water available for streamflow was 10.3h inches,
or about 32 percent of the total precipitation. The heavily cut-over
plots yielded 13.52 inches, an increase of 3l percent in the quantity of
water available for streamflow. No visible erosion occurred on any of
the plots aside from minor gullying of the steeper logging roads.

An experiment to determine the quantitative and qualitative effects
of timber cutting in this same area was initiated in 1950 (8). Four dif-
ferent widths of cutting strips will be used. The most efficient strip
will be the one which allows the greatest amounts of snow to accumulate
and prolongs melting over the longest period. Streamflow, the net ef-
fect of the interaction of soil, water, and vegetation, will be measured
and appraised. It will be several years before the results of this study
are available.

Goodall (10) measured the effects of silvicultural thinning of sec-

ond—growth lodgepole pine stands on hydrologic factors related to stream-

11

flow on the Fraser Emperimental Forest in Colorado. Two different meth-
ods of thinning.were.applied: a mechanical thdnning called the ”single-
tree” method and a modified crown thinning called the ”crop-tree” method.
The treatments applied caused an average increase of 20 percent in net
snowfall and.15.5 percent in summer.rainfall. The felled trees inter-
cepted an appreciable portion of the summer rainfall; sufficient in fact,
to reduce to zero the effect of the thinnings on rainfall reaching the
ground. It is prdbable, however, that as the slash disintegrates, the
rainfall reaching the soil will increase. If the felled trees had been
removed for utilization, some immediate increase in net rainfall would
have been realized. To be of practical value the trees removed must be
large enough.to be merchantable. {Because the thinnings allowed more wind
and sunlight to reach the snowbsurface, it is likely that sublimation
losses during cold weather and evaporation losses during periods of melt
increased. Since there is no known technique for accurately measuring
these vaporization losses on an areal basis, their influence could not be
evaluated. This deficiency, however, did not weaken the conclusions. A
more complete and definite answer must await watershed studies where the
anewer can be obtained in terms of streamflow, and vaporization losses
fame the snow surface can be more accurately determined. Accelerated
erosion did not occur as a result of the thinning operations.

Studies in Utah showed that deep-rooted aspen trees require more
soil moisture than shallow-rooted herbaceous plants (3). Cutting aspen
trees and leaving only herbaceous plants increased the amount of water

available for streamflow. The.herbaceous cover thus far has been equal

12

to aspen in preventing erosion. This suggests that replacement of deep-
rooted plants by shallowbrooted ones may be a means of increasing stream?
flow.

The Michigan Hydrologic Project was established in l9h0 in order to
determine the effect of various types of land use on the hydrology of
soils under northern conditions (9). Three watersheds were selected for
the study. Two were handled under approved prevailing farming practices.
The other watershed was forested. This watershed was considered typical
of a good, well-stocked oak-hickory farm woodlot.

Smith and Crabb (29) reported on the progress of the wooded water-
shed study. The effectiveness of forest cover in increasing infiltration
was demonstrated. Soil temperatures were generally more stable in the
wooded watershedp—lower in summer and higher in winter-—than those at
similar depths in the cultivated watersheds. During the winter of 1951-
52, all timber from 5.h5 inches up was removed from the watershed and a
surrounding isolation strip by a commercial clear-cutting operation for
sawlogs and cordwood. A young growth of oak, hickory, and cherry was
left on the area, and it is suspected that natural regrowth will occur.

Several studies have been conducted at the Coweeta Hydrologic Lab-
oratory to determine the effect of cutting forest vegetation on stream,
flow. All tree and shrub growth was cut on one watershed of 33 acres to
find out what would be the maximum.effect on streamflow (15). The cut-
ting was done with a minimum disturbance to the soil; the logs and slash-
ings were all left on the ground. Although there was no increase in

storm.peaks or stream turbidity, the yield of high quality water increas-

13

ed 65 percent in terms of annual runoff, during the first year after cut-
ting. This is equivalent to 17 area inches or approximately 15 million
gallons. During the late summer months when water is most valuable, the
increase in usable base flow of the stream.amounted to 100 percent.

On another watershed of 40 acres a quite similar cutting was carried
out, but in this case the forest was permitted to come back through
sprouting and natural regrowth (18). The increased water yield the first
year following cutting was about 58 percent, but subsequent regrowth in-
creased transpiration and interception each year and a relative decrease
in water yield was experienced. After 11 years of regrowth the coppice
forest is between 25 and 40 feet high, and the increase in yield for the
watershed still amounts to about 15 percent above pre-treatment flow.

No change in flood peaks, water quality or physical properties of the
soil have been observed.

0n still another watershed only the trees and shrubs close to the
stream channel and its associated high water tables were cut and slashed
to the ground (h). The cut was confined to woody vegetation within 15
vertical feet of the stream bed. The cutting was done during the course
of a few days in mid-summer, at a time when the streamflow was exhibiting
a very definite diurnal fluctuation caused by transpiration draft. About
12 percent of the total area of the watershed was cut. The maximum daily
increase in yield was about 20 percent. The annual increase was less
than 10 percent. No impairment. of the.wster quality was observed since

the soil was afforded.covar.bx the slash resulting from.the clearing.

14

In another study the laurel and rhododendron understory of a 70-acre
watershed was completely out to the ground (18). The average increased
water yield for the first two years after cutting was 3.6 inches. More
time is needed to fully evaluate the magnitude of this change.

For Coweeta climatic conditions these studies indicate that tree
cutting affects the water balance throughout the year, with an effect
depending on the amount- of vegetative growth removed.

Chapter 5 of. Westveld's (33) text provided a tmrough and detailed
description of the Bentham Appalachian Region, its timber types, silvi-
culture and management practices.

Jamison and Hepting ()3) brought together in one publication the
results of research and twenty years of experience of timber stand in.
provement practitioners. It is a compilation of published work, pro-
cessed releases, and unpublished reports by many individuals. The ma-
terial was presented by grouping the diverse forest types of the South-
ern Appalachians into four major groups and adding a fifth—plantations.
The characteristics, problems and timber stand improvement measures are
discussed for eachgroup.

Wahlenberg (32) compared three methods of rehabilitating depleted
Appalachian hardwood stands. .Tha three methods were quality selection,
flexible diameter-limit, and clearcutting. Only sound speciwims of do.
sirable species, particularly white oak, were left on the quality selec-
tion plot. The flexible diameter-limit plot was out according to prevail-
in: practices to an approximate diameter limit of 15 inches. 0n the clear-
cut plot everything was cut. leaving the site here. Quality selection

proved to be themore desirable method of reclaiming decrepit stands.

15

Studies by Lieberman and Hoover (2h, 25) at the Coweeta Hydrologic
Laboratory showed that typical local logging practices caused serious
disturbances to the soil. Steep access roads and skid trails eroded se-
verely, and stream turbidity rose sharply. They concluded that the har-
vesting of wood products from areas of high watershed values will re-
quire the proper location and design of access roads and skid trails,
and the continued maintenance of these roads and trails.

Four instances of municipalities managing their watersheds for time
bar as well as water are known to the writer. The Cedar River watershed
of the City of Seattle, washington has been subjected to logging on an
extensive scale during the entire period over which it has served as the
source of water for the city (11, 14, 30). Intensive forest fire pro-
tection has minimised the damage from fire. No deleterious influences
to either the soil or water have stemmed from logging. The logging has
been conducted on a sustained yield basis using advanced silvicultural
methods.

Legging Operations have been conducted on the Green River watershed
of Tacoma,‘washington for over LO years (22). The city owns only a small
percentage of the total drainage area. The sanitary problem resulting
from.many small logging and sawmill Operations, and camps of woods work-
ers presented almost an insurmountable obstacle to the city for many
years. Through education, much has been accomplished in this respect.
The watershed residents and mdscellaneous crews are now complying with

the state sanitary rules and regulations. The city authorities are con-

16

sidering the develOpment of storage in the Green River watershed to
overcome turbidity and to supplement low water periods.

The Pewuannock watershed of the City of Newark, New Jersey is being
managed under a policy'which stipulates that no forest work may be done
that will be detrimental to the water supply, and that the net forest in-
come is purely secondary to the primary object of water production (13).
Fire prevention measures, particularly among the 1,500 permanent resi-
dents within the watershed boundaries, have markedly reduced the damage
resulting from.wild fires. Over 2,800 acres have been planted largely to
conifers on old abandoned farm land and eroded areas. Cultural opera-
tions on 3,L00 acres have produced considerable quantities of fuel wood
for those residents on relief. A resident forester has been in charge of
the 63.7 square mile catchment basin since 1931. In 19h5 the income from
forest products was $h,355.13. Live timber stumpage made up 7h percent
of this value, dead timber atumpage-l7 percent, laurel and evergreen
boughs——6 percent, and sale of live spruce (Christmas trees)-—3 percent.
About 20 years hence, an annual cut of h,000,000 board feet of lumber and
5,000 cords of wood does not appear overly optimistic.

An outstanding forest management plan designed to bring about per-
petual land cover and at the same time a perpetual timber yield has been
established on the City of Bremerton, Hashington watershed (l). The city
conducts its own log sales. The amount realized from the timber sold
from the watershed will be many times the original cost of the timber-
.lands. is a protection to the city, the water commissioner has written

into the timber contract the authority to stop logging activities alto-

l7

gather or the right to increase the volume harvested. This flexibility
allows for unforeseen factors that might arise in the future which would

make altering of plans essential for the city's welfare.

l8

COKEETA HYDROLOGIC LABORATORY

The Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory was established in 1931 by the
united States Perest Service in the high rainfall belt of the Southern
Appalachian Mountains. The selection of this field laboratory was made
following a meticulous search to find an area that would meet rigid spec-
ifications designated by hydrologists, engineers, and foresters interb
ested in watershed research. In 1933 intensive research was begun at
this h,200-acre field laboratory in southwestern North Carolina (Fig. 2).

Here the Forest Service through fundamental hydrologic research is
develOping practical methods of forest land management for maximum.timp
ber, forage, and water production consistent with regiondwide interest
in flood control and the industrial, municipal, and recreational use of

water.

Physiography and Soils

The steep slepes and sharp-crested ridges form.natural boundaries
for'the many small drainage basins-—each an independent hydrologic unit-
ranging in size from 25 to 200 acres. The elevations vary from 2,200 to
5,200 feet within the Laboratory boundary (Fig. 3).

The entire area is underlain with deeply weathered Archean Carolina
Eneiss and schist. As a result of complex folding and the absence of
Open faults or fractures, there is little likelihood of continuous chan-
Inels through the rock that would permit subterranean loss of water. The

.Darent rocks weather to form a deep soil mantle, with rock outcrops cc-

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29 ‘
90°v-N0TOH WEIRS v ’ 7a _\ J 2.
120° V-NOTCH WEIRS v \ Z7
RECTANGULAR WEIRS “-i l g... x A
CIPOLETTI WEIRS U \.- 2- q? a
K I j :3
‘\., T /'°
\\ 3 /
\ /
‘ /
\I

 

 

 

Fig. 3. Steep slopes and sharp-crested ridges are
typical of the terrain of the Southern Appalachians.

21

curring only on steep slopes at high elevations. The slopes are covered
with a residual soil mantle from two to four feet thick, usually under-
lain to a considerable depth by partially decomposed rock. At the foot
of the lepes and in the coves there is an accumulation of soil and rock
from the slopes. These colluvial soils, often called "ravine-fill", are

from four to eight feet in depth.

Climate and Precipitation

The annual precipitation averages about 72 inches per year and is
fairly evenly distributed throughout the entire year. October is the
driest month, and March is the wettest. The uniformity of storm.patterns
and the large number of storms per year permit the accumulation of signi-
ficant experimental results in a relatively few years, as compared with
regions having less rainfall. Approximately 98 percent of the total pre-
cipitation occurs as rain. The complications met in hydrologic analysis
associated with larger percentages of snow are nonexistent at Coweeta.

The mean annual temperature is 55° F. and the normal frost-free sea-
son extends from.April 17th to October 23rd. During the growing season
the temperature averages 65° F. Temperatures above 90° F. are rare and
the summer nights are cool, with minimum temperatures averaging 58° F.
The average temperature of December, January, and February is 39° F. and
Periods of cold weather with temperatures less than 20° F. are short in

duration.

Vegetation2
A dense mixed hardwood forest is dominant, with scattered pines oc-

curring occasionally on the ridges. Some scattered hemlock is found
along the streams. Although about 60 percent of the area had been out
over a quarter century or more before the Federal Government acquired
ownership, this part of Coweeta now supports a secondpgrowth forest,
with the remainder still in old-growth. Before being killed out by the
blight, chestnut was the major species. Now about 80 percent of the Lab-
oratory supports oak-hickory stands. Fifteen percent is in cove hard—
woods: tulip poplar and northern red oak. Hemlock occurs with this type
along the streams. Five percent is in northern hardwoods: sugar maple;
yellow birch; beech. Pitch pine is also among this five percent but oc-'
curs only at lower elevations.

The forest is typically three—storied with large trees forming the
upper layer, small trees and large shrubs a second layer, and shrubs and/
or herbs covering the ground. A dense understory of laurel and rhododen-

dron is present on some slopes.

 

2See Appendix A for a list of all vegetation and scientific names.

23

DEV WRIT OF CRITERIA

Unit Area Control
Original Concept

Unit area control is a term selected by Duncan Dunning to name a
silvicultural concept in which the essential characteristic is ”detailed
control of stocking on smll areas.“ Hallin (12) recently revived the
tens for use in California forests. Its application in that region is
believed to offer the most realistic approach to forest management.

To fully understand the concept it is necessary to separate the term
into its two components, unit area and control. Unit area refers to ho-
mogeneous stand units characterized by age class, species composition,
stocking, and presence or absence of seed trees. Control describes the
aim of the silvicultural treatments to be applied to the unit areas.

Unit area -eonltrol is in sharp contrast to the narrower concepts of
treatment based on tbse reproduction methods which are applied on a tree
by tree basis. Under the unit area control concept. silviculture is ap
plied according to the needs and condition of each unit area of the forest
rather than tree by tree.

Application to Watershed Management

Every unit of land, however small, is part of a watershed. Hence,
the manner in which the land is managed will inevitably exert some in-
fluence on streamflow. And streamflow is the end product of the inter~

action of soil, water, and vegetation. The logical conclusion is that

2h

in the management of municipal and industrial watersheds there exists a
particular opportunity for integrating high quality, long-rotation time
her craps with the production of high-yield, high quality water. The
unit area control concept provides a rational means of approach to this
integration of timber and water production of forested watersheds.

For use in watershed management the characteristics determining
stand unit homogeneity must be broadened to include hydrologic unit
areas delineated in terms of tepography and soils characteristics. Such
characteristics are slepe, soil depth and aspect.

In like manner the treatment in terms of water values must be in-
corporated into the "control" phase of the concept. Therefore, princi-
ples of protection forests and other water resource management practices
must be considered in the proposed treatments in addition to intermed-
iate and harvest cutting practices designed primarily for timber pro-
duction.

9.12.2122

The management of a watershed requires specific information per-
taining to the conditions affecting plant-soil-water relations for the
watershed in question. In the first place, broad regional differences
such as climate must be considered. Secondly, consideration must be
given to local variations in climate, vegetation and soil characteris-
tics. It is apparent that the effect of these regional differences and
local variations holds constant over a wide area, and often transcends
individual watershed divides. These characteristics are not readily

adaptable for use as criteria in determining unit area control.

25

Irrespective of the regional and local variations there are funda-
mental relations between plants, soil and water which apply in all in-
stances. These relations or characteristics are ones whose effects fre-
quently change within a single watershed and, consequently, are better
adapted as possible criteria. In addition, consideration should be
given to the ease by which these characteristics can be recognized and
measured in the field. Still another consideration is the cost of ob-
taining the field measurements. These considerations are necessary in
selecting criteria if unit area control is to be successfully practiced
on municipal and industrial watersheds.

The final selection of criteria followed an extensive review of
literature and an intensive on-the—ground survey of conditions existing
within the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. The criteria selected are (a)
aspect, (b) soil depth, (c) slope, and (d) vegetation. A discussion of
each criterion from both hydrologic and silvicultural standpoints fol-
lows with particular reference to the Southern Appalachian Mountains.

Aspect

The aspect of a slope determines the amount of heat received from
the sun. This, in turn, affects the transpiration and evaporation loss-
es. .Aspect influences forest growth primarily through its effect upon
'temperature and soil moisture. It aids in determining the kind of vege-
‘tation present. The amount of heat absorbed by the soil depends largely
‘Upon how near to the vertical the sun's rays strike it. In the northern
Ilatitudes, the rays strike the ground much more obliquely on north-facing

Slopes than on south-facing slopes; hence, the former receive less heat

26

than the latter where the rays are nearer to the vertical. Greater heat
increases soil moisture evaporation and, hence, the south-facing slopes
are drier.

The effect of aspect is modified to a considerable extent by lati-
tude, its effect increasing with distance from the equator. It is also
modified by the steepness of slope. When the slope is such that the
.sun's-rays strike the ground vertically, the effect is greatest.

East slapes receive the early sun and are in danger of thawing too
rapidly after frost. These sites are protected from southwest and west
winds, and from the sun during the hottest part of the day. It is a fav-
orable slope for tree growth.

North lepes are protected from the sun during most of the day, and
in most cases protected from winds. These slopes have a maximum.amount
both of atmospheric and soil moisture. There is usually an excellent
growth of trees.

A south slope is warm and relatively dry. Humus disintegrates rapid-
ly, and the soil dries out quickly. The vegetation starts its growth
early, and is often exposed to late frosts. west slopes are also warm
and dry.

Soil Depth

watersheds in the Southern Appalachian Mountains may be roughly
{classified on the basis of elevation (16). 'Watersheds which lie mainly
'below an elevation of 3,000 feet are characterized by a soil profile com-
nmmn to the intermountain areas of the Appalachian Region and Piedmont

filateau. The soil profile has deep sub-soil horizons. The shallowest

27

soils occur on the upper slopes, but even here soil depths of four to
six feet are common.

Watersheds above 3,000 feet in elevation are typically steeper.
0n the slopes soil profiles are generally two feet or less in depth. At
the foot of these slopes, and along stream courses, in these high-eleva-
tion watersheds, there is an accumulation of colluvial material composed
of angular rock-talus and finer material commonly called "ravine-fill".

Runoff characteristics vary widely between low elevation and high
elevation watersheds. These variances are due mainly to differences in
storage of the respective soil profiles. Deep soil profiles of low ele-
vation watersheds are capable of storing large quantities of water both
as retained soil moisture and as ground water.

The shallow soils of high elevation watersheds have a lower total
storage-capacity. This is compensated for in part by the high unit-stor-
age of the talus-deposits which contribute considerable storage-capacity
even though they cover only a small portion of any drainage basin. Out-
flow from this storage occurs at rapid rates because of the steep slepes
and large voids in the fill-material. This outflow represents a dynamic
form of sub-surface stormpwater and contributes appreciably to the hydro-
graph during the period of the storm. It is this form.af water that ac-
counts for the high unit-rates of stormpdischarge that frequently have
been reported from mountain forest land.

However, the amount of rainfall exerts considerable influence upon
storage and flow from.the respective soil groups. Deep soils have more

storage-capacity and exhibit a higher base flow during drought periods.

28

Shallow soils have less storage and exhibit a lower base flow during
real droughts. With normal or above normal rainfall these shallow soils
have a higher total flow. It is also important to note that the amount
of rainfall increases with elevation. Consequently, the high elevation
watersheds generally operate at higher soil moisture levels and unit-
yields are greater for all but drought periods.

There is a greater opportunity for practicing "root depth manage-
ment" (23) on low. elevation drainages. On these areas of deep soil pro-
files timber cutting can affect increases in streamflow. A similar op-
portunity exists on the deep soil profiles of coves in high elevation
drainages.

Timber cutting on medium-depth soils common to the upper slopes of ‘
low elevation drainages and the lower slopes of high elevation dreineges
also offers some possibility of increasing streamflow.

0n areas characterized by shallow soils the maintenance of soil sta-
bility should be the primary objective of management. Harvesting of tim-
ber on these areas can be. done, but only if the greatest care is exer-
cised in logging so that a minimumf soil disturbance results. Cultural
work such as deadening wolf trees and .large culls is possible and desire
able. No harvesting. of timber should be attempted on very shallow soils.
Or if necessary, instigate management practices which will increase the
density of deeprooted vegetation to insure complete soil stability.

Areas of rock outcrops should be treated in a similar manner.

29

Occasionally semi— or impervious hardpans are present. When they
do occur it is the physiological depth (depth to hardpan) not the abso-
lute depth that is important. Hydrologically these soils are similar to
a shallow profile soil. Hardpans also hinder root development to the ex-
tent that trees have a shallow root system which is not windfirm.

Classifications of soils from.the standpoint of depth have been sug-
gested by various foresters. The classification which is most widely
used has five depth designations ranging from.very shallow to very deep,
and reapective depths of less than 6 inches to more than AS inches (27).
Hydrologically soils with depths less than 24 inches function similarly.
They are considered shallow in depth. Soils more than AB inches in depth
are also hydrOIOgically shmilar. Consequently, it appears that a three-
category classification of soil depth will provide adequate description

of forest soils for unit area control purposes (Table I).

TABLE I

SOIL DEPTH CLASSIFICATION
FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

w
Designation Depth in Inches

 

Shallow Less than 21.
Medium. 2A to £8
Deep More than 48

 

Because of the deep-rooted nature of most trees, it is convenient
to consider soil depth as the combined A, B and C horizons. From obser-

vations made at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory a considerable depth

30

of parent material is permeated by tree roots and consequently should be
included in a measurement of soil depth. This 0 horizon also provides
considerable soil moisture storage.

Slope

The lepe of a drainage basin has an important but rather complex
relation to infiltration, surface runoff, soil moisture, and ground wa-
ter contributions to streamflow. It is one of the major factors control-
ling the time of overland flow and the concentration of rainfall in
stream channels. Slope also has an indirect influence on vegetation
through its effect on soil formation processes and the intensity of in-
solation.

No classification of slope by elevation similar to that of soil
depth has been made. (Generally, slepe increases with an increase in el-
evation.

In the Southern Appalachians level to gentle terrain occurs primar-
ily in the valleys and foothills. Such land is usually cultivated or
pastured. At higher elevations the gradient becomes steeper, agricul-
ture is not feasible, and trees are the common vegetative cover. Coves
are the only places at higher elevations where gentle to medium.slopes
may be found. The ridges are commonly sharp—crested.

Soils of this mountainous region are subject to two types of mass
movement: frost creep and slides. Both phenomena are abetted by steep
slopes and result in deep soils at the foot of these slopes. Frost
creep is the result of the alternate freezing and thawing of soil mois-

ture and is quite a common occurrence, but scarcely perceptible because

31

the movement is so slow. Slides occur on areas further characterized by
a. thin soil mantle. Heavy rains saturate the soil greatly increasing
its weight and also serving as a lubricant between the soil and the un-
derlying bed rock. Such a rapid mass movement exposes large areas of
bed rock and destroys the vegetation.

Slaps affects the rainfall-runoff relation principally by increas-
ing the velocity of overland stormflow. However, the magnitude of this
effect is dependent upon the condition of the watershed. Overland storm-
flow has never been observed in the Southern Appalachians on forested
watersheds with no degrading land use history. Such is not the case on
grazed woodlands, mountain farming areas, and areas denuded by fire.
Here the increased velocities of overland stormflow result in shorten-
ing the period of infiltration and producing a greater concentration of
surface runoff in the stream channels. Greater velocities of overland
stormflow will also increase erosion. Such erosion soon impairs the
quality of water making expensive purification processes necessary. It
is evident that the maintenance of an adequate plant and litter cover
Will hold this deleterious effect to a minimum even on the steeper slopes.

Toumey and Korstisn (31) cite Grebe's classification of gradient
for use on forested areas as follows: gentle, 5 to 10° ; medium, ll to
200; steep, 21 to 30°; very steep, 30 to 1.50; and precipitous, over 45°.
A slight modification of this classification was made in order to change
the unit of measurement from degrees to percent, since the Abney level

Percent scale is used more frequently, especially for measuring mer-

chantable tree height. The modified classification appears in Table II.

32

TABIE II
SLOPE CLASSIFICATION

 

Class Percent Degrees*
Level to Gentle O— 20 0-11
Medium 21- 40 11-22
Steep ' Al— 60 22-31
Very Steep 61-100 31-h5
Precipitous Over 100 Over #5

 

*To show comparison with original
classification.

Logging on level to gentle terrain can be conducted quite easily
vcitJa only a minimum of precaution necessary in locating access roads and
skid trails. Considerably more care should be exercised in logging
slepes of medium gradient. The majority of the higher elevation water-
sheds are steep to very steep in gradient and will require the utmost
care in their logging. Precipitous slopes support only a scattered tree
cover which clings precariously to the thin soil mantle helping it to
remain in place. The importance of soil stability is paramount and no
haI'Vesting on precipitous slapes should be undertaken.

Vegetation

‘The relationship existing between forests and water is extremely
°°mplex. This relationship varies with the season, topOgraphy, soil,
°111I£rte and the type and character of the forest itself.

lFbrests probably do not affect precipitation greatly. However,

“Ore has been and still is considerable controversy regarding the ef-

33

[act of forests upon precipitation. Zon (36) was an early advocate of
the positive effect of the forests. On the other side Moore (28) con-
cluded that timber cutting and reforestation had little or no effect on
. precipitation. Kittredge (21) points out that it is extremely difficult
if not impossible to obtain satisfactory proof for a decision between
these conflicting viewpoints. He feels that attempts to analyze the in-
fluence of the forest should be limited to a single geographic climatic
region, rather than deal with broad generalizations for a large area.
The conclusion of his discussion of later studies is that forests have
no appreciable effect on precipitation. The one striking example to the
contrary is the Copper Basin in eastern Tennessee (1?).

Trees cause a loss in available water through interception of pre-
cipitation on the surfaces of branches and foliage much of which is
promptly evaporated into the air. The loss of water through intercep-
tion depends not only upon the intensity and amount of rainfall, but
uPox: the kind of trees, their size, stand density and the season. The
Percentage of total precipitation lost decreases as the amount and in-
tensity of precipitation per shower increases. Well—stocked stands in-
tel‘c ept more precipitation than understocked stands. Stands of middle
3&8 intercept more than mature or young stands. Tolerant species inter-
“pt more than intolerant, climax more than preclimax, and mesOphytic
more than xerOphytic. Interception is greatest for deciduous trees when
they are in full leaf. Interception of rain by conifers is about the

same in all seasons (21).

3h

Forests build soil. The soil is enriched by the decay of the foli-
age, and a humus develops which aids the soil physically, chemically and
biologically. As a result the infiltration capacity of the soil and its
wet er-storage capacity are increased. The deveIOpment of an organic lay-
er over the soil is extremely important on areas of steep slope and thin
profile. Without this protective organic layer no soil would remain on
steep slopes in the Southern Appalachians and the talus-fills would lose
a. great portion of their detention-storage ability.

Trees require water to carry on their physiological functions.
Moat transpiration occurs during the period of growth and only a

small proportion during the dormant period. Transpiration is greater on
dry, windy days than on quiet, humid ones, and on bright days than on
cloudy ones or at night. TranSpiration is greatest for the climax types
and progressively less as the types are further removed from the climax.
It is also believed that small trees transpire less than large trees.
In general, hardwood trees with soft-textured leaves are thought to
1"I'anspire a greater amount of water than those with coarser textured
foliage (21, 31).

One of the most recognized benefits of the forests is the protec-
tion of the soil from erosion. The tree crowns minimize the force with
which rain strikes the ground and the litter prevents the disturbance
°f 8urface soil particles by raindrop splash. The forest so holds the

3°11 in place that even when surface runoff occurs, it causes very little

3°11 displacement .

35

Streamflow is the residual difference between precipitation and
losses due to interception, transpiration, evaporation, and deep seepage.
since precipitation and deep seepage varyonly to a negligible extent
with changes in cover, streamflow varies inversely as the sum of inter-
ception, transpiration and evaporation. Hence, streamflow can be in-
creased by reducing the amount of interception and transpiration while
holding evaporation relatively constant. Insofar as vegetation reduces
surface runoff, promotes infiltration and offers mechanical obstructions,
it delays the movement of water to the stream channels and in turn re-
tards and lessens flood peaks, and prolongs the flow into the summer
season.

No mention of snow was made in the above discussion because it con-
stitutes only a very small percentage of the total precipitation in the
Southern Appalachians.

The Southern Appalachian forests are the most diversified in the
United States. There are approximately 11.0 different species of trees,
about. sixty of which are commercially important. These occur in various
combinations to make the forests of this region extremely complex in com-
POSition. In an effort to simplify discussion, the forest types are
grouped into six type-groups as follows: (a) cove hardwoods; (b) oak-
°h88tnut; (c) yellow pine-hardwoods; ((1) white pine-hardwoods; (e) nor-
thern hardwoods; and (f) spruce-fir. A brief discussion of the composi-
ti°n and character of each type-group follows. For a more detailed dis-
cussion of individual forest types consult Westveld (33), and J emison

and Hepting (19) .

36

Cove hardwoods are composed of ten individual types. In the aggre-
gate they constitute 10 to 15 percent of the forest land area of the
Region. The cove hardwood types occur as relatively small contiguous
areas mostly restricted to coves and moist sites except some components
of the northern hardwoods. See Appendix B, for a list of moist site

species. There is no distinct range of elevation.. Potentially cove

hardwood types have high commercial value. The residual stands for the

most part are now composed of low-value species as a result of heavy

culling in past years. This low-value residual stand condition is typi-

cal of most of the Southern Appalachian forests.
Nine types comprise the oak-chestnut group which covers a large ag-

gregate area. The scarlet oak-black oak and chestnut oak types occupy

most or this area. Thiagnonp occurs on dry ridges and slopes
and displays a wide range in elevation. See Appendix C, for a list of
dry site species. The present stands are of low comercial value. This
18 the result of past culling and the chestnut blight. Prior to the
blight chestnut constituted about thirty percent of the stand composition.
The yellow pine-hardwoods are the predominant timber stands of the
Piedmont Plateau and the foothills of the mountains. They also occur at
higher elevations on dry ridges with a southern aspect. The eight types
making up this group resemble the pine-hardwood types to the north and
“nit-h of this Region. The comercial value of this group is detenained

' lax‘gely by the amount of shortleaf pine, white oak, and red oak present

in the stands.

37

Eastern white pine reaches its southern limit in the Southern Appa—
lachians. Here in association with hardwoods it occurs on predominantly
sandy loams of abandoned farms at lower elevations. It also occurs at
higher elevations on north slopes. The three types comprising this group
occupy a small area. However, these types possess potential high com-
mercial value.

Northern hardwoods occupy a large area between 3,000 to 4,000 feet
elevation. This group is composed of high-value species. The two types
represented by this group occur on well-drained fertile soils with north

or east aspect.

The last group, spruce-fir, is made up of three types. It once was
of major areal and commercial importance at high elevations. The decline

01' this group was caused by extensive cutting and replacement by other
types, notably pin cherry and northern hardwoods.

The cumulative adverse effects of fire, disease, and bad cutting
Practices have turned the original fine forests of the Southern Appa-
lachian Mountains into one vast depleted forest. The Region has bene-
fiii-ted in the past few years by greatly improved fire protection. Pro-
gressive improvement of stand composition and quality is possible through
a Series of partial cuttings. Wahlenberg (32) working with depleted
hardnnood stands in the Southern Appalachians states that, "Quality
selection has proved to be a suitable method of preparing typically de-

crepit stands for continuous systematic management."

38

APPLICATION OF CRITERIA

grief History of Watershed ,No. 40

Prior to 1837 the entire Coweeta Creek drainage basin was inhabi-
ted by Cherokee Indians who used the area primarily for livestock graz-
ing. The Indians practiced spring and fall burning to improve the woods
for grazing. Burning eliminated the undergrowth and litter and facil-
itated both the livestock and Indians in obtaining nuts and acorns. The
Indians also believed that their burning would eliminate the milk-sickness,
a disease which killed livestock and human beings as well. The disease
still persists today.

In 1837 the Indians were removed from the area and placed on the
Qualla Indian Reservation. Settlement by white man started in 181.2 and
continued until the turn of the century. During this period the princi-
Pal land use was grazing and the white settlers practiced spring and fall
burning for practically the same reasons that the Indians burned the wood-
lands. The effectof burning on the soil resource is not definitely

known, but it probably had a detrimental effect in the long run. There
are no records or signs of cultivation on this portion of the Coweeta
Creek drainage basin.

In 1901 the Nantahala Company, a land speculation group, purchased

pra(31;:‘Lcally all of the Coweeta drainage including watershed No. 1.0 or
“’1: Rock Branch. In 192b, the merchantable timber was removed from the

1°Wer portion of the area. It has restocked satisfactorily, but is in

39

the need of an improtenant cutting. Old residuals are for the most
part. defective and of little value. Chestnut has ceased to be a
major constituent of the forest because of the blight.

Iron, mica, and copper were mined in the area, but the operations
were on a small scale and, therefore, did not affect the condition of
the land to any appreciable extent.

The United States Forest Service acquired the area in 1923, and it
became part of the Natahala National Forest. In 1931. the drainage was
part of the land set aside as the Coweeta Experimental Forest. The name

was officially changed to Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory in l9h9.

. W

During the sumner of 1952 a complete survey of watershed {MO was
undertaken. A base map with a scale of one-inch equals five-chains was
Prepared from the Laboratory base map showing drainage, roads and trails,
and. elevation. Cutting across the watershed was a portion of one of the
Permanent cruise lines which transect the entire Coweeta drainage basin.
Wooden stakes with appropriate notation were spaced at two-chain inter-
Vela along this transect line. Using these points as an origin, a two-
Chain square grid system was constructed over the entire watershed; a
t°tal of 133 survey points.

At each one of these survey points data were obtained concerning

“ch criterion. Two separate surveys were made. The following data

"91‘6 obtained in the first survei-

1+0

The percent of slope was determined by use of the Abney hand level.
TWO separate readings were taken; one up-lepe and the other down-slope,
both for a distance of one-chain. The average of these two readings
was recorded.

The aspect of the slope was recorded by use of a hand compass. The
eight major points of the compass were used. .

The depth of soil to bed rock or to a four-foot maximum depth was
measured by use of a soil auger. The hole was bored at a three—foot
distance in a southwest direction along the transect line. If any ob-
struction prevented drilling at this point another location was selected
at a three-foot distance in a northwest direction perpendicular to the
transect line. This procedure was followed in a clockwise direction if
further obstructions were present. The measurement of soil depth was
prevented at. only one survey point; in this case by a large rock outcrop.
While boring each hole any peculiar profile characteristics were noted.
Rock outcrops‘were also noted and mapped.

The dominant vegetation in a one-chain radius circle was identified.
”118 particular item was for the purpose of checking against the Labora-
tu‘)" s cover-type map. Two changes resulted; first, extension of the
“We hardwood type further up the main stream channel, and second, ex-
t'erlsfixan of the north boundary of the scarlet oak-black oak-white oak
type to a slightly higher elevation. Both of these changes reduced the
flea, of the red oak-chestnut oak-hickory type.

Such items as presence and degree of erosion, and location of

Streams, roads and trails were listed under remarks for each survey point.

41

The second survey consisted of a timber cruise. A systematic type
of sampling in the form of line-plots was.made at two-chain intervals at
right-angles to the even-numbered permanent cruise line stakes. The only
exception was made in forest type #4 where three additional plots were
taken on an oddpnumbered cruise line to insure adequate sampling. A to-
tal of sixty plots comprised the sample. The number of plots sampled and
the percent of sample by forest types and the entire watershed is shown

in Table III.

TABLE III

PERCENT CRUISE
1952 CRUISE—AIATERSHED'NO. 40*

 

 

$2.13
Number 1/5 Percent
Type Acre Plots Sample

_‘-—_

1 3 24

2 22 22

4 9 39

10 13 21
16 13 26
Watershed 60 24

A;

*Based on sawtimber sized
trees.

Using a common center all reproduction and saplings 1.0 to 5.5 in-
ches d.b.h. were recorded on a one-fortieth acre plot (18.5 feet in rad,
ius), all pole—size trees 5.6 to 12.5 inches d.b.h. were recorded.on a
one-tenth acre plot (37.2 feet in radius), and all sawtimber 12.6 inches

d.b.h. and up were recorded on a one-fifth acre plot (52.7 feet in red-

ius). The standard RS-AP Inventory of Eiqaerimental Forest tally fom
(Appendix D) was used. Only the number of stems by species was tallied
for the 1 to 5—inch d.b.h. class. No volume was calculated. The number
of stems by species and d.b.h. classes were tallied for the 6 to lZ-inch
classes and volumes calculated in cubic feet from a local volume table.
Samtimber was tallied by number of stems, by species, d.b.h. classes, and
merchantable log lengths to an eight-inch.minimum top diameter. The vol-
ume was calculated in board feet Scribner (7).

The individual species were grouped into three categories based upon
Nestveld's classification (33): desirable timber species, less desirable
timber species, and minor species which seldom.attain sawlog size (Appen-
dices B and.C).

The datauwere summarized hy.forsst.types in the form of a combined
stand and stock table listing the number of stems, basal area, and volp
ums by species group and d.b.h. classes on a plot area basis. The data
were converted to a per acre basis by the proper multiplicative factor.

All diameters were measured with a diameter tape and.merchantab1e
heights with an Abney hand level.

Qigcussion 19!; Criteria
Slope
The tOpography of watershed #40 is steep and rugged (Fig. 1.). The
mean sea level elevations range from 2,860 feet at the base to 4,190 feet
at the sunmit. Fig. 5 is a hypsometric curve of the watershed showing
the percent of area above various elevations. The graph was obtained by
Platting column 1. against the lower elevations in column 1 of Appendix E.

 

 

 

43

 

 

 

' Fig. 4 J
DRAINAGE 8 TOPOGRAPHY )

WATERSHED No.40 ‘
' WOLF ROCK BRANCH

 

 

SCALE M
5 0 5 IO
CHAINS
so' CONTOUR INTERVAL
50.04 ACRES

LEGEND

N CONTOUR LINES

~ WPERMANENT STREAM
«uv— INTERMITTENT STREAM

 

 

The median elevation is 3,430 feet. The distance from the base to the

summit is 0.55 miles and the mean slope is 60.6 percent.3

 

Elevation

 

 

 

1111
020406080100

2800

Percent of area above various
elevations

Fig. 5. Hypsometric curve
for Watershed No. 1.0.

The drainage pattern of Wolf Rock Branch is dendritic , the stream

channel V-shaped and the slopes steep, all indicating a youthful stage

of straw developnent. The permanent stream channel is 1,670 feet long

with a drOp of 465 feet. The average stream gradient is 27.8 percent.
1’18. 6 shows the distribution of slopes by classes for the entire water-
lhqd. There were no areas having slopes less than twenty percent. The

‘_

3Mean slope calculated by use of fomula given in Wisler, C. 0. and
E. F. Brater, W. John Wiley 5. Sons, Inc. DP 48 and 1.9, 1949.

 

 

 

45

   
  

Fig. 6

SLOPE

WATERSHED NO. 40
WOLF ROCK BRANCH

 

 

 

SCALE M
5 0 5 IO
CHAINS
LEGEND
Symbol PercenI Closs
/ 0-20 LEVEL T0 GENTLE

 

 

 

 

2| —4O MEDIUM

 

 

 

\ 4| -60 STEEP

m 6I-IOO VERY STEEP

IOO'f' PRECIPITOUS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E:

1.6

area inmediately above the weir at the base of the watershed has slopes
ranging from 21 to 1.0 percent. The small cove situated between the 3,300
and 3,350-foot elevations on the main stream channel is also in this cat-
egory. These two areas occupy six percent of the total drainage basin
area. The major portion of the 1.1 to 60 percent class lies on the east
slope of the basin. Thirty percent of the watershed has slopes ranging
from 1.1 to 60 percent. The largest porticn of the watershed (sixty per-
cent) has slapes in the 61 to 100 percent class. The majority of this
area is located above the median elevation. A small area in the north-
west comer of the drainage basin is extranely steep; having a slope
greater than 100 percent. This area constitutes the remaining four perb
cent of the watershed area.
Aspect

The entire Wolf Rock Branch drainage is slimmed in a northwest-south-
east direction (Fig. 7). More than half of the watershed (fifty-eight per.
cent) is oriented in a southerly direction from the stream channel to the
east ridge. The slope from the stream channel to the west ridge has an
easterly aspect and constitutes twenty-three percent of the total area.
The remaining nineteen percent of the watershed situated above an eleva-
tion of 3,700 feet has a southeasterly aspect.

The combination of a primarily southern aspect and steep slopes re-
sult in relatively dry sites over most of the watershed except the cove
area imediately adjacent to the main stream channel.

 

 

 

 

Fig. 7
ASPECT

WATERSHED NO. 40
WOLF ROCK BRANCH

 

 

SCALE M
5 0 5 ‘0
CHAINS
LEGEND

E EAST-FACING SLOPE

S SOUTH-FACING SLOPE
SE‘ SOUTHEAST-FACING SLOPE

 

 

47

 

Soil Depth

A wide range of soil depth was found on watershed #LO (Fig. 8).

The east ridge and slapes immediately below it, and southeasterly facing
slope above 3,700—foot elevation exhibited soil profiles four feet and
less in depth. The remainder of the watershed had soil depths in excess
of four feet.

Soil profiles less than four feet in depth were similar in charac-
ter regardless of their location. In general the depth of individual
horizons was proportional to the total profile depth, except for very
shallow profiles. Very thin soils consisted of partially decomposed bed-
rock and an organic layer, and in some instances only the organic layer
existed over the solid bedrock. It was observed that the tree roots
penetrated partially decomposed bedrock quite extensively. An excellent
hardwood litter covered the entire watershed. There were just a few in-
stances where litter wash was observed, particularly on the steepest
slopes. The litter had decomposed to form.a deep organic layer.

Soil profiles in excess of four feet were characterized by deep sur-
face and subsurface horizons; the depth increasing down slepe to a maxi-
mnm.adjacent to the stream channel. Considerable colluvial material con-
sisting of rock fragments and finer material had accumulated at the foot
of the steep slepes and along the stream course, and greatly added to the
depth of soil. In most instances very little difference was noted be-
tween the A and B horizons of these colluvial soils. Adjacent to the
stream channel where the site was moist the organic content of the soil

was very high and extended to a considerable depth.

 

 

 

1+9

 

‘56

24
48 36

9

Fig. 8

SOIL DEPTH
a "2/ , l/ 2“
ROCK OUTCROPS

36

 

9.
/ 7//

WATERSHED NO.4O
WOLF ROCK BRANCH

 

SCALE m
5 0 5 IO

CHAINS

LEGEND
(Inches of Depth)
<6-24 SHALLOW
24-48 MEDIUM

>48 DEEP
///// ROCK ourcaops

 

 

50

The soils in general exhibited a loam textured surface and a clay-loam
subsurface. The parent material is composed of weathered gneiss and schist.

The occurrence and distribution of soil depths on Wolf Rock Branch are
typical of a high-elevation watershed and hydrologically operate as such.

Vegetation

Forest cover types found on watershed #40 are five in number (Fig. 9).
One (type 1) belongs to the yellow pineohardwood group; three (types 2, I.
and 10) belong to the oak-chestnut group; and one (type 16) belongs to the
cove hardwood group. Types in the oak-chestnut group will probably be
treated alike from a silvicultural standpoint when marking and cutting be-
gins. However, for this study these types will be discussed separately.
Stand composition, diameter distribution, merchantable volumes, site char-
scteristics, and usual management practices are presented for each type.
These management practices are strictly silvicultural in nature with no re-
gard being given to hydrologic factors. The modification of silvicultural
management practices by mdrologic factors is discussed in a later section.

Appendix F is a summary of volume by types and species groups for the
anti re watershed. Appendix G is individual type stand and stock tables
listing number of stems, basal area, and volume by diameter classes and
species groups on a per acre basis.

m. The pitch pine-scarlet oak-chestnut oak type has a volume
0f 1.06 cubic feet per acre in the 6 to l2-inch d.b.h. classes and 3,213
board. feet per acre in trees 13 inches d.b.h. and larger. Seventy-six
Percent of the cubic foot volume and 91. percent of the board feet volume
is in group I or desirable species trees.

Only 5 percent of the stems in the l to S-inch d.b.h. classes are
desirable species. A dense growth of laurel which comprises 90 percent

of the stems will greatly hinder the establishment of desirable species.

 

IO

 

Fig.9 2
FOREST COVER TYPES '6

WATERSHED NO.4O I
WOLF ROCK BRANCH

 

 

 

 

2
SCALE. M
s o 5 IO
. CHAINS 2
‘T . LEGEND

I PITCH PINE-SCARLET OAK-CHESTNUT OAK
2 SCARLET OAK- CHESTNUT OAK-BLACK OAK
4 SCARLET OAK-BLACK OAK-WHITE OAK

'0 RED OAK-CHESTNUT OAK-HICKORY

I6 YELLOW POPLAR-RED MAPLE-WHITE OAK

 

ACREAGE

TYPE I 2.50 ACRES
- 2 20.32 ..

' 4 4.65 "
" |O I2.56 "

.. l6 no.0: "

 

 

 

52

This type occurs on a dry, exposed, and generally poor site. The
stands are uneven—aged and commonly sparsely stocked. They are composed
of a scattered overstory of mature and defective pine and hardwoods.

The understory is composed of second—growth trees, medium stocked, and
poor in quality (Fig. 10).

The type needs intensive improvement work to increase its produc-
tivity. Every effort should be made to favor pins on this poor hardwood
site. Available pine trees should be reserved as sources of seed. Har-
vest the large, mature hardwoods. Stand improvement measures should re-
sult in killing by girdling or poisoning all defective or otherwise un-
merchantable trees interfering with the development or establishment of
desirable species.

m. The scarlet oak-chestnut oak-black oak type has a volume
of 1.08 cubic feet per acre in the 6 to 12-inch d.b.h. classes and 2,546
board feet per acre in trees 13 inches d.b.h. and larger. Sixty-four
percent of the cubic foot volume and 77 percent of the board feet volume
is in group I.

Only 17 percent of the stems in the l to 5-inch d.b.h. classes are
desirable species. Sixty percent of this size class is composed of
group III species. This dense undergrowth of laurel and rhododendron
will hinder future regeneration of the more valuable species.

This type occupies the slopes between the ridges and the cove. It
is a relatively dry site. The stands are uneven-aged and sparsely
stocked. The overstory is composed of overmature and defective trees.
The second-growth understory is generally of poor form and quality

(Fig. 11).

 

Fig. 10. Yellow pine-hardwoods group; type 1
composed primarily of pitch pine, scarlet oak and
chestnut oak. It occurs on dry ridges with southern

aspect. All ages of pine are present from saplings
to Sfi'tiflbar e

53

 

 

 

F18. no
ily of scarlet, chestnut and black oaks.

scattered, defective, mature residuals, and a sparse stock-
ing of desirable species in poles and sawtimber.

Oak-chestnut group; type 2 composed primar-
Stands consist of

54

55

Considerable improvement work is needed in this type to bring it
into full productivity. An attempt should be made to harvest the mature
trees. Merchantable thinnings and stand improvement work should favor
the black and chestnut oaks and trees of better quality.

2122_§. The scarlet oak-black oak-white oak type has a volume of
275 cubic feet per acre in the 6 to 12-inch d.b.h. classes and 6,022
board feet per acre in trees 13 inches d.b.h. and larger. Ninety-five
percent of the cubic foot volume and 90 percent of the board foot vol-
ume is in group I.

Almost 70 percent of the stems in the l to 5-inch d.b.h. classes
are desirable species. Rhododendron and laurel constitute only a small
percentage of the undesirable species. No problem of regeneration due
to dense rhododendron or laurel exists.

Type L also occupies a relatively dry site with a south to south-
easterly aspect. This type, however, occurs at higher elevations than
types 1 or 2. Consequently, it receives more moisture which accounts
for the white oak component. The stands are uneven-aged and medium
stocked. The overstory is composed of scattered, defective residuals.
A good stand of saplings and poles of desirable species, good form and
quality occurs in the understory throughout the type (Fig. 12).

Marking should aim for the removal of mature, defective residuals
and thinning of the younger sawlog-size stands where necessary. Mer-
chantable thinnings should be made in existing dense pole stands. A
small amount of stand improvement will bring this type into excellent
condition. All cultural work should favor the black and white oaks and

trees of better quality.

_q

_.

.—~_

—-—qr*-——.,~_

 

Fig. 12. Oak-chestnut group; type I. composed primar-
ily of scarlet, black, and white oaks. A few residuals
remain; these are defective. A median stocked, good qual-
ity stand of desirable species in all size classes occurs
throughout this type.

56

57

Type 10. The red oak-chestnut oak-hickory type has a volume of
#33 cubic feet per acre in the 6 to lZ-inch d.b.h. classes and 6,601
board feet per acre in trees 13 inches d.b.h. and larger. Ninety-seven
percent of the cubic foot volume and 94 percent of the board foot volume
is in group I.

Slightly more than one-half of the stems in the l to 5-inch d.b.h.
classes are desirable species. As was the case in type a, rhododendron
and laurel do not occur extensively and present no regeneration problem.
in this type.

Type 10 occurs at the highest elevations of the watershed and, there-
fore, receives more moisture than any of the aforementioned types. It is
still a relatively dry site, but of fairly good quality as evidenced by
the vegetation. The stands are uneven-aged with medium to dense stocking.
The overstory is composed of a good stand of sawlog size trees possessing
average or better quality. Only the oldest have extensive defect. The
understory is a dense stand of saplings and poles of desirable species,
good form and quality (Fig. 13).

Logging should result in the removal of the mature trees and thin-
ning of the younger sawlog size stands where necessary. Merchantable
thinnings should be made in existing dense pole stands. A small expen-
diture for stand improvement will bring this type into excellent condi-
tion. The oaks should be favored along with good quality hickory in
all cultural work. . D

Type 16. The yellow poplar-red maple-white oak type has a volume

of 379 cubic feet per acre in the 6 to lZ-inch d.b.h. classes and 5,915

 

Fig. 13. Oak-chestnut group; type 10 composed primari-
ly of red oak, chestnut oak and hickory. A fair quantity of
sawtimber is present. A dense stocking of desirable species
in saplings and poles constitute the second-growth stands.
The quality is average and better.

58

59

board feet per acre in trees 13 inches d.b.h. and larger. Eighty-four
percent of the cubic foot volume and only fifty percent of the board foot
volume is in group I. The reason for the low percentage in group I is
probably one of past logging history. The largest and best quality trees
grew in the coves and were first choice of the logging companies which
cut this area. however, the higher percentage of cubic foot volume in
group I suggest that these Species are more aggressive than those in
group II, and with proper cultural work will eventually result in a
desirable species composition.

In the 1 to S-inch d.b.h. classes only 32 percent of the stems are
desirable species while 57 percent are in group III. The majority of
the group III stems are rhododendron which grow in dense thickets along
the stream channel (Fig. 1h). These thickets present a regeneration
problem. They also are the cause for considerable soil moisture loss
due to high transpiration rates in the riparian zone.

Type 16 occurs along the main stream.channel over a wide range of
elevation. It is, therefore, a moist site of high site index.capable of
producing trees at a rapid rate of growth and of excellent quality. The
stands are composed of scattered old-growth trees of poor form and quality.
These are the remnant of tba.virgin.stand-which.were left by the loggers.-
The second-growth understory is even-aged, medium stocked, and high in
quality (Fig. 15).

Cutting should remove the old-growth trees which are merchantable.
The unmerchantable trees should be girdled to aid in the establishment
and-growth of the second-growth stand. Considerable stand improvement

wOrkis necessary to bring this type into high productivity. Yellow

 

Fig. 14.
1311 zonee

A typical rhododendron thicket in the ripar-
It hinders regeneration of desirable species and -
constitutes a considerable loss of soil moisture due to high
transpiration rates. .

61

 

Other than a

Only 50 per-

cent of the stems 13 inches d.b.h. and larger are desirable

Cove hardwood group; type 16 composed primar-

Fig. 15.

ily of yellow poplar, red.maple and white oak.
aged, medium stocked, sapling and pole sizes.

few scattered residuals, the stands are second-growth, even-

species.

62

poplar and white oak, and other desirable species of good form should be

favored during silvicultural treatments.

Delineation of Unit Areas

The next step in the study was to combine all criteria. The comp
bination resulted in the establishment of unit areas-—silviculturally
and hydrologically homogeneous. This step was closely akin to a jig-
saw puzzle.

The combination was made by using overlays of each criterion (Figs.
6, 7, 8 and 9). The initial combination was made with no regard given
to size and resulted in forty-four distinct unit areas ranging in size
from 0.1 to h.3 acres. From the overlays it was evident that the cri-
teria of slope and soil depth were primarily responsible for the many
small unit areas.

It was immediately apparent that a minimum size of unit area had
to be established. It would be next to impossible to delineate such
small areas on the ground. After giving due consideration to the prob-
lem, a minimum.size of 2.0 acres was established.

But a minimum size meant combining unit areas which were not homo-
geneous with respect to all criteria. A small unit area would be made
a Part of a larger unit area or Several small unit areas would be com-
hbned to form one. A thorough analysis of the characteristics of each
‘ntit area was made in an effort to find some one method by which the
$1mallunitareas could be combined to meet the minimum size requirement.
A15C> the characteristics of the combined areas would have to accurately

deacribe the existing conditions so that ultimately it would be accorded

63

sound silvicultural and watershed management practices. The method used
was as follows: at least three of the four characteristics must be sim-
ilar for units to be combined to meet the minimum size requirement. In
every case the criteria of vegetation and aspect remained constant; either
the slepe or soil depth criteria were dissimilar. Where several less than
nunimum size unit areas were combined to form one, the characteristics of
the whole were an average of the characteristics of each unit area comp
prising the whole. A less than minimum size unit area combined with a

unit area larger than the minimum took on the characteristics of the unit

area of which it was made a part. -

This combination to make every unit area at least 2.0 acres in size
resulted in the delineation of fourteen distinct unit areas (Fig. 16).
A summary of the characteristics of each unit area appears in Table III.
A discussion of each follows.

Uhit Area A

Unit area A includes all of forest type 1 (pitch pine-scarlet oak-
chestnut oak) and a small portion of type 2 on the east ridge. Since
the extent of type 2 is so small, it will be disregarded; unit area A
Will be considered as consisting entirely of type 1. The vegetation
cOnsists of a scattered overstory of pine and hardwoods and a medium
stocked, uneven-aged, poor quality second-growth stand of desirable
8Pecies in the pole and sawtimber size classes. The soil is medium in
d°Pth. The slepe is steep with a southern aspect. This unit area oc-

cupies a poor site and does not offer much in the way of timber produc-

tion _

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Unit

Area B

70

The following six unit areas are similar with respect to vegetation-

forest type 2 (scarlet oak-chestnut oak-black oak).

The type is composed

of scattered mature residuals and a sparsely stocked, uneven-aged, poor

quality second-growth stand of desirable species in the pole and saw»

timber size classes.

Dense clumps of rhododendron occur throughout this

type. The slope in unit area B is steep with a southern aspect and the

soils are deep.

Unit area C is

ium in depth.

Unit area D is

shallow in depth.

Unit area B is

very steep.

Unit area F is

is easterly.

Unit area G is

is easterly.

similar

similar

similar

similar

similar

Unit

to B in

Unit

to B in

Unit

to B in

Unit

to B in

Unit

to E in

Unit

Area C

all respects

Area D

all respects

Area E

all respects

Area F

all respects

Area G

all respects

Area H

except the

except the

except the

except the

except the

soil is med-

soil is

slopes are

aspect which

aspect which

Unit area H coincides with forest type A (scarlet oak-black oak-

white oak). This type is composed of scattered defective residuals, and

a medium stocked, uneven-aged, good quality second-growth stand of de-
sirable species in sapling and sawtimber size classes. The average soil
depth is medium. The slope is very steep with a southern aspect.
Unit Area I
Unit areas I, J, K and L are similar with respect to vegetation—-
forest type 10 (red oak-chestnut oak-hickory). This type is composed
of a medium to dense stocked uneven-aged, good quality second-growth
stand of desirable species in sapling to sawtimber size classes. A few
mature residuals are scattered throughout the overstory. Unit area I is
further characterized by very steep slapes with an easterly aspect.and a
deep soil profile.
Unit Area J
Uhit area J is composed of two separate areas and is similar to K
in all respects except that the soils are medium in depth.
Unit Area K
Unit area K is similar to I with respect to vegetation and slepe.
The aspect is southeast and the soils are shallow in depth.
Unit Area L
Unit area L is similar to K in all respects except that the slepes
are precipitous and numerous rock outcrops occur.
Unit Area M
Unit area M is composed of that portion of the cove hardwood type
having an easterly aspect. Forest type 16 (yellow pOplar—red maple-
white oak) is present. This type is composed of scattered old-growth
residuals and a medium stocked, even-aged, high quality second-growth

stand of desirable and undesirable species in the pole and sapling size

classes. The soil is of colluvial origin and deep. The slope is very
steep.
Unit Area N

Unit area N comprises the remainder of the cove hardwood type and
has a southern aspect. Stand characteristics of'type 16, soil depth and
slope are the same as discussed above for unit area I.

Controls

The characteristics of each unit area have been determined. It is
now possible to prescribe controls or management practices designed to
achieve an Optimum.combination of water and timber production for the en-
tire watershed by unit areas. The silvicultural management practices pre-
sented in the discussion of the vegetation criterion are modified by by-
drologic factors in order to achieve this optimum.combination. A good
example of modification is Uhit Area L where no cutting is prescribed be-
cause of precipitous slopes.

The concept of variable levels of stocking is presented as a means
of describing the intensity of vegetation manipulation. This concept has
not been fully developed fully by Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory technicians.
waever, it will be founded upon basal area. It is recognized that there
exists a wide range of basal area in which high rates of timberbgrowth can
be Obtained. Uhit areas on which protection is critical will be managed
at the high end of the basal area range. Where protection is not critical.
unit areas will be managed at the low level of the basal area range to fav-
or’waterwyields. It is also possible that there will be some instances

where management will be undertaken at higher or lower levels than the high

'73

timber-growth-range of basal area. However, the level of stocking will
never be reduced to a point where soil stability will be placed in jeopardy.
Another control concept which needs some explanation is the idea of
compensating watershed characteristics. It can best be explained by citing
an example. Uhit areas 0 and E are similar with respect to aspect and veg-
etation. Unit area C has steep slepes and mediumpdepth soils. Uhit area
E has very steep slopes and deep soils. It is felt that the deep soils
compensate for the very steep slepes to the extent that both unit areas
will be managed at the same level of stocking.
A listing of management practices by unit areas appears in Table III

opposite the characteristics of each.unit area.

7L

FUTURE SURVEYS

Since this study was made several ideas have occurred to the writer
which may influence the conduct of future surveys. They are presented
below as recommendations with short discussions as to their.nerits.

The use of aerial photographs has much to offer. Topographic divides,
drainage patterns, slope, aspect, and vegetative types can be readily rec--
ognized from aerial photographs. The timber cruise can be made from photo-
graphs 1: the necessary volume tables are available. The ground check of
an aerial cruise could be incorporated with the survey of soil depth and
the smaller vegetation. The use of aerial photographs will result in con-
siderable savings both in time and money, especially if the watershed is
large.

If aerial photographs are not available all criteria will have to
be measured entirely on the ground in one survey. Prior to field work,
adequate planning should combine the sampling of all criteria.

The line-plot method of sampling appears to be the best for conduct-
ing the survey. Each plot center can be located on a map or aerial photo-
graph prior to the field work, and adjustments made to achieve the mini-
mum percentage of sampling. Adjustments will be necessary particularly
for the cove hardwood type because of its narrow width characteristic.

The sampling interval will be dependent upon the percentage of cruise
desired for the vegetation criterion and the intensity of survey desired
for the other three criteria. The variability of aspect, slope and soil

depth suggests the use of a short sampling interval in order to accurately

75

sample them. It is likely that these three criteria will have to be same
pied more intensively than the vegetation. The cost of obtaining the

data will exert considerable influence and may even be the governing factor
which determines the intensity of sampling.

There remains the question of how small a unit area should be recog-
nized, which is intimately related to the sampling interval discussed
above. Very small unit areas will unduly complicate the management and
administration of the watershed. This study used four major criteria with
the following breakdown: aspect - 8 classes; soil depth - 3 classes;
slope - 5 classes; and vegetation -»by forest types. Perhaps four classes
(four'major points of the compass) is a sufficient breakdown of aspect.
Type—groups may be a satisfactory substitute for forest types as a break-
down of vegetation. Appalachian forests have been grouped into six type-
groups (33) as previously discussed. There is considerable difference
between six type-groups and an estimated thirty-five forest types. Both
of these alternatives will greatly simplify the delineation of unit areas
and result in larger sized areas. Nevertheless, the forty-four unit areas
originally delineated in this study seem to justify later studies aimed
at seeking a modification of existing complexity.

The last idea is concerned with the mechanics of application of unit
area control on the ground. The unit areas could be outlined on aerial
photographs for field men to use. It is felt that the unit areas outlined
on the photographs could be traced on the ground. These photographs and
unit-area treatment instructions will be basic tools in the application

of the unit area control concept.

76

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The ultimate goal of the Southern Appalachian regional watershed re-
search program is to discover and establish a sound and practical basis
for a forest management program directed toward the maximum utilization
of all forest resources. In this integrated practice the utilization of
one forest product will be carried out without jeopardy to other forest
products.

The concept of unit area control as used in the management of Cali-
fornia forests was thought to offer a rational approach to the integrated
management of timber and water resources in the Southern Appalachians.
The original concept (based on silvicultural factors) was broadened to
include hydrologic factors expressed in terms of topography and soil char-
.acteristics.

A thorough review of literature and an intensive on-the-ground study
of conditions existing within the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory was made
in an effort to find suitable criteria whereby the ”unit areas“ could be
delineated. The following criteria were selected: aspect, slope, soil
depth and vegetation. Each criterion has been discussed from both hydro-
logic and silvicultural standpoints with particular reference t3 the South.
ern Appalachians. In the discussion will be found the basis for the
management practices prescribed for each.unit area.

The criteria were then applied to a small unit-watershed to deter-

mine their practicability. A.survey was made of this small watershed to

77

measure each.of the criteria. The data were summarized in a series of
maps and tables. The data were analyzed by using four overlays (one for
each criterion) and the watershed divided into unit areas, each one homo-
geneous with respect to aspect, slepe, soil depth and vegetation.

This analysis resulted in the delineation of forty-four distinct
unit areas ranging in size from 0.1 to 4.3 acres. To reduce the number
of working units, a minimum.size of 2.0 acres was set. The method used
to combine these small areas was as follows: at least three of the four
characteristics must be similar for units to be combined to meet the min-
imum size requirement. The combining resulted in the delineation of four-
teen distinct unit areas. This combining was done in the office. It is
felt that there is justification for later studies aimed at seeking a mod-
ification of sampling interval and criteria classes as presented in this
paper so that a minimum size of unit area can be met in the field without
resorting to a combining procedure in the office. The characteristics of
these unit areas is presented in tabular form.

Controls or.management practices designed to achieve an optimum com-
bination of water and timber production were prescribed for each unit area.
In essence, these controls were silvicultural management practices modi-
fied by hydrologic factors in order to achieve the optimum combination of
water and timber production. A knowledge of the fundamental relationships
existing between plants, soil and water was essential before management
practices could be prescribed for the unit areas. The characteristics of
each unit area had to be scrutinized and management practices prescribed

on this knowledge of fundamental relationships. In some cases similar

78

treatments were prescribed for different unit areas because the watershed
characteristics produced compensating influences. A tabular summary of
management practices for each unit area has been presented.

The concept of variable levels of stocking was presented as a means
of describing the intensity of vegetation manipulation. The concept has
not been develOped fully, but it will be founded upon basal area and the
recognition that there exists a wide range of basal area in which high
rates of timber growth can be obtained.

The idea of compensating watershed characteristics is explained. An
unfavorable watershed characteristic and a favorable watershed character-
istic existing on the same unit area.may compensate each other to the ex-
tent that different unit areas may be given similar treatments.

A short chapter entitled "Future Surveys" includes ideas which have
occurred to the writer since the study was made. These ideas may influ-
ence the conduct of future surveys. The ideas include: (a) use of aerial
photographs, (b) measuring all criteria in one survey, (c) line-plot meth-
ad of sampling, (d) sampling interval, (a) smallest size of unit area to
be recognized, and (f) Justification of future studies.

This study was by its nature a ”pilotostudy‘. Its purpose was to
find out how water and timber might be managed together on the same area.
The unit area control concept provided that answer. The next step will be the
actual treatment on a watershed basis to learn more about the effect of

variable levels of stocking upon water'yields and tiMber production.

APPENDIX

I'll. I] mu‘vi flu. ,l

80

APPENDIX A

COMMON NAMES OF TREES AND THEIR SCIENTIFIC EQUIVALENTS*

 

Common Name

Scientific Equivalent

 

Ashes

Basswood, American
Beech, American
Birch, river
Birch, yellow

Buckeye, yellow
Butternut

Cherry, black
Cherry, pin
Chestnut, American

Chinquapin, allegheny
Coffeetree, Kentucky
Cucumbertree

Dogwood, flowering
Elms

Fir, frsser
Hawthorne
Hemlock,
Hemlock,
Hickory,

Carolina
eastern
bitternut
Hickory, mockernut
Hickory, pignut
Hickory, shagbark
Holly, American
Honeylocust

Hephornbeam, eastern
Hombesm, American
Locust, blsck
Magnolia, fraser
Magnolia, umbrella

Fraxinus app. L.
Tilia americana L.
Fagus grandifolia
Betula nigra L.
Betula alleghaniensis Britton

Ehrh.

Aesculus octandrs Marsh.
Jugland cinerea L.
Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Prunus pennsylvanica L. f.

Castanea dentats (Marsh.) Borkh.

Castanea pumila Mill.
Gymnoclsdus dioicus (L.) K. Koch
Magnolia acuminata L.

Cornus florida L.

Ulmus spp. L.

Abies fraseri (Pursh) Poir.
Crataegus spp. L.

Tsugs caroliniana Engelm.
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.
Carya cordiformis (Wsngenh.) K. Koch
Caryn tomentoss Nutt.

Caryn glabra (Mill.) Sweet

Caryn ovate (Mill.) K. Koch

Ilex cpaca Ait.

Gleditsis triacanthos L.

Ostrys virginians (Hill.) K. Koch
Carpinus carolinians Walt.

Robinia pseudoacacia L.

Magnolia fraseri ‘Wslt.

Magnolia tripetala L.

 

*Elbert L. Little, Jr.

of the United Statesfilncluding Alaska).

Hndbk. No.'h1, 1953.

Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees

U.S.D.A., Forest Service. Agr.

Maple, red
Maple, silver
Maple, striped
Ymple , sugar
Mountain-laurel

Mountain-ash, American
Mulberry, red

Oak, black

Oak, blackjack

Oak, chestnut

Oak, chinquapin
Oak, northern red
Oak, pin

Oak, post

Oak, scarlet

Oak, shingle

Oak, southern red
Oak, wat er- '

Oak, white
Persimmon, common

Pine, eastern white
Pine, pitch

Pine, shortleaf
Pine, virginia
Redbud, eastern

Redcedar, eastern
Rhododendron
Sassafras
Silverbell, Carolina
Serviceberry, downy

Sourwood

Spruce, red
Sweetgum

Sycamore, American
Tupelo, black

Walnut, black
'Willow, black
Yellow-poplar

81

APPENDIX A continued

Acer rubrum L.
Acer saccharinum L.

. Acer pennsylvanica L.

Acer saccharum Marsh.
Kalmia latifolis L.

Sorbus americana Marsh.
Merus rubrs L.

Quercus velutina Lam.
Quercus marilandica Muenchh.
Quercus prinus L.

Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm.
Quercus rubra L.

Quercus palustris Muenchh.
Quercus stellata Wangenh.
Quercus coccinea Muenchh.

Quercus imbricaria Michx.
Quercus falcata Michx.
Quercus nigra L.

Quercus alba L.
Diospyros Virginians L.

Pinus strobus L.
Pinus rigida Mill.
Pinus echinata Mill.
Pinus virginiana Mill.
Cercis canadensis L.

Juniperus virginiana L.

Rhododendron spp. L.

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees
Halesia carolina L.

Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern.

Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC.
Picea rubens Sarg.
Liquidambar styraciflua L.
Platanus occidentalis L.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Juglans nigra L.
Salix nigra Marsh.
Liriodendron tulipifera L.

PPENDIX B

ThE RELATIVE DBSIRABILITY OF MOIST-SITE SPECIES FOR TIMBER PRODUCTION
IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGIONl

W

Less Desirable Species
Desirable Timber

 

 

Species Minor Species-Seldom
Timber Species Attain Sawlog Size3
Ashes American beech River birch
American basswood Yellow buckeye American hornbeam
Yellow birch Butternut Pin cherry
Black cherry Chestnut, American2 Chinquapin2
Fraser fir Kentucky coffeetree Crabapple
Sweet gum Elms Flowering dogwood2
Eastern hemlock Black tupeloz Hawthorne
Mockernut hickory Carolina hemlock2 American holly
Pignut hickory2 Bitternut hickory Eastern hOphornbeam
Shagbark hickory Honeylocust Fraser magnolia
Black locust2 Red maple2 Striped maple
Cucumbertree Silver maple Mountain ash
Sugar maple Pin oak Red mulberry
Chinquapin oak Shingle oak Persimmon?
Northern red oak Water oak Eastern redbud
White oak American sycamore Rhododendron
Eastern white pine2 Azalea
Yellow pOplar , Mountain Laurel
Red spruce Sassafras2
Black walnut Downy serviceberry2
Carolina silverbell
Sourwood2
Black willow

umbrella magnolia

 

la. H. Westveld. Applied Silviculture in the United States. ed. 2,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, p. 153, l9h9.

2Common also on dry sites.

3Flowering dogwood and persimmon have high value for small products
but their slow growth.makes them.relatively low-value species (Cuno 1926).

33

APPENDIX C

THE RELATIVE DESIRABILITY 0F DRY-SITE SPECIES FOR TIMBER PRODUCTION
IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGIONI

 

II

Less Desirable Species
Desirable Timber

 

 

Species Minor Species-Seldom

Timber Species Attain Sawlog Size

Eastern redcedar Black tupelo2 American chestnut

Pignut hickory2 Carolina hemlock2 Chinquapin2

Black locust2 Red maple2 Flowering dogwood2

Black oak Post oak Blackjack oak

Chestnut oak Scarlet oak Sassafras2

Southern red oak Downy serviceberry2

Pitch pine Sourwoodz

Shortleaf pine
Virginia pine
Eastern white pine2

 

13. H. Westveld. Applied Silviculture in the united States. ed. 2,
John'Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, p. 170, 19h9.

2Common also on moist sites.

 

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APPENDIX E

ANALYSIS OF ELEVATION CHARACTERISTICS
WATERSHED NO. ho

 

 

 

Limiting Area between Percent Percent of Total
Contour Contours of over given
Elevations Acres Total Lower Limit
(1) (2) (3) (1+)
2,860-2,900 0.8 1.6 100.0
2,900-3,000 2.6 5.2 98.1.
3,000-3,1OO 2.8 5.6 93.2
3,100-3,200 3.5 7.0 87.6
3,200-3,300 4.9 9.8 80.6
3,300-3,AOO 8.1 16.2 70.8
3,400-3,500 6.7 13.h 5h.6
3,500-3,600 6.1 12.2 h1.2
3,600-3,700 4.5 9.0 29.0
3,700-3,800 3.2 6.h 20.0
3,800-3,900 2.6 5.2 13.6
3,900-h,000 2.6 5.2 8.h
1.,000-h,100 1.1 g 2.2 3.2
h,100-h,190 0.5 1.0 1.0

 

85

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