WE FEASIBBLITY 0F INSTITUTSNG A POLICE CURRICULUM A? THE jUNlOR COLLEGE LEVEL Tbs-sis {or Use Degree of M. ‘5. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY James W. Rutherford 1964 THESIS » LIBRARY Michigan State University 32931 11 1 5 «19,20 *" ' W3] A...) M. OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. THE FEASIBILITY OF INSTITUTING A POLICE CURRICULUM AT THE JUNIOR COLLEGE LEVEL An Abstract Presented to the Faculty of the School of Police Administration Michigan State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Police Administration by James W. Rutherford August, 196# ABSTRACT Municipal law enforcement has an excellent Opportunity to improve its status through higher education at the junior college level. Formal education alone will not professional— ize police work. It is, however, an essential ingredient and is generally considered the basis for professionalization of any occupation. Improvement of law enforcement through junior college police curricula is the basis of this study. The junior college, a relatively new phenomonem in education, is a logical institution for police courses. The economical advantages of the two year colleges enhance the feasibility of potential and active police officers further- ing their education. The advent of a police curricula will, in mest instances, enable local law enforcement agencies to Upgrade their minimum educational requirements. No statistical data is presented in this study to prove a hypothesis. The basis of the research and valida- tion of conclusions are restricted to information received from junior colleges with police programs and some police departments. CorreSpondence with California junior colleges and police units does reveal a relationship between educational opportunities and educational requirements for police applicants. Clarification of the functions and goals of junior colleges is also presented for those unfamiliar with the two year colleges. The wide variety of curricula offered in these institutions are greater than many four year colleges. This study is only a small contribution to the efforts of those who seek more effective and efficient personnel in law enforcement. Other questions arise from this study which could stimulate further studies. In the meantime, law enforce- ment should do its utmost to encourage and assist the estab- lishment of a police curricula in Michigan's junior colleges. THE FEASIBILITY OF INSTITUTING A POLICE CURRICULUM AT THE JUNIOR COLLEGE LEVEL A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Police Administration Michigan State University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Police Administration by James W. Rutherford August, 196h TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED The Problem . . . . . . . . . Statement of the problem . . Importance of the study . . Limitations of the Study . . . Scape of the study . . . . . Definitions of Terms Used . . Community or junior college Associate's degree . . . . . Police curricula or programs Organization of Remainder of Thesis II. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE Early Influences . . . . . . . The preparatory years, 1850-1900 Diversification era, 1922-19U0 . Community college era, 19U0-present The Role of the Junior College The preparatory function . . The popularizing function . The terminal function . . . The guidance function . . . sumlnary O O O O O O O O O O 0 PAGE 10 10 11 11 1h 1h 15 21 22 23 2h 26 27 29 CHAPTER III. LAW ENFORCEMENT AND EDUCATION . . . . . . . Educational Advances in Police Work . . . Law enforcement in the nineteenth century Training in the twentieth century . . . Formal education and law enforcement . . More graduates available . . . . . . . . The thirties and early forties . . . . . Post'war acceleration o o o o o o o o o Necessity For More Formal Education For Enforce- ment Officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complexities of tasks . . . . . . . . . Search and seizure . . . . . . . . . . . Professionalization . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS IN ESTABLISHING JUNIOR COLLEGE POLICE PROGRAMS Curricula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New police courses . . . . . . . . . . . Work experience . . . . . . . . . . . . Terminal, transfer or dual program . . . Rotation of shifts . . . . . . . . . . . Student Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indifference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ikdlniSSion to program 0 o o o o o o o o 0 PAGE 3h 311 3’4 36 37 11.0 an “7 LI? 52 53 59 61 6’1 611 611 65 65 66 66 66 CHAPTER Retarding influences . . . Officers tuition . . . . . Availability of Instructors Adequacy of Textbooks . . . Cost Factor . . . . . . . . . Instructors . . . . . . . Equipment and incidentals Solving Curricula Problems . Work eXperience . . . . . Terminal, transfer or dual Rotation of shifts . . . . Curricula Problems . . . . . Preposed curricula . . . . Present curricula . . . . A suggested curricula . . O Answering Student Interest Questions Indifference . . . . . . . Admission to program . . . Retarding influences . . . Subsidization of tuition . Liaison work . . . . . . . Availability of Instructors Providing Suitable Textbooks Answers to Problems: Cost . PAGE 67 69 7o 71 71 72 73 75 77 80 81 81 82 82 8b 8b 87 89 89 91 92 93 911 CHAPTER Instructors . . . . . . . . . Equipment . . . . . . . . . . Assignment to a department . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . V. PLANNING FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF IN A MICHIGAN JUNIOR COLLEGE . . . Functions of Junior Colleges and Programs 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 PAGE . 91+ . 96 . 96 . 97 A POLICE PROGRAM Police The role of junior college police programs Anticipated Benefits of a Program Students . . . . . . . . . . . The junior college . . . . . . Local law enforcement agencies The community and the university . . . . . Detrimental Factors . . . . . . COStS O O O O O O O O O O O O Other problems . . . . . . . . Justifying AdOption of a Police Program . . summary 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . Relationship of Junior College PhiloSOphy and Law Enforcement Curriculum . . . The Need for More Formal Education , . . . . Complexities of law enforcement Search and seizure , , . . . . . 98 . 98 . 100 . 103 . 10L; . 107 . 108 . 109 . 110 . 112 . 113 . 11h . 118 . 121 . 121 . 123 , 12'4 1211 CHAPTER Professionalization of law Obstacles to Police Programs College . . . . . . . . . . Curricula problems . . . . Student interest . . . . . Available instructors . . Adequacy of textbooks . . Cost . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . EXHIBIT 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O enforcement in a Junior PAGE 125 127 127 128 129 130 130 131 137 lhb TABLE II. LIST OF TABLES PAGE A Comparison of Police Courses and Credit Hours Offered by Ten Junior Colleges . . . . 79 Combined Full and Part—time Enrollment in Junior College Police Programs . . . . . . . 86 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED There was a time when law enforcement agencies were successfully recruiting officers whose educational back- grounds were somewhat above the average. The number of high school and college graduates has increased to a greater extent than law enforcements educational requirements. The failure of law enforcement, particularly at the mun- icipal level, to upgrade educational background requisites coincidental to the nation's academic impetus gives rise to a number of problems. For example, is the foregeing sit- uation hopeless? What level of formal education is necessary for officers of an efficacious department? Should municipal departments require, or seek, college graduates or applicants with some college background? The foregoing are but a few of the problems this paper seeks to resolve. One would have to be naive indeed to believe that the myriad of municipal police departments in the United States could or will have standardisation in requirements for pre- entry education in the near future. It is not likely that a study such as this will lead to such nation-wide standard- isation. If advances are to be made, however, each building block which can be provided will be worthwhile and justifi- able. In short, law enforcement must lay a solid foundation 2 for future acceptance in the area of professionalisation and not expect it as a matter of course. Law enforcement should also do everything within its power to keep pace with the technological and judicial changes being thrust upon it. The almost unending series of judicial decisions pertaining to search and seizure as well as interrogation, admissions and confessions make it desirable for more formal education for active and potential law enforcement officers. Law enforcement cannot afford to continue this inertia while society progresses through education. There is a definite problem for municipalities that desire college trained police officers and they must do something on their part to help alleviate this difficulty. Law enforcement has been upgraded in some states through college and university police programs. Such up- grading has been far too sparse and only tended to emphasise the lack of progress in the remainder of the nation. At the same time, it has provided ample proof that the provision of formal education for pre-entry training and post-entry train- ing for law enforcement officers is both practical and feasible. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem It was the purpose of this study to trace the develop- ment of the junior college in the United States. Through an understanding of the basis for the two-year institutions originally, a greater appreciation of the present day phil- osophies of junior colleges is possible. The expansion of two-year colleges in enrollment as well as numbers tends to increase the potential variety of curricula possible in these institutions. The philosophy of these academic institutions should be thoroughly recognised if their relationship to the aspira- tions of the police profession is to be comprehended. Many persons lack an understanding of the functions of junior colleges and, therefore, find it difficult to correlate the aims of the two-year colleges and law enforcement. This study seeks to resolve a portion of this problem. The existence of police curricula in two-year colleges throughout the United States, particularly in California, gives rise to a number of questions or problems. What was the basis for the institution of these curricula? What is considered the reason for their success? What is considered the basis for improving existing conditions in the programs? What courses in the curricula should be considered as absol- utely essential and what courses are expendable? Uhat factors favoring police curricula in junior colleges in other states are present in Michigan? It was the purpose of this study to provide solutions or answers to these questions. Another purpose of the study was to show the need for additional police programs in junior colleges. Although b there are many cogent arguments for police curricula, as well as emotional appeals, separating them in an objective manner should prove beneficial. That police officers should have education beyond high school is frequently questioned. Many patrolmen will debate the value of entering a junior college police program. This is partially due to civil service rules which oftentimes attach little or no significance for additional education beyond minimal entrance requirements. This is a question, then, as to whether junior college programs will make a man 'promotable' under the foregoing conditions. The natural bias towards “book officers" adds to this particular problem. In conjunction with the last purpose of the study was the question whether there were any steps which would encour- age and/or strengthen future police programs at the junior college level. That is, should there be advisory committees established to evaluate the needs of the various communities for police programs? If advisory committees were considered necessary, what would facilitate their appointment? What should be the basis for the composition of the committee? Should such a committee be of local, regional or state-wide makeup? ‘Iinally, the study sought to indicate problems atten- dant with initiating police programs, as well as methods which have been or could be utilized to solve these problems. This latter purpose was oriented towards Michigan junior colleges, however, most of the facts and devices would be true throughout the United States. Assisting anyone interested in initiating a police program in any junior college was an important facet of this study. In short, the problem was: (1) Should they be instituted at all junior college levels; (2) should they be instituted at all junior colleges; (3) what should the curricula be for such programs; (h) how did junior colleges and police programs relate to the needs of the community; and (5) what can, or should, be done to encourage police programs in Michigan junior colleges. Importance of the Study Originally this study was intended to, among other things, provide the basis for initiating a police program in a junior college, namely Flint (Michigan) Community Junior College. It was hoped the strong arguments favoring such a curriculum would be developed and the potential objections, therefore, could be minimized and thus possibly utilized as selling points for such a program. The study inadvertently achieved its goal during the preliminary interview with the Dean of the Flint Community Junior College, Dr. Clyde Blocker. Dean Blocker was asked a series of questions relative to problems he felt it\weuld be necessary to overcome before a police program could be instituted in a junior college, particularly the one in Flint. During the discussion, he became enthused and took the necessary steps to have a police program begun in Flint; providing the writer would organise and develop the curriculum. The subsequent growth of the curriculum has been of considerable significance. It has been felt to be beneficial to the officers of the Flint Police Department, members of the State Police, a large number of plant protection officers, as well as terminal and transfer students planning to enter law enforcement. The key to professionalisation of law enforcement lies in the improvement of personnel which will be recruited. Law enforcement is facing an ever-increasing scarcity of qualified recruits, particularly in municipal government. Generally speaking, there will be very few municipal depart- ments seeking four-year college graduates and vice-verse!1 It is, therefore, incumbent upon local officials to seek the next level of higher education which can furnish college students for the police service. We should not take the attitude that if we cannot have a whole loaf of bread we will not partake of the bread at all. Rather, the attitude should be one of seeking as high a level of education as we can from recruits with a view to further increasing the 1One noteable exception does appear to be the Oakland, California Police Department. educational requirements as time goes by. In this study, the importance of formal education for prospective law enforcement officers is developed. In describing recommended minimum educational entrance requirements for the police service, Chicago Police Superin- tendent Orlando W. Wilson feels that two years of college would be a reasonable requisite. The following paragraph exemplifies one of the strongest arguments offered in regards to benefits that can be expected from college trained police- men. While university training will not make a competent person of one who is intellectually inferior or otherwise deficient, when all other factors are equal the university-trained man is better qualified for police service than one who has graduated only from high school. He has had broader experience with people and new situations; his adaptability has been tested; he has had the opportunity to meet students of many different nationalities; cultural backgrounds and racial characteristics and consequently, should have lost much of any previous bias or prejudice he may have had. His studies will have given him a new perspective on the problems and aspirations common to all men, and to withhold judgment and to restrain his actions and impulses in favor of calm consideration and analysis. In short, he will already have begun to prepare for the future position of leadership which it is hoped each new recruit will strive to attain. Such men will con- tribute go the true professionalisation of police service. Through a study such as this, more recognition will, zorlando W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York; McGraw-Bill Publishing, 1965, p. 155. or can, be accorded the need for more formal education in municipal law enforcement. There is no unanimity, however, that standards of education should be upgraded. Top admin- istrators in police departments throughout the United States take various views as to the advantages of formal education for their police officers. No less divided are police officers in the lower ranks down through the patrolmen. This study could provide arguments to validate the need for more formal training both at the pro-entry and post- entry level. Finally, this study could very well provide the basis for further research by other Police Administration Master's Degree candidates in the area of law enforcement curricula at the Junior college level. Certain hypothesis should be formed as the result of this study relative to strengthening Michigan Junior colleges as the basis for professionalization of law enforcement at the municipal level. II. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Scope of the Study The feasibility of implementing a police curriculum in a junior college necessitated research among institutions which had encountered various problems related to police programs. Since there are relatively few junior colleges with such programs, it was deemed advisable to incorporate 9 some information available from four-year institutions with this type of program. Further limitations on the study became apparent when junior colleges listed in various sources did not have police programs as described in this study. Many times it was found that ”complete” lists were lacking the names of two—year institutions which did indeed have police programs. The study was limited in scope of research in that most communications were by mail rather than personal inter- view. The results of such questionnaires and the replies are generally felt to be less reliable and obviously limit the number of questions which can or should be asked. The scope of the study was delimited as to the wide range of arguments favoring formal education in general, such as ”culture” or "maintaining social order." The goal was one of relating pre-employment as well as post- employment training to municipal law enforcement through formal education. No attempt was made to prove statistically that a law enforcement curriculum at a particular junior college has proved a specific number of outstanding police officers. Nor was there any attempt to prove that college educated officers are superior to high school graduates. 10 III. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Community or Junior College As used in this study, these terms describe institu— tions of higher learning that have programs beyond the high school level but less than four years, usually two. Generally limited to educational programs at the freshman and sophomore level, the institutions are predominately supported by public funds. These institutions also provide educational courses for the citizens of the community from all walks of life and all age groups. Therefore, the junior or community college has a three track program which offers: (1) Two years of college for students transferring to four-year institutions; (2) technical or vocational training for students in or desiring to enter industry or semi-professional training; (3) terminal programs for students who seek college education but less than four years; (h) adult education for general education, on-the-job improvement and leisure time activities. The size of these institutions varies from one community to the next. For example, Long Beach, California has an enroll- ment which exceeds a large number of colleges and universities, the Long Beach Junior College has over 23,000 students.3 Associate's Degree This title is granted to students who complete 62 or . 3Citizens Advisory Council, Slx Count Stud 2£_Com- munit College Needs (Detroit, Michigan: The dvisory Council, pp- -9- 11 more semester hours in a junior college with certain general requirements as to English, political science, physical and natural science and physical education, plus honor points. Some junior colleges grant Associate's Degrees in a myriad of specialties while others restrict the degree to Associate in Arts, Associate in Science or Associate in Arts and Science. Police Curricula or Prom This terminology is used to denote curricula which is designed to provide courses in the specialized field of law enforcement. A wide variety of such programs exist. Some programs have only one or two different specific course in law enforcement, while others have up to ten or twelve. There are programs that offer in-service field training, cadet training, campus police officers, while others offer only course work. This variety of curricula all comes under the general title "police program" as used in this study. IV. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS The remainder of the thesis is organised to provide an insight into the historical influences and philosophies of the junior college movement. This is the logical starting “Ibid. 12 place for a thesis which probes the intricacies of initiating a police program in a junior college. Appreciation of the present day philosophies of most two-year colleges minimize some misgivings concerning a law enforcement program in a junior college. From the background of the junior college another historical phase develops, e.g.,the link between formal education and law enforcement training. This portion of the thesis reviews the advances in police training through college, university and junior college programs. Thus, the reader can comprehend where we have been and where we should be going in this field. With the preceding chapters disposed of, the thesis evaluates problems and solutions posed by police programs at the junior college level. Avoiding errors made by others could very well spell the difference between success and failure of a new police program. While the bulk of junior college programs exist in California, many of their trials and tribulations can be minimised through knowledge of them. This chapter seeks to provide answers to objections which might be raised when a junior college police program is suggested. The next chapter analyzes the functions of (l) junior colleges today; and (2) police programs within junior colleges. Relating the two functions provides a strong argument for expansion and institution of police programs in Michigan 13 two-year colleges. Further, it provides favorable conditions which exist in many Michigan communities for such programs. Finally, this section outlines the benefits to which can be anticipated, though not guaranteed, where a law enforcement program is instituted. The final chapter summarizes and provides conclusions of the thesis research. In a brief resume, the section reviews what has been learned and what could be done to increase the possibility of more police programs in Michigan junior colleges. The Exhibit develops a core curriculum and an outline of courses recommended for junior colleges instituting a law enforcement program. The Exhibit might very well prove useful to any junior college discussing a police program. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE The purpose of this chapter is to present a brief history of the growth of the junior college in the United States. Such a background will enable the reader to compre- hend the philosophy, goals and structure which typify the public junior colleges of this decade. This background is necessary to understand fully the role that the junior college of today can play in formal education of police personnel. Hillway presents a cogent argument to explain the fantastic growth of the junior colleges; Our basic belief in the intrinsic value of education, our increasing concern for the equal- ization of educational opportunity and our con- stant efforts to extend our public school system so that it will more effectively meet the needs of our citizens. These factors all help to account for the amazing growth of the {unior College Move- ment in the Twentieth Century. I. EARLY INFLUENCES Although the junior college movement is essentially a phenomenon of the twentieth century, its origin goes back 1 Tyrus Hillway, The American Two-Year Colle e (New York; Harper and Brothers, PuinsEers, I§33) p. 55. 15 into the middle of the nineteenth century.2 Germany's school system contributed materially to the eventual establishment of the junior college in the United States. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, due to Germany's achievement in the fields of science and technology, many nations sought 3 to emulate Germany's school methods. The German Gymnasium provides pro-university training for students desiring to continue their education beyond the high school level. The Gymnasium assumes the responsibility of offering what is essentially the thirteenth and fourteenth grades; thus, the u student enters the German university with junior status. The Preparatory Years, 1850-1900 Some American educators viewed the use of the German Gymnasium as an ideal method of preparing the high school 5 graduate for university training. In 1851, Henry P. Tappan, President of the University of Michigan, urged the univer- sities of the United States to reorganize their institutions along the German school system lines. 21bid. 31bid. thid., p. at. 5Leonard Vincent Koos, The Junior Colle e (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, l92h) Vol. II, p. 2. 6Hillway, 22, g;£,, p. at. 16 In 1869, William W. Folwell, President of the University of Minnesota, reviewed the proposal of Tappan and urged that, “those studies which now form the body of work for the first two years in our ordinary American college be assigned to the secondary schools."7 These two university presidents were not concerned with eliminating the freshman and sophomore college years from the American universities. However, in the 1880's, the Universities of Illinois, Michigan and Stanford did consider the advisability of eliminating freshmen and sophomore classes from their curriculum.8 Alexis F. Lange, later to become Dean of Education at the University of California and influential in the junior college movement, became interested in the movement while teaching at the University of Michigan. He carried the idea to California and there presented the belief that junior colleges should be established which offered curricula quite similar to the comprehensive community colleges of today.9 7Koos, op, cit., p. 3H3. 8John S. Brubacher and Willis Rudy, Hi her Education in Transition (New York: Harper and Brothers, Puinshers, ESE—F7555? 9Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., American Junior Colle es (Washington, D. 0.: American CounciI on Education, Pubiisher, 17 Several persons were influential in fostering the junior 0011089 movement.1° Walter Crosby Eells and Elwood P. Cubberly are credited by most authorities as being pre- eminent in the early organization and development of the junior college. In 1899, Cubberly, President of Vincennes Indiana University, recognized the status of that institution as being a “junior" college. Vincennes graduates were being admitted to junior standing in all of the larger universities. Cubberly conducted research which contributed to the fund of knowledge concerning early junior colleges. Eells was one of the early authors of books on the junior college and developed the Junior College Journal, which eventually became the official magazine for the junior colleges in the United States. William Rainey Harper, the first President of the University of Chicago, is frequently referred to as the “father of the junior college."11 While he did not originate the junior college idea, Harper was instrumental in its development. Harper is also credited with originating the phrase "Junior college-'12 Harper organized the University of Chicago into two divisions, which he eventually termed 1°L. n. Coffman; n. 3. Jordan; L. v. Koos; R. J. Leonard; W. M. Proctor; F. W. Thomas; R. L. Wilbur. 11Gleazer, 22. cit., p. 10. lzIbid. 18 the “senior college" and the “junior college."13 As a result of prompting by educators, including Harper, a number of high schools began providing post-graduate work for their students. In 1901, Joliet (Illinois) High School established what is recognized as the first public junior college in the United States. It was, however, fifteen years before the official title was adopted after the inception of the courses. Students graduating from Joliet High School (or Junior College) were accepted as juniors at the Universities of Michigan and Illinois. The designation ”junior college” was soon viewed by the public 1h with general acceptance. Most of the first public junior colleges developed within the public school system. Many were housed in the high school during the formative years. Later, junior colleges were located in separate buildings constructed for that purpose. In 1927, William Martin Proctor stated: Early development in the junior college movement centered around the efforts of certain high schools and small colleges to organize courses which duplicated thoie of the first two years of the university. 5 13111L11uny, 22. 333., p. 37. lhBrubacher and Rudy, op. cit., p. 250. 1f’William Martin Proctor, The Junior Colle e: Its Or anization and Administration (Stanford, California: Stanford University, 1957, p. 12. 19 Many private junior colleges developed through church- related institutions. The curriculum tended to follow the freshman and sophomore years, similar to public junior colleges. An example is the Colorado Women's College, in Denver, which began offering instruction in 1909, under Baptist auspices. Privately controlled, but with church affiliations, it operates as a nonprofit organization under a self-perpetuating board of managers.16 During the formative years of the junior college, growth was steady but limited until just after World War I when there began a sharp rise.17 There were a number of junior colleges established as extensions of work in high schools. Some two-year institutions were organized in faltering four-year colleges. A few junior colleges were formed as two-year institutions independent of any high school. The rise in the general educational level in this country influenced the growth of junior colleges. As high school education became more prevalent, higher education was sought by more and more persons and it was not unusual for parents to anticipate the day when their children could get more education. The children would thus be more suitably 16Hillway, 22. cit., p. 22. 17Proctor, 22, cit., p. 16. 20 equipped for their vocations.18 As a capstone of the secondary system, the junior college was in a position of favor with the local taxpayers. Continuing home influence was possible and parents were frequently dubious about sending the young high school graduate two or three hundred miles from home to a univer- sity. Many parents found it possible to have their children live at home while gaining a higher education, whereas they could not afford dormitory expenses. Encouragement by universities enabling legislation, and high admissions standards, also worked toward the growth of junior colleges in their formative years. By 1915, a period of rapid development of junior colleges began. In 1917, there were one-hundred five junior colleges and by 1921, there were two-hundred seven public and private junior colleges in the United States.19 The public and the educators felt that the junior college pro- grams were a part of the high school function and they did not favor separation in the early 1900's. In 1921, the various two-year colleges varied in enrollment from six or 18Carl E. Seashore, The Junior Colle e Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Company, p. 5. 19Proctor, op. cit., p. 189. 21 seven students to well over one-thousand in others.20 By then, total enrollment had risen to 16,031.21 Diversification Era, l922-19b0 Two new characteristics of junior colleges emerged between 1922 and l9h0. First, the public junior colleges took a commanding lead in student enrollment over the private Junior colleges-22 For example, in 1922, public junior college enrollment was almost even with private junior college enrollment, but by 19h0, over seventy per- cent of all junior college students attended public institutions.23 Business and trade schools assumed new functions and took on academic reSpectability through use of the name "junior college.'2u Furthermore, unemployment and reduced work-week provided additional leisure time. This tended to stimulate the growth of junior colleges. Many youths who were unable to get work went to the local junior college rather than be entirely idle. The depression 20Leonard V. Koos, The Junior College Movement (Boston, Mass.: Ginn and Company, 1925) p. 11. 21Max S. Smith, Community College (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 1960) Mimeograph, p. 9. 22Hillway, 22. cit., p. #3. 235n1th, 0 e Cite, pa 9e 2hH111V‘Y’ 22f Cite, pe “3e 22 can be considered an important factor in the growth of the junior colleges in the 1930's.25 Second, adult education and programs of self- improvement became a vital part of the junior college movement. Tyrus Hillway asserted that the introduction of adult education in junior colleges was the biggest asset these institutions gained during the 1922-19h0 period.26 Utilization of radio contributed to the growth of two-year colleges. The radio changed Americans from a provincially-minded people to one which demanded more educa- tion in world affairs.27 The days of isolation were numbered for the United States and its citizens wanted to know more of the past history and probable future. Many of these citizens were not necessarily desirous of going away to college, but would welcome opportunities to investigate such facts and questions which radio brought about. The junior college was the natural answer for such citizens, i.e., education without quitting their jobs or leaving home. Community‘College Era, lQhO-Present The broadening purpose of the junior college led to the community college concept. The terms junior college and 2"SBrubacher and Rudy, 22. c t., p. 252. 26 Hillway, 22. cit., p. #3. 27Seashore, 22, cit., p. 9. 23 community college are used interchangeably and collectively, e.g., the Flint Community Junior College. Michigan's legis- lature has legally designated all public junior and community colleges as ”community junior colleges."28 The community college is conceived to be an institution which studies and builds its programs on the needs of the community it serves.29 The junior college, or community college as it is being called more frequently, serving many adults and part-time students, has grown steadily in the past twenty years. For example, from 19h0 to 1958, the number of community junior colleges throughout the United States rose from 610 to 667. Enroll- ment during that same period more than tripled from 267,h06 to 892,6’42.30 Independent and church-related junior colleges in this country numbered 276 in 1958 with a total of 99,537 students or about twelve percent of the total junior college enrollment.31 II. THE ROLE OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE The Leonard V. Koos survey in 1922-23, found the preparatory function listed as the foremost purpose of the 28Michigan Community Colleges, A report prepared by the Michigan Council 0 ommunity College Administrators (Lansing, Michigan: 1962) Monograph, p. 1. 29Emma Rheinhardt, American Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, I965) p. 561. 30Smith, _o_p_. cit., p. 8. 311b1dm, ppe 9-11e 2h junior college by those contacted. He listed the purpose of offering two years work acceptable to colleges and univer- sities as the prime reason for the junior college existence.32 A somewhat similar survey by Frank W. Thomas in 1926 revealed that junior college administrators felt the preparatory function to be the prime goal of their institutions.33 Thomas developed the theory that the two-year colleges should fulfill four basic functions: (1) Preparatory; (2) pepularizing; (3) terminal; and (h) guidance.3u The Preparatory Function Since junior colleges were established primarily to provide preparation for university life, curriculum which was essentially parallel to the first two years of the university brought a measure of prestige to the junior college movement. Administrators of the junior colleges felt their work was helping the leading universities of the country. Many local newspapers also pointed with pride to the above-average work of hometown junior college students who transferred to major universities. In California, the universities encouraged the junior 32Koos, The Junior College Movement, 22. cit., p. 15. 33Proctor, 22. cit., pp. 11-13. 3“Ibld. 25 colleges to prepare students for university life. While it was the basic purpose of the junior college to duplicate the function of the first two years of the standard college, the function was expected to be fulfilled under more desirable economic and living conditions. The preparatory function would be better served by the junior college which had smaller class enrollments in the local community and at lower costs. It was pointed out that students who were immature would have continuing home influence which was frequently considered so vital by their parents.35 Walter Crosby Eells sought to determine whether or not the junior college was fulfilling the preparatory function. His study from 1922 to 1925, indicated that students entering Stanford University, after completing their work in a junior 36 college, were superior in ability to others. The measure- ments included standard intelligence tests and an evaluation of previous academic records. Transfer students made slightly lower grades during their initial period of transition to the four-year college, but were awarded more honors than non- transfers at graduation. Based on this study and others, the junior college appeared to be successfully performing the preparatory function.37 3SHillway, 22. cit., p. 38. 36Proctor, 22. cit., pp. 170-187. 37Ibid., p. 187. 26 In another study of the preparatory function, Leonard V. Koos corroborated the general findings of Eells. Further- more, he claimed the junior colleges were making outstanding progress in recruiting adequate instructional personnel. Finally, Koos indicated the two-year college was well on its way to achieving recognition by universities and colleges 38 of work done by its transfer students. The Pepularizingrrunction For the purposes of this thesis, the term "pepulariz- ing" means, "an endeavor to present the highest local form of popular education and the junior college should be the e."39 peeples colleg All of the favorable features of the junior college movement would have gone for naught if citizens had not urged the establishment of these institutions. Citizens asserted that it was the duty of the local school boards to provide greater opportunity for the high school graduates to continue their education. Many parents became convinced that high school graduates who received higher education would enrich the community through citizenship, leadership and service.“0 38Koos, The Junior College Movement, 22. c t., p. 18. 39PrOCtor, 22o Cite, pe 18e ’40 Ibide , pe 15o 27 The Upward extension of high school encouraged those who could not afford to leave home to seek higher education by bringing the college to the young working adults. The junior college tended to pOpularize higher education and the two—year college became known as the "peOples college," or the college which brought education to the community. Such obstacles as location, economic structures, home obligations and similar factors were minimized.”1 The foregoing indicates the junior college recognized its community responsibility and was receptive to adapting its courses to fulfill the community needs. The Terminal Function Even while the junior college was being considered primarily as a means of preparing the students for higher education in the university, there were those who foresaw another function. This was the terminal program which is a two-year college curriculum, especially of a vocational character, which prepares the student for the so-called semi-profession. Harper, "the father of the junior college," noted the possibility that partitioning the lower and Upper schools might encourage some students to terminate their UZ college careers at the end of two years. In 1902, Harper bl Hillway, 223 cit., p. 6b. L; zBrubacher and Rudy, on. cit., p. 2&8. + 28 presented five arguments justifying the junior college. He posited that: (l) The sophomore year is a convenient point to stop college careers; (2) some college students may desire only two years of college; (3) pre-professional standards in academic work may be increased; (h) economy of financing higher education would become more plausible; and (5) students could remain at home until maturity is reached.“3 Those educators who studied carefully the possibilities in the vocational field became convinced that the terminal function was second only to the preparatory function in importance. Educators also saw that the junior college was the unit which should and could provide this function. In the early days, certain professional jobs in the field of engineering, only two years of formal education was necessary. At that time the arbitrary classification "semi- professional work' was associated with such jobs. There was a demand for men trained for two years in engineering. The larger universities hesitated to offer shorter periods of training. The junior colleges were best prepared to offer semi-professional training. At the time there was question as to whether students would be interested in two-year terminal courses. Data by throctor, 22, cit., pp. 11-13. qubide, pe 19o 29 Frank W. Thomas, an early advocate and writer on junior colleges, revealed there was sufficient interest to justify the terminal function.h5 Unfortunately, there were no studies conducted to determine how many students in terminal programs did not terminate their education at the end of two years. Koos concluded that the junior college function of terminal education was second only to that of preparation for transfer to the university: The hope must rest not in readjustments within the colleges and universities of the current type, but in institutions in which the first two years under consideration are term- inal grades. That is to say, it rests in the utilization of the junior college idea. Our assurance that the interests of those who will not or should not go beyond the first and second years will be better conserved in such an institution is grounded in the fact that the lower schools with which this work should be associated have already made propitious begin- ings toward differentiating work for those who can and should continue their education and “6 those who can not or should not continue it. .In addition to vocational terminal curriculum, the junior colleges also furnished a non-vocational terminal curriculum. This curricula also differed from the prepar- atory courses. Non-vocational terminal programs gave the student a wide choice of electives in the various arts and social sciences. thillway, 22. 32., p. 6b. h6Koos, 22, c t., p. 120. 30 The Guidance Function The fourth function listed by many authors as a basic role of the first junior colleges was guidance.u7 Guidance in preparatory or terminal programs became a basic function of the junior college in the formative years between 1900 and 1922. Junior colleges generally recognized this responsi- bility to counsel the immature or undecided student on the feasibility of continuing or terminating education at the end of two years. In the 1920's, many principles of guidance were still in the formative stage. Most colleges and universities had not emphasized the guidance function. The junior college was the only level of higher education which provided guidance #8 in almost every institution. The function of guidance was not intended to absolve the students of making decisions regarding their career and vocation. It was the philosophy that freedom to choose, unwise though it may be, should reign. The junior colleges had certain duties which existed regardless of indicated desires by the student. These duties included such items as: (l) Informing the student of opportunities in his tentative choice of vocation; (2) the requirements of his h7Proctor, 22. cit; Hillway, 22, c t; Brubacher and Rudy, 22, cit. heHillway, 22. g_£., p. 65. 31 potential vocation; (3) discovering and pointing out the student's capacities; and (h) the likelihood of failure because of limited abilities. All of these necessitated individual contact with the student if the junior colleges “9 were to be successful. Many universities, especially those in California, admitted only the superior or ”recommended" high school graduates. Students not in this category frequently desired education beyond the high school level. Therefore, the junior colleges were faced with an exceedingly difficult task of assisting and guiding the less able students.5o Such guidance frequently meant inducing such students to enter the junior college terminal programs. During the formative years of the guidance function in junior colleges, it became apparent that steps were necessary to assist students in re-evaluating their voca- tional aims. Many students had a definite vocational objective before entering the junior college.51 The choices were based upon the prestige of the occupation with little h9Granson N. Kefauver, "Functions of Guidance at the Junior College Level" in Gray, William 5. (ed.), The Junior Colle e Curriculum (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I§2§) 5°Hillway, 22. cit., p. 65. 51A. R. Crathorne, ”Change of Mind Between High School and College as to Life Work" Educational Administration and Supervision, VII (April, 1920) pp. 275-289. 32 or no thought given to ability and capacity to learn or perform the tasks eventually required.52 Those few institutions who failed to provide guidance for the junior college students were criticized by the large majority which did provide this service. Such criticism tended to create interest by those institutions which previously had not shown interest. Junior colleges laid much of the groundwork for today's provision of guidance at the high school and university level of education. III. SUMMARY Junior colleges have grown in number and enrollment. They have also grown in prestige and diversity of purpose. Early expansion is perhaps best explained by the economic advantages of the two-year colleges. Encouragement by the universities helped the two-year institutions grow. During the early years of the junior college concept the emphasis tended to be on the preparatory and terminal function. As the junior colleges expanded, they adOpted more flexible programs and philosophies. The flexibility led to popularization of "adult education” which is an outstanding principle of most two-year colleges today. Junior colleges have made their contribution to higher education and this is generally acknowledged by 521bid. 33 educational leaders. A great deal of guidance which pre— vails in today's high schools and universities can be credited to the junior college movement. The goals and programs of community colleges of today are distinctly different from the junior college of the early days. Few are housed in high schools and even fewer are restrictive in their curricula to the so-called ”basic" college courses. Today, two-year colleges are offering exploratory and experi- mental programs which are not generally offered by the universities and colleges. Thus, many junior or community colleges of today offer curricula which are identical or similar to law enforcement programs. The obstacles to implementation of a police program are minimal. So then, police education at the junior college level is both logical and practical. In fact, the junior college can and should provide the bulk of college trained municipal police officers. CHAPTER III LAW ENFORCEMENT AND EDUCATION Society has invariably found it necessary to establish rules or "laws” to guide the actions of the peOple of that society.1 While some form of "police" activity has existed for thousands of years to enforce those laws, organized police departments have existed for a relatively short time.2 The so-called "citizen's arrest,” quite prevalent a century and a half ago, is practically non-existent today. The dependency of the public on the police departments is increasing each year. The large volume of crime, demands for activities of a non-regulatory nature and the raising of educational levels have made it imperative that law enforcement utilize formal education to supplement training. I. EDUCATIONAL.ADVANCES IN POLICE WORK Law Enforcement in the Nineteenth Century In the nineteenth century, policing a rapidly growing metropolis was a task which apparently appealed to men whom 1Nels Anderson, The Urban Community. (New York: Holt and Company, 1959) p. #50. 2Ernest W. Puttkammer, Administration fig Criminal Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,l95§) p. 29. 35 Bruce Smith calls the "shiftless, the incompetent and the ignorant."3 Educational requirements for law enforcement applicants were almost unheard of at that time; the re— quisites for entry to police work were essentially political connections, physical prowess and a booming voice. The principle technique of law enforcement was generally con- fined to handling a billyclub.“ The greater proportion of recruits had a limited knowledge of criminal law. Much of the public distrust of police officers existing today is the result of many corrUption ridden departments of that 5 era. Training in the Twentieth Century The first formal recruit training in the United States is unrecorded in the immediately available literature.6 The desirability of training recruits received a token of recog— nition at the turn of the twentieth century. Establishment of training schools by the Pennsylvania State Police in 1906, and the cities of Detroit and New York by 1911, validates 3Bruce Smith, Police S stems in the United States (New York: Harper and Brothers, 19667 p. 127. ”Ibid., p. 128. 5Harry Elmer Barnes and Negley K. Teeters, New Horizons £2 Criminology (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1959) p. 218. 6August Vollmer, John P. Peper, Frank Boolsen, Police Organization and Administration (Sacramento, California: State Department of Education, 1951) p. 15h. 36 the acknowledgement of a need for training by some police agencies. By 1921, state police recruits in New York, New Jersey and Michigan were receiving training. Formal Education and Law Enforcement The seeds for police training at the university level were sown by the University of California in the summer session of 1916.7 The program consisted of a six week criminology and police course. "Summer session courses in criminology were offered each year from 1916 to 1931, With th’ exception 0f 1927o'8 Utilization of college class- rooms for police training began to expand as a result of this experiment. Chief August Vollmer of the Berkeley (California) Police Department visualized the potential advantages of the "college cop." In 1917, Vollmer began recruiting students from the University of California for the Berkeley Department. The daring experiment at first attracted national ridicule when Vollmer's men were cartooned in caps and gowns armed with heavy books in place of clubs. But once again Chief 7August Vollmer, "Police Progress in the Past Twenty- five Years," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, Volume 2h, No . 1 (May-Jumarp‘f'fir' 8University of California, Berkeley, Bulletin, Announ- cement 25 the School gE’Criminologz, 1962-63, p. 3. 37 Vollmer turned ridicule into reSpect.9 As Albert Deutsch described the results of the experiment in this way: Never in American police annals was there assembled around a single headquarters so strangely brilliant an assortment of cops as rode the beats of Berkeley. . . Never did so small a group of uniformed c0ps produce so great a constellation of distinctive leaders. Within a quarter of a decade, many police chiefs began recognizing the desirability of attracting college educated men to their departments.11 The Berkeley Police Department instituted a recruit- ment program in 1917, which became exemplary for departments throughout the nation in later years. Candidates for the Berkeley Department were required to undergo stringent tests of character, mentality and resourcefulness, as well as physical ability. It soon became a mark of high honor to be accepted as a Vollmer policeman.1 More Graduates Available The Berkeley Police Department was the exception, not the rule, in the early twenties. Physical strength, 9Albert Deutsch, The Trouble with Cops (New York: Crown Publishers, 195h) p. 122. 10Ibid. 11Orlando W. Wilson, "August Vollmer" Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, Vol. RE? No. 1 (May - 33:6, 1953) p. 99. 12Deutsch, 2L! cit., p. 121. 38 stature, courage and dexterity remained the chief requisites for applicants in most police departments. Educational achievement or distinction was of little concern in police recruitment. The comparative scarcity of applicants possess- ing a high school education may be cited as a leading explanation of the caliber of police applicants. As standards of formal education in the United States were improved, police departments were able to require more education of their applicants.13 A better educated public, likewise, necessitated more thoroughly informed police officers. High school enrollments in the United States provide an insight as to the educational movement in this century. In 1900, eight percent of the high school age group were attending high school. By 1930, that figure rose to slightly less than fifty percent.1h Such an increase in high school attendance certainly affected the number of applicants with high school education for police work. In 1923, August Vollmer, the leading proponent of formal education as a requisite to service in police work, prepared a list of suggestions and methods which he felt 13 Bernard C. Brannon, Into Tomorrow” Police Yearbook, 1958 (Washington, D. 0.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1958) p. 27. in Charles F. Schuller and Walter Wetticch, Audio-Visual Materials (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957) p. . 39 would improve municipal law enforcement in the United States. One of his recommendations included the establishment and maintenance of high standards of education. Another preposal suggested the establishment of preparatory and promotional 15 courses for police officers in colleges and universities. In 1927, the University of Wisconsin instituted a training program for regularly employed police officers. The "zone school,“ i.e., a school set up to serve a county or geo- graphical area, had been suggested by numerous police chiefs 16 of Wisconsin. In 1923, the University of Southern California intro- duced courses in police subjects and criminology.17 In 1929, Southern California offered the first "after-hour," in-service police courses for off-duty, regularly employed police Officersola The University of Chicago instituted a police program in 1929, with August Vollmer in charge. The pro- gram sought to train college students who planned to enter the police administration field, however, the demand for college trained students was limited. The curriculum was terminated when Vollmer returned to his duties as Chief of 15George H. Brereton, ”Education in the Professional- ization of Law Enforcement" Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, Vol.-8, No. 1, (May-June 161bid. p. 113. 17Vollmer, Paper and Boolsen, 22, cit., p. 15h. 18George H. Brereton, 22. cit., p. 377. to Police in Berkeley.19 Other localities, such as Wichita, Kansas, began offer- ing in-service training for their officers for short periods utilizing institutions of higher learning for this purpose. In 1931, Vollmer accepted a professorship at the University of California to assist in the establishment of what was eventually to become a criminology curriculum. This curric- ulum was a part of the general field of public administration. Vollmer taught the three-hour course as one phase of the training of public administration students.20 An approved curriculum of criminology as a group major was adopted in 1933.21 The Thirties and Early Forties The university police programs failed to provide many college-educated recruits for municipal police departments. Within those institutions which established law enforcement programs in the emflJ' thirties there was an atmosphere of experimentation. Municipal policing was viewed by most 2 observers as being unskilled labor. 2 Such an attitude was 19w1150n, 22o Cite, pe 102a 20Brereton, ”Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforcement" 0 . cit., p. 11“. 21University of California, Berkeley, 22. cit., p. 8. 22 Frank D. Day, "Police Administration Training" Journal 2: Criminal Law, Criminolo and Police Science, Vol. 57, No. 2 (July-August, 1956) p. 253. hl not conducive to attracting any great number of college graduates to the field of municipal law enforcement. In 1930, the first two-year college police course to be established in the United States was started at San Jose State Junior College.23 Los Angeles City College followed San Jose State in 1932.2h By 1933, the University of Southern California began granting bachelor and master degrees in police administration. Special certificates were being issued for two years of academic achievement.25 Michigan State College began a program somewhat similar to that of San Jose State's in 1935-26 Vollmer gave recognition to programs such as Michigan State's and San Jose State's as 27 ”trail blazers” in university police curricula. Favorable forces for training by the colleges and universities of police officers and potential officers moved 2 3T. W. MacQuarrie, “San Jose State College Police School,” Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (JulyeAugust, 1935) p. 25 . 2hV011mel‘, Paper, 800156“, 22o Cite, pe 156a 25Brereton, “Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforcement,” 22. cit., p. 11h. 261nstitute for Training in Municipal Administration, Munici a1 Police Administration (Chicago: International City Managers Association, 1961) p. 199. 27 August Vollmer, The Criminal (New York: Foundation Press, 191.9) pe 373a #2 from other directions. Training through the police manual and walking a beat was recognized as insufficient and formal instruction of recruits was deemed a necessity.28 David G. Monroe felt that one method to eliminate the shortcomings of police training at the local level was through utilization of universities of the nation.29 Monroe and Earl Garrett, as assistants to Vollmer, recognized a possible trend to college training of police officers and future applicants30 Significant to Monroe was the traffic administration program instituted at Northwestern University and the curricula at San Jose State. Training of police officers received impetus in the early thirties. Training, it was felt, would improve policing and public relations. Active commanding officers of some police departments were not entirely convinced, however, according to Donald C. Stone. In l93h, Stone pointed to the objections of Chicago police department commanding officers that the three-month recruit training was a waste 8 2 August Vollmer, “Abstract of the Wickersham Report," Journal 2E Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 22, No. 5, January, 1932, p. 720. 29August Vollmer, Earl Garrett and David G. Monroe, Report on Police (National Commission on Law Observance and Enforce33ht, June 27, 1931) p. 79. 0 3 Ibide, Do 830 1&3 of effort.31 Police authors, such as Rollin Perkins, composed a force which gave emphasis to the need for recruitment of better educated candidates for law enforcement. Perkins recognized that some cities had taken necessary steps to eliminate the uneducated recruit. Perkins noted in his book, Elements 23 Police Science, in 19h2: The old notion that a police officer should be a bully assigned to a task of keeping everyone in his place by a loud voice, if not by actual force, has now largely disappeared. Although this Opinion was tinged with Optimism, it did precede what leaders in the law enforcement field were to maintain more vehemently in the near future. Bruce Smith, an exPert in the United States in police administration,33 felt that the rise of formal education among law enforcement agencies was probably more attributable to increased compulsory school attendance. Smith did recognize that making the police service more attractive to high school graduates and those with some college background was a contributory factor for upgrading educational standards 31Donald C. Stone, ”Police Recruiting and Training" Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 2h,_No. 5, (January:Fe5ruary, 1935) p. 1555. 32Rollin M. Perkins, Elements of Police Science (Chicago: Foundation Press, 1952) p. 7. 33Frederick B. Crossley, ”Bruce Smith and the Chicago Police Department," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 22, No. 5, January, 1932, p. 655. an L, in many areas.3 Another significant development in college training for those planning to enter law enforcement occurred in 19h1. Washington State College initiated a four-year police pro- gram leading to a bachelor of science degree. V. A. Leonard was named to administer the new curriculum. The program recognized the need for higher educational prerequisites in policing, if professionalization was to be forthcoming in 35 law enforcement. The above statements of progress should not be con- strued as indicating there was universal recognition of the necessity for having intelligent, well-educated and well- trained law enforcement officers. On the contrary, the opposite view was more prevalent. Most departments were well satisfied with "practical" men who had "common sense” and who were trained within the "buddy” system. Post-War Acceleration Society grew increasingly complex following World War II due to technological advances and expanding urbanization. Such perplexities increased the intricacies of law enforce- ment. Many smaller communities recognized that the day of 3hSmith, 22. c__£., p. 16h. 35V. A. Leonard, Police Organization and Management (Brooklyn, N. Y.: The Foundation Press, 1951) p. 129. b5 arming a recruit with a gun, badge and nightstick and expect- ing him to perform his task satisfactorily was beginning to disappear.36 Higher education in the United States increased sub- stantially as a result of the uses made of Public Laws 16 and 3h6 (commonly referred to as the G. I. Bill of Rights) in the period following World War II. Enrollments in colleges and universities have increased yearly since 19h6. Police administration programs flourished and increased at an even greater pace. Universities which had offered such programs tended to expand, experiment and improve their police curricula. The University of California established a school of Criminology in 1950. The University of Southern California posited that law enforcement education is neither a substitute for recruit training, nor a form of refresher training. The University did not seek to turn out crimin- q ologists, fingerprint experts or other police Specialists.“7 This task was felt to be one to be properly undertaken by the police agency following recruitment. The Michigan State University police program has grown in enrollment and diversity substantially since 19h5: 36Fred Hess, ”Police Training in Small Communities," The Police Yearbook, 1958 (Washington, D. 0.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1958) p. ho. 37Donald E. J. MacNamara, "Higher Police Training at the University Level," Journal 2E Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, Vol. 2, No. 5 (January-February, 1950)* p06 e #6 FALL TERM ENROLLMENT Year Graduate Undergraduate Total 19HS 0 11 11 1950 0 20h 20h 1955 0 37” 37“ 1960 23* 359 38238 *The master's program (Master of Science) was started in the fall, 1956. By 1950, many police departments, e5pecia11y those on the Pacific coast, began viewing college education and law enforcement as consonant with one another. In Los Angeles, California, there were 1,000 law enforcement officers study- ing for bachelor and higher degrees, according to Orlando Wilson.39 By 1962, the number of four-year institutions offering degree programs preparatory to careers in law enforcement, criminalistics and corrections in the United to States was no less than forty. Police programs in law enforcement, criminalistics, delinquency control and cor- rections appear to be well on their way toward providing 38Arthur Brandstatter, Director, Michigan State Univer- sity School of Police Administration, Letter, January, 196k. 39w11son, 22, 233., p. 99. “GA. C. Germann, Frank D. Day and Robert R. J. Gallatti, Introduction to Law Enforcement (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C._Thamas, Pbl., 1962) . 2&3. 1&7 a considerable number of law enforcement officers with college degrees. II. NECESSITY FOR MORE FORMAL EDUCATION FOR ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS In the preceding pages, a brief outline of the develop- ment of police programs in colleges was presented. Some of those institutions provided pro-entry training only; others provided essentially only post-employment training. Many police administrators and educators were eager to promote college level police programs. This does not mean that there is any unanimity favoring such programs. Many police super- visors, in fact, implement obstacles to formal education of their men. Some of the arguments advanced by advocates of higher education for law enforcement officers and potential officers will be reviewed and discussed at this point. All of the reasoning offered by the proponents will not be covered at great length. Complexities of Tasks Complexities of the twentieth century have contributed substantially to problems of policing, eSpecially at the municipal level. "The complex service of law enforcement in modern society, as a result of public demand, has also #8 increased the importance of the police officer."u1 The public is becoming aware of the grave juvenile delinquency problem, an increasing vital police problem. A pronounced trend toward urbanization of population has Spawned many serious problems.“2 As the sociological and psychological complications within urban communities increase, similarly do the complexities of law enforcement. Thus, with ever-multiplying societal problems facing law enforcement in the cities, demand for knowledgeable officers with more than a common sense under- standing of human relations, sociology and psychology will increase. The control of juvenile delinquency and "pre-delinquency" activities of police departments has complicated the policeman's task. The importance of handling juvenile problems correctly cannot be overemphasized. Increasing recognition is being accorded this problem as indicated by added Specialization, through training, of juvenile bureau personnel within many police departments. But what of the great number of patrol- men who deal initially with the delinquent and pro-delinquent? Have they received even minimal training in terms of handling juveniles? thajor Charles W. Roth, ”Police and Modern Society," Law and Order Vol. 10, No. 6 (June, 1962) p. 17. #2 ' ' Roland C. Faunce and Nelson L. Bossing, Develo in the Core Curriculum (New York: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1951) po 13'?— #9 Formal education in sociology, psychology and crimin- ology would fill a gap in this area of deficiency in training. This provides a valid argument for a college curriculum which can be utilized by the pre-entry and post-entry students of law enforcement. It is imperative that those persons working in juvenile divisions also gain a more thorough understanding of human relationships through this type of formal education. Arthur F. Brandstatter, Director of Michigan State University's police school cogently observes: ”There is a need for more expertly trained personnel to do an adequate job in the area “3 of juvenile work.” The eXploding metropolis, tranSportation and communica- tion advances made since World War II -- plus the Speedy industrialization -- all have brought forth expanded problems in policing.uh Increased legislation to control complex society has led to additional police powers and services, thus creating a more urgent need for extensively trained police officers. Even more important, the wide variety of the discretionary powers entrusted to police officers makes it mandatory that they be educated to use this discretion “BA. F. Brandstatter, "Improving Police Effectiveness by Improved Promotional Methods and Performance Evaluation” Police Yearbook, 195# (Washington, D. 0.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, l95#) p. 161. ## O. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill book Company, 1950) p. 3. 50 preperly.u5 Chief Bernard C. Brannon of the Kansas City, Missouri, Police Department, posits that the officer of today must 522! and utilize skills possessed by sociologists, economists, psychologists and other academiciansf)6 Valuable studies have been conducted in the area of human relations; the police officer of today Should have background and know- ledge of this research. An increasing number of police man-hours are being Spent in helping the citizen with problems borne of the complexities of this age. If municipal police departments hope to satisfy the demands placed upon them as a consequence of these problems, then more formal education is necessary. Both the currently employed officer and the potential officer are in need of education in fields such as sociology, psychol- ogy and criminology. Such information and training can most adequately be obtained in institutions of higher learning. Because of the above mentioned intricacies of society and P011¢9 work, the recruitment of capable personnel is becoming increasingly difficult. The present caliber of applicants is disturbing to many police administrators. uSBrannon, Into Tomorrow, 0p. cit., p. 26. 6 Ibid. u7‘ D. A. McKinnon, "Internal Relations in Police Organizations," Police Yearbook, 125 . (Washington, D.C.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1957) p. #1. 51 Further, the general knowledge and ability which most recruits initially possess does not satisfactorily fulfill the require- ments which they, as potential policemen, must possess to perform their duties. Training is necessary and a few weeks in a police academy will not suffice. "Even the experienced peace officer frequently finds these complexities too great for him to aid the citizen in solving his daily problems."u8 The increased contacts by police officers with the primarily law-abiding citizen, as in traffic enforcement and the purely service functions, have led to the demand for more thoroughly trained officers in the field of public and human relations. The police academies have advanced impressively, but they remain inade- quate in training officers to the degree to which they must be trained to do an adequate job in this era. As more of the population receives education beyond the high school level, the need for more educational back- ground for the police officer will evidence itself. Major Charles W. Roth of the Toledo Police Department in Ohio, poses a challenging query: The day is rapidly approaching when the greater number of peeple will have a college degree. How can (the) police h0pe to attain any stature in a community and do an effective job ifu§hey remain static at the high school level? 8 Brandstatter, 22. cit., p. 165. ”9Major Charles W. Roth, "Police and Modern Society" Law and Order, Vol. 10, No. 5 (May, 1962) p. 5#. 52 Search and Seizure Rules of arrest, search and seizure are in constant flux. Each term of the state and federal supreme courts results in more Speculative and challenging interpretations of what is expected of law enforcement officers. Too few police officers possess sufficient understanding of such rules. Two or four hours of presentation of practical pro- cedures by fellow officers frequently comprise the extent of police academy instruction. The "live and learn" attitude prevails in many departments. Such a vieWpoint is not con- ducive to efficacious law enforcement or the professional- ization of policing. Formal education, provided by institutions of higher learning, is a logical answer to the problem of providing more thorough knowledge of the basic arrest, search and seizure procedures at the municipal level of law enforcement. A comprehensive knowledge of the United States Constitution is vital if an officer is to understand the ground rules. As Ernest Puttkammer says: The basic source of our law as to the prOpriety of any given search is the constitu- tional provision, be it state or federal constitution, that governs the officers, be they stgae or federal, who are making the search. In Michigan, the use of search warrants will undoubtedly soPuttkammer, 22o C to, pa 80o 53 become more and more prevalent in the next decade. Those communities that have police officers who are thoroughly indoctrinated in the intricacies of search warrants will benefit greatly through efficacious and legal enforcement. Professionalization Professionalization of law enforcement is one of the most frequently discussed subject in police circles today. Such discussions are generally centered upon the extent of police professionalization, not the advisability or desir- ability of the goal. Few would deny the advantages for our democratic society, as well as law enforcement, Should such a position among the occupations be attained. "Professional- ization is necessary for the establishment of law enforcement ideals which will transcend all individual benefits of a social and financial nature."51 Professionalization is a nebulous term. It has been defined in many ways and is used to convey diverse meaning and implications. For example, the professional is distin- quished from the amateur in athletics. Another usage of the term describes the body of persons within a particular occupation, such as the professional plumber. Perhaps the most incongruous usage of the term has come to be that of 510ak1and (California) Police Department, Annual Report 2!; 1252, De 26o 5# the professional criminal, viz, the professional thief, gambler or prostitute. A prevalent interpretation of the word professional refers to occupations requiring advanced formal education, such as the legal and medical fields. General occupational and societal status and prestige are assigned the doctor and attorney as a result of attainment of high standards within their chosen endeavors. These OCCUpations may be said to represent the elite in terms of any view of professional- ization. However, whether law enforcement should strive to attain such an elite status, a: this time, is questionable. Law enforcement has a number of obstacles to overcome before it can claim proximity to professionalization similar to that enjoyed by medicine and law. The controversy in law enforcement frequently is the extent to which the occupation £12 professionalize and to what degree it Should seek to emulate the aforementioned learned professions. The following characteristics may be said to represent the basic qualifications which an occupation should possess before it can be considered a profession in the terms of this paper: 1. A common fund of knowledge.52 The experience gained through years of service must be freely 52Institute for Training in Municipal Administration, 23o C to, p0 “59' 55 exchanged throughout the field.53 2. Establishment of minimum entrance requirements primarily referring to personal character, skills and formal education. 3. A code of ethics which is sufficiently stringent and powerful to spell out punitive actions against those who violate that code. #. Mobility - - as the ability to transfer or move from one geographical area, either state or city, to another. 5. A formal or informal organization oriented for common interest and public duty.5h The legal and medical occuPations have developed the aforementioned "funds of knowledge." They have established entrance requirements which are useful in assuring that Skills and formal education are possessed prior to acceptance into their profession. The canons of the attorney and the Hippocratic oath of the doctor formulate the essence of an efficacious code of ethics; violators can be dealt with by the profession. Basic requirements within states are such that mobility is feasible for the members of these groups. The American Bar Association and the American Medical Asso- ciation certainly represent formal organizations which are 530ak1and Police Department, 22. cit., pp. 26-27. SuIbid. 56 instituted for common interest and public duty. Though the above factors are vital criteria, most authorities point to education as the real basis for the professionalization of these fields. In no professional school have there been more rigid requirements than in the field of medicine.55 Higher standards in legal training have also been significant. Beginning in 1905, the law schools made mandatory a three-year training course. There was also a general agreement as to the requirement of two years of pre-legal college work prior to acceptance in the 56 law school. Doctors and lawyers are required to undergo seven or eight years of college training. The present requisites for municipal employment in law enforcement are considerably less; high school education being the common minimum requirement. Walnut Creek, California, requires a bachelor's degree and Berkeley, California, requires two years of college education 57 of their police applicants. The discrepancies in educational requirements between the above described occupations are obvious. 55William E. Drake, The American School £2_Transition (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1955) p. 528. 56Ibid. 57Institute for Training in Municipal Administration, Op. Cite, P0 135' 57 The necessity for upgrading educational standards to some degree for patrolman is generally conceded by police administrators. That all recruits should be required to have a bachelor's degree is 223 readily accepted. Certain students of this subject feel that the two year, or the associate in arts degree, is probably the cornerstone to professionalization of policing. No less an authority than Orlando W. Wilson comments in Police Planning: Professionalization of police service must be based on a cultural foundation in the liberal arts composed of the requirements for the asso- ciate in arts as a minimum. Additional tool courses in English, Speech, psychology, huggn biology and statistics are also desirable. A. Stanley Anderson, police educator and coordinator of law enforcement training at Santa Rosa (California) Junior College, likewise recognizes that full police professional- ization will, of necessity, be a gradual transition. Junior colleges will undoubtedly play a major role in this trans- ition.59 Law enforcement can become professionalized without every patrolman being a college graduate. There is serious question as to the wisdom of having an entire force of college graduates. Police leaders must face the fact that 58o w w - - . . ilson, Police Plannin (Springfield, Illin01s: Charles C. Thomas, Pb1., 1957) p. 259. 59A. Stanley Anderson, "The Junior College and Police Professionalization," Police (January-February, 1962) p. 1#. 58 promotions within law enforcement agencies are generally limited. How long would the college graduate be satisfied with today's tasks of policing the initial level of enforce— ment? Two or three examinations without a promotion certainly Egglé be demoralizing to the unsuccessful patrolman. By the same token, little quality could be expected among the men who would not be dissatisfied with such a situation. No one, apparently, questions the necessity for professionalized medicine and law. After all, the doctor stands as an important determinant of life and death of his patient almost daily. He thus needs extensive training if he is to be effective. The attorney is constantly involved in litigation which can mean deprivation of rights or even the life of his client. Thus, he also must have a compre- hensive knowledge of his Chosen field of endeavor in order that he properly fulfills the definitive legal marks of a democratic society. Thus, the police officer represents the difference between democracy and tyranny; life and death; jail and freedom; criminality and obedience to law for the citizens of the United States in his law enforcement activities. Just as imperative, then, is the need for professional police, i.e., those who hold the lives and liberty of the citizenry in their hands daily. The doctor with a scalpel is no more 59 6o potentially dangerous than a policeman with a gun. The untrained attorney is no more hazardous to the proper execu- tion of the administration of criminal justice than is the untrained police officer who works within the same system at the enforcement level. III. SUMMARY This chapter has reviewed the recognition accorded by law enforcement in the twentieth century regarding the need for training and formal education to improve policing. August Vollmer, Orlando W. Wilson and V. A. Leonard have been pre-eminent spokesmen and pioneers in the deve10pment of college programs for law enforcement which have led to more than 120 city colleges, junior colleges, colleges and universities offering some type of law enforcement program at the present time-61 General education during this century has advanced at an almost unbelievable pace. High school graduates were relatively few in the 1920's. Today, they are common—place in most areas of the country. World War II brought about many problems, one of which was the acceleration of the movement to metr0politan areas by 60 E. Wilson Purdy,"General Discussion: Personnel Administration and Supervision,” The Police Yearbook, 1962 (Washington, D. 0.: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1962) p. 295. 1Germann, Day and Gallati, gp. cit., p. 213. 60 great masses of the p0pu1ation. The resulting complexities of society have forced changes in concepts of policing and have necessitated intensive training for police officers. Police academies have advanced, but they have not answered the training problem and formal education is needed as a supplement. Search and seizure restrictions have also led to a demand for more thoroughly educated officers. Professionalization of law enforcement is a common goal for most administrators. The extent of professional- ization, through formal education, is frequently debated. The hepe of attracting sufficient numbers of college grad- uates to municipal policing is dubious; even more question- able is the wisdom of having college graduates comprise the entire force of each law enforcement agency. 0. W. Wilson and others feel that the cornerstone for professionalization can be preperly laid through recruitment of men possessing associate in arts degrees from junior colleges. Professional- ization of law enforcement will not come overnight. A big step toward the goal can be taken through establishment of police programs at the junior college level. CHAPTER IV PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED AND THEIR SOLUTIONS IN ESTABLISHING JUNIOR COLLEGE POLICE PROGRAMS It is the purpose of this chapter to discuss some of the problems connected with instituting police programs in junior colleges. Many of these problems have already been overcome by two-year institutions in other states, eSpecially in California. This chapter will attempt to clarify questions which a junior college administrator, or school board, might ask if approached regarding the initiation of such a program. The extent of the program will vary from one school to another, according to the needs of the community. There are a number of questions which an administrator of a Michigan junior college may pose regarding a proposed police curriculum. Dean Clyde Blocker of the Flint Community Junior College listed some which he thought would generally apply throughout the state.1 For example, issues of cost, curricula and likelihood of success of a law enforcement program would be relatively the same in each two-year insti- tutione 2 1Clyde Blocker, Flint Community Junior College Dean, Personal Interview, December 20, 1960. 2Ibid. 62 Public junior colleges in Michigan are under the direction and control of the local school board. The board makes the final decision concerning the adaption of a pro- posed new program. Further, the board in each area will be seeking sufficient information upon which they can base a decision for such a proposal. California's leadership in police programs in both the junior and senior colleges is unchallenged. No less than thirty-eight two-year colleges in that state have instituted police curricula.3 Over ninety percent of the total number of junior colleges in this country offering Associate in Arts degrees in law enforcement are located in California. In Los Angeles County alone, there are more junior colleges with police programs than all the other states combined. In 1961, Allen P. Bristow listed twenty-two junior colleges offering police programs, which was as comprehen- sive a list as was then available.“ However, results of a survey printed in Introduction £2 Law Enforcement revealed that there were forty-two junior colleges with police programs 3A. C. Germann, Frank D. Day, Robert R. J. Gallati, Introduction to Law Enforcement (Springfield, Illinois: C. C. Thomas, Publigfier, 196277pp. 253-253. M Allen P. Bristow, Editor, "Police College News,” Police, September-October, 1961. 63 5 in force or in preparation. Much of the discrepancy is undoubtedly attributable to the rapid adOption of such pro- grams. Each survey is outdated within a year after it is conducted. Correspondence with various California junior colleges revealed that there are a number of titles under which police programs exist. Regardless of the title, most of the offer- ings as to course content are quite similar. The Fullerton6 and Los Angeles Harbor Junior Colleges7 title their curricula "Police Scienceg" Riverside8 and Santa Rosa9 call their pro- gram "Law Enforcement Curricula." Other names used are "Pre- Police Training;" "Criminology;" and "Police Science-Peace Officer.” Thus, one can be confused if he cares to cavil over the title of a program. Basically, it is the content of the curriculum which is important. Any junior college administrator interested in a law enforcement curriculum will generally desire information con- cerning the problems other institutions faced. He will also 5Germann, Day and Gallati, gp. cit., pp. 2#3-250. 6Fullerton (California) Junior College Bulletin, 1960- 1961, pe 151e 7Los Angeles Harbor College (California) General catalogue, pe 99o 8Riverside (California) City College, 1960-1961, p. 38. 9Santa Rosa (California) Junior College Bulletin, 1959- 1261, p. 102. 6# be concerned with how the more serious problems were finally resolved. Research reveals there were many problems, however, most of which were confined to general areas. They may be classified as: (1) Curricula; (2) student interest; (3) availability of instructors; (U) adequacy of textbooks; and (5) cost factor. The foregoing problems will be presented and will be followed by methods utilized in solving those problems. I. CURRICULA New Police Courses Many of the two-year institution co-ordinators indicated that they had met numerous problems in the curriculum area for police programs. An initial consideration was the depth or extent to which the program should go upon its adOption; that is, how many 22! police courses should be offered the first and second semester.10 Work ExPerience The provision of a work experience plan for police programs posed a perplexing problem. The advantage of such a provision at the junior college level would be to offer the student an Opportunity to compare and correlate the philOSOPhical aSpect of law enforcement with the practical. 10Stanley W. Everett, Riverside City College (California) Letter, January 13, 1961. 65 Such a program is felt by some to be vital to the provision of a well-rounded curricula. Providing practical experience in conjunction with academic progress is felt to be desirous. Opposition to such a plan features the problem of students injured while performing on-the-job tasks. Anal- ogous is the potential law suit for the junior college for persons engaged in ”internship" programs. These arguments are, to a great extent, negated by the work-experience pro- grams in retailing, nursing and the dentist technician curricula. Terminal, Transfer or Dual Program The question of whether to Offer a terminal, transfer or dual program frequently arose. The courses could be designed to fulfill the immediate ends of the student to the extent of a terminal program. The junior college could Offer strictly a transfer program for all students, with those who plan to terminate their education at the end of two years taking the same courses as those who plan to continue their education at a four-year institution. The third course of action by the junior college could be com- bining a terminal and a transfer program. Rotation of Shifts Many police departments rotate the shifts of patrol- men on a monthly basis. This situation frequently posed a 66 problem for junior colleges with a law enforcement program. It was necessary to devise a method to provide classes for patrolman regardless of hours worked. II. STUDENT INTEREST Indifference A possible lack of interest in police courses by potential students is frequently an objection Of both educators and police administrators.11 Some educators are dubious that interest in policing will be sufficient to justify the costs of additional courses. Of equal importance is the resistance by police leaders in some departments towards formal education. Chiefs or captains who personally lack education beyond the high school level and point with pride to their achievement ask, "If it was good enough for us, why shouldn't it be good enough for today's recruits?"12 Admission to Progggg A police program at the junior college requires some type Of admission policy. The problem of making the police courses available to only active law enforcement officers or all junior college students posed a problem. Establish- ment of minimal entrance requirements for those desiring to 11Bernard C. Brannon,.& New Profession lg Callin , (Kansas City, Mo.: Kansas City Missouri Police Department, 195a) p. 5. (Mimeo) lzlbid. 67 13 major in law enforcement was a correlated issue. Prior to acceptance of a police program, junior college administrators may desire a recommended method of admitting or selecting students for the curricula as a major field of interest. Restricting admission to certain qualified students was deemed advisable.1h The reputation of a police program will be affected by the type of students enrolled and their extra-curricular activities may attract attention to a greater 15 extent than would a liberal arts major. Retarding Influences AS a rule, public Opinion of law enforcement as an occupation is quite low. A great proportion of the citizenry have a misconception about law enforcement. Parents and friends of many potential police majors may question the wisdom of their sons or daughters Spending two or four years preparing to become police officers.1 The limitations of promotional Opportunities and frequent lack of recognition by civil service units as to educational background when establishing criteria for pro- motion is an obstacle to pre-service and post-entry training. 13Ibid. # Blocker, 22. cit. 15Ibid. 16Germann, Day, Gallati, gp. cit., p. 235. 68 Such facts will undoubtedly affect the choice of potential students, but they should be clearly understood at the out- set. Germann, Day and Gallatti similarly sum up the problem: "Lateral entrance to specialized, supervisory and managerial positions is extremely rare."17 Another negative influence affecting the attraction of students to law enforcement curricula established at the junior college level concerns immoral and illegal activities by sworn police Officers. Seldom a day passes that there is not an article about a police officer being fired or pros- ecuted for theft, accepting a bribe, burglary or some other crime. Unfortunately, the public is willing to classify all police officers in the same category, with no regard to the thousands of honest policemen who give the taxpayers a little bit extra, through working anytime it is necessary. Thus, the image of law enforcement today leaves much to be desired. Certain working conditions of police officers are not conducive to student interest in law enforcement.18 The "patrolman's lot“ is not an enviable one in most cities. Too many cities have been dilatory in reducing their officers work week, with a range of 39 to 96 hour work week in cities 17Ibid. 18 Brannon, 22. cit., p. 6. 69 over 10,000 population.19 Furthermore, generally the pay of police officers is not overly attractive to junior college students considering a career in law enforcement. Finally, rotation of platoons in many locales will deter some junior college students from further aSpiration to wear the shield. Such discouraging features of law enforcement at the local level need to be attacked and overhauled if we hope to forge ahead with intelligent and willing recruits with at least two years of college education. The retarding influences are such that an entire thesis could very well be written on this alone. Officers Tuition The deve10pment and institution of a police program in a junior college will be accompanied by a financial prob- lem relative to the police officers tuition.20 Frequently a question will arise whether the local governmental unit, namely the city council or county board of supervisors, will be willing and/or able to assist officers with junior college tuition costs. Information as to the policy and plans of the municipality for possible remuneration or partial payment 19Colone1 T. Eric St. Johnston and Samuel G. Chapman, The Police Herita e in En land and America (East Lansing, Hich.8 Ins u e or Community DeveIOpment and Services, Continuing Education Service, Michigan State University, 1962) p. 38. 20Bernard C. Brannon, "Police Personnel," The Police Yearbook, l 61 (Washington, D. 0.: International Association of Chiefs 0 Police, 1962) p. 193. 70 of costs of their officers participating in a police curricula will be of interest to the junior college.21 Some inquiry should be made as to whether the city, county or township will aid their officers financially to attend the local junior college if a police program is instituted. There is some debate among police officials as to the extent of the assistance. Some feel one-half of the tuition should be paid upon successful completion of courses. Others feel the governmental unit should pay all costs. Some units of government very likely will refuse to even consider such an undertaking. Others will desire facts and figures on what the potential cost will be for such a plan of reimbursement. III. AVAILABILITY OF INSTRUCTORS The standards set by the governmental unit entrusted with establishment of the criteria for certification of instructors for junior colleges will vary from state to state. In Michigan, for example, there is no longer any requirement for certification to teach in a junior college. This being true, Michigan junior colleges will undoubtedly find recruitment of police administration instructors less difficult. 1 Blocker, 223 ci . 71 Junior colleges inaugurating a police program will ordinarily require only a part—time instructor. Generally Speaking, such an instructor will be available only through local law enforcement agencies. There are relatively few college graduates of police programs who join municipal departments. IV. ADEQUACY 0F TEXTBOOKS The adoption of police curriculums have been deterred because of a lack of adequate textbooks in some courses of study. However, more police textbooks are being written annually giving reason for Optimism in this problem. There must be a close scrutiny to assure quality rather than quantity. V. COST FACTOR Any educational institution considering the establish- ment of a new course or curriculum must determine whether that project or service can be afforded. Such a decision is based upon the likelihood of the curriculum being more beneficial than other pr0posed courses. The decision in- volves an investigation and an estimate in dollars and cents, as well as extraneous factors. In the case of a school board, the administrative heads usually recommend adoption or rejection and such recommendations may or may not be 72 followed.22 In Flint, Michigan, the recommendations of the Community Junior College Dean are reviewed by an "admin- istrative council” which is composed of: (1) Business Manager of Schools; (2) SUperintendent of Schools; (3) Director of Libraries; and (h) Dean of the Junior College. This council, in turn, decides whether the prOposal should go to the school board as presented or modified.23 Such modifications will ordinarily enrich the proposal, according to August Brandt, Business Affairs Manager of Flint Community Junior College.2u The cost, estimated in round dollars, should include as many incidental eXpenses as can be anticipated. Budgets for all organizations, by their very nature, necessitate a detailed account of anticipated costs for operations. There- fore, an estimate should be as realistic as possible. Instructors The greatest significant cost of instituting a police administration curricula is incurred when additional instruc- tors must be added to the payroll of the junior college. 22August Brandt, Business Affairs Manager, Flint Community Junior College, Personal Interview, September 23, 1962. 23Ibid. 2h Ibid. 73 Generally, there will be no instructors on the staff qualified to instruct the new courses to be added by the police curric- ula. If there were one such instructor, then the cost would be significantly 1655.25 The cost of a new police program in relationship to instructors pay will be dependent Upon a number of factors. For example: (a) The number of courses in police adminis- tration to be offered the first and second semesters; (b) the instructional background of the individual, i.e., years of teaching experience, and; (c) the educational background 26 of the new instructor. The variety of courses to be offered will be governed by a number of factors including the demand for the program by students, availability of competent instructors and the depth which the school board decides to go into such a pro- gram insofar as costs are concerned. It will usually be found that one part-time instructor will suffice at the inception of the police program.27 Equipment and Incidentals A new instructor in a junior college will need certain office equipment. Such items as a filing cabinet for miscell- aneous paper and supplies, desks and/or chairs, and adequate 251mm. 26Blocker, op, cit. 27Ibid. 714 . 28 office Space will be necessary. Other equipment may or may not include teaching aids and police equipment for demon- stration purposes. This type of equipment might be expected to include handcuffs, nightsticks, pistol targets, finger- print equipment and other paraphernalia that may be desirable if certain courses are to be offered. A program in law enforcement will necessitate the services of a secretary to prepare communications, examina- tions, correSpondence and handle appointments for the instructor.29 A part-time instructor will need a secretary to advise students as to office hours, hand out printed information concerning the program, etc. VI. SOLVING CURRICULA PROBLEMS Problems regarding curricula, student interest, text- books, instructors and cost are frequently best resolved through an analysis of methods utilized by other junior colleges. Such information would be useful to any junior college which contemplates a police program. New Police Programs The depth or extent of a police program upon its 28Flint Community Junior College, Faculty Handbook, 1262‘é2, p. 268. 29Blocker, op, cit. 75 inception necessitates an "educated guess” on the part of the junior college officials. There are two views as to how the question could best be solved. One method would be to utilize a core curriculum as a basis for establishing new police courses. Such a plan would call for instituting the number of classes listed in the "freshman first semester" schedule. The second semester would find a repetition of those classes, plus courses listed for the freshman second 30 semester schedule. However, a preferred method would be to offer certain courses in the fall semester only and other courses in the 31 spring semester only. This method minimizes another prob- lem, e.g., lack of trained and qualified instructors. Work Experience Two plans are utilized by junior colleges to offer work experience while attending police program courses. A very practical method calls for the provision of a student campus police unit. A great number of institutions use these units to the advantage of both the police program majors and 3OFullerton Junior College, op. cit., p. 68; Santa Rosa Junior College, op. cit., p. 102; Riverside City College, op, cit., p. 38; Los Angeles Harbor College, 22. cit., p. 72. 31Clayton B. Westover, Glendale (California) College, Letter, January, 1961. 76 the college.32 Campus policing by students provides the college with necessary patrols and traffic direction at a minimal cost. Some junior colleges give college credit for participation on the student patrol force; others pay a nominal wage. At one junior college, student campus patrol members are given an annual allowance of $200 to be used within certain limitations established by the institution.33 Some junior colleges provide equipment, such as uniform, for the student patrol. However, generally uni- forms must be purchased by the students. The students are frequently permitted to wear the uniform for any private employment they might negotiate. The students generally do not have police powers, carry firearms or investigate 3h crime. Student patrol officers have apparently benefited from this type of program. Coordinators report it is a satisfactory method of giving the regular students some knowledge of the practical problems of policing.35 Another method to provide the student with an opportunity 2 3 James C. Negley, Modesto (California) Junior College, Letter, January, 1961. 33A. Stanley Anderson, op, cit. 3“Santa Rosa (California) Junior College, Student Police Patrol, 1960 (Mimeograph) pp. 1-2. 35Negley, 22. cit. 77 for the comparison of classroom philosophy with the practical application of police work is the field service training plan. Such a plan is designed to provide for the student's observation of actual work experiences in the various 36 agencies to which he is assigned. Establishment of a field training plan poses other problems, such as the academic credit to be granted to those students enrolled in the field service. Further, should participation be voluntary or mandatory? Finally, at what point of the two-year career would the student best benefit from the field service training? Few junior colleges have utilized field service train- ing as part of the police curricula. Those who have adOpted such a plan grant three hours credit for enrollment, which is voluntary, and establish SOphomore status as a prerequi- site. Terminal, Transfer or Dual Program The Glendale (California) Junior College provides a good example of a dual program. The institution offers seven courses which are transferable in nature. Another six courses are offered which are only transferable through 36Michigan State University, Catalogue, 1958-22 (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Publication, 78 the curriculum committee of the Los Angeles State College.37 Students who do not intend to transfer to a four-year insti- tution will frequently enroll in the last six courses. Other two-year colleges offer similar plans, limiting the curricula to two or three transferable courses with the remainder being classed as terminal.38 There is a wide division in the total number of law enforcement courses offered at the different junior colleges. Table I lists the variety of the number of courses and credit hours as defined by ten selected junior colleges. The number of courses varies from four in Riverside Junior College to thirty-three in El Camino Junior College. Most of the institutions limit the police courses which may be taken for graduation credit to twenty or twenty-five hours. At Fullerton Junior College, however, it appears that as many as forty-four credit hours in police courses can be used towards the associate's degree. Most junior colleges faced the problem of whether to offer a terminal program, a transfer program or a combination, after instituting the law enforcement cur- riculum. Where the curricula was initiated at the request 37Glendale (California) College, Peace Officer Train- ing, (Mimeograph) p. l. 38A. Stanley Anderson, op. cit. 79 2: mm om 3 an Ashe» 3ozv omaeeoo caexooam .oe Amazon mm .coxmu on coo momhsoo my mm AmucuomHHmov ocwEmo Hm .m Amhson 3: .coxmu on :mo momuzoo day NH Amacuomfiamov :ovhoaasm .w Awashom«umov ma oomuocmuh cam mo omoHHoo hpwo .n Awesos wm .momhsoo ma oxmu hue acousumv we Atacaouaesov sumac can .o w AMUHHOHMV whznmhouom .vm .m nH Amwchomaaaov oHMUCoHG .3 Acoxmu on two momhsoo 3H on» no NH hacov am an mmbom FHQmmU Aam .N «a Atacaouheso. whom spasm .e mummpoo mquom mwmqqoo monae mmwmddoo mOHZDb zmfi >m Qmmmmmo mmbom BHQmmU 92¢ mmmmboo MOHAOA ho zomHmdmzoo d H mqmdh 80 of police agencies, little attention was paid to transfer- ability of the courses of that curricula. As the police programs grew within those junior colleges, the question frequently arose as to which courses would be transferable at four-year institutions. A substantial number of students, who were not police officers, were attracted to the program and intended to continue their education beyond two years of college. Most junior colleges today offer a dual terminal- transfer program. A great prOportion of junior colleges have devised a method of assisting those students who plan to transfer, as well as those who plan to terminate their education with an associate degree. Rotation of Shifts In-service education for persons engaged in law enforcement is an objective of many junior colleges offering police programs.39 Such a goal is not easily attained due to the aforementioned problem of rotating platoons for police officers. The practice of rotation each month creates an almost hopeless situation for officers interested in attaining formal education. One solution to this situation was to offer two sections for the courses. One section was held during the 395tanley W. Everett, 22. cit. 81 ho day, the other section was held in the evening session. Generally, the two sections were taught by the same instructor so that course context would be as similar as possible. The Fullerton, San Diego and Glendale Junior Colleges in Calif- ornia exemplify such programs.“1 Most of the junior colleges found it possible to enroll actively engaged police officers in related courses, as well as in Specific police courses. Sociology and political science were felt to be valuable fields of study. CURRICULA PROBLEMS Proposed Curricula There should be a Specific curricula for a police program.u2 Such a program should be developed to utilize the existing courses offered by the junior college. The social, physical and natural sciences, language arts and physical education programs should be reviewed and those subjects which would be the most beneficial should be recommended or required by the program. h 0John S. Owens, Orange Coast College (California) Letter, January 16, 1961. #1 Fullerton Junior College, 32. cit; San Diego (California) Junior College Catalogue, 1960-61; Glendale (California) Junior College Catalogue, 1960-_l. #2 Clyde Blocker, Personal Interview, June 16, 1961. 82 Present Curricula Robert Borkenstein, during a recent convention of the International Association of Chiefs of Police, stated that there were invariably courses which would round out a two- year program in police administration.""3 Students should receive curricula advisement which will give them the Opti- mum preparation for law enforcement. Each junior college will offer a varying number of courses which may be adaptable for the police program. The degree of flexibility of a recommended program of study will depend upon the variety of courses available at the particular junior college. A Suggested Curricula Any student seeking an associate's degree from a junior college in Michigan must have completed a political science course; two English courses; and, except under certain conditions, two physical education classes. A second aid is available through a review of other junior colleges with police programs. This aid was utilized by the writer in developing a "block program," )hh (also referred to as a core curriculum by some educators. u3Robert Borkenstein, "Workshop: Progress in Police Training" Police Yearbook, 1961 (Washington: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1962) p. 193. M4Edward A. Krug, Curriculum Plannin (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957) p. 108. Also see Roland A. C. Faunce and Nelson L. Bossing, Develo ment of the Core Curriculum (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 195TT 23o p‘p"."' 83 There is little question that the formulation of a Specific curricula should be based upon the philoSOphy of providing a dual function police program. Both the terminal and the transfer student can be accommodated at a junior college. The number of students intending to continue their education beyond an associate's degree will increase with the length of time the courses are offered. To plan a transfer-type program, the coordinator of the program will find it necessary to gain approval of Specific courses at the institutions the students are likely to attend. At the present time, Michigan State University is the only four-year institution in Michigan offering a police curricula. The reputation of this school, and the close proximity to the home of most Michigan junior college graduates, establishes it as the sole institution which must be contacted. Unquestionably, the great bulk of junior college police administration students who continue their education will do so at Michigan State. The School of Police Administration and Public Science at Michigan State University is directed by Arthur Brand- statter. Mr. Brandstatter was interviewedus and he gave his views as to what the requisites would be for approval of junior college police courses as transferable credits uSArthur F. Brandstatter, Director of School of Police Administration, Michigan State University, Personal Interview, August 9, 1961. 8U at State. The greatest potential danger was that the courses could be of a non-academic nature, with over-emphasis on the "how to" of police work instead of the phi1050phy of policing. Subjecting the curricula to "tool" classes can only lead to a substitution of the police academy which is not the purpose of such a program. Junior college police programs are not instituted £2 suEplant but £2 supplement the regular police department academies. In Michigan, the community colleges which do adopt police programs would be wise to study the courses offered by Michigan State. Probably no more than five or six of the equivalent of Michigan State courses Should be given by a junior college. VII. ANSWERING STUDENT INTEREST QUESTIONS Indifference Probably the best way to determine if there is student interest in a police program is to offer classes in this field. Student interest in police programs, as well as the interest of active police officers, is undoubtedly dependent upon the quality of the presentation of the program. A progressive and objective individual, as opposed to a passive coordinator merely instituting the program, may very well be the difference between success or failure of that program. It is not surprising that the various junior colleges 85 soon discovered the police programs to be popular with the students. There is a high interest in police work on the part of many persons at the age of eighteen.“6 It is between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one that many develop other occupational interest. Law enforcement programs are one method of deterring a deviant interest. An additional encouraging factor at the California junior college level as to student interest was the willing- ness of law enforcement agencies promoting participation by their officers. Many of these same enforcement officials agreed to hire the students as unsworn personnel for such duties as turnkeys, dispatchers and other positions which could be filled by civilian personnel. Table II indicates the number of full and part-time students enrolled in police programs at various junior colleges. Student interest in these institutions appear, in most cases, to be more than adequate to justify such a curricula. The statistics are, for the most part, those of two-year insti- tutions in California. The establishment of high recruitment standards by California law enforcement agencies is a by- product of this student interest. It is in California that law enforcement will probably become professionalized first. Police Science Advisory Committee, Los Angeles (California) Harbor College, Minutes 25 Meeting, February 23, 1960. 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