4 IIIOI‘IIIIEIAI‘L’IIA': 21am 0 ' .ra‘xx‘“ " """ ' g a LEVELS OF ROLE DIFFERENTIATION ANO ROLE EQUALITY III THE SINGLE CAREER NUCELAR FAMILY: A CASE STUDY ' Thesis for the Degree Of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JULIA MARGARET ROESCH 1977 I III III IIIIIIIII III (III II III IIIIIIIIIIIIII| L l: f“ I r! K ‘-.... £4‘._.,»:3;gé/ 1 Mb JIIIN? ‘ 5 w; M f "‘}‘- f” ""733. m .- DEQ O 5 2m3 .I_ ,, -1. :5 L... ABSTRACT LEVELS OF ROLE DIFFERENTIATION AND ROLE EQUALITY IN THE SINGLE CAREER NUCLEAR FAMILY: A CASE STUDY BY Julia Margaret Roesch Undertaken in a real, but fictitiously named family, this research attempted to describe and explain the role structure of a single career nuclear family, and the major themes and components of family process and environment which influence that structure. The conceptual framework was based on Harold Christensen's equality-differentiation paradigm, and an attempt was made to integrate this para- digm into a holistic description of the family and its environment. The primary methodology incorporated was participant observation; the measurement instruments used secondarily were the family history outline, the daily activity record, and the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. The obser- vations were conducted in the suburban home of a five mem- ber single career nuclear family and extended over an eight week period of time. The male spouse in this family pursued Julia Margaret Roesch a professional career with the State of Michigan and the wife pursued homemaking full-time. Sex role differentiation referred to the degree to which behaviors were divided and performed exclusively by one partner. Undifferentiation referred to the degree to which behaviors were shared and performed by both partners. Behaviors were then classified into a system of sixteen categories of activities encompassing both instrumental and expressive tasks. Inequality and equality were defined as the degree to which restrictions were placed or not placed on valued positions and rewards, respectively. Data collection relevant to this variable included extensive recording of overt and covert communication and observations of the physical and social context in which these occurred. Based on an analysis of role behavior in each cate- gory, it was concluded that the family had achieved a posi- tion of partial differentiation with some role overlap and a medium level of equality. With regard to the two hypotheses formulated for this study, the researcher concluded partial support and support, respectively: 1. The levels of role equality and role differentia- tion between the marriage partners will be determined by each person's transactions with the environment and by Julia Margaret Roesch each person's interaction with the other. i 2. Shared goals and family themes would be consonant with higher degrees of role equality. The researcher further concluded in support of Christensen's premise that some sex role differentiation need not preclude the achievement of sex role equality. Additionally, participant observation methodology can be successfully applied to the study of various family forms. LEVELS OF ROLE DIFFERENTIATION AND ROLE EQUALITY IN THE SINGLE CAREER NUCLEAR FAMILY: A CASE STUDY BY Julia Margaret Roesch A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family and Child Sciences 1977 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere appreciation is expressed to my committee members, Dr. Vera Borosage, Dr. Donald Melcer, and Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, for their help, suggestions, and encouragement during the planning of this study and the preparation of this thesis. I am especially grateful to Dr. Paolucci, project leader for All University Research Grant No. 11054, “Illustrating a Family Ecosystem: A Case Study"; the data used for this study and thesis was drawn from the data collected for the larger study, on which I worked as the research aide. Special thanks are extended to the wonderful family, fictitiously named "Rogers.” I will always be grateful for their help and for the new understanding which they have provided for me. Finally, appreciation is expressed to countless others, friends and family, who have provided encouragement throughout this endeavor. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES O O 0 O O O O O O O C O 0 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK . . . Background and Problem Statement Research Questions . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual Framework . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Nominal Definitions . . . . . . Operational Definitions . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . Conceptual and Theoretical Issues to Role . . . . . . . . . . . . Participant Observation . . . . . Measurement Instruments . . . . . Family History . . . . . . . . Daily Activity Record . . . . . Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 'Participant Observation . . . . . Measurement Instruments . . . . . Family History . . . . . . . . Daily Activity Record . Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Selection Process and Criteria . Entry Into the Field . . . . . . Recording the Data . . . . . . . Coding, Tabulation, and Analysis Participant Observation Data . Daily Activity Record . . . . . Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Family History . . . . . . . . Reflections on the Procedure . . iii Related 0 O 0 O 0 I O O O O O Scale . vi vii 17 23 26 26 27 27 29 29 31 31 32 33 33 36 37 39 39 40 41 41 42 IV. V. VI. THE FAMILY O O O O O O O C O O O O 0 Community and Physical Environment Family History . . . . Gene ROgers . . . . . . Nancy Rogers . . . . . The Rogers . . . . . . Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Sc Present and Future Ladder Rating Aspirations and Fears Expressed Family Organization . . . . . . . Daily Activity Record . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . ooooflfloooo DIFFERENTIATION AND EQUALITY . . . . Role Equality: Observational Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . Paid Work . . . . . . . . . . . . School-Related . . . . . . . . . ooooomooooo Equality in Other Activity Categories Role Equality: Daily Activity Record . Role Equality: Analysis and Discussion the Data 0 O O O O O C O O O O 0 Role Differentiation: Observational an Daily Activity Record Data . Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . Eating . . . . . . . . . . ~ Transportation . . . . . . Personal Grooming . . . . Household Care/Maintenance. Management . . . . . . . . Child Care . . . . . . . . Conversation/Communication Creative Activities . . . Physical Sports . . . . . Reflective . . . . . . . School-Related . . . . . Social Life/Entertainment Spectator Activities . waiting . . . . . . . . Paid Work . . . . . . . Role Differentiation: Summary . Role Differentiation and Equality: Combining the Structural Dimensions SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . o o o o o o o o 43 43 45 45 47 48 50 50 51 56 59 68 7O 70 71 72 73 75 75 78 80 8O 80 80 81 81 81 82 83 84 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 86 88 96 96 100 102 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . Implications for Theory . . . . . Implications for Methodology . . Implications for Resources . . . Implications for Socialization . Suggestions for Further Investigatio APPENDICES A. Auxillary Measurement Instruments . . B O COding . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C C House Plan C O O O O O O O O O O O O BIBLIOGMPHY . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O n 102 102 103 103 104 104 106 110 115 117 TABLE 1. LIST OF TABLES Number of minutes per day spent in various actiVitieS O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O 0 Total value Total value Total value Total value number and percent of activities in nine categories: Nancy's weekday activities number and percent of activities in nine categories: Gene's weekday activities . number and percent of activities in nine categories: Nancy's Saturday activities number and percent of activities in nine categories: Gene's Saturday activities vi 60 62 63 64 65 FIGURE 1. 10. 11. LIST OF FIGURES Models of sex role structure, showing inter- relationships between equality and differen- tiation O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Models of partial equality combined with par- tial differentiation (an elaboration of E from Figure 1) O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O 0 Model of changes in the sex role structure of the United States, showing trends toward equality and overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aspirations expressed by the Rogers family . . Categories in which no aspirations were expressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fears expressed by the Rogers family . . . . . Categories in which no fears were eXpressed . Evidence of equality by activity category . . An elaboration of the Christensen Model to include female dominance . . . . . . . . . . . Equality and role differentiation by activity category 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Enlargement of the equality-differentiation representation of the Rogers family . . . . . vii 11 52 53 54 55 76 79 89 92 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Background and Problem Statement In every society gender is a fundamental criterion for assigning a number of tasks considered necessary for the well-being and continuity of the individual, family, com- munity, the total society. Gender is also a primary basis for the differentiation of personality, men and women ex- pected to develop contrasting traits. Some tasks are assigned primarily on the basis of sex-linked physiological differences: other tasks are assigned on the basis of what seem to be arbitrary products of particular cultural traditions. Changes in task assign- ment and performance during the last century are usually seen as reflecting a general shift from a traditional, highly sex-differentiating system of norms to an egalitarian one that is less devoted to the assignment of responsibility on the basis of gender. This social movement toward equality has had its im- pact on families. Family and work are no longer subject to a single overarching set of role prescriptions in an integrated cultural whole; nor are family functions as residual as they are when work is either overvalued or alienative. Mirra Komarovsky (1962) describes these recent changes as "profound," and states that they have been accompanied .by innumerable cultural contradictions and inconsistencies. Gavron (1966) elaborates by stating that today a woman is expected to run the house efficiently, but she must not be submerged by domesticity, which has definitely lost its sex appeal. Correspondent are observations that regardless of our social ideology, the actual social position held by women, both in the family, and out of it, is yet subordinate to that of men (Blood, 1972; Scanzoni, 1972). Wolfe offers an explanation of this phenomenon, proposing that the balance of marital power is determined by the resources each spouse can obtain through transactions with the environment external to the family (Blood and WOlfe, 1960). Surely there is no family exempt from the effects of the changes mentioned here. However, it is the family which our society has idealized--the nuclear family--which pre- sumably suffers the greatest number of "growing pains": the popular literature abounds with contradictory opinion over child care and homemaking issues; women (especially those who are mothers) are increasingly accepted participants in the work force: alternatives to marriage are gaining social acceptance. All these issues strike at the very essence of the instrumental-expressive division of roles which has dominated our social system. There exist no institutional- ized prescriptions to solve the problems such families face (Holter, 1970). Additional information about role structure, role behaviors, and dominant family themes is useful, relevant, and needed to assist in the development of further under- standing of family relationships and patterns of interaction. There has not been much systematic research into the area of sex.roles, although there has been considerable modern day theorizing about social differentiation based on gender differences during the last century (Scanzoni, 1975). Much of the research in sex roles has focused on sex role atti- tudes and perceptions of sex role behaviors: McIntire, Nass, and Dreyer (1972) cite the need for more information re- garding actual role behaviors as a basis to develop new .models of role differentiation. This researcher, using participant observation as the primary methodology, a family history outline, a self- report activity record, and the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale as accessory methodology attempted to explore and describe the role structure of a single career nuclear family, as well as identify the major themes and components of family process and environment which influence that structure. Research Questions This research has been guided by the following ex- ploratory questions for the purpose of investigating the sex role patterns within a single career nuclear family: 1. How do family members organize and perform tasks? 2. What forms of support does the family use and for what tasks? 3. What are the levels of role equality and differ- entiation in the family? 4. How is the role differentiation determined? 5. What are the major family themes (shared goals) and how do they encourage or discourage equality and differ- entiation? The data related to each of these questions are re- ported in Chapters IV and V. Hypotheses Although the intention of this study was to examine and explain relationships between the concepts of family sex role structure and the single career nuclear family, two a priori hypotheses were developed: 1. The levels of role equality and role differen- tiation between the marriage partners will be determined by each person's transactions with the environment and by each person's interaction with the other. 2. Shared goals and family themes would be consonant with higher degrees of role equality. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study is based on the recent work of Harold Christensen (1975). Christensen's major premise rests on an examination of equality within a differentiated sex role structure. The basis of Christen- sen's framework is Peter Blau's concept of social structure. "Social structure," according to Blau (1974), "is the popu- lation distribution among social positions along various lines--positions that affect people's role relations and social interaction. To speak of social structure is to speak of differentiation among people. An undifferentiated social structure is a contradiction of terms." Blau distinguishes between horizontal and vertical differentiation in social structure. Horizontal differentia- tion is referred to as "nominal parameters" and includes such examples as sex, religion, race, occupation. These para- meters divide the pOpulation into subcategories which have boundaries but in which rank order is not inherent. Vertical differentiation is referred to as "graduated parameters" and includes age, education, income, prestige, and power. Rank order is inherent and the subcategories are arranged in a hierarchy (Blau, 1974). Within the framework are nominal parameters which result in horizontal differentiation or heterogeniety, and graduated parameters which result in vertical differentiation or inequality. Although two types of differentiation are identified, it is stressed that only the vertical type infers inequality. Sex roles are one type of social role and as such may be organized on either a horizontal or vertical axis. Blau refers to the sex factor as a nominal parameter, which means that being male or female does not automatically assume a superordinate or subordinate position, except in the case of imposed cultural imperatives. The sex parameter, accor- ding to Blau, is not intended for rank ordering, but rather is valid for differentiation on a horizontal axis. Taking the concepts of equality and differentiation as separate concepts, Christensen goes on to distinguish ways they might be interrelated to examine sex role struc- ture. Building on the notion that equality implies the total absence of superordination and subordination, a horizontal bar is used to picture it. A vertical bar is used to picture the opposite--inequality. A lined bar is used to designate the differentiated male role and a white bar represents the differentiated female role. A shaded or black bar is used to picture roles that are undiffer- entiated by sex or role overlap. Figure 1 presents models of the equality-inequality and differentiated-undifferentiated structures superimposed upon each other. Christensen notes that E, the center cell, is the only one which allows varying the equality and differentiation factors at the same time. This model, he contends, is the one which comes closest to empirical reality and is the most useful when dealing with actual cases, since it does not deal in ultimate extremes of "all or none." A, B, and C in the figure picture the differentiation factor as varying while assuming complete equality and G, H, and I do the same while assuming complete inequality. A, D, G, and C, F, I picture the equality factor as varying while Degree oi Role Equality Completely Equal Partially Equal Completely Unequal Figure 1 . Models oi Sex Role Structure, Showing interrelationships Degree of Hole Ditterentlation Absolute inequality; Absolute inequality; Completely Partially Completely Ditlerentiated Differentiated Undifferentiated A B C a: $ * Absolute equality; Absolute equality; Absolute equality; Roles strictly defined Some role overlap No role structure 0 E F Partial equality; Partial equality; Partial equality; Roles strictly defined Some role overlap No role structure 6 H l Wilt. lmufllty; Roles strictly detlned Some role overlap No role structure Male role exclusively Horizontal axis = total equality Female role exclusively Vertical axis 2 total inequality Role overlap Between Equality and Dliierentiatlon Source: H.T. Christensen. “Are Sex Roles Necessary7”. in “Changing Patterns in Sex and Marriage.” institute for the Study at Social Change. Department of Sociology and Anthropology. Purdue University, Institute Monograph Series No. 5. 1975. assuming complete differentiation and complete non-differ- entation respectively. Christensen refers to the four corner cells as "ideal types” or logical constructs which describe ultimate extremes. It is not expected that many, if any, actual cases will fall at these extremes; their mental formulations, however, can give meaning to the actual situations studied, which are ex- pected to fall in the remaining cells, especially in E. Christensen notes that each of the four middle cells (B, D, F, and H), combines one extreme with one partical position. He considers it probable that few empirical cases would fall precisely at any one of these points, since each model assumes some kind of absolute position. Note that F and I might be eliminated because, in the strictest sense, they represent a superordinated-subordinated sex role structure which is a contradiction of terms. Cell C does not represent a contradiction of terms, since, according to Christensen, equality cannot be considered as precluding a non-differen- tiated structure or vice-versa. Christensen cites two limitations for his schema. The first, which will be discussed later in this text, is that it does not include the female superordinate position. The second limitation is that the middle categories--B, D, E, F, and H--which are labeled partially, do not picture the full range of variability that is possible. Figure 2 is an elaboration of model E and illustrates the point just spoken of. Degree of Role Equality High Equality Medium Equality Low Equality Degreeof Role Differentiation High Medium Low Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation E1 52 £3 54 55 ‘0 E7 ‘ ‘8 ‘9 E Male role exclusively = Female role exclusively _ Role overlap Figure 2. Models of Partial Equality Combined with Partial Differentiation (An Eldoration of E from Figure 1) Source: H.T. Christensen, “Are Sex Roles Necessary?”, in “Changing Patterns in Sex and Marriage.” institute for the Study of Social Change. Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Purdue Unlverisity, institute Monograph Series No. 5, 1975. 10 Figure 3 builds on Figure l and 2, but carries the analysis one step farther by applying the schema to the phenomenon of social change. Model G, which represents the vertical axis coupled with differentiation complete, and Model C, which represents the horizontal axis coupled with no differentiation, are carried over from Figure l and used 3, E5, and E7 and carried over from Figure 2 and additional bars inserted to represent the logical extremes. Models E for showing an even finer breakdown to picture the trends that are presumed to have occurred. Christensen estimates the sex role structure of colonial America to fall about E7, and of contemporary America to fall somewhere between E3 and E5. The schema, according to its author, suggests two, possibly three, trends in the sex role structure of our society. The first is a tipping of the axis in a vertical-to-horizontal direc- tion or a move toward greater equality. The second is an expansion of role overlap; the third is a decline in cultural ascription to allow for greater individual choice. This schema, therefore, accounts for the examination of equality and differentiation within sex role structures and attempts to place it in a context of social change. The role behaviors of the family will be analyzed and interpreted within this schema. The exploratory nature of this study encourages the secondary examination of intervening variables and environmental factors which influence the family life pattern. 11 Time Lapse C \ (From Fig. 1) I \ E3(Flg. 2) \ ' E5 (Fig. 2) ' E E7 (“9- 2) Male role exclusively I: 0 Female role exclusively (From Fla. 1) — Role overlap Figure 3. Model of Changes in the Sex Role Structure of the United States, Showing Trends Toward Equality and Overlap Source: l-i.T. Christensen, “Are Sex Roles Necessary?” institute for the Study of Social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Purdue University, institute Monograph Series No. 5, 1975. 12 ‘Definition of Terms ' NOminal Definitions Sex Roles are behavioral expectations lodged within the social structure that are differentiated according to sex or gender. Sex Role Differentiation refers to the distribution of role behaviors based on sex. Role Behavior is conscious or unconscious behavior of members of a particular position, in accordance with, or in violation of, a given set of organizational norms that are relevant to the prevailing social structure. Equality is a situation in which there are no re- strictions upon valued positions and rewards; the person's ascribed status, which determine such reStrictions, is a relevant consideration. Inequality is a situation in which a person is restricted in access to legitimate valued positions or re- wards in society for which their ascribed status is not a relevant consideration. Nuclear Family is defined as one in which two generations, mother, father (spouses), and children live together in a single dwelling with no other persons also residing there. Single Career Family is defined as a family in which the husband pursues a career outside the home, and the wife pursues homemaking full-time. 13 Participant Observation is a process in which the observer's 7 presence in a social situation is maintained for the purpose of scientific investigation. The observer is in a face-to-face relationship with the observed, and by participating with them in their natural life setting, gathers data. Operational Definitions Equality is measured by the absence of restrictions on behavior placed by one spouse on the other. Evidence for the absence is the lack of permission granting or permission seeking between spouses to perform certain behaviors and the lack of previously estab- lished restrictions. Individual decisions as deter- minants of behaviors are considered as evidence of equality. Inequality is measured by the presence of restrictions on behavior placed by one spouse on the other. Evidence for the presence of restrictions is permission granting and permission seeking between spouses to perform certain behaviors and the presence of pre- viously established restrictions. Lack of individual decisions as determinants of behavior is considered as evidence of inequality. Partial equality is measured as the presence of partial restrictions on behavior placed by one spouse on the other. Evidence for the presence of partial 14 restriction is some permission granting and permission seeking between spouses to perform certain behaviors and the presence of some previously established restrictions. Some individual decision making as determination of behavior performance is seen as evidence of partial equality. Female superordinate-male subordinate position refers to the female partner placing restrictions on the male partner. Evidence for this position would include permission granting by the female and permission seeking by the male partner and the presence of pre- viously established restrictions placed by the .female on the male. Male superordinate-female subordinate position refers to the male partner placing restrictions on the female partner. Evidence for this position would include permission granting by the male and permission seeking by the female partner and the presence of previously established restrictions placed by the male on the female. Sex role differentiation is measured by the observation of behaviors and patterns which are distributed according to sex. Complete differentiation refers to behavior categories which are performed by only one sex partner. Complete undifferentiation refers to behavior categories which are performed by both sex partners. 15 Partial differentiation refers to behavior categories in -which behaviors within the category are divided by activities, some of which are performed by one sex partner and some by the other. Limitations of the Study There are two standard objections to studies using the methodology of participant observation, which may be considered as limitations. One is that participant observation studies, dealing with a limited and perhaps unique sample, may be ungeneralizable. However, while an instance of social phenomena may be unique, it need not prevent one from learning about it from a carefully designed study. Becker and Geer (1960) note that participant obser- vation is usually used when a researcher is especially interested in understanding a particular organization or sub- stantive problem. The unique quality lies not in the social setting but in the human behavior, and a good description of social phenomena is quite intelligible to one who never participated. This is, after all, what the novels we read ,at bedtime are made of. A second limitation is the absence of standardized testscfifvalidity and reliability for the method of partici- pant observation. As the researcher participates in the daily life of the subjects, the description and analysis of their behaviors and activities have a first-person quality other methodologies lack. As the researcher becomes more 16 a part of the situation (in this case, "a member of the family"), perceptions have a validity that is unapproachable by standardized methods. Blumer (1966) asserts that no one can describe a social phenomenon better than one who takes part in its creation. Since the researcher is the actual instrument, as validity increases so does reliability. Furthermore, Safilios-Rothchild (1971) states that since our social ideology is often different than our actual behaviors, observation techniques away from the laboratory have more reliability than survey questionnaires or interviews, regarding the study of family power. This particular study has several limitations. One limitation is time; ideally a study of this type would be longitudinal, allowing for the observations to occur over a lengthy period of time, and for the observation of developmental influences. Another limitation to be considered is that the observation times were always prearranged. This potentially allowed for special plans and/or altered behavior in the observer's presence. This study is one of a family representing a particu- lar socioeconomic class and lifestyle; thus, it is limited in scope. Finally, there is the limitation of studying only the family environment. All observations were conducted in the family home, and all other relevant data were based on self-reports. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This review of literature is presented in three parts; the first part is concerned with the conceptual and theore- tical issues related to the term "role" and to the concept of gender roles (or sex roles) in particular. Part two is a review of literature on participant observation methodol- ogy; part three is a review of literature on the methodology of the other measurement instruments used in this case study--the family history outline, the daily activity record, and the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. Conceptual and Theoretical Issues Related to Role The concept of role originally comes from the theatre and represents a part to be played, as well as the pre- scribed words and actions necessary to play it. Role theory is based on the fact that there are particular types of transactions described for particular types of relationships. Most of the work on gender roles had its beginnings in the work of George Herbert Mead. Mead's most influential endeavor, Mind, Self and Society (1934), contained his con- cept of the "looking glass self," including his propositions that an individual will (a) conceive of himself much as he 17 18 believes significant others conceive of him, and (b) tend to act in accord with expectations he imputes to these signi- ficant others concerning the manner in which he should act. Mead referred,to this process of putting oneself in the place of the other as "role-taking." Ralph Linton (1936) introduced the structural approach to the study of roles, distinguishing status as a collection of rights and duties, and roles as the dynamic aspect of status. Parsons, in 1945, defined role from the view of the action, as the normative expectations of the members of the group as formulated in its social traditions. Parsons and Bales (1955) asserted that there are two main roles in marriage--the instrumental and the expressive. The husband's role is specialized more in the instrumental direction, while the wife's role is more Specialized in the expressive direction. 'They did not imply that these functions are ex- clusive; the theory suggests that each person assumes primary responsibility for a general area. It should be noted that for Parsons and Bales, the husband and wife occupy positions of equal power. The difference between them is one of primary responsibility; the husband is primarily concerned with instrumental func- tions and secondarily with expressive functions, while for the wife the situation is reversed (Swenson, 1975). During the last decade a proliferation of studies. which challenge the Parsons and Bales theory have appeared. 19 1Among the studies which took issue with Parsons and Bales was one by Goodrich, Ryder, and Raush (1968), who found differing kinds of role orientations. Leik (1963) found the instrumental-expressive dimension tending to disappear in families. Barry (1970) reviewed the research related to the Parsons and Bales theory and concluded that there was doubt that their model actually typifies spouse interaction. 'At that point he found the field to be open to speculation. Laws (1971) in her feminist review of marital adjust- ment literature pointed out how the institutional model based on Parsons and Bales' dichotomy has become an over- simplified ideology. She indicated that the facts of Bales' original research are forgotten: the essential diphasic nature of the group (and individual) includes the alternation of task and social-emotional emphasis. She further indicated that the notion of an individual's spe- cializing in one function does not preclude the presence and valuing of traits associated with the other functions. Much research based on the role reversal hypothesis makes such an assumption. There is a trend for researchers to assume that equality among the sexes means sameness. The contention is that sex roles are a barrier to male-female equality. Rossi (1964) has criticized the lack of attention to the instrumental aspects of the wife-mother role and the assumption that the occupational role defines the con- (tent of the husband-father role. Millman (1971) observed 20 that sex role research has been biased by the Parsons and Bales model of differentiated roles which serve historical and psychological needs that are no longer appropriate. She offered Rossi's hybrid model of social equality as one where men and women pool the previously suggested traits. McIntire, Nass, and Dreyer (1972) evaluated the Parsons and Bales model cross-culturally and their data supported Broderick's (1971) conclusions that the instru- mental-expressive role model is no longer viable. They cited the need for more information regarding actual role behaviors as a basis to develop new models. During recent years much research has focused on sex role attitudes and attempts to develop a sex role attitude continuum. One attempt at this conceptualization is the equality versus inequality continuum (Meur, 1972; Lipman-Blumen, 1972; Bayer, 1975). This conceptualization, which is in keeping with the framework selected for this study, is a continuum with dichotomous differentiation and typing of social roles on the basis of sex at one end and non-differentiation and/or nontyping of roles on the basis of sex at the other end (Brabant and Garbin, 1974; Kutner and Brogan, 1974; Lipman-Blumen, 1973; Chafe, 1972). Writers such as Hefner et a1. (1974); Brabant and Garbin (1974); Kutner and Brogan (1974); Lipman-Blumen (1973); and Chafe (1972) focus on the equality-inequality continuum which attends to the female roles. The notion of egalitarianism seems to refer to the acceptance of females 21 in the occupational sphere. Seldom is there a reference to how male roles will change. Within this frame of reference, the idea of equality between the sexes is considered as liberal or modern. For this researcher, the continuum of lesser or greater degrees of sex role differentiation is selected as a conceptual basis. Hefner, et a1. (1974) refer to the "traditional" end of the continuum as the dichotomous con- ception of sex role, while the "modern" on the other hand, reflects flexible and dynamic transcendence of sex role constraints. Harold Christensen (1975) offers a model which Iexplores female equality through a re-examination and re- working of the sex role structure. He makes reference to the tendency in the literature to confuse the meanings of social differentiation and sexual inequality and to assume ‘that they are one and the same. This lack of clarity has led to the conclusion that to have equality, differences must be eliminated. To explore role structure, Christensen begins by defining social structure according to Peter Blau. Blau (1974) equates social structure and differentiation, and indicates that differentiation among people is a basic element of social structure. The Christensen model is discussed at length in Chapter I. .Christensen (1975) takes the position that sex roles are necessary because of biological differences and the need to avoid ambiguity and inefficiency. 22 Differentiation need not result in inequality, although in reality this frequently has been the case. The trend toward equality, as Christensen sees it, could be hastened by in- creasing role overlap, freedom of choice and women's access to prestigious opportunities. He also indicates that the prestige level of traditional female tasks must be increased to preserve an essential sex role structure. There are several criticisms of Christensen's model. Komarovsky (1975) insisted that the value system prevalent in American society today would not allow for increased prestige of child care and domestic tasks. Rossi (1975) agreed with Christensen's basic premise that equality is consistent with total sharing of highly differentiated home tasks, but saw the root of equality in economic self- sufficiency rather than social policy designed to increase the full-time housewife. The research reported indicates conflicting findings related to sex role differentiation. The literature also reflects criticism of the Parsons and Bales model as in- adequate for exploring contemporary role patterns. Christen- sen's model allows for an exploration of equality and dif- ferentiation similar to that conceptualized by Parsons and Bales, and has been selected as the conceptual framework for this study. It is further h0ped that this study will add data to the argument over the viability of the equality- differentiation paradigm for use in the study of families today. 23 Participant Observation The second part of this review of literature con- sists of several works in which field researchers used the method of participant observation to describe the inter- action process between people in various physical and social settings. Application of this methodology was undertaken in the now famous Street Corner Society (Whyte, 1943). This author lived in the Italian section of Boston's north end, and explored the inner workings of a group of young men whose primary interest in life was to congregate with their friends on the streetcorner. ‘From the viewpoint of the group members, Whyte described entire areas of city life. He also detailed and analyzed intra-group process, including issues such as leadership, communication patterns, and norms and expectations. This study has become a prototype of participant observation of small groups because Whyte demon- strated both the internal and external relations of the group. After discussing the impracticality of using ques- tionnaires, census data, or interview in certain cases, Liebow (1967) reasoned that participant observation may be the only viable method with which to study the more elusive figures of our society. In Tally's Corner, he described the daily life of streetcorner men in the Black ghetto of washington, D.C. Liebow concluded that the behavior of the 'streetcorner man was not so much related to his subculture 24 as it was to his way of attempting to achieve many of the goals and values of larger society, or concealing his failure from others. Lewis' study, Five Families (1959) is a classic in the application of participant observation methodology to the study of the family. The purpose of the study was to contribute to an understanding of the culture of poverty in contemporary Mexico, and of lower-class life in general. In the selection of his sample, Lewis indicated that one of the main criteria was willingness to c00perate. He con- cluded that establishment of personal ties with the family is necessary to obtain intimate data. In Blue Collar Marriage, Komarovsky (1967) attempted to discover the flavor of working class family life; to dissect, compare, abstract, generalize, and isolate the influence of social class upon marriage. In this study, observations were accompanied by flexible interviews; it was one of the first studies to also interview husbands as well as wives. The author provided valuable insight into ' the life of the blue collar family, and was able to reveal their world perspective. Henry's Pathways to Madness (1965) was a pioneering effort in intensive studies of the family. Observing five families in their native habitats, his objective was to study the relationship between a family experiencing the institutional confinement of a child and intra-family communication. The result is virtually a dictionary of 25 family communication. A recent work, Inside the Family by Kantor and Lehr (1975), incorporated observation methods to focus on the commonplace in family process, and to encompass as broad a range within that definition as possible. The authors included five types of data: -participant observer reports -tape recordings and videotapes -interviews of the whole family, subgroups, and individuals -projective test results -self reports by individual family members The commonplace was defined as the dynamics and interactions that take place, the small events that occur from moment to moment. This study necessitated a compre- hensive design in order to accomplish the purpose of devel- Oping descriptive theory of family process and to reveal the major themes and components of family process, showing how they are employed in regulating members' behavior. The important common element in these works is the author's commitment to the ideal of conducting research while living as close as possible to the social unit under study. The techniques vary from total participation to highly structured observations. The advantages of this fieldwork methodology are that it (1) enables the researcher to retain the unitary character of the social unit under study while observing it under a variety of conditions; 26 (2) enables the researcher to record the group processes as they occur over an extended period of time; (3) contains a description of the social unit; and (4) approximates the description of the total environment as seen by the member of the social unit (Scott, 1965). Measurement Instruments Part three of this review of literature contains several works in which field researchers utilized the family history, daily activity record, or the Cantril Self- Anchoring Striving Scale for the study of individuals in social settings. Family History In Family WOrlds, Hess and Handel (1959) studied five families in an effort to understand the interactional aspect of family life. The primary instrument in this study was the structured interview, one aspect of which is the family history. The family history interview was used to uncover family themes, which Handel (1967) concludes, are "central psychological processes in a family group." Imig (1977) augmented her participant observation study of a dual career family with a family history inter- view. She concluded that historical information is impor- tant in understanding the current family situation; it helps place the data in perspective with the family's development. 27 Daily Activity Record Doris Dyer (1962), in studying values as reflected in activities of students' wives, employed a self-report activity record, based on the subject's recall of the previous day's activities; responses included the subject's reaSons for their activities. Dyer then classified the reasons into value categories as identified by Clough (1960). walker and WOods (1976) developed a self-report activity record for a study of time use in household pro- duction. Using categories of activities they identified, they classified all reported activities for discussion of production of goods and services within the family. Infor- mation solicited by the activity record was name of activity, length of activity, location of activity, and persons involved in the activity. Boulding (1976) studied ten Colorado families for one week through the use of a self-report daily activity record. Reports were made at fifteen-minute intervals; name of activity, persons involved in the activity, by whose initiative the activity was performed, and for whom it was performed were the types of information requested for a study of the human services dimension of family activity. Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale Cantril and Free (1962) presented, in full, the Cantril Self—Anchoring Striving Scale, as well as a study of 28 a national sample of individuals' hopes and fears, using the instrument. They compared and measured human concerns for both themselves and the country (including government), and concluded (Cantril, 1963) that the study was par- ticularly valuable for placing the individual'sthpes and fears in personal perspective, rather than placing them in comparison with others perspectives. Stevens (1964) applied the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale to a study and comparison of the aspirations of married student husbands and their wives. She modified the Scale to only include references to aspirations and fears for self and family, although the coding remained the same . CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The methodology incorporated into this study ex- ploring the role behavior patterns of a single career nu- clear family is described in seven major divisions of this chapter. A general discussion of the methodology and sampling procedure of participant observation, the methodology of the auxillary measurement instruments used in this study, the selection process and criteria, entry into the field, recording the data, coding, tabulation, and analysis, and reflections on the procedures will be presented. Participant_Observation According to Becker (1958) the participant observer gathers data by participating in the daily life of a group or organization. The researcher observes the people to see what situations they ordinarily meet and how they be- have in them, and enters into their conversations and dis- covers their interpretations of the events observed. This method is used when researchers are interested in under- standing a particular organization or phenomenon rather than demonstrating relations between abstract variables. It is assumed that an exploratory study is necessary 29 30 to describe the phenomenon and to identify relevant problems. Participant observation methodology was selected for this study for several reasons. First, since the focus of this study was on role behaviors, survey methodo- logies were rejected in favor of direct observation of role performance. Another focus of this study was on the dynamics of the family interaction patterns. Participant observation methodology allowed the researcher to enter into the family unit to observe the dynamics and processes of setting and changing role patterns. Additionally, the method of participant observation was selected to allow the researcher to explore role behaviors within the whole family setting. This afforded the Opportunity to observe other factors which have a significant influence on role behavior. Participant observation methodology, as indicated in Chapter II, has been used in a variety of studies from small groups to entire cultures. Yet, the questions of reliability and validity of the method remain. However, Kerlinger (1966) suggests that participant observation can help assure the validity of what is measured. Bruyn (1966) indicated that the participant observation approach has been demonstrated to be more reliable than other formal, empirical methods; Blumer (1966) also supports the reliabil- ity of participant observation methodology, pointing out 31 that in one's attempt to remain objective as an observer, one risks interpretative subjectivism. There are a number of variations to the methodology of participant observation (McCall and Simons, 1969). _Four variations of the observational role can be distin- guished. These range from complete participation, where the observer never makes his true identity known, to the complete observer, as seen in an experimental setting 'where the researcher does not directly participate in the events under study. Between these two extremes there exist the participant-as-observer and the observer-as-participant. The latter role is best illustrated in a survey, where the interviewer only meets his respondent once in a fleeting, often stranger-like relationship. The participant-as- observer represents a common use of the observational methOd; the observer makes his presence known, but attempts as fully as possible to become a "normal" and "acceptable" person within the group's activities. The researcher in this study used the role of par- 'ticipant-as-observer. Entrance into the family was ex- plained on the basis of the role as an observer. Measurement Instruments Family History Handel (1967) observed that the individual is embedded in the total family process; hence historical information is essential for placing other family data in 32 perspective with the family's development. It was selected for use in this study for these reasons. The family history outline used in this study is similar to the one used by Hess and Handel (1959); the primary difference is that the information was not gathered using the method of a structured interview in this study. Instead, most informa- I tion was volunteered by the subjects in regular conversation during observations. In a few instances, the researcher .asked direct questions to solicit the information. See Appendix A for a copy of the family history outline. Daily Activity Record Chapin (1974) assumes that studying human activity patterns is a means to identify the interface between human activity and the environment in which it occurs. He also states that survey research can be done through a checklist of precategorized activities, a field listing of the pre- ceding day's activities, or a diary of the following day's activities. A self-report activity record was develOped for this study, based on the ones previously designed by Dyer (1962) and Boulding (1976); included were categories for name of activity, length of activity (report by fifteen-minute intervals), persons involved in the activity, who initiated the activity, for whom the activity was performed, and the reason for the activity. Both husband and wife reported activity records for a weekday and a Saturday to accumulate 33 information for a wide range of activities, both occupa- tional and domestic. See Appendix A for a sample sheet of the daily activity record. Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale According to Cantril and Kilpatrick (1960), a self-anchoring scale is simply a scale in which each re- spondent is asked to describe, in terms of his own percep- tions, goals, and values,_the top and bottom, or anchoring points, of the dimension on which scale measurement is desired and then to employ this self-defined continuum as a measuring device. In this study, the Cantril Self- Anchoring Striving Scale was utilized as described above; the form of this scale as modified by Stevens (1964) was administered to the husband and wife as a unit in an attempt to uncover family aspirations and fears, and family themes. See Appendix A for a copy of the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale as used in this study. Selection Process and Criteria It is worth noting at this point that the data used for this thesis was drawn from a larger study, All University Research Project No. 11054, "Illustrating a Family Eco- system: A Case Study,? on which this researcher worked as the research aide. Hence, the selection process and criteria were also drawn from that study. ' ' ‘ 3. 34 Although participant observation is used in this study to test a priori hypotheses, the intent of this study was primarily to describe relationships between concepts-- a case study; hence, randomness of selection of the research sample was not important. McCall and Simmons (1969) suggest that sampling is theoretical in participant observation studies, with the goal of generating propositions, rather than providing evidence. Thus, the following criteria were established as a basis for selection of the research sample: 1. Professional training of both spouses; the husband engaged in a career full-time, and the wife engaged in homemaking full-time. 2. Marriage of partners. 3. Children, preferably of preschool or early elementary school age. Since the focus was on role he- haviors, a family with a wide array of conjugal roles was desired. 4. Locale. A family with a residence within the greater Lansing-East Lansing area was needed for ease of data collection. 5. Willingness of the family to c00perate. In addition to these criteria, it was the intent of this researcher not to include families representative of ethnic or racial minorities; these factors would con- stitute additional variables with which the researcher was not prepared to deal. 35 Although a list of possible families for the study was compiled during the initial phase of the research project, the family which participated in this study was tentatively identified at the beginning; they were among personal acquaintances. Upon contacting the wife of this family, and determining the family's interest in the study and apparent willingness to participate, an initial inter- view was scheduled; this meeting was subsequently can- celled and rescheduled by the subjects, due to "having had a bad day" the date of the originally scheduled interview. Because of the personal nature of the methodol- ogy, the family's willingness to cooperate was a prime consideration in final selection of the subjects; reluc- tance to cooperate could have resulted in an incomplete study. The Rogers family met the criteria established for the study family: 1. Both spouses had been professionally trained at large state universities; the husband was employed full- time in a career with the State of Michigan; the wife was engaged full-time in homemaking. 2. They had been married for over six years. 3. They had three children, all girls--Anne, 5 years; Kim, 2 1/2 years; and Mary, 2 months. 4. The family resided in a subdivision in the greater Lansing area, approximately five miles from the Michigan State University campus. 36 5. The family indicated that they were very willing to c00perate. Entry Into the Field As in any field study in the behavioral sciences, entry into the field must be planned very carefully; this is especially true in the case of a family. Although families are open systems in many respects, they are semi-closed systems emotionally, with tightly knit inter- personal relationships. Thus, they are cautious about allowing outsiders to permeate their boundaries. With this in mind, a gradual entry into the field was planned. The first step was the initial interview. It was arranged that the research project leader and I would visit the Rogers home for an evening meeting to discuss the research. Tuesday, March 8, we arrived at the Rogers' house at 7:15 P.M. When we arrived, Nancy was giving Mary a bottle of formula; Gene had taken Anne and Kim to the student art exhibit at Anne‘s elementary school, and they didn't arrive home until about 8:00 P.M. Meanwhile, Nancy, the research project leader, and I talked--about the baby, my academic program, the weather, etc. After Gene and the girls arrived home from the art exhibit, we discussed the children's artwork (some of Anne's was displayed at the school that evening) and other accomplishments, the new televiSion set, the Rogers' 37 tentative plans for a vacation, and the research project. This conversation was interspersed with comments from Anne and Kim, who seemed to be eager to acquaint them- selves with the guests, and to "show-off." We explained the nature of the research project, what types of behaviors (including role behaviors) we wished to study, the measurement instruments to be used, and the nature of participant observation methodology. They both expressed interest in the study, as well as pride that they should be selected as the study family. They also expressed willingness to cooperate, which was exemplified by their offer for me to spend overnight with them, "We even have recently purchased this sofa sleeper you could sleep on." Recording the Data The decision was made to work out an observation schedule which would meet the researcher's needs and also be agreeable to the family. Since there were doctor's appointments, visits to and from relatives and friends planned, etc. to be worked around, and since the researcher wished to observe family interaction including all family members, much of the schedule tended to be haphazard. However, it finally worked out well; the final schedule is as follows: 38 March 8 -- Initial Interview March 16 -- Observation March 19 -- Observation March 22 -- Daily Activity Record March 23 -- Observation March 30 -- Observation April 1 -- Observation April 4 -— Observation I April 5 -- Observation, Cantril Scale 4 April 13 -- Observation E April 20 -- Observation April 22 -- Observation April 23 -- Observation, Daily Activity Record April 29 -- Observation May 3 -- Observation A total of 130 hours of observation was completed by the researcher. Additionally, two hours were devoted to the administration of the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale; 96 hours were reported in the daily ac- tivity record. The total time for data colledtion was 228 hours over an eight week period of time. The research questions formulated for this study were used to guide and focus the observations and the recording of data. The observations centered on behaviors and behavior patterns. Extensive field notes were made of the observations, some during "stolen moments" while observ- ing, others after observations were over and the researcher 39 had left the study family. All behaviors were recorded until patterns of per- formance were established, and then exceptions were noted. Many parts of conversation were recorded, including some direct quotes. Coding, Tabulation, and Analysis Participant Observation Data Coding, tabulation, and analysis of the detailed observation data was facilitated by a classification system for activities. Since both instrumental and expressive behaviors were considered under the equality-differentiation schema used in this study as the conceptual framework, it was necessary to identify a classification system which included categories for all types of behaviors and activi- ties. Boulding (1976) developed a classification system for human service activities within the family; Walker and woods (1976) develOped a classification system for activi- ties regarding production of goods and services within the family. Thus, combining the two classification systems was ideal. Appendix B contains code categories for the activities classified. Observations and discourse enhancing the researcher's understanding of behaviors and the total ecosystem were noted; events and statements were combined into tentative statements about situations. Much effort went into careful coding of the data; data were read and reread many times 40 to locate observations and statements which supported or refuted tentative conclusions. Statements and observa- tions were grouped and regrouped as new insights were gained, especially as the result of relating data from the different instruments used in this study. At the end of the sorting process there was left a sizable amount of data relating to children's activities, Gene's career, and personal conversations which were not included in this study. Only that data which directly related to the research questions were incorporated into this thesis. Daily Activity Record All activities reported on the daily activity records were classified according to the same coding system as presented in Appendix B, as were the data collected through observation. Additionally, the data reported on this instru- ment were quantified, in terms of minutes per day, as to the length of time spent in various activities, both instrumental and expressive; see Table 1 for this data, in Chapter IV. As indicated earlier in this chapter, the reasons for which the members of this family performed behaviors and activities were reported on the daily activity record. These reasons were solicited for the information they could yield about values and family themes. Hence, a classifica- tion system for coding the Rogers' reasons into value 41 categories was identified. Based on the work of Dyer (1962), the nine values identified were health, aesthetics, family . centrism, friendship, freedom, education, economy, prestige, and religion. Each value category was then tabulated, both in terms of total numbers and in percentages of the total. For an explicit description see Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Chapter IV. Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale Coding of the Rogers' responses to the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale was facilitated by specific coding instructions for the scale develOped by Cantril (1962). See Appendix B for a complete code as modified by Stevens (1964), and as used in this study. Each response was coded accordingly; results are presented in Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7 in Chapter IV,along with a description of present and future ladder ratings and the Rogers' reasons given in support of those ratings. Family History As indicated earlier in this chapter, the family history outline was used to facilitate the gathering of information relative to family development. Thus, it puts other data collected in perspective and does not require any coding or tabulation. 42 Reflections on the Procedure It became evident early in this study that issues regarding research ethics were confronting this researcher. Unlimited access to the study family was desired, yet to place additional stress on the Rogers family was equally undesirable; hence, the aforementioned "haphazard" schedule of observations resulted. However, the family was relatively flexible except for a few occasions. Although interference with family routines was not desirable to this researcher, she did participate to some extent in family activities. Except for mornings, when she I arrived after the Rogers' breakfast, she typically ate 5 meals with the family, bringing food to contribute to the meals. (The family was not paid for their participation in the study.) When behavior patterns were established for certain tasks, such as meal preparation and clean-up, the researcher attempted to assist. The children would fre- quently ask the researcher to play a game or read a story, and generally, responses were made to these requests. CHAPTER IV THE FAMILY This chapter begins with a description of the family, their physical environment and community; it also includes my":- I( family history data, data from the Cantril Self-Anchoring 1 'c” 434' 'I Striving Scale, and a section on family organization, cover4 ing data from both observations and the daily activity i record. Community and Physical Environment This study began early in March 1977. All of the observations were conducted in the home of the Rogers family--Gene and Nancy, and their children, Anne, Kim, and Mary. They live in a large subdivision in the greater Lansing-East Lansing area, located about five miles from the campus of Michigan State University and about three miles from the downtown business district of Lansing. The area is suburban, rapidly beComing more urban, yet with rural areas not far away also. The subdivision's residents represent a cross- section of middle class families. The neighbors include <=ivil servants employed by the State of Michigan, teachers, and business people. Most of the homes in the subdivision 43 44 have market prices of between $30,000 and $50,000. The Rogers bought their home late summer 1976, from the family who previously owned the house. They previously lived in a smaller, older house in a lower income area of Lansing; since purchasing their current home, they have re- tained ownership of the other house, and rent it. The Rogers' home is a two-story colonial located on an average size subdivision lot. There are houses on both sides, but not directly behind their home (all of the back- yards on this block are open to each other). Appendix C shows the floor plan of the Rogers' home. The front entry Opens directly into the living room; the formal dining room is behind the living room. Descending into the front entry from the second story of the house is a stairway. To the left and through an archway, from the front entry, is the family room; behind the family room is a lavatory and informal dining area. Between the dining area and the dining room is the kitchen; from the kitchen leads another stairway to the large unfinished basement. The basement is the site of the laundry area, a play area for the children, and storage area. The second story of the Rogers' home contains four bedrooms and two bathrooms; two bedrooms and one bathroom face the front and the back of the house, respectively. The smallest bedroom is used as an office for Gene. The other bedrooms are used as the master bedroom, a nursery, and one is shared by Anne and Kim. 45 A large sliding glass door leads off the formal dining room to a patio area and the backyard. Patio furni- ture, a gas grill, sandbox for the children, and playset for the children constitute the backyard setting. A door from the two-car garage (at the other end of the house from the dining room) also Opens onto the backyard. Most of the activity of this family takes place in the family room, dining area, and kitchen of the house. I observed the living room used only once, and the formal dining room was used only during a time period that a second crib was located in that room. The basement is used, with any frequency, only for laundry. Family History Historical information is important as it helps to place other data in perspective with family development. Historical information about Gene's and Nancy's lives are included in this section. Gene Rogers--Gene was born in the greater Lansing- East Lansing area in 1941, the youngest of three boys. Gene's mother was a full-time homemaker; his father was a dentist. Both of Gene's parents passed away in 1975. Gene attended a large public high school where he was a "B” student. He elected a college prep curriculum, and was active in school, both socially and athletically. Gene considers his family of orientation to be "average"; his parents' relationship to each other as well WW-_lwr—Ee‘- www- 46 as to the children was "warm, close, but not too close." He also characterizes his parents' roles as "traditional." Gene's relationships with his brothers today reflect their ”average" upbringing--they are warm with each other, but maintain a "pleasant distance." Gene feels as if his brothers' achievements "overshadow" his own somewhat, but also sees age as a mediating factor in achievement. Both Gene's brothers and their families reside in the greater Lansing-East Lansing area; their professions are University executive and dentist. Gene's family was very religious--Roman Catholic. Religion has been a strong influence in Gene's life, and both he and Nancy verbalize its continuing importance in their lives; they consider themselves to be very religious. It was always assumed that Gene would go to college and study to become a doctor. Thus, he began his college career at a large state university as a major in zoology. "Somewhere along the line," as Gene puts it, he decided that his desire in life was not to be a doctor; hence, he changed his major to social science, receiving his 8.8. in that field. Until nearly two years ago, Gene held various jobs, some professional and some occupational. At that time he began to work for the State of Michigan in a professional position; since that time he has also begun to pursue, part- time, an M.A. in a related field. win 47 Nancy Rogers--Nancy was born in a large Midwestern city in 1947, the second youngest of ten children. Nancy's mother was a full-time homemaker; her father was a salesman for a large corporation. They retired to southern California a few years ago. 4 Nancy attended parochial schools throughout her childhood and youth--her family was very religious Roman Catholic. In school she elected a college prep curriculum, and was a good student, earning A's and B's. Her extra- curricular activities were limited, as she held a part—time job throughout high school. Nancy considers her family of orientation to be 4 "warm, but distant"; this is partially accounted for by the distance in ages between the many children--when Nancy was born, the older children were already preparing or beginning to leave home. Additionally, relations between Nancy's father and other family members were strained; she characterizes her parents relationship as very tradi- tional. Today, the family members and their families reside in several different locations throughout the U.S.; their relations tend yet to be "warm, but distant." Nancy left home after graduating from high school to attend a large state university to study nursing. However, she dropped out of the nursing curriculum after one year, "because I didn't like it," and changed her major to elementary education. Upon completion of the B.A., she received a teaching certificate, and moved to the greater 48 Lansing-East Lansing area to begin teaching. Nancy had begun dating in college, although there never had been any “serious” relationships. When she moved to the greater Lansing-East Lansing area, she became in- volved in a group of singles and enjoyed herself; however, she became bored with "going to the bars and such," and began to have thoughts of marriage. She met Gene after having lived in the area for about one year; they were mar- :4 ried about eight months later. E The Rogers--When Gene and Nancy first met, he was T working at Oldsmobile on the assembly line; she was teaching elementary school in a local school district. They describe e3 their courtship as "comfortable; a good relationship." They were married in a small Roman Catholic ceremony. Nancy found herself pregnant soon, and thus, was asked to resign from her teaching position byja conservative school administration--before the end of the school year; she complied. Gene continued with his job at Oldsmobile. The couple described few adjustment problems which they encountered during the first several months of marriage; however, Nancy became depressed after she left her teaching position--sitting around the apartment all day with relative- ly little to do was no help. This was a strain on both Nancy and Gene. Nancy began consuming herself in domestic tasks.' She ihad always expected to "take care of home and family," and She had a baby's arrival to prepare for. Anne was born in 49 September 1971, and Nancy's domestic tasks became very time-consuming; she truly became a "homemaker." Kim was born in July 1973; Mary in January 1977. During this time period, Gene held several jobs-- after Oldsmobile, he worked for the Goodrich Tire Co., did some public school substitute teaching, worked as a painter, and did several Odd jobs. However, during this time Gene and Nancy never considered the Option of her going back to teaching; they are in agreement that Nancy should/ will stay at home with the children at least until the youngest is in school full days. With regard to the issue of Nancy returning to work, it is important to note that there remains some question in the Rogers' minds about additional children. Gene very much wants a son, and hence, would "like to have another child"; Nancy remains unsure. She feels that it would be unwise, financially, for them to have another child in the next few years; she also feels that it would be unwise to have another child, as her doctor has cautioned her against it. She also struggles within herself over related religious issues-~contraception and sterilization. Recently, the Rogers have discussed the possibility of Nancy returning to school for a master's degree. Al- though she is somewhat envious of her husband's job and current academic work, she also realizes that it would be too much for her to handle at this time if she returned to school; she sees it as likely that when the youngest child 50 is in school that she may return for her master's degree then. When discussing goals for the next ten years, Gene and Nancy see a career advancement for him and the comple- tion of his M.A. Nancy may or may not return to school for her M.A. and/or return to teaching. Their other goals for the next ten years revolve around a good family life, including recreation and travel. Cantril Self-Anchoring StrivingyScale Present and Future Ladder Ratings The ladder rating section of the Cantril Self- Anchoring Striving Scale is a ten point scale with ten rep- resenting the best possible life that the respondents could see for themselves, and zero represented the worst possible life; see Appendix A for a sample of this instrument as used in this study. The Rogers rated themselves as presently on rung six of the ladder. They rated themselves to be on rung seven or eight of the ladder ten years from now. The reasons given in support of the Rogers' present ladder rating fall into the categories of "financial reasons" and "aspirations yet to be realized." More specifically, they felt that they had finally begun to achieve a sense of financial security, and yet there was much growth potential for that security in Gene's job. They also expressed that they felt that the bulk of their family responsibility is Yet to come, since their children are all under the age of ‘; lb; .. “'7. 0' ' '1 . ..r ‘ .43- 51 six. Additionally, the Rogers stated that they were just beginning to realize the aSperation of travel and leisure time, with much of it yet to come. For more on the coding of the Rogers' responses to this instrument, see Appendix B. The reasons given in support of the Rogers' future ladder rating fall into the categories of "financial reasons," ”family life,” and "religion." They expressed that Gene's pursuit of further academic work, as well as financial 'planning would be instrumental in attaining a greater degree of financial security. Within the category of "family life," a good education for the children, "good" parenting (”mother not working outside of the home"), and enriching family activities were stressed. Finally, regular church attendance and Sunday School for the children were emphasized as means of achieving a satisfactory family life. Aspirations and Fears Expressed The Rogers expressed aspirations in six categories: personal character; personal economic situation; job or work situation; other references to self; other references to family; and religion, morality, and public service. Figure 4 cites the categories in which aspirations were expressed, and the Rogers reasons for citing those aspira- tions as well; Figure 5 cites categories in which no aspira- tions were expressed. WHEY-'3! - 'him‘m‘l'»mn_ Jen-‘1 52 Figure 4. Aspirations expressed by the Rogers family. Own Personal Character Emotional stability and maturity Be a normal, decent person Self-development or improvement Achieve a sense of personal worth Personal Economic Situation Improved or decent standard of living for self or family Miscellaneous money for recreation and travel money for housing improvements, conveniences Job or WOrk Situation Good job, congenial work Success Other References to Self Recreation, travel, leisure time Other References to Family Happy family life, Relatives Health of family Children Religion, Morality, Public Service Desire to be useful to others . , - tl' _‘ vWfiN-éizl'. in.“ 53 Figure 5. Categories in which no aspirations were expressed. Own Personal Character Acceptance by others Resolution of one's own religious, spiritual, or ethical problems To lead a disciplined life Personal Economic Situation Own business Own land or own farm House Modern conveniences Wealth Job or WOrk Situation Employment Other References to Self Health Happy old age Political Freedom General Economic Situation Economic stability Social Social justice Future generations Social security 54 The Rogers expressed fears in four categories: personal economic situation; job or work situation; other references to self; and other references to family. Figure 6 cites these categories, as well as the given reasons for these citations; Figure 7 cites categories in which no fears were expressed. Figure 6. Fears expressed by the Rogers family. Personal Economic Situation Deterioration in or inadequate standard of living for self or family Job or WOrk Situation Unemployment Other References to Self Ill health, accident or death Other References to Family No or unhappy family life Relatives Ill health, accident or death Children Fmflnm<-J-“ M _ Figure 55 7. Categories in which no fears were expressed Own Personal Character Job or Emotional instability or immaturity Become anti-social or take to crime No self-development or improvement Not be accepted by others No sense of personal worth To be a person without character WOrk Situation Poor job, uncongenial work Failure Other References to Self To be dependent on others Political Lack of freedom No improvement in present government Political instability General Economic Situation Social Economic instability Deterioration in or inadequate standard of living for nation or group Social injustice Future generations No social security Religion, Morality, Public Service Not to be useful to others Spiritual, ethical, moral, or religious disintegra- tion, deterioration, or complacency on the part of society. 56 Family Organization Typically, families develop some forms of organiza- tion to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. This section addresses itself to the means of organization utilized by the Rogers family. Data from both the observations and the daily activity record will be discussed; data from the daily activity record will include both time use data and data on family themes and values. RESEARCH QUESTION ONE: How do family members orga- nize and perform tasks? To describe the family organization, a schedule for a typical weekday is presented: 5:30 Alarm awakens GENE; he arises and grooms and dresses - 6:00 GENE prepares his own breakfast and eats 6:15 GENE leaves for work, arriving about 75 minutes later 7:30 NANCY arises; goes downstairs and prepares for the day by doing small household tasks 7:45 Mary awakens; NANCY gets her up, changes her, feeds her, nurtures and plays with her 8:30 Anne and Kim awaken and arise; NANCY puts Mary to bed 8:45 'NANCY, Anne and Kim eat breakfast together 9:00 NANCY, Anne, and Kim go upstairs, get dressed, make beds, pick up, etc. 9 45 Children watch TV; NANCY performs household tasks 10:30 NANCY's "coffeebreak"; she also helps Anne with her reading readiness books ‘A~_A‘ ‘ .‘ ‘.\—‘¢nfi7{'~l'\17 i we-.. g; 11:00 11:30 11:45 12:00 12:15 12:30 Oh .0 00 4:30 5:30 57 NANCY supervises an art project for the children; she also continues with household tasks NANCY cleans up after the children while they watch TV; she prepares their lunch NANCY, Anne and Kim eat lunch NANCY and Kim finish lunch, as Anne leaves for school NANCY cleans up after lunch NANCY helps Kim go outdoors to play; calls neighbor to ask for Kim's friend to come over and play with Kim NANCY watches a TV soap Opera and writes a letter Mary awakens; NANCY prepares her food, changes her, and feeds her NANCY puts Kim down for a nap; continues feeding Mary and changes her again NANCY nurtures and plays with Mary; puts her to bed NANCY's afternoon "break"; she eats a piece of fruit NANCY greets Anne's arrival home from school; looks over her papers and talks with her about the day Kim awakens; NANCY gives the children a snack; prods Anne to change her clothes to play; per- forms small household tasks NANCY begins to prepare supper; the children either help her (making pudding, etc) or play outside Mary awakens; NANCY changes her and attends her during her "fussy time" NANCY puts Mary in the baby seat sitting on the table and resumes supper preparation GENE arrives home from work; Anne and Kim follow him into the house; GENE sits down and talks with all in his family; NANCY sets the table for supper 58 5:45 GENE, NANCY, Anne, and Kim eat supper 6:15 Supper finished, Anne and Kim go outdoors to play; GENE and NANCY talk 6:30 GENE prepares to leave for his class at the university; NANCY prepares Mary's meal 6:40 GENE leaves for his class; NANCY feeds Mary, changes her, bathes her, readies her for bed 7:30 NANCY puts Mary to bed for the night; begins after meal clean-up tasks , as! :' 8:00 NANCY calls the children in from play; gives them their bath, readies them for bed 8:30 NANCY reads the children a story, listens to their prayers, says goodnight 8:45 NANCY returns to the kitchen and finishes the , clean-up tasks . ; 9:00 NANCY takes her bath, etc. 9:30 NANCY reads a book or watches TV 10:00 GENE arrives home from class; GENE and NANCY talk 10:30 GENE and NANCY retire for the evening It is important and interesting to note that while Gene typically devotes little, or no, time to household tasks on weekdays, the Rogers' schedule is somewhat differ— ent on weekends; he participates in both the household tasks and in child care on the weekends, although he normally attends those household tasks usually delegated to men (i.e., taking care Of the yardwork and care of the cars). Sundays are typically family days in the Rogers household, although some household tasks are yet attended. Beginning with a large family breakfast, and continuing the day with church and Sunday School attendance, and a large 59 family meal in the afternoon, the day is family-oriented. They often take a long drive in the car or engage in some fun activity together on Sundays. Daily Activity Record As indicated earlier in this thesis, the members of the Rogers family reported their activities for two differ- ent days, one weekday and one Saturday, on this instrument. Recorded were length of time of activity (reports were by fifteen-minute intervals), name of activity, who the activity was done with, for whom the activity was done, who initiated the activity, and the reason for the activity. The activities were coded into sixteen categories (see Appendix B for the code categories) and quantified in terms of number of minutes per day spent in the various activities; Table 5 presents this data. It is both interesting and important to note that Table 1 shows that Gene participates in household tasks and child care on weekdays to a much larger extent than pre- viously indicated. This is due to the fact that the weekday recordings of the daily activity record were made on March 22--a date when Gene was not attending class because of the Spring break at the university. However, it brings important information to evidence regarding his behavior were classes not limiting. ‘F a '1 #11. _“v r ; Lame? we, ‘7' 'r‘ 60 Table 1. Number of minutes per day spent in various activities. Activity Weekday Saturday Gene Nancy Gene Nancy Sleep 510 630 435 390 Eating 120 100 95 75 Transportation 150 30 45 20 Paid Work 426 0 0 0 Personal Grooming 45 45 60 165 .Household Care/ Maintenance 75 210 125 275 Management 0 0 165 60 Child Care 80 285 60 190 Conversation/ Communication 180 210 170 140 Creative Activities 0 45 0 0 Physical Sports 0 60 0 60 Reflective ' 30 30 9O 90 School-Related 0 90 15 0 Social Life/ Entertainment 0 0 180 180 Spectator Activities 0 0 0 15 Waiting 150 30 60 0 Reasons given on the daily activity record for acti- vities were coded into nine value categories, and then quan- tified to indicate important family values and themes. -—A e.- ‘-__ ‘ 'a M‘.‘ 61 Description of activities within value categories-- The total number of activities assigned to each value cate- gory by both husband and wife were examined. This section describes the different kinds of activities which were inter- preted by Gene and Nancy as those mediating the value des- cribed. It must be kept in mind that an activity could mediate more than one value depending upon why (for what reason) it was performed. Health--The Rogers family assigned a total of 59 _ ." “4‘ tflthm'ia'nefl activities (both weekdays and Saturdays) as mediating the value of health. This category ranked first both in total number and in percent of activities. The majority of acti- vities had to do with meeting physical needs of family mem-' bers; they centered around meal preparation, feeding family members, and caring for the children. Aesthetics--The Rogers family cited 32 activities (both weekdays and Saturdays) as mediating the value of aesthetics. This category ranked second in total number of activities for Nancy on a Saturday, and fifth in total number of activities for her on a weekday. This category ranked fourth in total number of activities for Gene on a Saturday, and ranked fifth for him (as were friendship and education) in total number of activities for him on a weekday. The majority of these activities were concerned with household tasks, so that the environment would express a certain aesthetic feeling. 62 Table 2. Total number and percent of activities in nine value categories: Nancy's weekday activities I 7' 4 7‘9“ . 'v'JalerHF‘IkA’I 51,34” Value Category 22323125. $332212: Health 22 34.92 Aesthetics 8 12.70 Family Centrism 12 19.05 Friendship l 1.59 Freedom 9 14.28 Education 10 15.87 Economy 0 0.00 Prestige 0 0.00 Religion 1 1.59 TOTAL 63 100.00 Family Centrism--The Rogers family assigned 24 activities to the value of family centrism. This category ranked second in total number of activities for Nancy on a weekday, and ranked fourth (as did friendship) in total number of activities for her on a Saturday. This category ranked second in total number of activities for Gene on a weekday, and fifth (as were friendship and education) for him on a Saturday. The majority of these activities were social in nature and involved other family members of the immediate family. Examples of these activities were reading stories to children, helping children with art play or 63 Table 3. Total number and percent of activities in nine value categories: Gene's weekday activities. P.‘ “I‘m-Imam“ . ‘ " _- . a - Value Category i:§§§§t::s iziisntigg Health 7 34.83 Aesthetics 1 ' 5.26 Family Centrism 4 21.06 Friendship 1 5.26 Freedom 3 15.79 Education 1 5.26 Economy - 2 10.53 Prestige 0 0:00 Religion 0 0.00 TOTAL 19 100.00 homework, and watching television with other family members. Other types of activities which did not directly involve other family members were means toward a future interaction situation; exemplary of this kind of activitiy was getting up in the morning to arrange for the family breakfast. Friendship--Ten activities (both weekdays and Satur- days) were assigned to the value category of friendship. This category ranked sixth (as did religion) in total number of activities for Nancy on a weekday, and ranked fourth (as did family centrism) in total number of activities for her 64 Table 4. Total number and percent of activities in nine value categories: Nancy's Saturday activities. Value Category 2233332. {SET-.3212: Health 21 35.00 Aesthetics 18 30.00 Family Centrism 5 8.34 Friendship s 8 . 34 PM '1 Freedom 7 11 . 66 Education 2 3.33 q Economy 2 3.33 Prestige 0 0.00 L? Religion 0 0.00 TOTAL 60 100.00 on a Saturday. This category ranked fifth (as did aesthetics and education) in total number of activities for Gene on a weekday, and ranked fifth (as did family centrism and education) in total number of activities for him on a Saturday. The friendship activities were social in nature and involved persons outside the immediate family. Activi- ties cited were going out to a dance, talking with or writing to friends or relatives. Freedom--Twentv-eight activities were assigned to the value category of freedom. This category ranked fourth in total number of activities for Nancy on a weekday, and third 65 Table 5. Total number and percent of activities in nine value categories: Gene's Saturday activities. Value Category REESE; $233231: Health 11 27.50 Aesthetics 5 12.50 Famiy Centrism 3 7.50 Friendship 3 7.50 Fhm Freedom 9 22.50 I Education 3 7.50 Economy 6 15.00 ; Prestige 0 0 . 00 51,53 Religion 0 0.00 TOTAL 40 100.00 in total number for her on a Saturday. This category ranked third in total number of activities for Gene on a weekday, and ranked second in total number of activities on a Satur- day for him. Freedom was expressed in going out of the house ‘for walks, rides, and visits. The activities which mediated freedom often did not include other family members; many of these activities concerned personal care. Education--Sixteen activities were assigned to the value of education. This category ranked third in total number of activities for Nancy on a weekday, and ranked fifth (as did economy) in total number of activities for her on a 66 Saturday. This category ranked fifth (as did friendship) in total number of activities for Gene on a weekday, and also ranked fifth (as were family centrism and friendship) in total number of activities for him on a Saturday. These activities included reading by one self, renewing library books, and study time. Economy--Ten activities were assigned to the value of economy. This category ranked last (with prestige) for Nancy {ml in total number of activities on a weekday, and ranked fifth (as did education) for her in total number on a Saturday. This category ranked fourth for Gene in total number of r we; ._‘_ activities on a weekday, and ranked third for him on a Satur- fl: day. These activities included Gene's work attendance, marketing, and making payments. Prestige--Neither Nancy or Gene assigned any activi- ties to the value of prestige. Religion--Only one activitiy was assigned to the value of religion; this activitiy was assigned by Nancy on a week- day, ranking sixth (as did friendship) in her total number of activities for that day. The activity mediated by this value was helping the children to say their bedtime prayers. Since the Rogers are regular in their church attendance, it is evident that the value of religion would be mediated on Sun- days (a day on which the activity record was not reported). However, the value of religion was frequently stressed in conversation with the researcher, and it was evident in be- haviors observed. 67 The Rogers' daily schedule seems to be planned around Gene's professional and academic pursuits on the one hand, and on the other, it is planned around Nancy's role as a mother and homemaker. A high premium is placed on Gene's role in the workplace. RESEARCH QUESTION TWO: What forms of support does the family use and for what tasks? I The primary form of support used by the Rogers family is energy consuming appliances, equipment, and vehicles. Two cars are a must for the family, since Gene travels about 80 to 85 miles each weekday. Nancy does not use a car every- i “day, but must have one at her disposal to use for doctor's appointments for the children, running errands (since Gene works away from Lansing, he frequently asks Nancy to run errands for him), grocery shopping, etc. One car is a five year-old compact car, the other is a year old--a midSized Oldsmobile; they average 25 and 20 miles per gallon respectively. n The Rogers own many appliances, using them frequently. Electrical applicances used in the home include clothes washer and dryer, dishwasher, garbage disposal, vacuum cleaner, blender, mixer, and assorted other small applicances. A lawn mower and gas grill are used outdoors. Gene men- tioned that he'd like to own a roto-tiller and thatcher, but for the present, he settles for renting them for those Ichores for which they're needed. 68 Additionally , the Rogers mentioned Several times that one of their aspirations for the future is to accumu- late further applicances and ”modern conveniences." Supportive services utilized by the Rogers are occa- sional babysitting and the Weight watchers_group which Nancy regularly attends. These meetings are times when the baby- sitting is utiliZed, since she attends on evenings when Gene attends class. Additionally, church can be considered a supportive service for this family; the majority of their activities, outside of the family, Gene's job and schooling, revolve around the Church. They often attend social events sponsored by either their parish or another local parish. Summar ! In summary, this chapter described the Rogers family lifestyle. Included is a description of the home and com- munity in which they live. Brief life histories are included in an effort to understand how family background and earlky socialization influence behavior patterns. A description of the family's methods of organization is in- cluded as a basis for answering research question one; both observation data and data from the daily activity record is included, as well as data from the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. The data related to research question two included a description of systems of support used by the family. 69 Family background, organization, and support systems were included as items which would assist in the develop- ment of a total understanding of the Rogers family life- style. CHAPTER V DIFFERENTIATION AND EQUALITY Based on the conceptual framework presented in Chapter I, this chapter will include a presentation, analysis, and discussion of data related to the equality-differentiation framework--research questions three, four, and five. An attempt is made to describe and classify the family within this framework. RESEARCH QUESTION THREE: What are the levels of role equality and-differentiation in the family? Role Equality: Observational Data Equality is defined by Christensen as a situation in which there are no restrictions upon valued positions and rewards; inequality as a situation in which restrictions are placed upon valued positions and rewards. Expanding upon these definitions, for the purposes of this research, per- mission granting and permission seeking are included as evidences of an unequal relationship. The data are analyzed to determine the level of re- striction setting and permission granting exerted by each spouse. The evidences of restriction formation include 70 71 overt and covert communication and behavior patterns. Evi- dence was found in three areas of activity for the Rogers: management, paid work, and school-related activities. Management. Management is used here to comprise all record-keeping and marketing activities (for all code cate- 'gories for activities, see Appendix B); this is one of the areas where restriction formation and permission granting are most evident. f— The family finances and record-keeping are controlled f- by Gene. He receives all monies and deposits them in the L appropriate accounts; he decides how much money will be r .o’ spent or saved. He has developed a budget as a basis for the family spending behavior, of which Nancy is aware, but has little knowledge of the specifics. Gene balances the checkbook, pays the bills, and keeps close track of expenses. If Nancy needs money, she goes to Gene for it. She is allot- ted money for grocery expenses, and other household and minor expenses, but beyond that she must consult with Gene. . Most major purchases are carefully discussed. The Rogers had just recently purchased a television set when the study began; a decision was necessary regarding a service contract for which there would be an additional charge. Gene and Nancy discussed the matter, and Gene made the decision to forego the service contract. Sometime during the study, the Rogers discussed the thought of buying a camper/travel trailer for future use on family vacations; the discussion was picked up and drOpped several times, and finally the decision 72 was made to not make the purchase at the present time. The record-keeping which Nancy performs tends to be associated with household tasks and keeping within "her" budget--the money she is allotted each week for groceries, etc. She plans menus for the week before the marketing for groceries is done each week; additionally, she often makes lists of "things to be done"--household tasks which need to be accomplished. F7 Actual marketing activities, even though controlled by the budget that Gene has developed, are performed by vi . ..’. ' both Gene and Nancy. This pertains to the full range of ”Flam 1 marketing activities; it is just as likely to find Gene doing the grocery shOpping as Nancy, and since she runs a large number of errands for Gene, she can be found in the local hardware store also. Paid WOrk. Another area where there is evidence of restriction formation and permission granting is paid work. Gene has placed himself in the position of controlling Nancy's activities in this area. In Chapter IV there was considerable discussion about Gene's wish for a son, and Nancy's intrinsic feelings that three children are enough and her struggles within herself with regard to religious issues having to do with this issue between herself and Gene. Since Nancy and Gene have agreed that she will remain at home with the children until the youngest child is in school full days, Gene prolongs the length of time which she must remain at home by insisting 73 that they have another child. This was particularly evident in some personal conversations Nancy had with me; she also wOuld respond with, "I don't know, Gene . . . ," to comments of his regarding their plans for another child. Nancy seems to be rather reticent about directly stating to her husband that she does not want to have another child. Her rationalization for this is, "I really don't want to displease or hurt him." Her hopes are that she won't become pregnant again, and that the issue would, therefore, be resolved by default. One of Nancy's reasons for not wanting another child, increasingly so, is her wish to possibly return to teaching or to pursue a master's degree. This wish is linked to her thoughts that another child cannot be afforded by them, although it is also somewhat an independent wish. School-related. The third area in which restrictions have been generated is in school-related activities; this area is the site of two different kinds of situations in which restrictions have been set and permission granting Operates. One situation in which there is evidence of restric- tion formation and permission granting in the area of school- related activities is similar to the one discussed above, relating to Nancy's lack of freedom to either return to teaching or to return to school. Again, as in the previous discussion, the issue centers on Gene's desire for another child (presumably, he would want yet another one, ad 74 infinitum, until a son was born); hence, this prolongs the length of time which Nancy would have to spend at home with the children. The other situation in which there is evidence of restriction formation and permission granting in this area, is one in which Nancy attempts to control the amount of time Gene may spend with his studies, and insists that Gene spend more time with the family than he would otherwise. Thus, activities including family members are frequently planned for those evenings on which Gene does not attend class and for weekends, not altogether with Gene's appro- 'va1. He enjoys his classes, and values his schooling, for with the M.A. he will be assured of a professional pro- motion. Nancy places a higher value on family time together than she does on Gene's schooling, and thus makes demands on his time as described. Gene usually complies with the requests, though, saying, "She's right; the time together as a family is important. I could go ahead and spend time with my studies, but then she'd complain. Besides, I know this, and I can't get anything accomplished when I know she's miserable." Financial management, work, and schooling, are the three main areas where restriction setting and permission granting were evident. In five instances relating to these areas (i.e., money, marketing, Nancy's return to work, Nancy's return to school, and Gene's study time), three cases were one in which it was observed that restrictions H 4.3.x: .‘v .- 7. “car; 75 were set by Gene. In another case, there was sharing of responsibilities, and no evidence of restriction formation, per se. In the last case, there was observed evidence that Nancy was the one setting the restrictions. Equality in other activity categories. Evidence of equality and inequality was observed in some of the activity categories and not in others. Where there was no evidence of restrictions, equality was assumed. The evidence of equality by category is summarized in Table 10. Role Equality: Daily ActivityiRecord In analyzing the data reported on the daily activity record, it became evident that evidence of restriction for- mation and permission granting would be cited in the "reasons” the Rogers reported for their activities. Evidence of restriction formation and permission granting were reported in none of the activity categories. As with the analysis of the observational data, where there was no evidence of restrictions, equality was assumed. Hence, there was no additional data from the daily activity record on restriction formation and permission granting; it seems .1ikely that this is due to the fact that the three previously discussed areas in which there were evidence of restriction formation and permission granting were issues between Gene and Nancy involving direct communication, rather than issues involving any activity. 76 Figure 8. Evidence of equality by activity category. Activity Category Description Sleep Eating Transportation Paid WOrk Personal Grooming Household Care/ Maintenance Management Child Care No evidence of restriction set— ting. Equality is assumed. No evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. NO evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. Gene wants another child, there- fore, prolonging the length of time Nancy must remain at home, rather than working. This cate- gory is classified as partial equality--male dominance. No evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. Regularly, Nancy performs the household care tasks, with ex- ception of the yard and car care, which Gene performs. However, there is no evidence of restriction setting, as both Gene and Nancy are known to per— form tasks not regularly per- formed by them.‘ This category is classified as partial equality. In the area of record-keeping/ financial management, Gene con- trols the money and budget. In the area of marketing, both Gene and Nancy do the marketing, both performing a variety of types of marketing. This category is classified as partial equality;- male dominance. Regularly, Nancy performs the tasks associated with child care. However, Gene also performs some of the child care tasks upon occasion. This category is l, W‘L; Figure 8. (cont'd.) 77 Activity Category Description Child Care Conversation/ Communication Creative Activities Physical Sports classified as partial equality-- female dominance. NO evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. No evidence of restriction set- ting. ‘Equality is assumed. No evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. Reflective Nancy makes demands on Gene's time by himself, and controls reading, studying, etc. This category is claSsified as partial equality--female domi- nance. School-Related Again, Gene's desire for another child prolong the length of time Nancy must Spend at home before returning to school. In the area of Gene's academic pursuits, Nancy controls his time to study, etc. This category is classified as partial equality. Social Life/ Social activities observed were Entertainment shared; there was no evidence of restriction setting. quality is assumed. No evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. Spectator Activities Waiting NO evidence of restriction set- ting. Equality is assumed. 78 Role Eqpality: Analysis and Discussion of the Data The data reported above prompted the formulation of a preliminary conclusion that the role relationship in this family could be either male superordinate or female super- ordinate, as both of these seem to occur with equal fre- quency. The early support for this conclusion indicated that the findings may, in fact, not be accountable within the Christensen framework. Christensen's model includes only those positions with the male in the superordinate posi- tion. He indicates that this is not a reflection of any value position, but rather is based on a need to economize. He goes on to indicate that role domination patterns have most generally favored the male. This family reflects a partial or possible move toward a female dominated role pattern, and thus, indicates the need for the model to be elaborated. Figure 9 represents an elaboration of Chris- tensen's model to include the female superordinate position, as detailed by Imig (1977). The data indicate that the Rogers relationship would fit into cell D, E, F, J, K, or L of Figure 4. Regarding Gene's dominance as expressed by his control of the family financial matters or his influence/control over Nancy's continuing lack of participation in the occupational or academic spheres, the relationship is characterized by male dominance as in cell D, E, or F in Figure 4. When Dominance Inequality Complete Male Dominance Equality Partial Male Complete Equality Partial Equality Female Dominance inequality Dominance Complete Female COMPLETELY DIFFERENTIATED PARTIALLY DIFFERENTIATED COMPLETELY . UNDIFFERENTIATED A E male dom absolute . E male dom absolute . I male dom absolute ineq. rsd ineq. sro ineq. nrs D E F partial eq. Imale partial eqi . I male partial eq. I male domlrsd domlsro domlnrs G H I absoiut equality, absolut equality absolut! equality, roles strictly some role overlap no role structure defined J K L i fem dom partial fem dom partial fem dom partial equal. rsd ecpral. sro erpral. nrs M N o fem dom absolute fem dom absolute fem dom absolute ineq. rsd ineq. sro ineq. nrs Figure 9. An Elaboration of the Christensen Model to include Female Dominance Source: 61. imig, “Levels of Family Role Differentiation and Equality in a Dual-Career family: a Participant Observation." Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Michigan State University, 1977. I 80 Nancy is exerting control, as when she attempts to control the amount of time Gene spends in school—related or reflec- tive activities, or when she exercises her control over child care, the relationship tips toward cells J, K, and L, or partial female dominance. Role Differentiation: Observational and Daily Activity Record Data The data reported in this section are based on a com- Rte pilation of observations and reports from the daily activity records. Recorded activities were grouped into the classi- fication system as presented earlier in this thesis; for a 'Wev___ A complete coding description see Appendix B. EJ, Slggp, This is an activity which each individual must perform for him/herself. Complete undifferentiation is assumed. Eating. Again, this is an activity which each indi- vidual must perform for him/herself. Complete undiffer- entation is assumed. . Transportation. Nancy and Gene each perform the neces- sary transportation activities to facilitate other activities in which they participate. Both of them participate in the transporting of the children to and from their activities, as well. However, whenever Nancy and Gene go somewhere as a couple, or the family as a whole go somewhere, Gene is unquestionably the driver, the one who performs the trans- portation activity. This role structure in this category would be defined as partial differentiation. 81 Personal Grooming. This, again, is a category in which each individual must perform the activity for him/ herself. Complete undifferentiation is assumed. Household Care/Maintenance. This category can be divided into four subcategories: meal preparation and clean-up; clothing care; housework; and yard and car care. Nancy performs the large majority of activities associated with meal preparation and cleanfup, and housework, although F5 Gene is not adverse to performing some of the tasks (i.e., "helping out") when time permits; he does regularly prepare his own breakfast so that Nancy can continue to sleep. 1:32;... _(~ . Nancy performs all of the activities associated with Le clothing care; Gene does not even sew a button on one of his shirts, and he remains unclear about how one sorts laundry. However, Gene performs all of the yard and car care--he is very meticulous about this work, also. In summary, Nancy performs nearly all of the meal preparation and clean-up, as well as the housework. She also, clearly, performs all of the clothing care tasks. Gene performs all of the yard and car care, often taking a large 'portion of ths Saturdays to attend to these tasks. The role relationship in this category would be defined as highly differentiated. Management. As discussed earlier, this category in- cludes the subcategories of record-keeping (including finan- cial management) and marketing. In the financial management and record-keeping subcategory, Gene performs the large 82 majority of these activities. He manages the budget, balances the checkbook, pays the bills, and handles all monies. The only activities in this subcategory which Nancy performs are the record-keeping which she routinely performs with regard to weekly meal menus and her lists of "things to be done." The other subcategory in this category is that of marketing. As discussed earlier, each of the Rogers per- form the necessary marketing without regard for the type of marketing performed. The only restriction in the mar- keting is that which is inherent--keeping within the budget previously established by Gene.' Role differentiation in this category would be classi- fied as highly differentiated in the record-keeping subcate- gory, and as undifferentiated in the marketing subcategory. Combined, the role relationship in this category would be defined as partially differentiated. Child Care. This category includes routine child care, transporting the children to and from activities, and read- ing and story telling. In each of these subcategories, Nancy far outdistances Gene in frequency of performance; al- though, as with some of the aforementioned categories, he is not adverse to performing these activities, time permitting. However, it remains that, from the viewpoint of the family, Nancy's primary role is that of mother and homemaker; thus, she is the primary participant in child care. She attends to all of the child care on weekdays, typically. Additionally, since Gene is frequently concerned with 83 task-oriented activities on Saturdays, she performs most of the child care on weekends also. Gene regularly transports Anne to and from her gymnastics lesson each Saturday. He may or may not partici- pate in other types of child care on the weekends. Based on the above information, the Rogers role rela- tionship in this category would be characterized as highly differentiated. -r-A Conversatiog/Communication. This category includes both face-to-face contact with peOple and telephone and correspondence contact. Nancy has little opportunity for face-to-face contact with peOple outside of her immediate - A family; she participates very little in activities outside of the home, with the exception of her weekly weight watchers meeting and her marketing activities. However, she does have some telephone and correspondence contacts with people, particularly since she performs many errands, etc., for Gene, and is the one of the Rogers family who corresponds with their friends and families. Gene meets in face-to-face contact with people daily; his job is a prime site for this interaction. However, he is not involved in much telephone contact with peOple, as this is not a task he performs at work; he also has minimal or no contact with people through correspondence. The role structure would be defined as highly differ- entiated in this category. 84 Creative Activities. This category includes helping children to play and participation in those play activities. Gene rarely plays with the children, even during family activities--they frequently participate in fun, but educa- tional activities (e.g., going to a cider mill) together, rather than play. He also rarely helps them to play. Nancy frequently, in fact on a daily basis, either helps the children, in some way, to play, or participates in their playtimes, playing with them. She supervises art play, participates in some dramatic play, helps them with broken toys, the garage door, etc. She also has other chil- dren over to play with her children, and plays with Mary on a regular basis. The role structure in this category would be described as highly differentiated. Physical Sports. All in the Rogers family participate, in some way, in sports. During part of this study, Nancy took golf lessons for six weeks, and since that time, she and Gene have been playing golf once a week. As mentioned earlier, Anne is involved in gymnastics lessons, encouraged by her parents; there was some conversation about enrolling the girls in swimming lessons during the summer. Addition- ally, Nancy walks for sport, and both Nancy and Gene ride bikes, frequently putting the children in seats attached to the backs of their bikes and going for family bike rides. Although, in the past, Nancy has been at a disadvan- tage by not knowing how to play golf, the current role 85 structure in this category seems to be undifferentiated. Reflective. This category includes reading, thinking, resting and relaxation, dawdling, etc. Since these are activities which each person must perform for him/herself, undifferentiation is assumed. School-Related. Gene attends classes at the univer- sity, and consequently performs a variety of school-related activities. A good deal of time outside his work hours take up school-related activities, also. The only school-related activities in which Nancy participates are helping Anne with her "homework" (e.g., reading readiness books, etc.), and looking over Anne's school papers, sharing thoughts and ex- periences of the day with her. The role relationship of the Rogers in this category is highly differentiated. Social LierEntertainment. No actual observation of Gene's and Nancy's interactions with others in social set- tings were made, although they did go out for the evening for social events twice during the study, and these prepara- tions, leavings, and returnings were observed. However, Gene and Nancy report that these events are very much shared, as are the preparations for such an evening. Complete undifferentiation is assumed in this category. Spectator Activities. This category includes the watching of television and listening to the stereo or radio. Nancy regularly watches a television soap Opera each weekday; other than this, very little television is watched by either 86 Gene or Nancy. Both Gene and Nancy listen to the stereo and/or radio with little frequency; they are both usually involved in other activities, it was observed. The role relationship in this category would be defined as partially differentiated. Waiting. No activities were observed in this category. However, this category was reported on the daily activity record. Gene must wait while Anne has her gymnastics lesson each Saturday. Although occurring with less frequency, Nancy reported that she must spend a good amount of time waiting when she takes the children to the doctor, the dentist, etc. She also spends a small amount of time waiting elsewhere, such as the grocery store, waiting in the checkout lane. The role structure in this category would be defined as undifferentiated. Paid WOrk. Gene is the only member of this family who performs paid work. The role structure in this cate- gory is defined to be complete differentiation. Role Differentiation: Summary The summaries of the observed and reported activi- ties recorded for each activity category are classified according to the Operational definitions of differentiation. Categories in which actiVities were performed by only one partner were considered to be completely differentiated; those performed by both partners were considered to be un- differentiated. Categories in which activities were divided 87 were considered to be partially differentiated. One category was completely differentiated--paid work. Six categories were undifferentiated: sleep, eating, per- sonal grooming, physical sports, social life/entertainment, and waiting. ,Nine categories were partially differentiated: transportation, household care/maintenance, management, child care, conversation/communication, creative activities, reflective, school-related, and Spectator activities; of these nine partially differentiated categories, five of them were defined to be highly differentiated: household care/ maintenance, child care, conversation/communication, creative activities, and school-related. ' Based on this summery, the overall pattern would be characterized as partial differentiation with some role overlap. However, it appears that the degree of role dif- ferentiation within the overall pattern of partial differ- entiation with some role overlap is highly differentiated. Referring to Figure l of the Christensen model, partial differentiation with some role overlap fits cell E; refer- ring to Figure 2, an elaboration of cell E in the previous 'figure, it becomes evident that when there exists a high degree of differentiation within the partial differentiation with some role overlap cell, the characterization of the role relationship would fall into El' E4, or E7. 88 Role Differentiation and'quality: Combining‘the‘Structural‘Dimensions Following the Christensen model, the next step is the combination of the qualitative descriptions of equality and role differentiation for each activity category. Figure 10 summarizes equality and differentiation for each activity category; Figure 11 represents the degree of differentiation and equality according to the Christensen model. After characterizing the role patterns for each activity category, an overall assessment of role differen- tiation and equality was formulated. Role differentiation for Gene and Nancy Rogers was characterized as partially differentiated with some role overlap. Role equality was finally characterized as partial equality. Equality fluctuated between partial equality-~male dominance, partial equality--female dominance, and partial equality, for the most part. There were instances, however, when equality was observed also. Partial equality--indeed, medium equality, cell E4 by Christensen's Figure 2--is the degree of equality that the Rogers relationship was charac- terized. Medium equality was chosen rather than high equality because those categories in which the Rogers rela- tionship was characterized as equal, sleep, eating, trans- portation, personal grooming, conversation/communication, creative activities, physical sports, social life/ enter- tainment, spectator activities, and waiting--included a large number of categories in which peOple, unless .- .m . .3112 v. - II I I '" *EL, __ 1 89 Figure 10. - Equality and role differentiation by activity category. Activity Differen- Category Equality tiation Symbol Sleep Equality Undifferen- . tiated Eating Equality Undifferen- - tiated Transpor- Equality Partial a: tatlon Differen- tiation Paid Work Partial Complete Equality; Differen- Male Domi- tiation nance Personal Equality Undifferen- — Grooming tiated Household Partial Partial Care/Main- Equality Differen- tenance tiation Management Part iai Partial % Equality; Differen- Maie Domi- tiat ion nance Child Care Partial Partial Equality; Differen- Femaie tiation Dominance Conversation] Equality Partial _C-j Communication Differen- tiation Creative Equality Partial m Activities Differen- tiation 90 Figure 10 (cont’d.). Activity Differen- Category Equality tiation Symbol Physical Equality Undifferen- — Sports tiated Reflective Partial Undifferen- Equality; tiated Female Dominance School- Partial Partial Related Equality Differen- tiation Social Life] Equality Undifferen- — Entertainment tiated Spectator Equality Partial 33 Activities Differen- tiation Waiting Equality Undifferen- — tiated 91 pathological, do not form restrictions for others. These categories are sleeping, eating, personal grooming, and waiting. By eliminating these four categories, there are twelve remaining, four indicating equality, four indicating partial equality, and four additional indicating partial equality--two are areas of female dominance and two are areas of male dominance. An additional reason for the elimination of the four above mentioned categories is that they were classified as categories in which there was .equality, by default; that is, there was no data reported for those categories. Figure 11 is an enlargement of cells E and E4, from Figures 1 and 2 of the Christensen model. These enlarge- ments represent the role differentiation and equality in the Rogers family. RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR: How is role differentiation determined? Role differentiation in the ROgers family is deter— mined on the basis of efficiency, personal expectations and values, and the individuals' perceptions of their roles. As mentioned earlier in this thesis, the Rogers' daily schedule seems to be planned around Gene's profes- sional and academic pursuits, and around Nancy's role as a mother and homemaker. Hence, those tasks which are ritual- ized were pre-determined on the basis of what worked best. There is a high premium placed on both Gene's and Nancy's 92 \ Partial equality; Some role overlap E4 \ Figure 11. Enlargement of the Equality - Differentiation representation in the Rogers Family 93 roles within the family, and the role differentiation is defined for efficiency for both. Personal expectations and values are also a basis for the determination of role differentiation. Both Gene and Nancy grew up in traditional households, believing that a woman's place is in the home taking care of her family, and that a man was "the breadwinner.” Consequently, Nancy has felt a strong need to do things for the family; Gene has been comfortable with this. They both feel that Gene's primary role is in the occupational sphere rather than in the family; thus, although Nancy tries to limit Gene's time in study or alone, neither of them strongly dis- sent to Gene's academic pursuits. In fact, the academic pursuits seem to have been loaned some credence by the prOSpect of a professional promotion for Gene upon comple- tion of his M.A. ' Nancy sees herself as a mother and homemaker, first. Her definition of "good" parenting is that she should be at home with the children, at leastuntil they are all in School. There remains some question in her mind as to the duration of time which she will remain a full-time home- maker; she has expressed the desire to return to teaching, yet her role as a mother and homemaker is very important to her. In summary, the role differentiation in the Rogers family, as described earlier, is determined by personal perceptions, expectations, and values of roles, by efficiency, 94 and to a lesser degree, time. RESEARCH QUESTION FIVE: What are the major themes (shared goals) and how do they encourage or discourage differentiation and equality? The data indicate that there are several themes which direct the Rogers family patterns. The family discourse is _ dominated by two tOpics of discussion. The first of these tOpics is family centrism. Much of the conversation bet- ween Gene and Nancy centers on the family, almost to the exclusion of other tOpics. Although Gene spends a limited amount of time at home, eSpecially during the week, his interest in his family remains strong. The little time he does spend with them, he is actively involved with them; the supper time at the Rogers house is an especially exciting time--the conver- satiOn between all family members is very active and enjoy- able. The time Gene and Nancy spend together in the even- ings, either on an evening on which he does not attend class or, later in the evening after he returns from class, is filled with conversation about their family--Gene is "filled in" by Nancy on what's happening with the family. When the conversation is not dominated with the tOpic of "family,” family activities seem to be in action. Although Gene rarely plays with the children, per se, he frequently takes them with him to do marketing, mow the lawn at the other house, etc. ”IQ-.5 Jaw" 53’2'7 M trans-n. _ 95 The other major tOpic in the Rogers household is religion, even though it is seldom labelled as such. Prayers are said before most meals and at bedtime, but this is the closest one gets to any label. However, moral education and values are pervasive; the children continually receive in- struction on "what's right and wrong,” and examples are pulled from the day-to-day experiences of Gene and Nancy. In summary, two major themes of family centrism and religion are apparent in the Rogers lifestyle, and each has an influence on differentiation and equality. Family centrism is, to a large degree, the value that mediates the fact that Nancy remains at home as a full-time homemaker. It also seems to be the basis for much of Gene's activities, as his role in the family is to financially support his family and to be a parent to his children. Religion also mediates role differentiation, to a large degree. The Rogers are very religious, and support many of their acti- vities and behaviors with religious teachings; these teach- ings seem to support the importance of the family--that the man is to support his family, and the woman to care for her family. Moral aspects of religious teachings are very important to the Rogers family also. . r2 -_. an“? ‘- ,. t: ' I Wflt‘ - . CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Summary The purpose of this investigation was to examine the sex role patterns within a single career nuclear family. Christensen's model, based on a premise of seeking equality through a re-examination and reworking of the sex role structure was the conceptual framework utilized. He con- tends that there is confusion between the meanings of social differentiation and sexual inequality and offers a frame- work within which to examine the Sex role structure based on both of these dimensions. The framework includes a model which superimposes an equality-inequality structure and a differentiation-undifferentiation structure upon each- other. The model permits varying the equality and the dif- ferentiation factors at the same time. In this study, the Christensen model was operationalized and applied to the exploration of role structure in one Single career nuclear family; the hope was to discover "how" one family struc- tures role patterns. The family selected for study consisted of a husband and wife, and their three children. Gene Rogers held a professional position with the State of Michigan, and Nancy 96 97 Rogers was a full-time homemaker. Their children, Anne, Kim, and Mary, were ages 5, 2 1/2, and 2 months, respectively. A familywith young children was chosen for the variety in conjugal roles which would be possible to examine. Five specific research questions guided the research: 1. How do family members organize and perform tasks? 2. What forms of support does the family use and for what tasks? 3. What are the levels of role differentiation and equality in the family? 4. How is the role differentiation determined? 5. What are the major family themes (shared goals) and how do they encourage or discourage differentiation and equality? Additionally, two a priori hypotheses were formulated for this study: 1. The levels of role equality and role differen- tiation between the marriage partners will be determined by each person's transactions with the environment and by each person's interaction with the other. 2. Shared goals and family themes would be con- sonant with higher degrees of role equality. The primary methodology used was participant obser- vation with auxillary methodology comprised of a family history outline, a daily activity record, and the Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale. A total of 228 hours were Spent in data collection; 130 of those were spent in obserVi 1977. commun enviro classi for th as the and re data w sion 5 gory, conten combini descri] and diI indicai to aCCc around Planned Wfler. academii I suPport SuPport 98 observation over an eight week period during the spring of 1977. Activities, specific behaviors, overt and covert communication, and observations of the physical and social environments were recorded; the activities and behaviors were classified into a system of sixteen categories developed for this study. The dimension of equality was defined by Christensen as the absence of restrictions placed on valued positions and rewards. To determine the level of equality, the data were summarized and analyzed for evidence of permis- sion seeking and permission granting. Within each cate- gory, the degree of differentiation was determined through content analysis of the data. The descriptions were then combined following Christensen's model to provide a total description of an overall pattern of levels of equality and differentiation in the Rogers family. A summary of findings related to research question one indicate that the family's days are organized and scheduled to accomodate many activities. The daily schedule revolves around the two roles of Nancy and Gene; Nancy's schedule is‘ planned around the family, and her role as mother and home- maker. Gene's role in the occupational sphere and in the academic world is also emphasized. Research question two was directed at the forms of support the family uses for its tasks. The primary form of support used by the family is time-saving energy consuming devices. Included in this category are numerous applicances, two of : babl to the the and res son gor sic evi pai res 0th Whi exc we 5 cat wor Sle and dif act 99 two automobiles, and other assorted tools. The other forms of support utilized by the Rogers family are occasional babysitting, Weight watchers, Inc., and the Church. Regarding research question three, which was addressed to the levels of equality and differentiation in the family, the data revealed mixed findings. Equality was defined as the absence of restrictions placed upon values positions and rewards. It was established that neither Spouse places restrictions on the other with regard to sleep, eating, per- sonal grooming, or waiting. Within other activity cate- gories, however, evidence of restriction setting, permis- sion seeking, and permission granting was evident. This evidence was found in three major areas: management, paid work, and school—related; in each case, the majority of restriction setting was performed by Gene. Evidence in other categories was summarized in Figure 8. Role differentiation was defined as the degree to which activities and behaviors were divided and performed exclusively by one partner. The degree of differentiation was found to vary among categories as follows: only one category was found to be completely differentiated-~paid work; six categories were found to be undifferentiated-- sleep, eating, personal grooming, physical sports, reflective, and waiting; and, nine categories were found to be partially differentiated--transportation, household care/maintenance, management, child care, conversation/communication, creative activities, school-related, and spectator activities. In partia summer some c and a the ch indica ciency percep degree themes differ: to dorm genera] fam11y, bOund r tiation Cmi . w i the Roge roles re Um larg 100 sum, role differentiation was found to be characterized by partial differentiation. The role structure of the Rogers relationship was, summarily, characterized as partial differentiation with some overlap; more specifically, a medium level of equality and a high level of differentiation was concluded within the characterization of partial equality with some overlap. A summary of data related to research question four indicated that role differentiation is determined by effi- ciency and personal expectations and values, as well as perceptions Of one's own role in this family. To a lesser degree, differentiation is also, in part, determined by time. Research question five was concerned with the major themes or shared goals, andnhow they encourage or discourage differentiation and equality. Two major themes were found to dominate discussions, decision-making and family life in general: family themes and religion. The commitment to family, interpreted by the Rogers to include tradition- bound role patterns, was found to encourage greater differen- tiation and less equality in the family setting. The same was also found true of their commitment to religion. Conclusions Within the confines of this research it appeared that the Rogers family had achieved greater equality in their roles related to their family life, than in roles related to the larger environment. evidel sonal appeal expect she be to liv orient cluded, desired dynamic when ea occasio that 1:); 0f equa. Partner 3 dynami Partial R fimfily w aPPIOXiuu ChristenE equality Fa cumstanCe: equality a 101 With regard to the performance of family roles, any evidence of restriction setting appears to be based on per- sonal expectations, role bound by past socialization. There appears to be strong needs for Nancy to fulfill a set of expectations regarding what a wife and mother does and how she behaves; similarly, there appears to he needs for Gene to live up to a masculine image--competitive, achievement- oriented, the "breadwinner." Within the family setting, it may be further con- cluded, a single definition of equality leaves much to be desired. The patterns of equality for this family are dynamic and change with circumstances; there were times when each spouse domdnated the other, and yet there were occasions of complete equality. Hence, it may be concluded that the concept of equality fluctuates between a state of equality to states of partical equality with either partner dominating. The level of differentiation is also a dynamic state, and was found to approximate a measure of partial differentiation with some role overlap. Returning to Christensen's model, Figure 3, this family would fall between E3 and E5, which indicates the approximate position of contemporary America according to Christensen. Thus, there are no trends toward greater equality and greater role overlap indicated. Factors such as efficiency, personal needs, and cir- cumstances were all found to contribute to the patterns of equality and differentiation within this family. Conditions under V discovr concepI of paS' to plaj roles. Hypoth for us namely tion h each I Persor sonant achiei life, tions ChriSI Squall FermiS 102 under which role patterns develop and function must be discovered and defined, so that more inclusive and dynamic concepts and frameworks can be developed. The interplay of past and present life experiences and expectations appear to play an important part in the establishment of gender roles. Hypotheses As mentioned earlier, two hypotheses were developed for use in this study; the data supported both of them, namely: 1. The levels of role equality and role differentia- tion between the marriage partners will be determined by each person's transactions with the environment and by each person's interaction with the other. 2. Shared goals and family themes would be con- sonant with higher degrees of role equality. However, it appears that Gene and Nancy Rogers have achieved greater equality in their roles related to family life, than in roles related to the larger environment. Implications Implications will be discussed in the following sec- tions: theory, methodology, resources, and socialization. Emplications for theory. This study extended the Christensen framework by Operationalizing the variables of equality and differentiation. This researcher found the permission granting and permission seeking dimension to be 103 useful determinants of equality or inequality. Although Christensen attempted to develop a dynamic model, there are limitations. The model used to illustrate differentiation did not allow for indication of the direc- tion of role overlap. Imig's elaboration on this aspect of Christensen's model was most helpful in examining the direction of role overlap in some instances. The findings related to both the equality and differ- entation dimensions of the Christensen framework point to the need for dynamic concepts and models. PeOple are in- herently dynamic as living entities; thus, it follows that the roles which they assume and the relationships in which .they engage are also dynamic. gmpiications for methodology. This study demonstrated support for the use of participant observation methodology to study families within our society. Use of the auxillary measurement instruments also add to the reliability of the participant observation. The researcher who studies the family from the out- side is doing so within a framework biased by his/her own perceptions. It appears that the gain of knowledge of the subjects' perception of reality is of considerable impor- tance. Longitudinal studies would be most helpful in studying the family, to determine trends, results of change, developmental influences, etc . Emp1ications for resources. Implications related to resource use in the family is indicated here. Although the RC scion! acconq this futurl the s perfo effec to br early patte: role I sex rc Parent The fa as we] reseax SEX rc 5“ es pattern 104 the Rogers family consider themselves to be energy-con- scious, they made considerable use of non-human energy to accomplish tasks. If high amounts of energy are necessary to support this type of lifestyle, a limited energy society of the future may place restrictions on role structures within the single career nuclear family. Adjustments in tasks performed by family members may be necessary, and may 3 effect the equality-differentiation dimensions. m Implications for socialization. This study helped to bring light to the fact that socialization patterns in early life become easily embedded. Previous socialization patterns and perceived role expectations regarding sex role performance greatly influenced the determination of sex role structure in this family. Hence, it seems evident to this researcher, that parents need to examine socialization patterns for children. The family unit is a primary institution in this society, as well as a primary socializing agent; it is important that research provide evidence regarding parental influence upon sex role attitudes and behavior formation. Suggestions for Further Investigation A number of related areas for further investigation are suggested: 1. This methodology should be used to study role patterns in other family forms to attempt to determine 105 similarities and differences. 2. Replication of this study, or with modifications, in an attempt to establish patterns of behavior and per- ception across single career nuclear families. 3. Replication of this study in single career nuclear families in which the husband pursues homemaking full-time and the wife pursues a career outside the home. 4. This study should be expanded to include the study of families over time, to develop an understanding of the dynamics of role patterns over time. 5. This study should be expanded to include the influence of value mediation in the formation of sex role behaviors. APPENDICES APPENDIX A AUXILLARY MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS Name : Addre Famil Brief (atte COInmL}; Data 1 brief (Paren edUCat rEIigi Year 0 Length 106 FamilyAHistory Name: Telephone: Address: Family Member Sex Birthdate Education Level Occupational histories Type of residence Residential history: Brief outline of daily/weekly schedule: (attend church regularly?, dine out regularly?, family- community linkages?) Data on earlier life of husband and wife: brief characterization of each family or orientation: (parents, number and sex of siblings (ordinal position), - educational level of all, rural/urban/suburban during youth?, religious affiliation, family themes) Year of marriage: Length of courtship: Current religious affiliations: ft‘lilc IIJWIUW‘!‘ afiwmc 107 Fguflm wit. SE IE HBH>HBU¢ 280mm Dianna 34.23 MZHB NwaYhA 108 Self-Anchoring Striving Scale All of us want certain things out of life. When you think about what really matters in your own life, what are your wishes and hopes for the future? In other words, if you imagine your future in the best possible light, what would your life look like then, if you are to be happy?. . . . Take your time in answering: such things aren't easy to put into words . . . (What are your hOpes for the future? What would your life have to be like for you to be completely happy? What is missing for you to be happy? Use also, if necessary, the words, "dreams" and ”desires".) . . . . Anything else? Now, taking the other side of the picture, what are your fears and worries about the future? In other words, if you imagine your future in the worst possible light, what would your life look like then? . . . . Again, take your time in answering . . . (What would make you uné happy? Stress the words, "fears” and ”worries'.) . . . Anything else? Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose we say that the top of the ladder (pointing) represents the best possible life for you, and the bottom (pointing) represents the worst possible life for you. a. Where on the ladder (moving finger rapidly up and down ladder) do you feel you personally stand at the present time? rung b. Why do you think that this is where you are? What makes you feel that you are on rung ' ? c. And where do you think you will be on the ladder ten years from now? rung d. What are you doing now that will help you to reach rung ? 109 10 BEST POSSIBLE 1 WORST POSSIBLE APPENDIX B CODING Tr Re 110 Code Categories for Activities Sleep Eating Paid WOrk Personal Grooming Waiting-For Transportation By automobile By foot Management Marketing Record-keeping Social Life and Entertainment Games Dancing Social Events Household Care and Maintenance Meal Preparation and Cleanup Clothing Care Washing Ironing Mending Housework Yard and Car Care Child Care Routine Child Care Helping with clothes Baths Putting to bed Nursing Cleanup after children Young Children bathroom needs Young Children hygiene needs Brushing teeth Transportation Transporting to activities Reading and Story Telling Reading to children Storytelling Conversation and Communication Face to Face Conversation Social conversation Problem solving Emotionally supportive calming children holding children Emotionally negating temper tantrums Instructing children Telephone and Correspondence Conversation-~personal Task-oriented Getting and reading mail Creative Activities Artistic Dramatic play Art play Infant Playtime Helping Children with Children playing Ph sical Sports $1:— Gymnastics Walking Bike Riding Reflective Activity Reading Thinking Resting and Relaxation Dawdling Infant Playtime School-Related Activities Homework Study Helping with Homework Renewing Library Book Spectator Activities Television Educational Non-educational Listening to Music, Radio vow m:0«umuflmm< can mmmom HmCOmem "wamum mcfl>wuum mCflHOSUcoH no omuoommon .omxna on no: «unocuo we msumun meImo somvwmmooon o: I nnmnuo Na commooom on on uoz .mcwooon no mooum nonunsm o: “unmnoucw :30 nunz cmsonsu mcn3oHH0m now .conuom can Henson» mo oocmocmmoocn now auncsunommo o: "swan: m an mnwuumm IucmEo>onmEn no ucoEmoHo>moImaom oz .oEnno on axon «HowOOmInucm oEoowm .acoenonmno mo mmna a.ono .mnmzuo mo monocoumnmoco no noes; mo mason o: amcnonaawz no endows Hmucmfi mo .ocne mo momma mo Moon IMpnnouoEEn ocm Nunannoumcn amcowuoem h .H .HOU A.H I v .Hou noes: coco .omownnoe no thEom on nouonnunon an mocmnommn anon; «cowumooxmv cm>oa no omuummmmn omxna on on amnmnuo an monoum he no conuncmooon I nonuo Mm mocmumwoo¢ s.uane o: «woman Insm onsmonIcoc now monomon «hogan nonunsm «ummnmucn cso suns canons» mcwonHOM now .cOnuom 0cm usmsonn mo mono cmmmwdw mmmhwumsaunommo I nomao>onm3n no ncmsmmnm>moImaom .wco o: mcwEnmn .mmna vowsw m monomma .connom acoooo .HMEnoc m on .omna ascendanmn «.oum .mnmnuo mo manocmum Indus: .nofion mo oncom «canon HH03 mmm seasoniaoucms .ocws Mo woman I wunnsumz can nunnnnmuw nmaonuosm H nonconmno Hmcomnom :30 .H 0 H00 hanfimm n0\oco mawm cunz oocnmocoo whmmh Ufim mmflHHOg HmGOmHmm new moonumnnmmd can ammo: accomnmm "mamom mcn>nnum mcnnonochuHmm annucmo now coco II‘II mew I nyno3 HMCOmnwm mo wmcum 02 .m Hmcomnmm :30 SE NO mmnmm m>MHmMQ .m ~.n.:ooe H .HOU lei} _ 112 .mHnEmu no mama m0 :onumsunm 0wE0:000 0:» :un3 on on m:w>o: nnmmm o:m mmnnn03 m:00:maa00nnz .ouo .nmm::: .n:m3 nommom amun0>om «noon “unaccomo m>na on no nouns: 0>na ou mo:0& acmHOMwmom no: «Nmmfimm no mama now m:m>ma m0 onmp .I:mun oumowooo:w no :wh:0numn0nnonmo m .H .HOU .m0:0 nmuumn you no “:0Unmm no 9:0Eunmmm .mnaon :30 o>mw .Enom :30 no o:oa :30 m>mm .nmm:nm:n m.0:0 w:mmxm no mommno:n on huwawnw «mn0:nm:n :30 0>mm .090 .nmm::: .u:m3 nmmmsm no: «aunm>0m Eonm monaon «Home m©:m mxme «Homo Eonm Bowman“ “hau:momo o>na on no nouns: 0>na on >0:QE 9:0fl0mmmsm «NHnEmm n0 yawn now m:n>na m0 onmwmoum u:oooo n0 om>0nmEH N :OHumounm on50:00m am:omnmm .nmnoonmso Hm:0mnmm :30 m.m:0 m:fimnom Ion mnmmm 0:: nonnno3 m:00:maaoomnz .nouomnmno u:0:un3 :omnmmxm on 09 .omwa :w mmomnsm 0: m>mz ammoanun03 amom «mafia :w maon n0 :Onummoooo on no m:0numnnmmm 0>mnnom 0a manm:: «mumsvoommw adam:0mnom Hmmm I :un03 Hm:0mn0m mo mm:wm oz .nouomnmno Hm:omn0m :30 m.0:0 m:nonommn m:0nuonnmmm m:00::aa00mnz .omnn emannanomno m ommn on .mEmHnonm Hmonzuo no Hosannnmm .m50nmnamn :30 m.m:0 mo :Onusaomom A.mnmnu0 an :onnn:moomn on ooummnu:oo mm mama an :0nun:moomn "muozv .mmna Ham Immomnsm 0 wood «u:wE:mem8000m mo m:nammm “:0nuoommnummImamm I.:un03 Ho:omnmm :30 m5 m0 0m:mm 0>mnno< 3.83 n .m .v .m .H O H00 .m .m OHOU .onzuflcnsm 30: no OCHM .Eoonxucfl ~nmo m mm £05m .oocofl:®>c00 anBOE 03:: .m «p.200» N .Hoo 3 l l .:0numsunm xn03 n0 non mcnonmm Ion mnmwm o:m mmnnn03 msow:mHHmomnz .Uamnm m.m:0 on m:n:uo: no maunnfl muonnnucoo anmnEoE manEmw nonuo no mmsomm .mamm n0m xn03 m.0:0 :n onsanmm .mwm oao n0 mm0:xonm m0 mmsmomn xn03 on one: In: “new a one: no can: on sunnnamcn anmnEmE manfimm nonuo n0 mmsomm .mamm now xn03 wommum 0: I n:mE>0Hmam:D .u:mEmo:m>©m n0m monono 0: “:0numsnnm xn03 no flow mcnummnmu:n:s .u:MmmeQ:: “:0nummsooo m0 monoso :w mo:oo:0mmo:n 0: anoDEmE hanfimw nmsuo no .mmsomm stmm now xnoB Hon:mo:00:5 ~n0fl noom Au.:oov m :0numsunm .m .HOU .mmsomm :owumsunm xn03 n0 DOM m:nonmmmn :Onumnwmmm m:00:maawomnz .m .oamnm m.0:0 0n :Onuon Innucoo m mme .nmnEmE mHnEmw nonuo n0 .maom now xn03 m.0:0 :n mmmooom .m .nmnEoE WHHEMM nozuo no omflomm .mamm now xno3 hvmmum I u:mfimonEm .N .u:wEwo:m>om mo oo:m:0 “:0numsunm xn03 n0 ooh m:nummnmu:w .u:mmmwam “:0nummsooo m0 monono :n 00:0ocom Imo:n anmnEoE maHEmm nonuo n0 mmoomm .maom now xno3 Hon:om:00 .noo @000 .H m .noo xnoz no non .snnsmm n0 mamm m0 :onumsunm 0H50:000 num3 0U on msn>mn m:0nuonnmmm msom:mHHmomHz .m .nmns 03\H monnum:m 06 on mm:OE I :uamm3 m>mm .5 .ouw .:0Hm In>maou .Onomn .m:n:0mE m:nnmm3 mm zoom .mwocmonammm omnma .mQQDOHU 0:Hm .mnsun:n:m 3m: no m:wm .Eoonnumn .nmo m m: zoom .00:0n:m>:00 :noooE m>mm .m . AHZHOOV N .HOU m .Hoo «u.:oue m .noo :uaom: Cu mooaonwmom nonuo 114 .Hsmmn0oosm:: .hmm0::: 0n .hnnoom 0o m0>a0ms0xu :0noanno «Iconusosoo manosnocne swan “om m0wun::un0md0 0u09v000:n I :0noanno .m .thEMM m0 mn0nE0E now Anon I:0E n0 Hmommaxmv muam0: n00: 00::Hw Icon no sumac .ucmonoom .aunama nnn .5 .m:0wuuuo0mx0 nw0xu 0» a: 0>HH on no: «50:» m0 0n00 0x0» n0 ma0: 0n 0HQ0 0n 0» no: a0>numH0n n0:uo n0 mu:0n0m .:0noanno .0msomm Aha u:0E:00 I:0n0 no. Eonm :0nn0n0m0m I m0>nu0a0m .o .manaom 0:» :nsun3 0>0H 0: «080: adm0::: «0mmnnnms ammo::: I 0me Manson mmmo::: no oz .m Au.:00v a .HOU unnamm on =.ma0n= on m00:0n0m0n n0nu0 m:w>H0> I:n mnm0m 0:0 m0nnn03 0:00:0HH0omflz .m .mn0xuo :0 u:0o:0m0o 0: 09 .N .0mnd mon:0 on numc0num 0: «ma0m n0m “Hmu:0e no Hoonmmnmv mm0:aaw 009mm» I:00 n0 :um0o .u:0onoom .qu00: Han .H m .HOU .Hsmmm0ooom .hmmm: 0: .HH03 oo m0>a0me0xu :0noanxo ax:0nu00:o0 m:nosao:w~ E0xu now m0nun::un0mmo 0uoov0om I :0noaw:0 .v .aanamm m0 nn0ns0a now .H09:0E n0 Hmonmaxmv :HH00: m0>0nmfiw n0 gunman coco emacnucoo I anEMH :0 gonna: .m .m:0numuo0mx0 nw0cu on a: 0>na «50:» m0 0n00 0x0» n0 ma0: a:nomm n0xu0m I0» 50:» 900 no n0nu0m0u 50:» m00x “E0xu 0n 000H0 0n «00>numa0n n0:uo n0 mu:0nmm :0noano .0msomm now :n00:00 I m0>nu0H0m .N .maflEMM :nxun3 0>0H «0&0: 0:0000Hm a0mmnnnms ammo: I 0mna wansom ammo: .H c .HOU 000:0n0m0m n0nuo :.ma0m= on 000:0n0MWn n0nuo m:n>ao>:n 0:0numnnmmo 0:00:0Ha0omnz .oH .0v0 .0nsmm0Hm n0m mcwoo0n .nunomm a0Enu 0nonn0a Uun0>enn .:0wu00n00m .m .000 0H0 0nso0m .u:omm0 m . : 0000a “0mna ammo: 0:0 0:0H I 0 0 0H0 .0mna acn:0 on :um:0num «ma0m now Aamu:0s n0 Hoonmhnm~ :uH00: o0:n0m I0n n0 o0::nu:00 I :uam0: :30 0.0:0 .h A“ .GOUV m .HOO =ma0m= on 000:0n0m0m n0xuo APPENDIX C HOUSE PLAN 115 .PIFilwllI .III II |'l..II II. l..r_ — '3’. I cEc; .2003. :2”... 3:... 1|] 'bq sc.cc r. p. 1 J \ :20 s M m m P Ecc. , n a 05>: Ecc. szc. mm. a A. \:r_\ Ecc. 33 “13c. 95:6 use... :26. a [In [ [ coc.co 116 cEcc .m.cocm boa occccm H A. ] ] ] .cn .2332 ; Ecc.ccc .2ch is j s 2. C n O .m m \ TI .0 A Mm H :2. / 1 E353 00_wb0 r . «.230 A a; m.E_v.on.< rlll- BIBLIOGRAPHY Bar Bay Bec Be< 81: BL Bl: Bl. Bo BIBLIOGRAPHY Barry, W. A. ”Marriage Research and Conflict: An Inte- grative Review.” Psychological Bulletin 73 (1970): 41-54. Bayer, Alan. "Sexist Students in American Colleges: A Descriptive Note.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 37 (1975): 391- 397 Becker, Howard. "Problems of Inference and Proof in Par- ticipant Observation." In Issues in Participant Observation. Edited by GeorgeJ J. McCall and J. L. Simmons. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1969. Becker, Howard, and Geer, Blanche. "Participant Obser- vation: the Analysis of Qualitative Field Data." In Human Organization Research: Field Relations and Techniques. Edited by Richard Adams and Jack J. Preiss. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1960. Blau, Peter. "Parameters of Social Structure." American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 615-635. Blood, R. O. "The Use of Observational Methods in Family Research." Marriage and Family Living 20 (1958): 47-52 0 Blood, R. O. The Family. New York: The Free Press, 1972. Blood, R. O., and Wolfe, D. M. Husbands and Wives: The Dynamics of Married Living. New York: The Free Press, 1960. Boulding, Elise. "The Human Services Component of Non- market Productivity in Ten Colorado Households.” Paper presented for the Roundtable on the Economy and Sociology of the Family: The Productive Function of Non-market GoOds and Services in the Family. Royaumont, France, January, 1977. 117 Ch Ck C} Cf} CfI Clc Dye Gav. Gof1 118 Brabant, Sarah, and Garbin, A. P. ”Sex of Students as Defined Sociologically and Higher Educational Per- sistence." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southern Sociological Society. Atlanta, Georgia, 1974. Broderick, Carlfred B. ”Beyond the Five Conceptual Frame- works: A Decade of Development in Family Theory." In A Decade of Family Research and Action:'l960-l969. Edited by Carlffed B. Broderick. Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations, 1971. Bruyn, Severyn T. The Human Perspective in Sociology: A Methodology of Participant Observation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966. Cantril, Hadley. "A Study of Aspirations.” Scientific American 208 (1963): 41-45. Cantril, Hadley, and Free, Lloyd A. "Hopes and Fears for Self and Country." The American Behavioral Scientist 6 (1962): supplement. Cantril, Hadley, and Kilpatrick, F. P. "SelfeAnchoring ‘ Scaling, A Measure of Individual's Unique Reality Wbrlds." Journal of Individualistic Psychology 16 (1960): 15§-l73. Chafe, William H. The American WOman: Her Chan ing Social, Economic, and Political Role, 1950-I970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. Chapin, F. Stuart, Jr. Human Activity Patterns in the City --Things People Do in Time and in Space. New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1973: Christensen, Harold T. "Are Sex Roles Necessary?” Insti- tute for the Study of Social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Purdue University. In- stitute Monograph Series No. 5, 1975. Clough, Shepherd B. Basic Values of!§stern_givilization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1960. Dyer, Doris Montgomery. "Students' Wives Values as Reflected in Personal and Family Activities." Unpublished M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1962. Gavron, Hannah. The Cgptive Wife: Conflicts of Housebound Mothers. New York: Humanities Press, Inc., 1966. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1959. 119 Goodrich, W., Ryder, R. G., and Raush, N. L. "Patterns of Newlywed Marriage." Journal of Marriage and the Family 30 (1968): 383-391. - Handel, Gerald. "Psychological Studies of Whole Families." In The Psychosocial Interior of the Famigy. Edited by Gerald Handel. Chicago: Adline Publishing Co., 1967. Hefner, R., Nordin, V., Rebecca, M., and Oleshansky, B. VlModel of Sex Role Transcendence: Role Polarity and Sex Discrimination in Education." National Institute of Education Contract (#NIE -C-74-0144). Ann Arbor: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 1974. Henry, Jules. Pathways to Madness. New York: Random House, Inc., 1965.< Hess, R. D., and Handel, Gerald. Family Worlds: A Psycho- social Approach to Family Life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959. Holter, Harriet. Sex Roles and Social Structure. Oslo: Universitet-Forlaget, 1970. Imig, Gail Lockwood. "Levels of Family Role Differentia- tion and Equality in a Dual-Career Family: A Par- ticipant Observation." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1977. Kantor, David, and Lehr, William. Inside the Family. San g Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, Inc., 1975. Kerlinger, Fred. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1966. Komarovsky, Mirra. "Cultural Contradictions and Sex Roles." In Selected Studies in Marriage and the Family. Edited by R. F. Winch, R. McGinnis, and H. R. Barrin- ger. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1962. Komarovsky, Mirra. Blue Collar Marriage. New York: Random House Co., Inc., 1967. Komarovsky, Mirra. "ReSponse" to "Are Sex Roles Necessary?" By Harold T. Christensen. In Changing Roles in Sex and Marriage. Institute for the Study of Social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthor0pology, Purdue University. Institute Monograph Series No. 5, 1975. .-_—_.. -—... 5,1 . ’ r 120 Kutner, Nancy, and Brogan, Donna. "An Investigation of Sex- Related Slang Vocabulary and Sex Role Orientation Among Male and Female University Students." Journal of Marriage and the Family 36 (1974): 474-48 . Laws, Judith Long. "A Feminist Review of Marital Adjustment Literature: The Rape of Locke.“ Journal of Marriage and the Family 33-(1971): 483-516. Leik, R. K. "Instrumentality and Emotionality in Family Interaction." Sociometry 26 (1963): 131-145. Lewis, Oscar. Five Families. New York: Basic Books, 1959. Liebow, Elliot. Tally's Corner. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1967. Linton, Ralph. The Study of Man. New York: Appleton- Century Co., 1936. Lipman-Blumen, Jean. ”How Ideology Shapes W0men's Lives." Scientific American 215 (1972): 33-42. Lipman-Blumen, Jean. "Role De-differentiation as a System Response to Crisis.” Sociological Inquiry 43 (1973): 105-129. ' McCall, George J., and Simmons, J. L., eds. Issues in . Partigipant Observation. Reading, Mass.: Adaison- Wesley Publishing Co., 1969. McIntire, W. G., Nase, Gilbert, and Dreyer, A. "A Cross- Cultural Comparison of Adolescent Perception of a Parental Role." Journal of Marriage and the Family 34 (1972): 735-740. . Mead, George Herbert. Mindy Self and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934. Millman, Marcia. "Observations on Sex Role Research." Journal of Marriage and the Family 33 (1971): 735-740. Parsons, Talcott, and Bales, R. F. Familyy Socialization Interaction Process. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1955. Rossi, Alice S. "Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest Pr0posa1." In The W0man In America. Edited by R. J. Lifton. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964. tw'fi‘fifitsu . 121 Rossi, Alice S. “Response” to "Are Sex Roles Necessary?“ By Harold T. Christensen. In Changing Rgles in Sex and Marriag_. Institute for the Study of Social Change, Department of Sociology and Anthr0pology, Purdue University. Institute Menograph Series No. 5, 1975. Safilios-Rothschild, Constantina. "The Study of Family Power Structure: A Review 1960-1969.” In A Decade .Qf Familngesearch and Action: 1960-1969. Edited by Carlfred B. Brodefick. Minneapolis: National Council on Family Relations, 1971. Scanzoni, John. Sexual Bargaining: Power Politics in the American Marria e. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrentiEe- Hall, Inc., 197 . Scanzoni, John. Sex_§olesLLife St les, and Childbearing. New York: The Free Press, 19 5. Scott, Richard V. ”Field Methods in the Study of Organi- zations." In Hgndbook of Organizations. Edited by James March. Chicago: Rand McNally afid Co., 1965. Stevens, Chandlee Lloyd. ”Aspirations of Married Student Husbands and Their Wives." Unpublished M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1964. Swenson, Clifford H. Introduction to Interpersonal Rela- tions. Glenville, 111.: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1975. walker, Kathryn E., and woods, Margaret E. Time Use: A Measure of Household Production of Family 60333 and Services. Center for the Study of the Family, Ameri- can Home Economics Association, Washington, D.C., 1976. Webb, B. J., Campbell, D. T., Schwartz, R. D., and Sechrest, L. Unobtrusive Measures: NOnreactive Research in the Social Sciences. Chicago: Rand McNalIy and Co., 1966. Whyte, William F. Street Corner Societ . Chicago: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1945. Whyte, William F. "Observational Field-WOrk Methods.” In Research Methods in Social Relations. Edited by M. Jahoda, M. Deutsch, and S. W. Cook. New York: Dryden Press, 1951. 122 General References Hook, Nancy, and Paolucci, Beatrice. “The Family as an Ecosystem." J0urnal of Home‘Economics 62 (1970): 315-318. Rapoport, Robert, and Rap0port, Rhona. ”WOrk and Family in Contemporary Society." American'Sociolggical Review 30 (1965): 381-394. II .I' III! [III '1 l i.llullu‘lllu ‘1: [I‘ll ‘lll HICHIGQN STQTE UNIV LIBRQRIE IllsllllLllllelllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllfllllllllllllllHll 23101230237