——-— -— r- H o v.7 CHANGING TIME CONCEPTIONS. AMONG GUATEMALAN PEASANTS Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSITY DEBORAH JEAN BARNDT 1968 MAY 1 01999 ABSTRACT CHANGING TIME CONCEPTIONS AMONG GUATEMALAN PEASANTS BY Deborah Jean Barndt The more general concern of this paper is to study the socio- logical determinants of time conceptions. The particular focus is upon the changing time conceptions which result from the roles and experi- ences the individual acquires in the process of modernization. It ex- amines first the identification with the traditional system and the dissociative experiences which weaken this identification. It is shown how these social-psychological processes influence the development of a more modern conception of time. The empirical referents are drawn from a study of symbolic systems and change orientation in five Guatemalan communities conducted in 1963-64. A series of hypotheses test a pro- cessual model of modernization developed by F. B. Waisanen. The major influence of educational experiences and media contact upon the develop- ment of an increased time consciousness and future time orientation is confirmed. There is also evidence that the sample being studied is more of a transitional society than an ideal type traditional system. CHANGING TIME CONCEPTIONS AMONG GUATEMALAN PEASANTS BY Deborah Jean Barndt A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Sociology 1968 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The origins of this paper are far-reaching. Experiences of liv- ing with French students, Negro ghetto dwellers, and rural Appalachian farmers awakened my interest in differing conceptions of time. Dr. Harvey Choldin made me aware of the relationship between time and social change in a class on modernization. He encouraged me to review in depth theories of time. Dr. Denton Morrison offered valuable suggestions for the development of my theory and methodology. My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. F. B. Waisanen. He not only provided me with a theoretical framework and with the empirical data, but he also gave generous counsel throughout the months of analysis. As 'Director of the Summer Institute for Comparative Sociology at Indiana University, he encouraged my seminar work to supplement the deve10pment of the thesis. Participants in the seminar were also most helpful in discussing my theoretical and analytical problems. ‘ There are many, then, who shared in some part of the deve10pment of this thesis and for their help I am most appreciative. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. THEORETICAL SIGNIFICANCE ... . . . . . . . . . . . Social-psychological conceptions of the process of social change Process of concern: modernization Conception of Concern: Time II. EMPIRICAL REFERENTS . . . . . . . . . . Project Sample III. THE PROBLEM . . . . . Statement of Hypotheses Measurements of Concepts Empirical-conceptual-Scheme Analytical Approach IV. ANALYSIS . Frequency Distributions Inter—Item Analysis Indexing V. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing of Specific Hypotheses Testing of General Hypotheses BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . APPENDIX iii 50 56 LIST OF TABLES Model of the Modernization Process General Hypotheses in Diagrammatic Form . Empirical-Conceptual Schematic Illustration . Frequency Distribution of Variables in Final Collapsed Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inter-Item Analysis: Contingency Tables, Chi-Squares, and Correlations among Empirical Indicators . . . . . Summary Table of Results: Correlational Analysis and Chi-Square Analysis of Independent Variables and Time Variables . . . . Chi-Square Analysis and Correlational Analysis Testing Relationship of Education to Other Variables . . Results of Testing of Hypotheses Inter-Variable Analysis: Chi-Square Analysis and Correlational Analysis of Component Variables of Dissociative Experiences and Modern Time Conceptions . . . . . . . . . iv Page 12 14 18 22 28 37 43 45 CHAPTER I THEORETICAL SIGNIFICANCE General Concern: Chan in socio-psychological conceptions in the process of socia ang . Inherent in the words "process" and "change" is the idea of time. Some sociologists conceive of time as some "element" in the pro- cess of change while others submit to a personified Time as the Prime Mover, the initiator of change. In the study of social change, most social scientists have treated time as a setting, a condition, a con- stant, an independent variable. Yet lacking from the historical per- spective of the process of social change is how time enters into our concerns and our behavior as a value, a resource, a guide, an indicator of other values. These varying conceptions of time seem to be related to both the psychological process of individual growth and the histori- cal process of the deve10pment of society. The Process of Concern: Modernization Most theorists of modernization have concentrated on the origins and the consequences of social change. Employing the ideal-type method, they have dichotomized history into two systems: the traditional and the modern. Not only is this an over-simplification of changing systems but it is a static view of social change. An emphasis needs to be placed upon the "process" of change, which is inherently dynamic. We recognize the necessity of isolating these systems and 1 2 comparing them to measure social change. Yet change is such a pervasive aspect of present-day society that what we call traditional and modern may often be interacting. Especially when studying developing societies, we must be careful with our definitions of the systems under considera- tion. And we must be sensitive to the process that is changing indivi- duals who identify with these systems. Thus, the model of modernization that is to be tested, though sociological in its perspective, attempts to isolate the social- psychological components of the process of social change. It is con- cerned with the individual's identification with the more traditional social system and with the experiences which dissociate him from the traditional and strengthen his identification with the more modern social system. Waisanen has formulated a model which focuses upon the actor within the system (See the diagram on Table l). The degree of identi- fication that the actor has with the system is measured by four vari- ables. Two are in-put variables: the pigs that he puts into the system (perhaps indicated by his age) and the interaction which he has with the system (through social ties and contacts such as marriage, neighborhood relationships, community involvement). Two other components which con- tribute to the identification with the system are the £325 and the esteem which are bestowed upon the actor by the members of the system itself. These four variables measure the role circumscription of the actor within the system. Of major concern in this new view of the process of change are the dissociative experiences which weaken the association of the actor 3 with the traditional system. The most important of these are embodied in the process of formal education. Other dissociative experiences often related to the educative process are travels away from the tradi- tional system (physical mobility) and exposure to mass media (psychic mobility). Though there are often barriers (physical or psychic) between the traditional and more modern systems, the dissociative experiences enable the individual to cross the barriers, and they usually result in an increased identification with the more modern social system. This new identification is manifested in modern cognitions and value orienta- tions. Among these, of specific concern in this paper is the modern conception of time, which is here defined to be an increased conscious- ness of time and a futuristic time orientation. The Conception of Concern: Time The concept of time has been variously defined by natural scientists, philosophers, historians, sociologists, and psychologists. The multiplicity of times is explored in a more theoretical paper, which reviews the literature on time in these fields (available on request of the author). This discussion lays the theoretical background for the present empirical study and references consulted are listed in the bib- liography. For the present purposes, however, a narrower and more ex- plicit definition of time is necessary. A modern social-psychological conception of time will be exam- ined empirically in this paper. I will distinguish between two inter- related aspects of time, defining each conceptually and operationally. TABLE I mean or THE: mmmmnow ‘Paocass mums Acton - I » 80cm. (— - ROLE . ....=__.. ] SYSTEM 4- (-T— mmacnowe- mm 8.3 + «- name—+- 1 4- serum -—-‘b- BARR‘E‘S I V meso cmrrva l , common EXPERIENCES ”WM”- moemw TIM CDNSCIWESS FUTURE Tl ME ORIWATDN it- This is a modified version of a model conceptualized by RB. LDBKDncn. 5 Accompanying the process of modernization, I would prOpose, there is an increased TIME CONSCIOUSNESS and a greater futuristic TIME ORIENTATION. Time Consciousness: An increased awareness of time can be seen in part as a product of the historical development of a world society. The conventional time units (minutes, hours, days) which comprise our modern time system were invented to meet the social needs of increased interaction. The mechanical clock, for example, wasn't used until the fifteenth century when a uniform time system seemed inevitable for transactions among cultures with varying time systems. The internaliza- tion of these constructions of time can be seen accompanying two pro- cesses of social change which are closely related to modernization: urbanization and industrialization. When the city became the center of commercial, economic, political, and social activity, it drew more and more pe0ple who followed conflicting and particular time systems. In- dustrialization, of course, speeded up the interaction of urban life. But more than ever it demanded a uniform time system. Differentiation and specialization created a complex network of interdependent work units — each of which depended upon certain time spans and deadlines. Punctuality became vital to the functioning of the industrial world. These historical developments, of course, had tremendous impact upon the values and conceptions of the industrial workers and urban dwellers. Time was now seen as a value, a resource in the productive system, a scarce commodity. New cultural values reflected this increased consciousness. Promptness became important. An individual organized his day according to a "time schedule" and was carefu1 to allocate well his "time budget.” 6 Not only did minutes and hours become guidelines for activity, but also days, months, and years became more distinct as convenient frameworks for organizing the affairs of the individual and the society alike. With this broadening time perspective, planning for the future was done in the context of these quantitative units of time measurement. This orientation to planning and toward the future as it relates to modern social systems will be viewed from a slightly different perspec- tive in the next section. There could be many implicit measures of this awareness of time as it is manifested in several different ways in modern society: the segmentation of time as a scheme or reference, the importance of time in determining activities: their length and quality, the dependency placed upon time units as guides, the social value attached to promptness, and the cultural value that quantitative time takes on as a productive re— source. Time Orientation: Although there is evidently a relationship between increased time consciousness and futuristic orientation, this second conception of time can be seen as a result of other aspects of the modernization process. Societies undergoing socio-economic develop— ment are driven by a belief in progress. They plan for the future be- cause they have come to recognize that they have some role in the mold- ing of that future. This increased confidence in the mastery of man over nature has also grown out of the industrial revolution. Modern man has been able to create and to control. His fate is no longer solely in the hands of Providence. Man thinks he can perfect himself and so he directs his activities toward this progressive goal. 7 In a broader sense, then, time orientation is considered the in- dividual's identification with the abstractions of past, present, and future. Though they are psychological conceptions, they are manifested in the individual's world view, his philosophy of life, and his behav- ior. Perhaps one way to understand better future orientation is to con- trast it with an orientation toward the past. The past-oriented individual has his reference point in the past. He believes the best life is behind him. He may glorify tradi- tion and age. Conversely, he may scorn or fear change. His roots in the past may be held more firmly because of a fatalistic philosophy of life or because of no sense of the present or future. In striking con— trast, the futuristic individual sees beyond today. He plans for a future and may even delay immediate gratification. This is usually an optimistic perspective; one believes that things will be better in the future. From this vieWpoint, then, it incorporates a sense of progress. But one may be very oriented toward the future and at the same time maintain a pessimistic view of its possible outcomes. One further mention should be made of the conceptual distinc- tion between the two time variables. For it may appear that they are so interrelated as to be measuring the same phenomenon. The author be- lieves that even though future orientation may seem to depend upon an increased consciousness and allocation of time as a resource, the two variables can exist independently of each other. Take, for example, the immigrant shop-keeper in the big city, who clings to the traditional ways of the old country, while counting on his pocket watch to guide him precisely through a day of orderly business. On the other hand, the 8 young political idealist may reject an emphasis on time or the use of planning according to a time budget, while advocating a very futuristic utOpian state. This is thus the rationale for using the two components of modern time conceptions separately in the analysis. CHAPTER II EMPIRICAL REFERENTS PROJECT The data to be used in the empirical test of the Waisanen model of modernization were gathered for a larger study of symbolic systems and change orientation in five Guatemalan communities. The project, conducted in 1963-64, was sponsored by the Instituto de Nutricion de Centro America y Panama and the Programa Interamericano de Informacion Popular. It was primarily concerned with the usage of innovative nutri- ents and the effect of literacy programs. The measurements of time orientation were of secondary interest. Other variables will be selected from the data as dictated by the components of the Waisanen model. SAMPLE A probability sample of 710 was drawn from adult residents of the five villages. The villages themselves were selected according to three criteria: cultural tradition (Indian or Ladino), degree of urban- ization, and degree of acculturation. Thus included are two hamlets, two county seats, and one village on the outskirts of Guatemala City; two villages are primarily Indian, two dominated by Ladinos, and one of mixed representation. La Cholena is an isolated rural village, thriving primarily on the cultivation of corn. Inhabited by 68 families, it has few developed 10 civic institutions. Known as a center of commerce as well as a county seat, San Jose del Golfo has many more public buildings, including a school, church, town hall, and jail. The 110 families are distinctly stratified. Santa Maria Cauque had little contact with any outside community until 15 years ago. It still remains a quite isolated hamlet. Another county seat in the sample is San Antonio Aquas Calien- tes, which is inhabited by 400 families. The community institutions are well-deveIOped and greater stratification is present in its social system. Belem, a village of 200 families on the fringe of Guatemala City, is primarily Ladino. Though it remains quite rural, it is witnes- sing some occupational differentiation. Most of these villages have been studied by anthropologists, thus ample information about them is available. A pre-test of 200 in- terviews was administered to an additional village and the instrument was corrected and refined. The resulting questionnaire was twenty pages long (see Appendix) and required an interview of 45 minutes. Six uni- versity girls, students in the social sciences, were trained to do the interviewing. The results were coded on IBM cards and analysis of the larger project was carried out at Michigan State University. The secon- dary analysis described in this paper was done at Indiana University and with the facilities of the Indiana University Computer Center. CHAPTER III THE PROBLEM In its broadest sense, this analysis shall serve as a test of the Waisanen model of the process of modernization. It becomes specific in the choice of modern time conceptions as representative of Waisanen- defined modern c0gnitions and value orientations. The central focus is upon the changing time conceptions which result from the roles and ex- periences the individual acquires in the process of modernization. The sociological determinants of time conceptions shall be limited to com- ponents of "role circumscription" and "dissociative experiences." These latter two phenomena are designated as the general independent variables; the dependent variable of concern is the modern conception of time. Following the author's conceptual definitions of two interrelated as- pects of time conception, both time consciousness and future time orientation will be related to the independent variables. General Hypotheses I: The lower the individual's role circumscription in the tradi- tional social system, (A) the more time conscious, and (B) the more future oriented he will be. II: The greater the dissociative experiences of the individual, (A) the more time conscious, and (B) the more future oriented he will be. 11 12 TABLE 2. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES DEPENDENT VARIABLES Less Role Circumscription lggp‘fikp§“‘\ Modern Time Conceptions: 3 . u Time Consciousness . . . . fl,,,.—~’*”"a Future Time Orientation More Dissoc1at1ve Experiences Specific Hypotheses Attention is now given to the middle-level variables of the Waisanen model. It is recalled that in the conceptual scheme, the com- ponents of "role circumscription" in the traditional system included the input variables of TIME and INTERACTION and the output variables were RANK and ESTEEM. As "dissociative experiences," Waisanen noted EDUCA- 1 TION and PSYCHIC MOBILITY. Thus, following the deductive method, we can further hypothesize: l. The less time the individual has invested in the traditional social system, (a) the more time conscious, and (b) the more future-oriented he will be. 2. The less interaction the individual has with the traditional system, (a) the more time conscious and (b) the more future- oriented he will be. 3. The lower the individual's rank in the traditional social system, (a) the more time conscious and (b) the more future- oriented he will be. 4. The lower the individual's esteem within the context of the traditional social system, (a) the more time conscious, and (b) the more future-oriented he will be. 5. The higher the educational level the individual attains, (a) the more time conscious and (b) the more future-oriented he will be. 6. The more psychic mobility the individual experiences, (a) the more time conscious and (b) the more future-oriented he will be. 1A third component, physical mobility, also is a major factor in the dissociating process, but it is excluded from the present analysis because the data contained no valid measure of this concept. 13 Finally, the relationship between the two conceptions of time can be tested: The more time conscious the individual is, the more future- oriented he will be. Measurement of Concepts When confronting the problem of defining the middle-level vari- ables in more empirical terms, one must recognize two major limitations that the present investigation faces. As is true of any secondary analysis, the data cannot be molded into the personal theoretical frame- work of this author. The measures of time conception were of minor con- cern in a much larger study with other very particular purposes in mind. Therefore, the four questions concerning.time do not measure all the aspects of time orientation that are considered relevant to the moderni- zation process. The second limitation is that the data do not do jus- tice to the Waisanen processual model. I am forced to define the com- ponents of the theoretical model in terms of empirical indicators drawn from data that were collected five years before the model was conceived, Thus, the referents don't always coincide with Waisanen's well-defined concepts. On thorough in5pection of the research schedule, I selected 17 items as possible measures of the 8 middle-level concepts. These com- prise the raw data that are used for the total analysis. These empirical indicators are viewed in the context of the total conceptual scheme in Table 3 below. Though the indicators appear self-explanatory, they may be clarified by reference to the interview schedule in the Appendix. All except marital status, sex, ethnic group, and language spoken are 14 clearly quantitative interval variables. The four exceptions are not purely nominal, however, for each is represented by two dimensions that should be related in a linear fashion to the other variables. TABLE 3. EMPIRICAL INDICATORS CONCEPTUAL SCHEME Low-Level Middle-Level High-Level Variables Variables Variables Age of Respondent 4;; TIME Marital Status -———_______p____~fi§ Friend Contact . INTERACTIONx. fi Relative Contact——————-—“""'—’ ROLE ’7 Sex 7‘ RANK / CIRCUMSCRIPTION Family Income 7 Self- -perceived Importance Ethnic Group ‘E“~7:% ESTEEM Years in School——— \ Functional Literacy——~. s47 EDUCATION“~\\\\\\\$ DISSOCIATIVE TV Viewing __ A PSYCHIC /, EXPERIENCES Radio Listening News and Magazine Reading~———*—? MOBILITY Importance of Clock TIME Importance of Calendar—~v~——*’”?> CONSCIOUSNESS . MODERN TIME Perception of Self Conditions in FuturEEE‘TT‘r~\\; CONCEPTIONS . FUTURE TIME Perception of Self as Wfifl,,,,r»r9 ORIENTATION Person Open to Change in the Future The specific content of the time measurements merits further ex- planation. The form of all four questions concerning time is patterned after the Cantril ladder device. For the two indicators of Time Con- sciousness, the respondent was shown a ten-step ladder and was told 15 ”Above step five are things that are very important to you and below are things that are not important. Where (on what step) would you place (I) a clock or watch, and (2) a calendar?" The two measures of future time orientation took the more Specific form of Cantril's self-anchoring scale: (3) "Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose that on the t0p step stands a person who is living the best possible conditions and at the bottom stands a person who is living the worst possible conditions. On what step of the ladder do you think you would be five years from now?" (4) The final question uses the same approach, but the respondent is to rate himself as a change-oriented and risk-oriented individual he thinks he will be five years from now. Analytical Apprpach Reversing the direction of abstraction now, I will begin the analysis with the lowest level variables. (1) The first step will be to examine closely the frequency distributions of the 17 indicators. Some collapsing of categories within the variables may prove necessary. (2) Next I will test the strength and adequacy of the 17 indicators as mea- sures of the middle-level concepts. An inter-item analysis will deter- mine the choice of specific indicators as single measures of a concept or of composite indices of indicators serving as a valid measure. (3) Using the middle—level variables in their empirical form, the specific hypotheses can be tested. Of secondary interest will be the relation- ship among the variables making up the three more abstract concepts. The statistical techniques employed will be Pearson's product moment correlation and chi-square analysis. (4) The components of the high- 16 level variables thus examined, broader conclusions can be drawn in terms of the general hypothesized relationship between time conceptions and the process of modernization. Interpretation of the findings will com- prise the major portion of the analysis. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND COLLAPSING OF CATEGORIES Upon observation of the frequency distributions, logical breaks were noted in the distributions for collapsing categories. This conden- sation was deemed necessary for several reasons: Some double-column variables could not be handled in their raw form. The data often fell into logical patterns which could be maintained with collapsing. This process simplified the analysis in general. Table 4 lists all the vari- ables considered in the total analysis as they were recoded and distri- buted. The starred codes indicate those extreme categories included in chi-square analysis. Though contingency tables were made of all the variables, the middle categories rarely followed a consistent pattern. The extreme cells, however, appeared more interesting; it is those which occupy the extreme positions that are most clearly relevant to the hypo- theses. (The chi-squares thus computed are based on four-fold tables, so in every case, there is only one degree of fredom.) It must be understood that, while this operation of using extreme categories re- duces ambiguity, it also effects the randomness of the sample. Thus, the chi-square must be interpreted in this context. The product moment correlations, which are based upon the total sample, are more valid measures of association. l7 18 TABLE 4. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF VARIABLES IN FINAL COLLAPSED CATEGORIES —— w . . FRE- PERCEN- NUMBER VARIABLE CODE CATEGORIES QUENCY TAGE (1) Age *1 17-25 years old 138 19.4 2 26-35 281 39.6 3 36-45 160 22.5 4 46-55 76 10.7 *5 56-83 55 7.7 2) Marital Status 1 Married, free union 673 94.8 2 Single (5), sepa— 37 5.2 rated, widowed, divorced 3) Friend Contact 1 High: once per wk. 404 56.9 2 Medium: few times 105 14.8 a mo. to once a month 3 Low: few times a 201 28.3 year to never (4) Relative *1 High 386 54.4 -Contact 2 Medium 154 21.7 *3 Low 170 23.9 5) Sex 1 Male 272 38.3 2 Female 438 61.7 (6) Family Income *1 Low: 1-5 (dollar 476 67.0 equiv) 2 Middle: 6-10 126 17.7 *3 High: 11-63 108 15.2 (7) Self-perceived *1 Low: 1-4 rating 183 25.8 Importance 2 Medium: 5-6 215 30.3 *3 High: 7-10 312 43.9 8) Ethnic Group 1 'Ladino 372 52.4 2 Indian 338 47.6 (9) Years in 1 Low: none 244 34.4 School 2 Medium: 1-3 years 289 40.7 3 High: 4-12 years 177 24.9 (10) Functional 1 Low: none 267 37.6 Literacy 2 Medium: 1-6 words 157 22.1 3 High: 7-8 words 286 40.3 19 TABLE 4--Continued 1 r— FRE— PERCEN- NUMBER VARIABLE CODE CATEGORIES QUENCY TAGE (11) TV Viewing 1 None 622 87.6 2 Some: 1-8 times in 88 12.4 last 6 months (12) Radio 1 None 423 59.6 Listening 2 Some: 1-8 hours 287 40.4 a day 13) News Reading 1 None 487 68.6 2 Some: 1-8: Actual 223 31.4 no. read regularly or occasionally (l4) Importance 1 Low: 0-6 rating 209 29.4 of Clock 2 Medium: 7-8 288 40.6 3 High: 9-10 213 30.0 (15) Importance 1 Low: 0-6 rating 209 29.4 of Calendar 2 Medium: 7-8 303 42.7 High: 9-10 198 27.9 (16) Perception of 1 Low: 0-6 self— 302 42.5 Self Future rating Conditions 2 High: 7-10 408 57.5 (17) Perception of 1 Low: 0-6 self— 153 21.5 Self as Change- rating Oriented in 2 High: 7-10 557 78.5 Future INDICES USED IN FINAL ANALYSIS (9+10) Edlit *1 Low: uneducated, 197 27.7 2 illiterate 81 11.4 3 123 17.3 4 191 26.9 *5 118 16.6 6 High: highly edu- 0 cated and literate C11+12+13) Media Contact *1 Low: No use of 316 44.5 2 TV, radio, news 233 32.8 3 118 16.6 *4 43 6.1 5 O 6 High: use TV, 0 radio, and news 20 TABLE 4—-Continued __., FRE- PERCEN- NUMBER VARIABLE CODE CATEGORIES QUENCY TAGE (14+15) Time *1 Low: neither 117 16.5 Consciousness 2 clock nor cal- 137 19.3 3 endar very im- 219 30.8 4 portant 110 15.5 *5 127 17.9 6 High: both very 0 important (16+17) Future Time *1 Low: low rating 93 13.1 Orientation 2 of self in 269 37.9 . *3 fUture 348 49.0 4 High: high rating 0 of self in future 710 = Total sample *Indicates those categories actually employed in chi-square com- putations for the final analysis. ()Those variables selected to enter into the final analysis. _£NTER-ITEM ANALYSIS AND FINAL SELECTION OF INDICATORS OF MIDDLE-LEVEL 'VARIABLES The preliminary analytic process was to select those indicators vehich best represented the middle-level variables. On the basis of a :skewed frequency distribution and its consistently low correlation with <>ther variables, marital status was eliminated as a possible measure of linteraction within the traditional system. Though certainly related to Elge, marital statuses were overwhelmingly in the married or free cate- gories (673 of 710), with only 5 single respondents and 32 categorized as separated or divorced. Two major ecological variables, sex and ethnic group, were elim- iiriated as representatives of rank and esteem in the test of the model, 21 though they will be used as control variables in later analysis. The sample was predominantly female (438:272). Yet the sex variable was not significantly correlated either positively or negatively with any other variable except news reading (-.35). Furthermore, little variation was noted in the row and column percentages of contingency tables with other variables. The males rated themselves slightly higher in impor- tance within the community and are notably the better educated (though cell percentages by row indicate higher rank only in literacy scores). With all three measures of media contact (TV, radio, news), males were the more exposed. But with the four measures of time conceptions, there was striking uniformity. Women appeared only slightly more clock- conscious, while males were the more future-change-oriented. This lat- ter relationship may be attributed to the occupational involvement of the male, where change is often first manifested, but one would also have predicted a greater time consciousness among male workers. Besides the small amount of variation exPlained by sex, this variable is elimin- ated because of the much greater relative strength of family income as a measure of rank.’ The relationship between the two possible indicators could not be tested because the measure of family income is based on the husband's income rather than that of the female respondent. If she vi- cariously shares his rank, the issue of sex as a strong distinguishing factor is further clouded. The intrinsic theoretical interest in ethnic group has been made 1known. The sample is quite evenly represented with 372 Ladinos and 338 Indians. It was expected that his variable would strongly differentiate the traditional from the modern. Ladinos are commonly known to be the 22 most progressive. But in both the correlational analysis and chi-square inter-item analysis, little difference was found between the two groups. The other indicator of esteem - self—perceived importance - seemed more explicit and proved to correlate more strongly with all other variables. Relative contact was finally chosen as the single measure of interaction within the traditional system because it represented the re- maining strength of the kinship system, considered germane to tradi- tional society. Also it appeared possible that in Guatemalan society, contact with friends (especially inter-village contacts) might disso- ciate one from rather than restrict one to the traditional system. The process of inter-item analysis may be viewed in summary form in Table 5. The contingency tables offer the distributions as drawn from the extreme cells. The chi-square, its significance level, and the product moment correlation represent the statistical tests that dictated the final selection of empirical indicators for the concepts of concern. TABLE 5. INTER-ITEM ANALYSIS 1“ fl 2* ** FINAL VARIABLE CONTINGENCY TABLE X r MEASURE INTERACTION Relative_Contact Often Never 0.... (3.3:) (1;; Friend ° 3 65.56 32 Relative Contact Never (55) (27) (p (.001) Contact 15% 7% 23 TABLE S--Continued INTER-ITEM ANALYSIS ‘fi —_~—_ ’1 t — L _‘_; 2* ** FINAL VARIABLE CONTINGENCY TABLE X r MEASURE ESTEEM Ethnic Group Ladino Indian (92) (91) Self- L°W 19% 18% 59 Self- Perceived (not si ) .01 Perceived Importance H' h (168) (144) g. Importance 13 34% 29% EDUCATION Functional Literacy Low High Low (19:) (232 Years in 566 76 16 58 ' .57 EDLIT Index School Hi h (13) (118) (p< .001) 3 4% 34% PSYCHIC . . . MOBILITY Radio Listenigg Never Often (393) (41) Never 88% 9% MEDIA TV 2.64 .1, . .12 CONTACT Viewing (10) (3) (p < . 20) Index Often o O 26 16 News Reading Never Often Never (33;) (3;; .11 ° 38.34 33 . Viewing (7) (8) (p < .001) ° Often 19 29 TABLE 5--Continued 2* ** FINAL VARIABLE CONTINGENCY TABLE X r MEASURE News Reading Never Often Never (3272 (23) Radio 856 66 I7—___ . 303.86 .22 _l§IEEE£Hi (23) (13) Often 6° 0 6 36 TIME CONSCIOUS- Importance of Cal NESS Low High Low (:2 (1% Time Importance ° 83.50 49 Conscious- of ClocR (1) (127) (P<.001) ' ness High 1% 95% Index FUTURE TIME . . ORIENTATION Chapge Orientation ng High “:2. 99 Conditions ° 24.81 24 Future Time in FutuFé (p<.001) ° Orientation -——-—————- H' (7) (111) igh 5% 75% Index *Chi-square is based upon extreme cells. **Pearson's product moment correlation is based upon total sample. Indexing On the basis of strong association between the other pairs of empirical indicators, indices can be compiled for the middle-level vari- ables of education, psychic mobility, time consciousness, and future time orientation. The results of the inter-item analysis which justify 25 this move are summarized in Table 5. Both product moment correlations and computed chi-squares attest to the direction and the strength of these relationships. (1) EDLIT INDEX: Both educational level and literacy could play different yet important and interrelated roles in introducing an indivi- dual to the modern social system. A correlation of .57 (X2 = 216.58) indicates a definite relationship between these two indicators of disso- ciative experiences. It should be noted, though, that the largest cell (197) represents the extreme case of the noneducated and illiterate. Of particular interest, then, are those 13 who have had four or more years of schooling yet remain illiterate and those 23 who have obtained a very high score on the literacy test in spite of no educational training. This latter group may reflect the success of the adult literacy classes held in recent years. Other influences, such as media contact, upon this deve10pment will enter into the discussion at a later point. For all further analysis, the composite "edlit" score will represent educa— tional level in its broadest sense. (2) MEDIA CONTACT INDEX: The measure of psychic mobility can now be viewed as a composite score of measures of the use of three media forms: TV, radio, and newspapers. The inter-item analysis of these three indicators shows the strongest relationship between TV viewing and newspaper-magazine reading (r = .33) (X2 = 38.34, p