-- , 4 .4, ”‘
.00.‘. O -,‘

iv?

«'5

THE CHANGING STATUS OF JAPANESE WOMEN:
A SURVEY AND ANALYSiS-

Thesis Fa? flu: Degree of M. A.
MiCHiGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Michika Suzuki
1963

 

 

 

THE CHANGING STATUS OF JAPANESE 1233531:
A SURVEY AND MEALYSIS

BY
Michiko Suzuki

ATP

5}
U)

C.“

IV

submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTHI OF ARTS

DIVISION OF SOCIAL SCIEHCE

1963

MERE-'iLEDCH'flENT

tint. and fol-emu. I: more emanation ie mud to
the Director or this thesis. Dr. John D. Donoghue. anartmmt or
Sooiolog and Anthromloa. Without his mggeetione. guidance and
patient indulgence. thie M would not have been pondhle.

Ann-eunuch is also W to Professor Walter Fee. Reed
of the W of History. and to Profeeeor Harry K. Kim».
Head of the Department of Religion. under whose guidance my
gamete work at I-Eichigan State (hivereity has been pursued: and
to Dr. Km Wei so. Wot History. forbi- valunble
mentions on v thesis.

Amatdeelotthueismetohpmu nucleated:
compute and Japanese We in East Lansing whose oooxzeration undo
the reeearoh possible. In pox-mount. my warmest. thanks to km.
John D. Donoghue. and to Mr. and Mrs. George Allen for their
interest and Motions. Further-ore. my deep appreciation in
extended to Mrs. Midori Battie‘hini for her guidance end
magnum throughout Iv work on output.

Finally. Ijvooldliketoeoknowledgeereeldebttolw
pants and to Mr. ahd Mrs. Charles C. Woodard and their water.
Karon ‘w’oodard Brasoll. Without their support. and encouragement
wawmmmmmwmmmmum
“CWO ‘

mam 0F COIHEI‘ZTS

CHAPTER Page

Io PREFACEe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 1

II. TOKUGAWA PERIOD (16004868)... . . . . . . . . . a
Honan'e Statue in Law. in the Family

and in th! $0010fl¥e e e‘e e ewe e eAe e e e. u

Economic Stetue e e e e e e e e e e e e e e ‘2

Education e e e e e e e.e e e e e-e e e e e 1“

Actt'1t108 in P011t1030 e e e e e e e e e e ‘8
III. MEIJI AND POSMIEIJI PERIOD (1868-1915). . . . . 20

Wom'e Status in Law. in the Family

and in the SOOithe e e e e e e e e e e e e
E¢0h°l10 Statue e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
Education e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

A0t1'1t198 1n P011t10'e e e e e e e e e e e “1

$538

Iv. POSIWORLD mm 11 PERIOD (1%5—Pwm). . . . . #7

L33 Regarding Family'Life e e e e e e e e e “8
Law Regarding Labor end Social Welfare. . . 1&9
Law Regarding Edwcation e e e e e e e e e e 51
LII Regarding POliticl e e e e e e e e e e 51
Dementia Wheat: and Effects of Law

onWom'eSutuooo.......... 52

V. ATTI‘I'UIES TOWARD MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY BY
CONTEXTORARIJAPANESE0.0.0....9000 68

VI. SIMMARI AND CONCLUSION . e e e e e e e e e . e e 106

Summary'of th. Historical Survey. e e e e e 106

Summary of the Analysis of Contemporary
Japanese Attitudes Toward Marriage and
the Family. 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 109

mature Implication on Japanese We
and th. Family. 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 1‘2

Conclusion. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e “6

BIBHOGRAPHIOCOOCOOQOOIOOIOO0.0... ‘22

i'i'i

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1. Telephone Installations in the Major Cities,
‘8m-18960000000000000000000 m

2. Occupational matribntion of Labor Foroo.
by361.1930.................. 31

3. Increase in Number of Boya' and Girls'
Middle Schools in Japan Since Establishment
OISchoolb‘yatem1873-19166.._......... 38
'5. Various Improvmto Enjoyed by Japanese
Woman in tho Post-World War II period. 1950-
19600000000000000000000000 51“

5. Monthly Wag. of Undtilled Laborers. by Sea ,
andSizootFactory.1960........... 55

6. Number and Percentage of Women Paid Employees.
W11 Years and Older. 19118-1961. 0 o o o o o 56

7. Farmer-Owned Machinery. by Type and Number.

‘9590‘00000000000000000ooo 58

8. Growth of Number of Cities and Urban Population
"920'19600000000000cocoon-.00 59

9. Co-pariaon of Urban and Rural Ownership of
Selected HO‘lBGhOld Items. 1960. o o o o o o- o. o 60

10. Total Value of Export: in Millions of Ian.
1936-195900dooooooo.oo-ooooooo 62

11. Increase in Secondary and Higher Education of
Women.1950-1961................ 63

12. Women Representatives in Lower and Upper
Hons. or National Diet. and Votora'a Patten:
byIaar.bySex.19i:6-1962........... 65

13. Number of Radios Ragisteredat MIX by Year and
Percentage Per Thousand of the Total POpulation.
1929‘959000000coho-00000000 6?

1h. Distribution of the Age of the Informants. by

Waco-00.000000000000000 7"

15. Marital Status of the Informanta. by Sex. . . . 72

16. Length of Stay in the United States of tho
Intomanta.bySex............... 72

1?. Educational Background of the Informanta. by

58Xoooooooooooooooooooooo 72

iv

LIST OF TABLES o Continual

NEIL"

'8. Present Cccupatian of the Infomants. by Sex...

‘9. Cccupational {met-16:11:33 of the Inform-ante.

byiicxnoottats-otoooutloo¢¢
20. Father's Occupation of the Intomanta‘. by Sex 0
21. Status of the Infomts Among. Brothers and

awhbysexio¢oooooocc

22.1(368112311‘183613360000000000.

23. Ideal Age Differences Between Spouse:

9A. Fiato Selection . . . o o .
25. Parent and Fiat. Selection ;.
26'. Parental Selection of Fate

£7. thxcation and flute Selection

23. Authority Distribution in tho

29.1311rber of Chndrcn. c o 0 o

30.31rth00ntro1.;”....5"

31. Children's Efiucation . . .
32. Fatrflocality and Emu-1am.
33. The Problem of Eldest Eton o
31$. Irfimri’cance o o o c o o I o
35. Aging Sand the Family (I). 0
36. A51!!! and the Family (I). o
37. work Role and the Emily. .

O
I
' 0‘
O

O...

00.

0

O

O f C

O

O

O

O

92
95
97

101
102
131‘

LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH Page
1. Primary School Tamhor Salad» 1:) i927.
bysex.1afiwi‘erstonthgoooco...oo33

2. Relation of tie Davehpmnt of Female
Education, Economic revclomant. and Tim.
‘875-‘9mcooooooooooto00000039

3. Percentage Increase of Urban Pozmlation.
‘920-1960000u0.000000000000059

v1

 

CHAPTER I

PREFACE

The following thesis consists of en historical study of the
chenging status of Japanese men from 1600 to the present and en
espiricel study concerning contenporary Japanese attitudes towards
nsrriege end the family.

Many studies have been made of the Japanese family system,
Japanese customs. beliefs and history; however. there are only It
few studies on the subject of woman's status in Japan. All of these
studies attempt to show e comprehensive progress in the develoment
of the rights end status of‘somen.1

The purpose of this thesis is not to show :1 comprehensive de-
velopment of the status of women in Japan. but to show'najor changes
which have taken place and to indicate the main causes of these
changes. This study does not. deal with particular places and classes.
but deals with e rather broad sweep of historical change over the
period of many centuries. A nirther pumose is to test an histori-
cally generated hypothesis by. examining how contemporary Japanese

“insect to the traditional concept of marriage and the family. Che of
thieupurposes of this part of the thesis is to indicate some of the

variations in Japanese attitudes towards the problem of women‘s status.

M

1

f ' ‘For bibliographies in this area see Itsue Takamure. my on
Shel: ‘ Shi (Social History of Japanese h‘onen]. (Kyoto:
Shinnihonsha. 1943). and Tatsunosuks I-‘satsui. rzihon Jose}: all; [The
History of Japanese hbman). (Tokyo: Shhkasha. 1933). E'Lecently.‘ under
the UISESSO project. e study was made as Chgfiigg gtatus of J§2 snags
m ed. Takaski Koyame in 1959.

 

In this thesis the following hypotheses are set forth;

1. woman‘s status of the post Hsiji period was higher than
that of the Tokugawa period. and man‘s status in the presmt
period is higher than in any of the previous periods under consider-
stion. Status of mm corresponds with the overall social changes
in politics. economic oysters. education and social thought.

2. The degree of improvement of uomm's status will be direct-
ly related to the degree of the changes of type. size and organization
of the family and marriage system.

In. order to support hypothesis one. the laws. literature.
periodicals. and statistical data concerning the family and social
systan in general and men's participation in politics. economics.
education of each period in particular will be examined as a main
scurce. Furthsnnore. the degree of cultural diffusion. that is.
the degree of influence of Western culture in general. particularly
the concept of dcnocracy transmitted by the mass communication such
as radio. television. newspapers and various kinds of magazines
will be observed as another index with which to support the hypothesis.

In order to support hypothesis two. interviews and question-
airos are used to examine how contemporary Japanese men and women
react to traditional concepts of marriage and the family. Altogether
2h cases are used: 12 men and 12 women in East Lansing. This empi-
rical study has a twofold purpose: first. to support hypothesis two;
and second. to test findings of the historical survey which is attenpted
to support hypothesis one.

The thesis is divided into six parts. The foregoing paragraphs
Of the first part have introduced the problem under consideration

\~, 3
and provided a set of hypothesis. The second part of the thesis is
concemed with a survey of the status of men in the Tokugawa period.
'meir status will be considered in the framework of the family. law.
economic status. education and political activity. The third part
deals in a like manner with the Meiji era. The final historical-
descriptive chapter is concerned with the changes in the post-‘mrld
War II period. This is followed by an analysis of the results of a
survey of attitudes of 2h East lensing Japanese on marriage and the
family. Their responses to 16 questions ccnceming marriage and the
femilywillbeused as snindextorevealthechsnzes oftheeoman's
status. The final part of the thesis presents a summary and conclu-
sion of both the historical and empirical studies and an attanpt to
predict the future course of the Japanese marriage and the family system
with relation to women’s status.

It should be mentioned here that this study is only a prelimi-
nary testing of an historically generated hypothesis. It is by no
means sufficient to ascertain the validity of histOrical reconstruction.
an. it will be the basis for further study regarding the changing
status of Japanese mm. then further study is carried on in Japan.
with a larger and less biased sample. a refinement in theory and
methods will be attaspted.

‘ """ A": ""H' 1" I ’aq 1’35?
v." "“ ‘ ""Y . ‘V '1‘ "0 IA 'J‘o’s. - #4.) .

*2

f

Wind's ‘Stat 223 in 1:22: . in their...

     

'Eimoujmut the study. no provision or lass were found winch
provided special. if not equal. privileges for men. As shall be
com in the succeeding sections. a wczasn' 9 life was deteirlned by the
sun‘s wishes. and wcnm's status was very low emperor: to the later
periods - the post-Ref. 31 and the pee t-Eéorld' oar II.

In order to umlerstand the mm's position in the? 21.57am
period. the prevalent social thong! 2t in this period no at bei" .rst cro-
wiincd. Japan dozing: Tokugawa ::eclusion Period was mostly influenced
tar China. abnfucisn thou 322:3 became prevalmt in Japan fostered by the
Tolru: 7,3219. rulers to give the country more stability. The most accepted
were three pfmoiples of subordination hish mg. menisci soc in]. 0 "tier.
These were the destination of skiers over younjtcr. the male over resale.
and t': .e miiliori 3 over té 6 subject. "1125.5 meant that younger persons
should 0’. my the elders amt be cohort... ate to thou. feta-ales must clue of
males. and subjects must obey the ruler or their authorities. “Eliseo
principles of tinnitmius were part of his “iivc‘: o”? ticnships" ethic
were {esteem} authority and. whjoot. the relations of father and son.
the relations bets can {211:3 and form-.19 or 122.231.3222! and wife. the rah.-
ticns between elder brother and younger brother. and the r" tione
he tzrocn :‘r 21223:: .

- u" s ‘. a . v. ('1’. we! . ~ -.I " .n l , '2 I? 1 .
Page. on t..cse pun: 3.121.222. th e 1......23 in 20.2.2. (or: .‘a‘am was

"J

5
regulated so that each member had clearly defined duties and a definite

statue. Morrow must know his position in the family and all that is
mooted of him and of others. Every member also must know his rights
and the duties he has to his family and what was expected of him. The
elder peeple had more-authority in the family than the younger members.
The head ofithe family was always the eldest male in the family. The
head or the family had all the authority and unlimited power over all
the members. Before his commands and wishes the other members would
stand inebeolute obedience. He was the biological. religious. poli-
tical. economic. and educational head.

The family in Tokugawa carried many functions union in modem
‘ times are considered mnctione or the state and govenmmt. In Japan
there was no need for insurance. old age and unemploymmt protection
and relief from the government. in. family provided everything: for
its members and took good care of old peeple and gave all the members
everything that was needed from the day of their birth until the day
of their death.

In this section. for the sake of clarification and systematic
prosmtatimx. the family system. marriage law. including divorce
laws. laws pertaining to the family. preperty succession. and other
pertinent areas will. be mined first in order to convey the woman's
position.

Throughout Japanese history Chinese influence. particularly in
the domain of social law. was strong. as stated by Ishio. Iehio
stated that the T'ang fiamasty’s laws were influential in ancient

Japan. whereas in the medieval period strong; influences were felt

from the Ifing Djnasty-1

Since marriage is prerequisite to the establishment of a new
family. it is necessary. first to emulne the marriage rules and
regulations. The concepts of marriage held by our ancestors were
mtrmely different from the modem View. Several passages will
be cited to convey an idea of the marriage system during the
Tokugawa period. Hozumi stated that marriage was regarded as
affectionate union of two persons bearing different surnames for the
purpose of attending upon the ancestoral temple on the one hand. and
of continuing; the genealogical line on the other.2 Marriage was
thus chiefly an agency through which the family tree was perpetuated
and which rendered a service in the institution of ancestor worship.

During; the Tokugawa period . peeple were taught that family
continuity was the basic objective of xnsa‘ri'agta.3 Under the
Tokugawa period's family system. if a man died without leaving a
son to perpetuate the family name. it was considered the greatest
misfortune that one could have on earth. and all means were exploited
to assure the endstmce of an heir. In order to perpetuate the
family line. each family was responsible for producing at least

1Yoshihise Ishlo. lihon Iodafih‘é to Kenfc' [Study of Ancient
Japanese Lew]. (Tokyo: Ho‘ritsu makesha. 1959). P. 1.

ziviobushige Rozumi. chgtogtbrship Ed Japanese 1g! (6th ed.)
Tokyo: The Hokuseido Press. 19540 . p. 1234.

3Eastern Iiumazaki. Senmku Jic’ai no 33:11:11 3393. (Codes of the
More wring the Period of Sivil liar]. (“EOE-:30: Koisminsha. 1941+),
p. 1570

 
 

one boy.“

The consent of parents was required for every marriage. Since
daughters of Tokugawa did not have any status whatsoever within the
family circle. marriages were handled exclusively by the parents.
by the go-between. or by relatives. Tokugawa literature shows that

nunsmes engagements. especially among warriors. were arranged for

5

the sake of political convenience. and. daughters of the camoners

were frequently married to wealthy families in order to avert finan-
cial crisis in thCi; families.6 After the marriage. the bride be-
came not only a meaber of her husband. but also her husband's
parents and other relatives. 'i‘l'le Tokugawa period recomised only
the patriarchal. patrilocal and patrilineal family organization as
the basis to perpetuate the family line; status of women. especially
that of wife. was quite low.7

During; the Tokugawa period. plurality of wives was oficially

W V

blafcadio Iiearn mentions the traditional practices on this

matter: "he excuse existed for remaining childless; the family law
in Japan. precisely as in ancient Europe. having amply provided
against such a continrgency. In case that a wife provided barren.
she might be divorced. In case that there were reasons for not
dimming her. a concuhine might be taken for the purpose of obtain-

{’1 an heir. Furthemore. every 1' cily representative was priv-
iledged to adopt an heir. An unworthy son. again. might be disinherited.
and another young man adopted in his place. finally in case that a
man had daughters but not son. the succession and the continuance of
the cult be assured by adopting; a husband for the eldest danizhters."
Lafcadio Hearn. Jinan: in Izzterpretaggg (ii-ow York: The I'iacmillan
300. 192a). pp. 63‘690

SItsue Talcanmre. E‘ihon JoseLifha‘3; 23h; [Social History of Japa-
nese Women]. (Kyoto: Shhmihonsha. 13448), pp. 183-86.
éIbgde. P0 17?.

7M. p. 1&7.

mmgnized. Rozumi stated that possession of many women was a mark
of social distinction. and implied courage. wisdom. wealth or noble
desowt.8 In fact. there were distinctions of “first- " and 'second
wife" status and certain provisions were made to differentiate the
two. The ”second” wife. or concubine. was interior to the ”first”
and her childrm were also inferior. Moreover. the concubine was
not allowed to participate in ancestor-worship. nor were her children.
In addition. the ooncubine's children could not inherit any preperty.9
Regarding the question of divorce, the following observations
convey the practices of the Tokugawa period. It should be noted that
there is not a single record to indicate that the wife was allowed to
initiate divorce or separation. It would appear that the marriage dis-
solution was. initiated either by the husband or his parents. How-
ever. before the divorce. either the husband or his parents had to
subuit to the wife 'e written letter of notification” called 342.12.
mong comoners. terriers had to report to the local magistrate of
the matter. In other words. verbal staternent was not sufficient to
initiate a legal divorce. But when a husband attmpted e. divorce or

separation from his concubine. no written notification was necessary}0

8HOZWM1. 22: czte. P0 1340

91mm. Ishii (ed.). Nihon [beside (Water) of Japanese Law].
(Tokyo: Aomori Gakuin. 1959). p. 1:02.

1oggide. p. 40h.

Ah e-noination of records reveals that the woman was placed in
very unfavorable positions. particularly with regard to divorce laws.
According to the Tokugawa laws. no fault was to be attributed to the
male, but rather. grounds for divorce were directed toward the to-
male only. In other words. Tokugawa law maker: felt that only the
men had shortcomings or defects. while the men enjoyed special

privileges wanted in the laws."

“the legal provisions. together
with other social force. thus reduced the woman's etatue during the
Tokugawa period.

Among aw reaeons. one common one for divorce was that of
adultery emitted by the wife. This law was based on the grounds
that there was obviously a "danger of the commaion of blood. thereby
e pereon not in reality related to the ancestor might euoceed to the
worship. “‘2

the husband. Moreover. according to Tokugawa law the husband was

more was no punitive measure held by the law against

enacted to kill both the adulterer and the acltxlltereeo.13
A wife's failure to bear children, especially a male child.
we the most comer: ground for divorce. Mabehavior. disobedience
and cruelty were also reasons to effect legal divorce.”
The following eeven grow-do for divorce were common features
of divorce lave doting the 'Tolméawa period:

A A

"Takamure. 92, cu... pp. 196-98.
Wow. 92: ch... 1:. 139-

‘3xumazak1. @: w... p. 188.

”Howl. 29: Cite. pe 138e

10
If wife (1) disobeyed her husband's parents: (2) failed to

bear children; (3) omitted adultery; (4) eodzibited Jealousy
(5) had some repulsive disease: (6) was garmlous; (7) stole.

i5

LOI‘UJVBI‘. it was a common practice for the husband to divorce
his wife without specific reasons. Written letters of divorce usually
stated: "Since you do not comply with my family custom. you must
leave.” or another munch statement me: ”Because you are not suita-
ble to my family taste...”16 I

Compared to the Heisn period when the word ”separate”? was
used for divorce. words such as “give leave.“ “turn out“ were used
during Tokugawa period.- ‘Ihese terms imply that the woman's statue
was extremely low in this period.

Tokugawa Japan was in most respects a man's world. Parents
wanted sons. not daughters. Sisters were expected to defer to
brothers. and when a girl was mature she was expected to many.
beer sons. and devote herself wholly to the duties of the home.

Moog the masses, this home service probably included a mu day's
work in the fields, but the odes depict women busy at their looms»
since there were few. if any. slaves. it is likely that men of the
upper class were able to employ domestic servants to do the house-

work. but they nowhere would seem to have forsaken the home for the
world outside.
The contrast between the joy at the birth of a son

 

15Ib1de. Fe 138.

‘arekamre, M... p. 19?. For further infomatiou. see
131115.. We. Che X11. NOe 125e

1"'9'1‘alcamure. op, cit” pp. 196-93.

11
and the gloom when a girl was born is brought out in this poem about
a royal family:

A son is born.

He is placed upon a bed.

And clothed with brilliant stuffs.

They give him a sani-sceptre.

His cries are frequent.

They clothe the lower part of his body with red cloth

The master. the chief sovereign. is born.
and to him they give the wire.

A daughter is berm

They place her on the ground;

They wrap her in cormon cloths;

They place a tile near to her.

There is not in her either good or evil.

Let her learn how to prepare the wine and

cook the feed.
Above all she should exert herself not to be
a charge on her parents. U
Indeed. the mmozmcement that the baby was a girl was an
occasion for shame. not rejoicing. and a wife who failed to provide
her husband with a son could be divorced. It is difficult to be-
lieve that parents at that time were lacking in sheer animal atta-
chment to their young. either male or female. However. the feudal
Japanese were trained to repress the elemental auctions. and outwardly
the Japanese family was characterised more by a show of reopect
than by the display of affection.
Girls were born for marriage. and a faithful mother had done

her duty by her daughter when she had brought her up prepared for
’ that event. The sum of all her teaching is contained in
these parting words. of advice whispered to a daughter leaving to

be married: Won are going to your home. You must be respectful.

 

1Bc'uoted from Rollin Chanbliss. roinl “310133115, (how York: Holt.
Rinehu't and Winston 00.. 1951;). pp. 91-92.

 

 

 

12
Do not disobey your husband and his parents.” From birth to death

themman of the Tokugawa was under the authority of some men.

' cm 0 tu

Since historical times. the agricultural class has ranked in

theory. at least. next to the tap in social importance. Anion].-
ture and auriculture were the meet him developm rural activities

in Japan. Fame in Japan were small. and cultivation was necessarily
very intensive. Necessity also taught the Japanese. as it had their
continental neighbors. to make use of all or their waste to replenish
the soil.

wring the Tokugaxm period. approzdmately ninety percent of the
total population was in one way or another engaged in agriculture.
Althoufi: there were a number of eo-called "comcrcial-citiee" and
”handicraft-factories.“ comedity exchange was the principle mode or
economic activity. Rice was the chief medium of excl’xangc. and
social position was weighed by the amout of rice a person accumu-
lated. though a coinage system did exist during and prior to Toku-
gem.

Because of generally low technological advancement. social

mobility was lacking. Therefore. a. woman's life was attached to the
family. Outside the troll-to-do classes most women. both before

and after the marriage. played a vital role in the economic activi-
ties of the fzmily. Since the larger part of the pepulation m3

mgaged in agriculture. it is not surprising that women in the

13

rural execs helped with the rice cultivation. tendered the silk

worms. preserved food for the m‘mter season. urged £3311, picked the
tea. and did 5 10 textile works such an the op....ning and weaving in the
home. Due to Luefficimt methods of heuee‘zeepingz . most of the

women were hard workers. especially the m we of the femere. It

was e custom for the femer'e wife to {get up firot and go to be1

last in the family.

In spite of their economic more 21.3111! to the Emily. wor'xm were
of very low state 51:10 :1 t1; oy (3" -d not haze any fitzmwfzol power.
Family property was regie‘teroi under the time of either “the father
or t} e e1; est eon. Thus. all ti" 9 fun income. cluding; the wife’s
wee centrolloi 11;:- t‘1e family heed. ... :e 1:71: at elacd that whet}: or
married or single. {2.2.0 1 man um. under no cirmret. mace. allow. "

to of; onto an immanent Momma-13.1131 slaves. oostrol an estate.

1:1
My or sell “r‘mri'v -‘ her we no no. or retain her legacy. “'

.‘1 131.1335: 1m, curing: the Toi-fu 33.1w period. a me Eori y of t.‘:e
peasants we .5 e';>1-ted be the 106111 10:63 and warriors. A3 a re-
suit, .1 more *‘seasant cleeeoe mm cert-51 allot to so their eman-
tere ea prostitume. el eves. or eencnzhince in order to :1...‘.:1tein
{- 3 § .1‘ ‘3. ,9 . ‘ ,4 I _ 2:}
mini: 1m 5 DIaQIEILEE 01 14.72.32: and. pay 13.1311 taxes.

23in ce no were a: wee ellowed to ooerete *1 info afloat business.
.. i'

”“191 cu dew. 01‘ bu: 8.3123 6011 prepcr‘r u. a war .rz'e life or emu.

w- ”Leg

ranlA. Q!- Ca: 0. LP. ’ezwhmo

_J

’13“ 1 .1. m,: - . _. . m. .. ,"--- .a -.-. “5,. . 1., 3,6
era 1- 3.:5193.’ iii-Lia" {19.2 ”J. h; 33 £941.”! ._'.J;.=l} ‘LUL'r 1.."th 15-3

27'.
[Private 1:513 :13 ‘een in No known of t1'3ei'io u“: Eeriod],
($0.111): zeiij. 1422‘). pg. 1"}“110

11.

was dependent upon a man's decisions. moreover. as o result or
the social recomition of lioonsed prostitution. the woman's

statue was further minimized. Takamure. a specialist in the study
of dapanece women. declared that the prostitute system was a
common feature of 'patriarchal and patrilocal family system.“ In
tho patriarchal {wily oyster: the concept of the fecal. es pr0perty
of tho mnlo rather than an indopmdant personality was the man
interpretation of her status. and even aocial laws supported such a

oonomt.”

In short. the woman in the Tokugawa period was regarded
as a supporting ailment in sustaining the family tree. and the

family's economic welfare.
muggtiog

To a large extent. little or no formal education was possible
for the woman under Tokugawa social system. Without a doubt. higher
education 1-;ould enable both man and women to acquire 0. better social
position. Unlike modern practices. Tokugawa intellectuals regarded
the woman's intellectual training as unnecessary. Every effort was
made for the man. particularly for sons of the warriore' class.

Most of the female education was confined to the family. They
were taught simple subject matters such as housekeeping. floral arts

some priz'zam' music. methods of childarearing. weaving. cooking and

other feminine duties pertaining; to the family. including»; how to

 

W “ w

21T3km". OD. Cito. pp. ‘157-20“.

m

15

make clothes most effectivebrozz In the family and society the
female was subject to segregation from male affairs. and severe
seclusion prevailed during the Tolmgawa period.23

It must be pointed out. however, that during the Tokugawa
period the moral code based on Confucianism was accorded highest
respect. in theory and in practice. It was accepted as Japan's
philonphical foundation. th by the Tokugawa rulers and by commoners.
As in China and Korea. Confucian rationalism and its ideal of a
secular social order was adopted by the rulers of Tokugawa in an

effort to stabilize and maintain social order. political power and
economic stability.

airing the seventeenth (17th) and eiguteenth (18th) century.
along with the established sonmcian schools under the patronage

of Shoganatc. various independent philoswhere and writers also

helped Spread the Seminole!) ethical code. Lone of them wrote in

simple Japanese instead of classical Chinese and thus helped transmit

Confucian ethical and moral ideals to the lower classes as well as
21:»

to the upper classes.

9-. 1- 2 e ' e 0
since oonmcien morals 5 attained their highest respect among

 

22Tomitar5 Karasawa. I_‘_ihon ngkvshi Cameo; I The Javanese Female
Sbudmtl. (Tokyo: L‘ainihon Noemai hodansha. 1950). Pp. 27-23.

23M: . pp. 23-31e
2:

ldwin O. Reischawer and John K. Fairbank, East A81 The Great
Tradition, (’Iostom Ilouajhton Ilifflin 30.. 1960). p. 557.

250ne infiortant factor which was of ideology hold and glaced
women in an inferior position be men was Conmcius' concept. of Yin
and Yang. Yin. was the 5;,“bol of female. the element or :jvasei-r-Iencss
and was represented by earth. depth. moon. weakness. and dal‘i~::'-.3SSo

16
the populace. it was natural that the teachings of the Confucian
version of {uncle duties and virtues should occupy the center or
a woman’s education both in and outside the family. Among the

various texts on this matter. one. 'Ihe mt Leaming £2; tong

(W in Japanese) became the most important and most widely

need througlwut Japan.26

In the family. daughters were taught the woman's role as
interpreted by text: about the education of women. Observing the
texts. the following sumary is made to convey the low statue of
women in the Tokugawa period: they were taught:

(1) to respect the husband unconditionarily:

(2) when young. to follow parente' directives. and when
married. to follow the husband's directives. when old.
to follow the directives of the eon;

(3) to regard her pmu as heaven. the parente-in-lew
as the sun and moon. the husband as lord. and the woman
_‘ as someone'e subordinate:

(h) to withdrew from all facial expressions of a bitter or
a pleasant mood;

(5) not to mix her cloth with a man's;

(6) not to complain because she must suffer from economic
deprivation:

(7) not to sit with man after reaching her seventh (7th)
birmdav: and

(8) not to show her Jealousy and to respect others.27

Yang was the symbol of male which was represented by beam. bright-
neee. sun. height. etrmgth and was considered the active part. Even
thong: these two elements cannot exist without each other they were
still considered unequal. Yin the female was regarded as inferiorto
Yang the male which was considered the unperior part.

26Reischawer and Fairbank. op: cit... p. 657.
”Takmun. gge clEe. pp. 169-73e

 
 

Kikue Yamakawa. in her book entitled Ia
(Bake no means). describes how the Tokugawa idea or a woman's
duties and virtues was taught thoroughly outside the family. Ac.
cording to was... warriors' daughters who were fond or learning
were allowed to attend the temple schools. the center of the education
for'the comoner's sons. She states that what these girls learned was.
ironically. the content of the _0r_e§t Lamina {or when. such as
“song: who do not obqr their parsnts-in-law should leave: those who i
cannot bear a child should leave.“ etc. The most common way to learn
this was to "read. write and estuarine“ the text.28

According to this study. women's education in the Tokugawa
period centered around moral teaching and the affairs of the hone.
’lhere was a complete lack of education in the sense of intellectual
training. It was the prevailing idea that women should not be
educated too highly; it was said that learned females are apt to
be too‘out—epoken. Bren in families of wealth and in warriors‘
fully. the daughters were withdrawn from further education. though
exceptionally talented daughters were given some Opportunity to stuck;
the ChineSe classics.

The role or aim of Japanese women in this period has been

summarized in the following passage:

It is better for women that they should not be
educated because their lot throughout life must be

in perfect obedience; and the wav to salvation is
only through the path of three obediences... obedience

w v..—

23Quoted from Karasawa. cg. cit" p. 31.

18
to father when yet unmarried. to husband when
married. and to a son when widowed. that is
the use of develOping the mind of a woman or
training the power of her judgment. when her
life is to be guided at every step by a man?

‘ Yet it is highly important that she should be
morally trained to others. [sic] nor questioning
the authority of her elders. For her no religion
is necessary. because her husband is her solo
heavenzgnd is serving him and lives her whole duty
[sic].

it too

Unlike modern Japan. the Tokugawa period saw no separation of
power. that is. among the executive. legislative and Judicial branches
of government. but chief laws and social policies were formulated. pro-
nulgated. and executed solely by the Shomnate with a few advisers
who assisted and reported on important social matters. is we ob-
served in the proceeding sections. the woman's status in family.
economics and education was low. {Man's status in politics was by
no means an exception. In fact. throughout the two and one-half
centuries of Tokugawa administration. neither male nor female was
allowed to hold public office or to vote. The political system was.
in effect. essentially autocratic. It was not until democratic con-
cepts became influmtial in Japan. and until industrialization and
social mobility increased. that Japanese women began- to attain

higher status.

29m Koshino. ”The Education of Wen." Westem Lnfluences in
Medea Japan. 12sz Nitobe and Others (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press. 1921). p. .215.

19

In summarizing this chapter. Takamure's views as to the low
status of the man during the Tokugawa period can be cited. Take-

more asserts that the low status of women was a result of the

“patriarchal and patrilocal family system“ and the social concept

of the woman. Takamure not only finds her sources in the writings of

Confucian scholars. but also in social laws as well. Her views re.-

garding the status of the woman during; the Tokugawa period can be

marised as follows:

1.

2.

3.

h.

5.

6.
. 7.

8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

The woman. even after her marriage. was regarded as a
piece of property. owned by the husband's family;

Social laws gave more advantages to the man. and the right
to make decisions was his alone:

Divorce matters were handled exclusively by the husband:

i-bman's education was one-sided. that is. the man was
kept ignorant in intellectual matters. and was taught
to serve. and to maintain high morale;

Adultery emitted by the wife was punishable by death.
and the law even allowed the husband to kill her:

socially. in the behalf of men. public prostitution was legal;

me man was allowed ”to remarry. while the woman. as a rule.
was not:

The husband was able to have more than two wives and to
make distinctions between first. second. third. 01.0.3

The woman's activities were. ‘to a large extent. confined to
the family. and even before marriage. she was not al-

lowed to participate in any social affairs;
The woman was deprived of preperty:

Politically. the woman as well as man was deprived of all
forum of participation; and

With regain to pxmistunmt. the woman was shunts penalized
more heavily than the man.

31'I‘akaumre. 92. cit" Chapter V.. pp. 1&7-206.

CIULPTER III

 

mama's Stgtus in Law. in the Fagin and in the Societz

Many historians today regard the postofieiji Restoration period
through 19145 as ”e period of a decline of family wthority.fl "s
' period of moment. toward equality regardless of sex.“ 's period of
preperetion for war end expansion.‘ 's. period of urbanization.“
”e period or increasing emphasis on education.” and some would evm

eey “a period of rising individualism.“ No matter how the post-Meiji

period is characterized. it was s period marked by many achievements.

It use the period in which intellectuals and thoughtful social
plenners were striving to preserve national unity. to maintain high
morels among the populace. and to study western technology and ideas.
An attempt to compile a civil code was made as early as 1870.
After the efforts of the several different committees for compilation
of the civil code. finally. the drafts which were completed by the
French oriented jurists were promulgated in 1390 and they were
scheduled to be enforced in 1893. However. the enforcement of the
newly conpiled civil code1 was objected to by other jurists groupsz

 

”this civil code is referred to as the old civil code.

2For further information regarding the jurists factions see
RyBsuke Iehii (ed.). Japanese Le-vialations in the Meiji E3; trans.
and adapt. William J. Chamblise (Tokyo: Pan-Pacific Press. 1953).
pp. 5814—592.
20

2‘

and was never enforced. One of their reasons for objection was that
e radical change in social law muld invite social disruption. and
gradual adaption with reasonable modifications was recommended.
Administrators as well as legislators argued that the French |‘nucleus"
family system with its incorporation of the concept of ”individual-
ism” was too extreme and that gradual improvanents would be better
for the pepulace than simply to adopt a peculiar foreign systu with-
out a trial. This argument was suhnitted at the Thin! Imperial
National Conference in 1890 and after the lengthy debate it was de-
cided to postpone putting ain't: civildede into effect until a more
appropriate Opportunity should pres-it itself.

After the first debate. some eight years elapsed before a
newly drafted civil code was submitted to the legislative body. The
statesmen of the Meiji era as well as legislators thought that the
German civil code was more appropriate to the traditional Japanese
family system than French. civil code. Thus s. new committee. set up
after 1890. made the revisions of the French oriented civil code in
the light of Osman civil code tOgether with other recent legislation.3

 

3mm. the old civil code had limited its reference to the
French and Italian code. for which it had been greatly criticised.
the new code took advantage of the civil codes of Holland. Austria.
Saxony. Spain. Zurich. Salamim. Russia. E~bntene.;_..ro. Portugal. and
California. Other sources that were consulted included the Swiss law
of obligations. the special laws of England. the Indiana law of con-
tract. and the Prussian constitution. Bit of the most value to the
new code were the civil codes of France and Germany.“ Rydeuke Ishii

(11.). WW mu... p. 591-

22
Finally. the Meiji civil code which is referred to as new civil code

was promulgated in 1898 and enforced in 19014. while retaining the
traditional concept of family.

In the following paragraph are described the changed versions
of new civil code which differ widely from those of the previous
decades particularly with respect to family composition. marriage and

divorce rules and preperty succession.

According to the heiji new civil code. the family was defined
as "a family head. his spouse. the lineal ascendanth and his wife and
children.” hiring the previous period the family was defined as ”a
family head. his spouse. lineal and collateral descendants and the
children of both lineal and collateral descendants.“ Thus. in, the
post-Meiji period the family became smaller than that of the previous
period (Sivil Sode: Art. 732-733). The parents' authority over their
children automatically ceased after the son's or daughter's marriage.
when they established separate households and thus became legal
adults. or at the age of twenty (Jivil Sade: Art. 8’27).

There are. recowized in the Evieiji new civil code. four kinds
of heirs to the position of family head; the ”legal heir.“ the

I'appointed hair.” the “chosen heir.“ and the "ascendant heir." This

l"'Lineal ascendant" is the legal heir of the house-head. who
comes first in the order of succession. who is at the same time a
a number of his house.

made it possible for the wife to inherit the family headship (civil

Code: Art. 96159-91). and to succeed to property (Civil Code: Art.
992.1016).

Under Civilddc Art. 932, women were allowed to inherit the
headship of the family. "If. at the time of the death of the
family head there is neither e legal nor an appointed heir. then the
father of the deceased, or if there is no father. or. if he is unable
to erqareee his intention. the mother. or. it there are no parents.
or if neither is able to express his Litention. the family council.
”ohoosee’ an hair from among members of the house according to the
following order: (1) the surviving wife. if she is a famine-«lam;Ltex‘;5
(2) the brothers; (3) sisters; (h) the surviving wife. who is not a
house-daughter; and finally (5) the lineal doecendamte of brothers
and sisters.” mrthemoro. the house-daughter was able to become
house-head when there were no brothers. (Ilivil Code: Arts. 953
and 9?O-)

Theee provisions in the new civil code. use new others,
teetity to the improvement in the man’s statue. Civil code stated
that: “If the man has completed hie thirtieth year. or the woman her
tmtycfii’th year. no parmtal consent to marriage mar be necessary.“
(Civil Code: Art. 772.) In addition. the cancellation of a marriage
was possible under the following conditions: (1) the nan-lage had

A .4.

S'lioueeadaughter" is a daughter of the adopter of the Son.
Usually. she marries the adopted son and remains in her parente'

hOUSB e

’3'!
5‘?

been contractol by the parents or relatives when one or both parties
Opposed the marriage. (2) the marriage negotiations were fraudulent.
and (3) the marriage was contracted by force (Civil Code: Arte. 77:3
and 785). This provision specifies that no person. including the
man‘s or home's parents. could force both parties to contract
marriage without their consent.

Z-Iith the application of the net-:13 adepted civil code. monogaw
became the established rule. Ito one was allmqel to have two wives
under am; circumstances (Jivil Code: Art. 7-36). Ems. after 1539-3,
monastery was the only legal fonn of.“ Wage. mough possession of
concubinee continued to be practised among; some privileged pectic.

An examination of civil code also reveals the disappearance
of the ToE-tugewa period's laws on the "dissolution of the marriage"
and the rules on "eeven-gmunds-oifi-divorce." The new civil code
specified that "eifizer party. husband or wife. might initiate the
divorce” (Civil Code: Art. 808). Ming the Tokugawa period. no
woman was pomitted to divorce her husband under any circumstances.
In addition. unlike the Tokugawa provisions. under a new civil code.
the husband could be punished. as well as the wife. for committing;
the following violations of the law; (1) being married twice or more
without legal divorce. i.e.. biganw. (2) adultery (Civil Sode: Art.
813).

awosulce T732221 (och) Wm [System of Japanese Lav].
(Tokyo: Armori Calcuin. 1959,. p. 3.

25

Since 1882. along with the improment uncle in the civil code.
additional efforts were expended to raise the woman's status in the
society. A mascot against licensed prostitution appeared in the
beginning of the Meiji ore and this moment was especially active
smug Christians. The mommt took shape among women's associations
and intellectual groups such as university scholars. In 1919. the
eighth your or the Taisho period. the proposal of en snti-pmti-
tntion system use node by s ember of the Imperial Diet for the
first tins. the sommt ruched its peak st the ad of the Taisho

period. mend 1925. and use strongly influenced tut the dmoorstio

ideas which were rapidly spreading mg the papuleos sitar the World
m- I. Mitten petitions on the prohibition of licensed prostitution
were presented to the Prime Minister end Minister of Reno Affairs by
different groups. such so presidents of universities. mom's
associations. Christians snd other liberal groups.

the moment to improve woman's statue was sided w In in-
cmssd use or mass emulation. There were s mnbsr of new topics

discussed in various mines. For sample. by Yukiohi Mum.
one or the leading social philosophers of the ties. mm was en-
mged? in 1872: the recount-ion of the Japanese women's rights
was nphssizod in i885: autos}. affection es s basis for ass-rises was
managed in 1886: new education for some was stressed in 1887.8

h —v———v—

7Mng others. Arinori Mari preached “managemous practice."
“Furl expressed his views in en mm. entitled 3.; £216 £29 [an Wives
and Mistress] in which he vigorously championed the rights of mm. It
appeared in the heir-01:3. gash; in five installments. nmning from May
1871} to February 1875.” lhesaki Kasaks («1.) es Thou

W trans. and adapt. David Abosch (Tokyo: Pen-Pacific Press.

‘9£)0 P0 65*
aTakmflg We. p. 22“.

. v.

26
Newepapere had much influence in improving Japanese men'e etetue
through their many erticlee on the subject.
However. various novenente for the liberation of women which
Mcame prevalmt during Taishfi and the begiming of Show: were ten-
pered by the conservative power of the government on the one hand and
W the aloe process of modernization of the rural dietricte on the other.

Fbr instance. the anti-prostitution mommt did not succeed through-
out the poet-Meiji period. In spite of eeverel attanpte. the propose].

m not supported by the administrators of the time. Eva: et the con-
termce of the league of Nations in 192?. the second year or Shove.
Japan was one or the two nations which objected to the diecueeion or
enti-proetitution.9 In the following decade the military government
m not up. and all autocratic mommte were eupreeeed.

To change the beliefs of the eociety wholly from “feudalietic'
to “democratic” within about eeventy yeare after the Meiji Restoration
m 3 rather difficult teak. especially in an eociety in which the
traditional ideas or the Tokugawa period had hem deeply implanted
for more than two and one-half centuries. One Japanese observer etated.
'After the Meiji Restoration. the trend: toward urbanization became
intense on the surface. but rmdalietic systems were etill prectieed
on e. result of unchanged node of egrioultnrel system (landlords were
etill in the position of economic power. while the lives or the
peeemte were dependent upon the dominant groups). and reform movement

._._._.._

w— ~7—

9Takmure. my. p. 265. a

in the rural areas was slower than that of the urban areas."°

Winn

Parellelling the transfomation in law. education. and politics
during the decade following the Meiji Restoration. significant eco-
nomic changes in various aspects were observed. Japanese states.
men of the Heiai ere staunch eased the weakness of the agricultural
basis or the state. 'lhe government. therefore. promoted the dowels}:-
nent of industries. learning from Western technolog. hiring the last
decade of the nineteenth (19th) century. a foundation for industria-
elisation was set up by the government's protective policies in
economy. man. before the turn of the nineteenth century. many
factories and nines except transportation and communication and lili-
tuv industry were gradually transferred from the governmentto
private worship.

'Ihis process or industrialization was further accelerated by
the three major wars between the end or the nineteenth century
and the first decade of the twmtieth caitury. first. the year
after the Sine-Japanese 1hr (189154895) stalked s rapid development
or ligzt industry such as cotton spinning. silk. textile. paper
and sugar industries. Seconcny. the decade after the Phrase-Japanese
War 09015-1905)“ marked by the tremendous develOpment or heavy
industry especially that of machine industry. Thirdly. after

 

'OKeigo Takarazuki (sch). W [History of Japan]. (Tokyo:
Yankees Shuppansha. 953). p. 318.

World her I (19115-1918) Japanese economy showed .21 unprecedented
prosperity in every field or industry along with the establishmmt
of nonopoly of financial capital.n The developmmt or industries

will be clearly shown in the great expansion of the foreign trade.
The total amount of. exports and imports increased to 230.728

thousand yen in 1892+.” the year or war with China. compared to
66,503 thousand yen in 1885.” In 1901mm year or the Russo.
Japanese War. the mount of exports and imports became 690620
thousand yen.”
reached 1.883.895 thousand yen in 1916 ‘5 during world war 1.

three tines that of the previous var year. It

The development of the monetary eyetau was also promoted as
e pert of industrial development policy. As a result of the issue
of inconvertible paper money in 1868. the banking system one to
be of necessity. The First National Bank was established in 1873
on the American model. Although there were only four banks in
Japan in 1875. a rapid growth in the financing system was realized
by the conversion or notes into currmcy. is 1879 there were 152
National mnks and hy 1881. 90 Private Banks had been

"Itsur'o Koseks. W {hm Years or Economy].
(Tokyo: JiJitsmineha. 1950 a 9?- 3-11. - a

'ZKeiz'é duh-users.
and adapt. Aora H. Culbertson and Wichikc Kumura

‘958)e P0 ”970
13Me. Po 1395.

"his... p. 503.
”users Ko'saka. 92, cit" p. 221;.

 

   

' trans e
Tokyo: Obunshe.

2?

established.‘6

hiring the 1880's separate institutions for special
purposes were established. such as the Yokohama Specie Bank for the
purpose of financing foreign trade and controlling foreign exchange
business. After the war with China (18911—13 95). industrial and.
agricultural banks were increasingly established.”

The gradual progress of industry resulted in improvement of
transportation facilities and in the establishment of a postal systan
to replace the former courier service and the introduction of tele-
phone snd telegraph system. and a satisfactory promos was made
in transportation and cmmunication facilities as a part of the

economic transformation.a8

 

“Takes Tsuchiyu and Samr'o Okaaaki. $131399 .33“ ihonghugj.

Sh (‘eisct [An mums History of the Development of
Japanese Capitalism . (Tokyo: fihikalcu. 19117). pp. 110-16.

‘7It3uf6 Kosaka. 22' CiEe. pp. 58-59e

‘eThe first Japanese railww line was officially opened in 1872.
The distance was only a little less than 18 miles. but the accomplish.
ment that the railwav represented thrilled the heart of every Japanese
alive. In the fiscal year of 1911 the total length of railroad lines
in Operation was 5.506 miles. As to the postal system. in 1870.
postal regulations were initiated by the Meiji government and first
order providing for the erection of post boxes and the sale of stamps
was issued by the chancellory. 117 1871. there were 580 post offices
or mail-handling offices increased to 14216. and there were 38.022
post boxes throughout Japan. ihe telephone was first brought to Japan
in 1877. and in 18-78 the Meiji government succeeded in making two
telephones. and instruments were put to use in government offices. The
first telephones made were very imperfect. and in 1832. it was noces.
sexy to remodel them. but after that year the number of telqehones in
Operation increased greatly as shown in Table 1. Keiz'é Shibusawa
(cm. and eds). n
:2: gdfifipt. Charles 3. Terry Tokyo: ha. 19 . pp. 217. 1103,29,

  

 

 

 

 

TABLE 1
TiiliiPI-EOIEE INSTALLATIONS IN TIE L'AJOR CITIES
1890-18963
Ember Number 0? -— W
Year of Subscribers Breakdown of Subscribers of Area
Telephone to Telephone 1
Boxes Em] e Tokyo Yokohama Osaka Kobe
1890 16 am. 275 69 - «-
1891 18 821 6!}? 17b .. ..
1892 20 1.501} 1.032 257 1M 7b
1893 42 2. 672 1 . 689 367 1115 201
1890 2A 2.8% 1.739 417 451 236
1895‘ 25 2.353 1 .752 M7 1‘53 236
1896 25 3.232 2.032 505 1‘55 239
aData taken from: Keiz'é Shibusawa (con. and ed.). e

W trans. and adapt. Charles 5. Terry
Tokyo: sha. 1958 . p. 255.

According to the census of 1930. approsdmately one-third
of the total female papulation in Japan was engaged in some
economic occupation: table is provided in the following page.

In the early stage of industrial development. Japan was
more eager to adopt Western techniques than the social impli-
cations of an industrial society. Therefore. in spite of the
increased demnd for female workers. women were not given the
some economic rights as men. Discrimination against the female

is clearly observed in the following points.

31

 

 

 

 

TABLE 2
OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR FORCE
13! 3m. 19303

Occtrpatign w 111;]; Famalo Total
Agriculture 7,743,065 6. 397.0112 ’ 121,140,127
Indie” 5010078 “50% '. 546062”
Mining 210.171} #1 .0146 251.220
Inchxatry . #.269.151 ' 1.103.100 5.699.581
Cmmm 3.031.903 11%“.195 “01‘789098
Transportation 1,023,595 78. 9? 9 1 . 107,571}
Office worker 1.691 .803 352.31% 2.0%.15‘
Other occupation 1188.265 82.701 570.966
m‘ ‘910300237 101589.103 29.619.6’40
WW ”359.918 21 $70.54? 35330-365
W‘ 321390.115 32.059.350 6“.“50 .005

w

“Sumo: Ituu Takamra.

8.

[Social History

of Japanese Woman] . (Kyoto: Shaunhondza. 19118 . pp. 239-140.

32
1. Though the woman was allowed to hold property. she was not
allowed to use her separate property without the consent or her

h‘lllb‘flde
2. moon's stages were lower than men's in almost all fields.

although the same typo of labor and same number of hours were re-
quired from both. The salary scale in the next page conveys the
sharp difference between the wages or the male and female. the
salary scale is based upon public primary schools. and so is govern-
mental rather than the private.

3. Professional fields were limited for women. The low edu.
eatiaxal level of women did not give equal Opportunities for then to
choose vocations. Moreover. it was prohibited for women to become
promental officials. lawyers. and notaries. until later in 1936.

Rails women woro working under the same labor conditions yet
not receiving the same eoonauio rights and privileges. it is reason-
able to assume that they were quite conscious of this discrimination.
hiring the decades following hbrld War I. several organizations”
were established at both the national and local levels to improve
the working woman's status. These organizations attempted to reform
the maining discriminations against women. wring the 1920's those
working women's associations proposed several provisions as follows:

1. Equal wages for both sexes in relatively the same
occupational skill.

2. Regardless of marital status. the right of a woman to

operate. can. and dispose of her own property without
the consent or the head of the house.

 

'9Thoso organisations were: Yfiaikai nan—bu. Kant5 Fujin-
dEuoi. ankoku FhJin-danei. Shakai Filjin-dfimei. and R5d5 momma.

GRAPH 1

FED-m3! 3011001. TEACEESR SALARIES L1 1927.
BY SEX. 1:1 YE.:1 PEP. Kazan-:3

LL— Ah__._

loggers by Salary Scale by Egg/ivbnth

“m— WW __._

Qathan Over
30 35 '10 1+5 50 70 100 1m 130 You

_..L_

11.31. 130 “182 161.9 “328; 35011 211.25 203 29 13
Fmale 232 13211 11157 11362 2765 257 9 o o

M ' _.____; A“ -__

‘— w—v w—w -——-w

Number of Teachers

4500

a \
4000 I, ' - ‘\ Salary Scale

3500
2500
2000
1500

1000

500

 

 

 

 

3) 35 no #5 5° 70 ‘00 120 120 or Ion
less than Hora

‘Sourcea tsuc Tokmzure. T
or Japanese Woman] . Géyotoc axinnihonsha. 1

 

3L.

3. Equal opportunity for education and employment regardless
of sex.

11. Protection of mother‘s right; prohibition of dismissal
because of pregnancy.

5. Abolition of the public prostitution systan.

6. Prohibition of the sale of poor women into house servants.
slavery. and prostitution.

7. Prohibition of assignmmt in mines at night and dangerous
Jobs for men.

8. Improvement of women‘s working conditions and limiting of
working hours by the governmwt.

9. Special privileges for pregnant women and children.

10. Abolition of provisiongorogarding eeparate treatment because
of sex. age and class.

ihese refom moments were continued during the 1920‘s and 1930's. but

were stepped after the military governmmt was set up.
EDUC 1’“!

The lfeiji Restoration brought about many changes within Japan.
not only in political. economic and military system. but also in the
educational systmx. wring the Tokugawa period. the primary aim of '
women's education was to transmit the traditional concept of woman's
relationship to man. However. whm the social system became more
complex as a result of a rapid transformation from "feudal' to "modem”.
educational aims began to change. As we have sem previously. most

of the women's education was accomplished at the family level and in

 

onakamure. 92. cit... pp. 2148-52.

35
some instances. at the village temple. then the culture becomes so

complex that it cannot be tranmitted without an additional tonal
onto. a separate educational institution arises. This institution
is chartered by society to train society's embers. both the sale and

the (male. for adequate adult roles. 'lhe aims of education are in
accordance with the conceptions of the ideal adult which society

wishes to produce; the educational institution possesses legitimate
power to pursue its aims only to the extmt that society considers

desirable.
- 21
The above mentioned aims of education and the realization of

the need for female education is expressed in the following quotatiom

Rot long after the opening; of Japan in the mid-
nineteenth century. mamr influential Japanese
leaders felt that the new society should allow
women to assume a more active role. To put this
belief into practice they dressed their wives in

the latest western frocks and frills. included

them in social invitations. and tried to teach than
to behave like the Western women they had read about
or not in their travels. than as early as 1372 five
young girls were sent by the Meiji government to the
United States for a thorough Western education. it
was so that theyr might return as leaders in the
westernization of Japanese women. During the next
twaxty years the emancipatioEzor Japanese women ap-
peared to be well under way.

Speaking in terms of govemmental policies with respect to
education. the refinistxy of Education was set up in 1871. and in the
next year the School Law was issued. According to this law. elemmtary

education of six grades became compulsory reganuess of sex and class.

A—J‘

2lFor further information on the traditional role or aim of
Japanese women. see Chapter II. p. 17-18 in this thesis.

22John H. Bermett. Herbert Passin and Robert Ifctinig-ght. Search
W (iiinneapolisc on University of hinnesota Press. 19515 o 9.1511,.

 

36
For the first time in Japanese history. every citizen was provided with
educational Opportunity. In contrast to the official disfavor in the
previous era. the encouraselnent of female education by the govern-
ment. though only at the elementary level. was a great sign of
promss.

During the course of the Japanese educational improvenent. how-
ever. the traditional concept concerning women‘s education did not
change rapidly. The parents of early poet-Meiji period were reluc.
tent to send their daudxtcrs to schools. According to the report made
by the Ministry of Education. "In 1572. when the public school was
first established. only 16 per cent of school-age girls enrolled
while 150 per cent of all school-age boys enrolled."23 then capitalist:
in Japan began to gain impetus after the Sine-Japanese {Jar (18914-95)
and the these-Japanese war (woesi? elmentary education became
popular. In 1905 about 95 Per cent of all the girls of school age
catered the eleuentaxy schools. as the line in Graph 2 shows.

Mend the elementary level. little or no concern was shown
for education for girls. while intellectual training was encouraged
for boys. It was not until after 1882 that the government formally
warned the idea of middle school for the girls as a secondary

level of ‘ducation. some ten years after the boy’s middle school

23mm Karasawa. op, cit” p. 31:.

2“For infomation pertaining to war and its effects upon various

social organization. see Graph 2. p. M.

. 3‘1
an established. The numbers of girls' schools and students found in

the Table 3 in the next page. indicate the development of secondary
education during this period; however. even in 1931+. only 8 per cent
of the woman graduates of slanentary school continued on to secondary
education.

In order to increase enrollment capacity for women. it was
necessary to train. :men teachers. 'E‘he Ifinistry of Education founded
the first nomal school for mmen in Tokyo in 1375. Gradually. after
that time. training; schools for mom were set up in each prefecture.
Ibwsver. due to the disfavor of higher education for women. the appli-
cants for those training schools were very few. People took pity on
the girls entering; those schools thinking of them as being ”unusually
self-assertive." or being "so poor that they needed to get money.‘
Some peepls ”despised their daughters when they found them fond of
learning. thinking it was harmful for the family name.” Some pemts
tried to "conceal their dau;hters' entrance to the schools.”25 He-
csuse of these feelings. the training schools for women in some
prefectures were abolished. Later. in the years of the major wars.
as a result of increased demand for women teachers, the number of
applicants for the normal schools increased, though the prevailing
social disapproval of higher education for women did not change until
after 1:0rld war II. It was a common phenomenon that most families of
the upper class objected strongly to sending their desalters to
higher institutions since it made their daujlters' marriage contracts

difficult.

__.

gamma“. 2:2! Cite. pp. 57-600

TABLE 3

magmas I}! 1.12323 0? 8017's Arm GDL'S I-‘ZIDDLE
33:10:31.3 It; JAPAES snug ESTABLIsm-tnzn‘ OF
SCHOOL srsrnz. 1873-19468

 

 

 

 

 

W A “$
Boy Girl

Year rhinos:- of fl Number of Ember of lumber of A

Schools Students Schools Students
1873 20 1.767 - - ,
1875 579 29.018 5" 286°
1333 173 1#.763 7 1F50
1880 1&9 10.13151 19 2.599
1893 59 19.573 28 3.020
1898 136 61,632 3“ 8.589
1903 2h6 96.000 91 25.719
1908 290 115.038 159 l16.582
1913 371 131.9flé 213 68.36?
1913 337 158.97“ 257 9“.52$
1923 1168 216.739 529 216.62“
1928 5141* 343.709 733 331 .757
1933 55“ 327. 261 790 $7.180
1938 566 380.1198 8211 #118,818
1910 727 607.114 1.299 755.955
1 9116 793 707.878 1.1513 9113.077

“Sources Tomitar‘é Kareem. " [The

W

Japanese Female Student]. (Tokyo: Dsinihon I exicai lichansha. 1958).

P0 1%.

bA number of schools and students is on the basis of 1882.
Remaining figures follow boys as mom.

[00

‘70

T0

50

40

3O

20

10

18750

GRAPHZ

RELATIW OF IKE IEVEIDPMSNT 0!" mm EDUCATION. ECONOI-SIC
WT, AND WAR. 13,5492)

Girl Steam in Secondary
_ War years Seine]. (In ‘00)
SI: Solve]. Attendant” --°—-— Railroad Length (100 Miles)

 

ummummmmu W W (’OIOW x)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1410
ms
I120

[:0
Thus it is not surprising: to witness that. even after hbrld war

I. a majority of the leading men in the field of education objected
to higher education for girls. According to a report of’the national
Educational Conference held in 1917. a majority of the committee
members considered that higher education for men was harmful for
the prosperity of the nation because it made men delav‘ in child-
bearing and was harmful to the health of the individual. .13 an
observer implicitly states. in such a lack of understanding. uni-
versitiss for the female and the principle of co-education in higher
level had not been realized before the end of world War II. in spite
of the petition proposed by some intellectuals.26 Thus. in the fre-
tbrld .‘ar 11 period only two higher normal schools and a few private
colleges were available to amen above the middle school level. The
society's attitude toward fwzale higher education in this period is
well demonstrated in the following passage:

In society at large the woman graduate of even

the better colleges found that there was little

prestige or advantage attached to female education.

(mly a few careers were available for the active.

intellectual or professionally oriented women in

the schools and in Japanese social and professional

life. Even isuda college. the best of its kind

for omen in pre-Ihrld War II years. was largely

staffed by male teachers. nelson were not expected

to play an active part in national life and little

or no provision had been made for them to do so.”

It has hem said that. “material“ adaptation by the individual

is not so hard as compared to the adaptation of ”beliefs." Indeed.

Zaharasawa. gaggle *u as» 135—36-

271fennett. Passin and Ibrinig'ht. on 't.. p. 153.

t was: 3:11".-"iI.v-... ’t for t‘ve REE-sci: imam-3.11% ad traditional ist‘ to

aegareciate the redeem concern of 21mm «re-211+. 7' and the id ca of
clamor-soy. o til-"ff. enlig; aris- s in that it 11: s onlxr {131L- u'mal for the
people to c 111: to their tr: 15.1.11: 23... tells?

’lzzfiaji‘mut £31.13 53.17.39. it t. " £012. .2! that the dew-”1.3;? .ent of

Japanese 1-3’."-“'.‘.o‘f"!”"3'3 o'fucz'tfi m 1.12.“: catamm‘e'l t3: the fem: imam to a

\—J

yo-

lcrje carter-t. .13 earl; re 77:72, before '31 c 0313....-- .2. ..<..t o1“. tit-c

I‘utlie "(vital '.'»:-‘ste‘z. t. 9 first private school for mum tweed

ale .0. eats-3:; level was (2.2:. 3-3.33: ’. 333' one of the ._ l'lrisc diam-1.353.057.1103.

In the first 13.13" of the 115.131. or... mac forfJ hr} 353971 a "-0“

8117.101?!) were f-MuIO’i in Japan. 33.30 ewe metemers hostage legal

educat;'..-fta1 3333130135 to the 3:111: airy of f."z.:cati.on and contributed

to the esta.’:.‘.i::hrte:;t r." :1rz".¥+7“'o~~e of h ficr l..(:am1.niz. film-so

:mstemev‘e fe'! .t the? Use J 1"“)3'38 rem is were ctr-an a boom]: 31-: they

nerlectrd team's 331.231.13, and tim- or ad the government to see

the necessity of 311,37-21- efmsatim for w-‘vzea in cr“I:r to dsvc 10;) as

'2"

a modem nation.“
is 5:23-31:11th in t..e “puma-x .33 can In. . a armor of 3.1:-

streets 2..-:7c xxx-33 to (sari-3:: the scc~c-p:s"“’c'l are cots in he

9

field of: 3271.11221333. first overall. the Ema-131:5 per-.011 11": 0121.! to

-" ‘ Osvn- a eves 0 " I" A. . .—. .- ' , " 5..
necessazglv 1...“. .,...fle.3 13:. a ....-."Z err. lung-71¢: b£.-:o,...s,a cf the m.-

1" 2‘.st (\‘I‘. “' n
‘-

-..,.‘§.’ (04.-.,1 "H j 7n, ‘ . 1
QZEAWJ. v ”\p e ..'.. kr‘i‘ 0- p r .LU -.c./.J.c ' ‘9‘ flight}. i 02'. “ts-l o-LJL-‘q u Viv 1 £O‘. $3 2:9 h}

a“ ll
' " a. I ‘~ .. 1" V".
tray-“’1‘. ’ l: e A. . Q . :‘A‘ O J: a... .1. Q

1&2
the public schools mphaeized morale and hmnan virtue based upon
Conmcianism. Thus. in the lore-49145 period a women was taught how to
become “a good wife and a wise mother." An examination of the text
books used for the moral education in Girl's Schools reveals that
urethan90percmtotthetextoontentonidealmenuae com-
posed of the image of ”a good wife and a wise mother.” he emphasis
was put upon the “woman's softness“ to men. “attitude of respect
towards olden.” I'reetradnt or selfishness.“ eta.29 Although there
were new good teachings on lumen relations. the concept of individual

In marizing. the Ccnmcian oriented Imperial Reecript on
Elucation. issued in 1890. which reflected the educational aims and
social goals will be cited. Until 1945. capiee or the following
reecript were distributed to every school in Japan by the Ministry
of mutation. and all more]. and civic instructions were based on
these principles laid down by the Mere:- Meiji:

Know ye. Our Subject

Our imperial ancestors have founded Our Eupire
on a basis broad and everlasting. and have deeply
and finals,r implanted virtue: 0ch subjects ever
united in loyalty and filial piety have from
gmeraticn to generation illustrated the beauty
thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental
character of Our Expire. and herein also lies
the source of Our education. Is. 011' Subjects.
be filial to your parents. affectionate to your
brothers and sisters: as lmsbande and wives be

harmonious. as friends true: bear yourselves in
modesty and moderation: extend your benevolence to

29mg" pp. 85-89.

“3

all: pursue leaning and cultivate arts. and
thereby develcp intellectual faculties and
perfect moral powers: furthemcre. advance public
good and promote cemon interest: alwe respect
the Constitution ad observe the laws: should
ungency arise. offer yourselves courageously to
totheState: andthueguardaudaaintainthe
prosperity of Our Inperial 'mrcne coeval with
haemandeerth. Scehallyenctcnlybeocr
good and faithful subjects. but render inns-
triads the best traditions of your forefathers.
me Nay here set forth is indeed the
teaclung bequeathed by Our Imperial hoestcre. to
becbeervedalikebyiheirneacmdantsandthe
subjects. infallible for all ages and true in all
places. ItieOnrwiehtclwittcheartinell
reverence. in omen with you. Our subjects. that
as may all attain to the ease virtue. 3°

 

”me We. a. messaged Mrs-no.
a. , ‘ 4.3 . ‘ ‘ _.--. 1.1.7413. (8“ IO“, M“ WWW M.

 

W

The struggle of Japanese women for equality in the social-
political sphere goes back to the early Heiji period. According
, to heiji law “no woman is authorized to assemble for political
discussion. nor to form any political party.” In 1901. Police
Security Law No. 5 was issued to enforce rigidly the woman's non
participation in politic s. It was not until 1922 that the govern-
ment legally allowed women to establish an organization for public
speech. or be present at a public speech},

Women of this period were legally secluded from participa-
tion in politics. although the period marked an increased conscious-
uses of the status of women and thus marked the development of the
reform movements. As a result of the French liberalism that in-
fluenced Japan. two distinguished women appeared in public. As early
as 1882. Junko Nakashima and Bike Kageyama became members of JiyE-t'o
(literally translated as Liberal Party). a party based on French
liberalism. Eiko Kageyama made a series of speeches in Kinki.
Shikoku and Kyushu districts. In 1885 Kageyama was imprisioned be-
cause of her speeches. and while she was serving in the prison cell
she wrote a number of essays. in which she npreesed the follovim
patriotic aspect of her feeling toward her fellow underprivileged
worm in Japan:

4- A A

”Tamra. We. p. 2315's

1&5
0n the behalf of the entire Japanese citizenry.

both men and women. I an detemined to cope with any

resistance in order to expand our social freedom and

human rights. It is my utmost hope to bring about

equality amongst 370,000,000 follows. All younger

and older sisters must unite under the one goal

and participate in combetting the urgent national

social problem and evil elements in lauv. so as to

enjoy our national gnlturel heritage and to create

patriotic feelings. .

The above article clearly indicates the women’ s status during the
early stage of heiji era.

After the Police Security Law. No. 5. was issued. an appeal
to the House of the Representative to reconsider the issue was re-
peatedly expressed by women's groups. A portion of the petition
was accepted by the lower house. but died on the floor as a result
of disapproval by the Elder's Council.

host women's reform activities were carried out exclusively
by the literary circle and a few college graduates supported by
the women's magazines. In the history of Japanese women. 1925-
1126 should be regarded as a crucial time. It was the year when
the 50th Imperial Diet gathered in the nation's capital to legalize
the citizens' participation in politics. Previously. there had been
property qualifications for voting. but now the Diet decided that
every man had the rigxt to vote or become a candidate for the elec-
tive offices. This was also a golden opportunity for the women to
attain the some privileges as the man in politics. Due to the oo- 1

ordinated effort of several women's groups. the clause. "women's

320noted from Takamure. W pp.226-27.

W

1:6
sui‘irage“ was passed in the lower house. but gain was objected to by
the Elder's Council.

Because of the failure in the battle to obtain political
rights. hope waned in the women leaders. though continuous efforts
were still made indirectly through various articles. ‘ahen the
first general election was completed and the first elected repre-
sentative gathered in 1928. the Committee on Attainment of Women's
Rights submitted an Agenda oomoming (1) the right to receive civil
rights equal with men. (2) women's suffrage. (3) an amendment to
the Police Security Law which prohibited women's participation in
political organization. This again failed in both 1928 and 1930.33

In the 1930's. while the Japanese Hilitary Party was busily
working to develop "nationalisn' in order to expand Japanese terri-
tories in the Pacific and lemria. such discussions were entirely
eliminated in the Diet and the question of women's participation in
politics was not raised until after World her II. I

 

33For further information on women's reform movements in
politics in the post-I-Zeiji period. see Matunomke Tatsui. m
{339%}, [History of the Japanese Women]. (Tokyo: Shbkasha. 1933).
pp. 980

C H ‘- TILR IV

 

After the defeat in World war II. Japan was put under the
occupation policy o£*the United.Statce. and General MacArthur
was appointed Supreme Commander. Due to the occupation.policy
a number or etepe were taken in the direction of reform. which,
in total. were intended to result in the democratization.c£ Japan.
One ot’theec steps was the substitution or'a.ncw'conetitution tor
the Meiji Constitution of 1889. The governmcnt. under the direction
of EacArthur'e Head Quarters. prepared the new Constitution with
democratic ideas as its basic and announced it on November 3. 19h6.
According to the new Constitution all legal discrimination or women
has been abolished.

There were large gape'betwecn pre- and pcstdfionld war II
with respect to the Japanese woman's statue in family. education.
economics and.politioa1 participation. .A revolutionary change
hae taken place in Japanese society; because of the spread.of the
idea of “equality of man" regardless of sex. The newly adopted
Japanese Constitution. based upon democratic principles. gmranteee
fundamental human.righte. Article 1# spells out what ought to be
‘women'e statues ”Every subject is equal‘before the law and there
chall‘be no discrimination due to race, religion. character and

social class difference in economic statue and social 111..“ Based

1*?

ha
upon this fundamental concept. a number of laws. provisions and .
regulations regarding civil rights. labor. education and political
suffrage have been issued and these ultimately have effected the
role of women in various social aspects. The following deals
largely'with those provisions which differentiate the preawar
from the postdwar period.

W

Based on the principles of'thc Constitution. present civil
code. which was promulgated in 19”? and enforced in 19h8. gives
'wonen equal status with son in the family.\ lbs traditional
family system. in which the wife was subordinate to the husband.
was at last abolished. As a result. for the first time. the wife
has been able to manage her cun.property; business and financing.

A recent.publicaticn states that:

- In the long run of its historyy‘what was remarkable in
Japan was the "Lady last” custom. At a meeting. men
take the best costs as if they had naturally a right
to do so. women dare not take leadership in a social
conversation and keep silence as if silence was a
symbol of womanhood. women who commit adultery are
excommunicated out of the society. while married men
who have a mistress. though not publicly priaised.
might be tolerated and sometimes admired tacitly as able
men. women who marry a man presented or recommended
by their’parents and superiors are appreciated as ladies
'vorthy of virtue. Those who do otherwise are not only
treated coldly, but might run a risk of being expelled
from the family circle for tho sake of honor. how
everything is changing. The day'is nearer when a
woman . . . can do things or her own will, and a

1+9
woman . . . new live without being nomed.‘

With regard to marriage. parental consent is no longer
necessary for those who are over 20 years of age. Earrings is
not legally permitted only by the ''consent of the both uns.‘
Moreover. young couples are now able to choose either wife's or
husband's surname. and to decide where to establish a new family
without the consent of the parents or the house head.

Any provision which gave the husband advantage as to the
divorce has been eliminated. Both the husband and wife. under
the present law. can demand the same basis for settlement of
divorce matters.

By passage of a new last regarding the succession of prop-
erty. the position of the wife has been greatly improved and no
distinction is made according to sex.

In addition. a Court of Family Affairs has been established
to settle fairly the conflicts within families or among relatives.
Up to this period. all problems were handled by the so-called
"Family Council." and often wives. eemcially widows. were ill-

treated e
\B o “ We

more have been notable changes in laws regarding labor in
post-var Japan. Since the new Labor Standard Lav emphasises the
labor union and an institutional contract (Article 28). a great

many new labor movements have taken place. In addition. the Labor

1Knichiro Hayashi. ”The Social Status of Women as Revealed in a
Hodern Japanese Novel.“ ‘Sc once em Hume
Vol. I. (The Union of Jap. Assoc. of humanistic studies. TOKYO. $959).
P- 53-

50
Standard Law has been applied in (1) freedom of occupational selec-

tion (Article 27). (2) right to live (Article 25). and (3) right to
work (Article 2?). affecting women's status in economic activities.
Also because of physiological differences. special provisions were
made to protect women workers. Social-welfare Provisions are in
effect: women's working conditions in mining and. child labor prac.
tices have been readjusted.

According to the Labor Standard Law. Articles 61-68. no em-
ployers may fire female workers unless the employer provides neces-
sary travel expenses to return home safely. Such provisions were
to prevent women workers from wandering in unfamiliar cities and
straying into prostitution. Another provision (Article 19. states
that no employer. either public or private. one dismiss a woman
workers from her job because of pregnancy and/or birth of a child.
The provision specifies that employers should allow “a certain
period of time sufficient to recover her health.“

There is. in tact. another provision in the Constitution
which provides the basic means to safeguard the woman in the
society. In Article 25 it is specified that the society shall pro-
ride for those who are suffering; from "disease. injury. birth of
child. sudden sickness. death. old age or unemployment.“ This
provision was intended to raise the social. moral and cultural
life. As a result. in theory. no women would suffer from depri-
ratinn of the right to work. or discrimination against basic human

rights. In addition. there is a system of "inmrance" and all members

51
of the labor force. both the men and women. are required to deposit
a certain amount or money for individual protection against fire and
accident. Another provision which benefits the married woman is that
in the event of the husband's death. insurance would take care of

the surviving wife and children.

 

Law Rounding Educat 1011

Since the end of World War II. drastic measures have been
applied to reform the educational system. The basic objectives in
this reform have been to democratize the structure and to teach
democratic ideas in the classroom. The first task was to bring
about a co-educational system. enabling both sexes to attend the
same school. Any woman. depending on her ability. could be admit-
ted to any institution of learning. like any man student. In
addition. ccmulsory education was extended from six years to nine
years inclusive. a policy very beneficial to the woman in particular.

Prior to 1%5. most of the institutions of higher learning.
including. the Imperial Universities. had closed their gates to
female students as a result of the educational system or the time.
Although there were a few specialized higher institutions for
women. the quality and the content of the teaching were far in-

ferior to that of men's universities.

w P -*a 0 P0 or
For the first time in Japanese history. on April 10. 1946.

wommen participated in politics by voting. On October 11. 1945.

52
Mac Arthur Head Quarters issued the Eilitary Cccupation Order that
freed Japanese women from.traditional practices. The Order was
transmitted through the Prime Kinister. and after considerable
study. on [member 17. 19%. an amendment to the law regarding elec-
tion to the house of Representatives became effective. The law
specified that both men and women. upon reaching 20 years of age.
are eligible to vote. and a person over 25 years of age is eligible
to run fer public office.

The laws regarding election to the House of Councillors and

Local Assemblies were equally amended in the following years. These
laws were unified as the Public Office Election Law in 1950.

a . .-_- 'I ‘i50"'3-' blah

Since the end of the world War II some seventeen years have
elapsed. Seventeen.years ago. the national economy was disrupted
by war-tine devastation and prolonged refugee life. moreover. the
confusion caused by soldiers and overseas residents returning to
the Japanese islands made every aspect of social life difficult.
In spite of all these confusions and difficulties. Japan was able
to rebuild her economy and stable national life. host important.
the status of Japan on the international scene was raised.

' Since the war economic and other efforts have turned to social
welfare. and thus the standard of living has been gradually and
steadily raised. Buring war time. "savings“ were encouraged. but
now. markets demand the peeple to ”spend" more. Advertisements

are flourishing and many Japanese are purchasing televisions and

53
electric phonographs. etc. as a means to attain simple. contortable

family recreation. Improvement has also been realized in the
status of women.

In the last seventeen years. the role of women has been
greatly expanded. More professional women are occupied in govern-
mental sgemies as prosecutors. lawyers and legal consultants. To
safeguard women's rights. more women representatives were demanded.
and as :1 result of this popular denand. along with the encourage-
ment of the goverment. many women have named leadership in
various sorts of associations and corporations. Not necessarily
intellectual women but also coma women workers became represen-
tatives of these associations after 1916. so that more popular
opinions could be gathered.

To illustrate the various immwents that were mde after
world War II. Table to is presented to clarify the points under

consideration.

511
TABLE 1%

VARIOUS DWROVEILEII 'i‘S EE'JC‘YED BY JAPAI-l? SE WC‘LLN
IE! T1113 P05141110 LLB WAR II PSRIOD, 19501-11960a

 

J A git—— V A .m-
‘Z:w W __ M

 

 

 

Categories 1950 1953 1955 1960
Birth rato‘
(moo/year) 28.1 21.5 19.11 17.2

Longevity of women

(Yam) 6300 65.7 6708 7093

Increase in renal. 2
pop. over 15 yrs. old. 100. ... 111 12A-
(Baaed on 1950)

lacunae 1n tonal.

onlployod (Based on 1950) 100. ..... 1112 197
Percentage of mployog

woman 11110 are married 9.0 12.6 15.0 19.6
Percentage of family 11

income earnad by wives an 1.1 1.2 2.2

.1. #4

aaourcot Japanese mustry of Labor. Woman's and Miner's
Bureau. C 110 ' (Material Relating to Japa-
none Women. 110. 52. in Japanese. March. 1962. p. 20.

‘Vital 511113811123. issued by 11111131,” or Public warm;
29m, Cmade by Women's and Kimm' Bureau. Ministry of Labor;
: ~ ”:1.me

 
 
 

111111.111. 011:1... Japan ‘
With regard to tho salary scale. Table 5 shows that the gap

batman men and women has been reduced compared to tho pro-1945

peflOdoz

ZFor salary anal: 1n the pro-19115 period, see Graph 1 in
Chapter II. p. 33 .

55

1.11311: 5

1:021."le 111101: OF UI-ISKIILE-D mama". BY
3sz 111m 5121:. or FACIORI. 1960

 

I I.
‘— _

 

fi-ZF—w—‘fl‘: fi—

 

No 'Efffig’ggega Salary of hen Salary of Women
Over 1.000 workers W 7.622 yen v 7.133 3;”
Batman 100-999 workers 7.168 yen 6.601 yen
Between 10-99 workers 6.1119 yen 6.1128 yen

V. , W W

Average monthly wage
of. all workers 6.737 yen 6.707 yen

 

w“, W ,_._.,._l WV WY

“Sources Japanese baniatry of Labor. Women’s and moore'
C I (materials Relating to
Japanese women. No. 52. in Japanese. I'mmh11962. p. 33

   

The following Table 6 shows the bureaus number or female
workers employed by various institutions. factories. etc. Although
the rate of increase is not very high. its eteadineee indicates
that 11. will continue in the future. The statistical figure
includes both married and unmarried women.

TABLEé

1111113211 .1111) PERCENTAGE 01" 11012311 PAID 311195012213.
mmm mm; 1010 0mm. 191+B-1961

A __A_ ____. A‘—
""'~ w W

 

Total 130. of Paid No. of Women Percent. of New
Iear Emloyeee Paid Emile a in Total Paid
(10.000) (10. 000 We

19113 1027“ 329 2508 F;
1949 1.2122 N9 $1.9

1950 ' 1.260 In? 25.2

1953 1.1291 ‘00" 27.1

1955 1.606 1165 29.0

195? 1.877 559 29.5

1959 2.061 616 29.9

1960 2.191 668 30.5

19611“ of 5%} 2.3110 729 3191.

A4 - A“. AAA

a2.1111311 compiled from Office of Japanese Prime muster.
Bureau of statistics. W. in Japanese and
English. 1958. 1959.1. pp. 112—43; Japanese Ministry at Labor.

Hom'e and Iiimre' Bureau. _ . . - . .
in Japanese and English. 1959.p p. . 9. am... Ministry of Labor.

Women's and Minors' Bureau. WW
(“Materials Relating to Japanese Women." No. 52. in Japanese.

Ml! 1962. p- 290

  
 

$110210 Mimreaeeinthepereentage otmnuployed
is considered a result or the interaction or three nein element-1
(1) int-easing trend toward mailman. (2) or higher education
of women. (3) reduced gape Ween the ulariee 02‘ an and ween
in private u all on metal rim. and (11) inn-«mu in
social lam. Since the emotion 01‘ salary scale has been discussed.
the question on urbmiution and education remin- te be examined.

57

First. the demographic movements of the urbanization will
be discussed. with teclmoloaical advancement. much of the human
labor has been replaced by machines. particularly in the rural
areas. As machines take over in the fields. labor dcmnd is
correspondingly reduced. It is natural. therefore, that this
surplus labor be placed elsexmere. Since the demand for both
skilled and unscilled labor in industrial fields fluctuates.
while the demand for farm labor is more or less constant. the con-
ccntration of surplus labor in the cities is a natural phenomenon.

Second. because of the overall increase in living standard.
many farmers have looked elsewhere for temporary Jobs whose
additional income may ease the financial burden. In other words.
in addition to the agricultural occupation of the farmer and his
family. sideline work in the city was taken on. In recent years.
my £15115ch have abandoned fanning altogether and moved to the
cities. and according to Japanese demgraphic experts. more and
more famero will soon follow suit.

Although other data for comparison is lacking. the year
1959's investigation will give us valuable information on
"mechanization” of farms. As of February 1. 1959. as shown ‘11
Table 7. the following agricultural implements were owned by the
farmers throughout Japan. Although these data are not used fur-
ther in this study. they could be employed. through coreletion
and demographic techniques. to compare mechanical and. human

population movements.

11.1.1 7

Flt-3‘: -uL .L'J- W00 11' 'LsD I'y'e CHITRY. BY TYPE A.) D hUIBEiZ. 19593

‘A A‘ . A M ._ L .g.‘ .4.

A _..._.__ .i
W _ , wr— _i__.r v‘

Type of Machine No. of mohines

“ , M A 4

Motor and engine eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 2.797075“

 

figrioultural hand tractor eeeeeeeeeeeeeee 337.776
Power boosting machine eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 167155?
Power cutter eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 298.139
Power water lifting machinery eeeeeeeeeee ‘960228
Power threshcr eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 2.3”30366
POWGr huller eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 711.#97
Auto—tricycles eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 7w}
3

Sourcel Japanese Ministry of Labor. women‘s and: iinore'
‘1 l- K'« ‘_ ’3. .

1:

Bureau. .. ‘ 3:

   
 

Note: including Joint ownership of several fem households.
but excluding agricultural implement left alone for no will of
farm hou;_eo‘:1-old to own it or incapobility of repair. and those
owned by commce practice associations or 111 clubs etc... regard-
less of nm’oer of farm households concerned. Quoted from above
source.

It has also bow predicted that more and more mhinoe will
be adopted by the tumors. Such trends may force many small land
owners to leave the villages for the cities. Ac e result of
rapid urbanization. the urban population has soared to the extent
that the "city housing project” cannot catch up with the rate of
increase. The rate of increase of the city population since
1920 is shown in Table 8.

c'=<
b-33-0'I.

m_c ”In .g';'n'“.1{"“‘ PT“
3...! (.343 Lu. .5. £144....{m

I‘Of‘ln

(we-«LL: U

3 A—JJ L~L.—.‘".: EJ$

yf ‘1) Y “5”?!
.. a.~-’

h (1330-1%

0‘)

 

roar

1920'

1335
1930

1335
1230

«I

,ffi
‘ '94?
1353

$355
1300

a

70

so

‘0

 

Ho. 02 ities
fiocornizod by
tho 130W: rm lent.

PhflSSCTAifi 113%;

C \ \n kn

fiationil
Total Tap.
(1.00:)

an
o
I

r t."

J’ufl J
.‘1 " I,
'u.'w‘to

h
72.5‘9

‘4} \1‘
I.

K;
3‘

‘4‘,“
~1x‘

\

71.7;3
. 79.101 .

93.230

89,2?5
93.3‘3

snafu 3

3: of? 1:31.»;‘3' E wt

Total
Urhcn Pop.
(1,330)

$0,020

{3 D ”)"5

350-31)“
co :6“
“.Ju‘.
27,h?u
20, 022
25.858
31.203
50.2513
59.333

*-

"V“? 5' “'7'
dbtbA-vn- .

18.1 $
21.?
24.1
33.9
37.9
27.8.
33.1
37-5

156.3

63.0

1323-1360

Percent. of
Urban Pop.

 

15:20 25

‘-

Sonrce: - ' %~

35 “0 ”5 ”7 5°

[Tomlurl Year Book]. (Tokyo:

Ioniuri Shinbunaha. 1962). p- 750.

55 60 year

60

As can be seen from Table 8. sharp urbanization has taken
place in the recent tax years. The population drop 01’ 10 per
cent in the year 19% was a result or a governmental directive
that 'city' people move from cities to rural areas as refugees to
escape intensified war destruction.

It should also be pointed out here. that the development
of mass communication. i.e.. installment oi‘ radio and television.
and mbscriptions to newspapers and magazines. too. has changed
the rural outlook. The city life and the rural 'cultural' life
are becoming similar compared to the pro-1905 periods. For ex-
ample. let us examine various household items to see how closely

mral families were to the city dwellers.
TABLE 9 i

002-?ARISON OF URBAN AND RURAL 019'? 313125ng
. OF SWETED HOUSEHOLD ITBIZS. 1960

 

 

 

W figs-“F: :- ‘ m
Items Urban Household Rural Household

Chest of drawers (Japanese
style) 97-2 5 95.7 §
Suit cabinet 63.9 “5.5
Sewing machine 755.1 60.1
Electric washing machine 50.2 10.5
Electric rice-cooking machine 161.8 1h.2
Electric refrigerator 17.2 2.5
Cmnera 09.2 ‘8.0
Television 62. 5 28. 5

18.8 MB

Electric phonograph

aSource: Japanese Ministry of Labor. Women's and hinors‘
(“interial Relating to
in Japanese. March 1962. p. in.

Hana“.
Japanese homen.“

 

:50. 520

    

61
Although gaps exist in the areas of washing machines. rice-

cooking machines. refrigerators and television sets. it is predic-
ted that this wide gap may be largely eliminated within a short
time as industrialization increases. While the city dwellers

are cash-camera. rural people are. to a large extent. food
camera: the city people would have advantage in purchasing

more machines for their daily use. In addition. in the large
cities. downpaament systems enable people to purchase has! machines
more easily than those who live in rural areas.

In the attraction of rural people to urban committee. as
stated elsewhere in this report. the principle factor was the
demandtorlabcrbytheindustriduflbuineeetirns. Inthe
past seventeen years. the rate of production and conmmption by
the Japanese peeple and the world market was trunendous. One
indent among nary which we can use to measure increase in

productivity. or industrialization. is that c! exportation of
Japanese goods to the world markets. Table 10 shws the total
values of exports based on comedities cleared through customs
from 1936 to 1959.

TABLE 10

TOTAL VALUE 03.3xrcnrs In nlLLIons or YEN. 1936-19593

Year Billion ER
1936 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 30566

1937 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee “.166

1938 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3.911

19“9 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 169.8b3

195° eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 298.021

1951 eeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee “88.777

‘952 .0...‘....‘................ “58.2113

1953 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee “58.943

195“ eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 586,525

1955 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 723.816

1956 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ' 900s229

1957 0......0.......‘C.......... ‘.028.Wu

1958 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 1.035.562

1959 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 1'2uup337
aSource. U. 8. Department of Comoros. Bureau of Foreign

Commerce. ' _e_, -= ~- (”world Trade

 
 

Information Service

In the field of education since World War II. enrollment of
girls in high schools. Junior colleges and universities has been
increased. In 1931!. only 8 per cent of all female clunentary
school graduates continued on to girl's school. i.e.. beyond the
six years of compulsory education. In 1950. however. M per cent
finishing nine years of compulsory education entered

In 1961 the figure increased to 61 per cent.

of the girls
senior high schools.
The imreased rate of the high school enrollment or girls is shown
in Table 11. ‘Ihe female emollment of the Junior colleges and
toms-year colleges also rapidly increased from approximately 1+0.000
in 1950 which was 10 per cent of the whole etudmts numbers to
160.000 in 1961 which was 21 per cent of the total number. Increase
in the number of march entering two- and four-year colleges is shown

in Table 11s

63
TABLE 11

RICRBASE If! SMONDARI A211) HIGHER LDUCATIOH OF HOW. 1950-1961.

..4 4.— “ __._n

Increase in the No.

‘4; A“ “—

 

Percentage of Moreen Enteri. Two.
Year of Women Entering and Pom (file a
senior High ~achool “9553mm base?
1950 um i 100
1953 16.7 206
1060 55.9 351
1901 60e7 394

I'.'Sor.zz-¢:ea, Japanese Ministry of labor. Women's and tiinorc' Bureau.
' ,(“iiateriel Relating to Japanese Women,”

 

The statistical data reveals that higher education for women has
been increasimly popular in the post-war period compared to the
pro-war period. .

The increase of the woman graduates of high schools. colleges
and universities is due largely to the following factors: (1) the
law repealed the discrimination against twomn with respect to col-
lege edmation. (2) economic growth in the post-World War II period.
enabling more [culies to send their daughters farther in school
than before. (3) changing public ettitudes about women's edmetion.

.....

of the male college graduate “Rwy-813° graduated nets. and (5)
_ democratization‘or‘eociety‘.‘ inlgenerala.

. The remarkable ‘edvencenenta 13V“? positioned women ere also
clearly revealed in politics. Since thence Constitution enfrcnohieed

a,
Japanese women there have been eight general elections for the

House of Representatives. six elections for the House or Coun-
cillore and four local elections. In 19146. at the first general
elect—inn. 39 women were elected for the House of Representatives.
and in 1947. H women were elected for the Home of Coumillnre.
Since then. a few women have been eent to the Diet at every elm...
tion. as shown in Table 12.

e A number of men have also been sent to the local seem-
bliee. At the latest local election. women formed 1.3 per cent
of the prefectural aeemubliea; 1.1 per cent of the city assemblies.
and 0.5 per cent or the town m village assemblage. ”

Besidee participation in the legielative body. some men
have been appointed to important administrative positions. In
19148. a woman was appointed as e Vice-Kinieter for the first time.
In 1960. moreover. the Prime iufinieter appointed the firet woman
Iv’inieter or Public Welfare. l

With the immement of the women's legal statue; many house-
wives found enough time to em political knowledge through
better eomunieation. facilities such as radio (see Table 13).
newspaper: and negazines; ibdemization in the post-World War II
years also enabled single as well as married women to participate
., in seem-political activities. The increased number or. various
women'e organizations at both the national and local levels after
World War II testifies to the increased participation of women
in mic-political activities. For instance. in 1947 the appren-
mate total number of participants of various organizations

TABLE12

mm; REPRESENTATIVES IN Loam AND mm 110113?
or mum-m. DIET. AND 1101191231
8! mm. a! sax. 19116-1962

mm

.‘09 e...“‘—~.-‘vo—~ ~ ‘|m-m~-.—~~ .mmep~Q-~Q.‘W”Ie “muwgflw-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lover Home
wTotel Seats w __ w Forename one
Year in § cum omen Actually Voted
Lewer House 3““ “mat“ an. Fuel;
1916 #66 39 79 78.05 15 . 67.00 1
19117 £166 15 86 711.8? 6.1 60
19119 1166 12 M 80.711 67.95
1952 1166 9 26 80.116 72.76
1953 1166 9 22 78.35 70.1111
1955 1+6? 8 23 79.95 72.06
1958 1167 11 19 79.79 711.112
1960 '46? 7 21 76.00 71.23
Upper Home on national Level
Seats infin- M 5 M”: n fifiremtage Who
Year House on 1 ll 1 ' ! Actually Voted
M A Nation]. Level ted C A Male Fuele
19m- 100 68.111; 1 511.03 91
1950 56 78.16 66.711
1953 - 53 6 17 67-811 58-92
1956 52 3 10 66.811 57.73
1959 52 ' a 10 62. 56 52.211
962 52 70.07 66.51

“Data c ongiled from: W Aaahi Year Book . (Tokyo:
553-1“ Shims 312%: P0 2750 2773 1.251! P0 1720 ‘773 %
9. 171-72. 180: . 50311252 po 275: m. p. 1801

p. 200. 271 352: m. p- 271 27381261 no? 27-31: mm
. . p. 9. 193 Japanese

Minie‘try of Labor. Women 6e andliinore Bureau W
m (”Material Relating to Japanese 10mm," 110. 52. apeneee.
I’mh 1962. Do 220

 
 

was n.661.029.3 and by 1956 11. had increased to 11.C¢+O.308.u an
increase of well over 100 per cent.

Roma's activities in the many aspects of society have
also been encouraged by the govemmnt agencies ouch as the
Einistries of Public Welfare. Labor. and Education. Government
officials have been sent to the rural districts to help improve
rural homolife. 'A “woman's ”vice-k" was eat up, and amnal confer-
ences havebeen held to discuss woman‘e' problems and roles in
moiety. The Ministry of Etmation has begun to emphasize aca-
demic education for anthers.

In the last few years. international cultural exhange
of women has become active. There have been woman delegates to
the General '. Assembly or the United ration. since 1958. Woman
representatives from Japan have been sent abroad to attend in-
ternational conferences on vomen’ e affairs. and women from other

countries have visited Japan to emhange mutual enmeriencee.5

. 3mm; flanker: 1251 [team Year Book] (Tokyo: Asahi Shin‘mmsha.
1951). P. 2740

“Wuhan 1952. p. 136.

short further information on women' s mic-political activin
ties. see W. column “13113111" [Women] or |'Ii‘uJin no Kateudo"
[women‘s Activities] . 19146-1963. .

mm 13 67

mam CF RADIOS Pozcxsmmn AT mm“ B! m
.353 neszcrmmn PLR moumxn OF b

we mom. POPLL‘JICN. 19.25.1959

  

mo—-- ~-—- ‘ .—-~ “or -....V

 

 

1 o. of Radios orcent. er Thousand

Year Registered of the
at EEK Total Population
1925 S.h55 0.1
1926 258.507 2.1
1927 361.066 3.0
1923 390.‘29 302
1929 565.603 “a?
1930 6509W9 5014'
1931 778.9h8 6.1
1932 ‘00550773 8‘3
1933 1.”19.722 11.1
193# 1.?1b.223 13-4
1935 1.979.096 15.5
1936 2.b22.111 17.9
‘93? 2.903.823 21 .4
‘938 3058491462 260“
1939 h.165.729 29.h
i9fl0 ”.862.13? 34.4
19W4 5.668.031 .2
19b2 6,62#.326 5.8
i9#3 7.051.021 ”8-?
19M 7.346.929 119.5
1W5 7,473,688 500”
‘9136 50723.076 3902
19“? 5.705.”68 33.6
191.8 6.M3.206 no.6
1949 7.592.625 “7.2
1950 8.650.037 53.8
1951 9.%92.93h 55.“
1952 9.712.015 58-6
1953 10.539.593 63-6
195% 11.709.173 70-“
1955 12.505470 75.2
1956 3.253.003 73.8
195? 0.970.”? 77-3
1958 1b.590.807 81.2
1959 1“.505.745

W

82.3

‘r‘

“mm is abbreviation of Hippon 1655' KyEkai (translated in
English as Japan Broadcasting Corporation).

Asahi Sidnbunsha. 1963 . p. 580.

 
 

msahi Year Book] , (Tokyo:

CHAPTER. V

     
 

TUJD REL";
«_e_.r1-—, 1.7:“!

r‘ffl ‘1 ‘L-
'!1 H' "l
J..- n
o; .1 WM ‘ -

  

The institution or marriage and the family is as old as
human activity. Patterns of marriage and family life differ
widely depending upon social configurations. Each society
develops family practices which are general]: effective in that
particular society. Different types of family problems cannot
be 11111: understood without a knowledge of the various social
institutions which together make up a. culture. Moreover. the
types. internal organization and fixation: of family change ac-
cording to a larger social process. At the same time the con-
cept and system or marriage and family is an index to women's
position in that society. Thus. a survey of Opinion concerning
max-rinse and the family wee attempted on twelve Japanese men and
twelve Japanese women in East Lansing. in order to test an histori-
cally generated hypothesis regarding the changing status or women.
A further description of the people in the sample is included in
Tables 1:..21. ‘

i’iethodologicam. the twelve wreceived questionaires and the
twelve women were interviewed. The same questions were asked to
both women and men. For men the poll question method was cud.
but in the interview the cpen question method was applied. That
is. instead or being asked to choose iron 3 nmzber of alternatives.

68

69
as in ”poll" questions. the respondent‘was asked to give her own
free answer. The interviewer's task was to encourage the res-
pondent to enlarge on her answers by'probing ("Thy do you think
so?"), but without influencing the respondent's answers. Comments
were written down by the interviewer as nearly'verhatim as possible.
and details were filled in after the interviGW'nas completed.

The interviews were carried out between harsh and April of
1963. The interviews for the students took place in Berkey Hall
and the Union Building on the flichigan State University'campus.

For the housewives the interviews'vere done at their homes in

most instances and sometimes at the interviewer's home. Infor-
mants did not mind if their answers were written in their

presence. The atmosphere assumed more or a conversational situation
than a contrived one. and answers came freely. The average inter-
view lasted one hour and a head; When it was necessary'thc same
person was interviewed more than once.

The questionaireS'wcre sent to fifteen Japanese male students
among 'senty-five and one male faculty member among five. in May;
1963. Those students who live in the same boarding house were
avoided because it was feared that they'mightlconsult each.other,
and all married faculty members'eere avoided. because their wives
had been interviewed. and 1+, was feared that this fact might in-
fluence their answers. The men were asked the same questions as
the women in questionaire form. Twelve out of the sixteen males

responded.

70

Although the study has limitations. there were some ad-
vantages in pursuing the inquiry.

1. The interviewer was herself a student from Japan attend.-
ing Fiohigan State University and had little difficulty in oe-
ta‘olishing rapport.

2. The interviewer's own experiences are similar to those of
the informants and she was sensitive to factors which otherwise
might have been overlooked.

3. The native lanCuAge for both interviewer and interviewed
was used. thus conversation was freely extended.

h. The questions included past experiences and what was of
nearest concern to those interviewed. and all were interested in
exploring the t0pics.

The principle lin‘dtations to the findings 01‘ this study are
as follows:

1. The study was confined to only firefly-four informants.

2. Moreover. there are individual differences as to ec‘u-
cationel bacmround. family background. marital status. length
of stay in the United Stated. etc.

3. Different methods were used for men and women. 1.6.. the
open question for women and the questionaire for men. Thus. there
might have been slightly different engrors if poll question had

been used for both.

71

h. Verbal behavior or responses may differ from actual atti-
tudes and ideas; in turn, attitudes and ideas are different from
action.

Thus. the answore do not necessarily reveal the actual situation
in Japanese society. It should be mdera’cood that attitudes and
ideas are factors in the control of behavior. for in many cases
they follow their tendency and result in action. The line between
them is sometimes a very slender one. but it 13 still emugh of a
line to cause this study to be classed as subjective rather than

objective.

BACKGROU‘U) 0F I‘fFOZE'.’-_N'l‘3 If! Sg'fi'I’UE

TABLE 1&-

DISTRIBUTIOH CF Till-‘5 AGE OF THE IBI‘DRHAIITS, BY SILXa

W

 

 

Harte of Age (years) i Mather of Women Ember of lien
20 . 25 3 5
26 «- w 5 3
31 - 35 3 1+
3:3 -. L90 t 0
'ibtal 12 12

8The age of the women interviewees ramged iron 21} to 39 and of
men informants from 29+ to 35.

man: 15
mum; emf-us 017- ms Iiii‘xsfii‘m‘n). ex 314x

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Marital Status Ember of Women E‘hmher of Men
Single 3 1
:‘ILI'I‘i‘S‘d 9 ‘1
Total 12 12
TAE'ILS 16
L:.‘.;..L}’II-I CF STAY III TILE UIIITLJD STATES 01" T1125 TFCI‘JQ‘QFTS.
a! 31:!
L1: ___ w A“ A“ “W L __‘I:‘__‘ r L :3
Years in the U. 5. Number of T:éomen Number of lien
Less than one year 4 5
One to three years 1+ 6
I-fore than three years It . 1
- W % - ____ A _
Total 12 ‘ 12
TABLE 17 ..
EHJCATIOIJAL BAc’JKGROLESD OF TEL: EPORELALH‘S, BY SEX
w» my Ll, A'rft: w #:3w
Ix‘umber of Women bhmber of hen

Length Of Education Coupleted Pursuing Completed MM

Ll. 4.4 4—4.... g .L. A A

{r

—-v w w

Elementary school 5

1: o o a

Middle school ‘ 1 01 o 0:2

0011036 (30‘. or Bog.) 5a 20 0 7
Graduate School (21A. or

n.3,) 0 2° 0 2°

Graduate School (Hulk) 18 0 1a 2°

 

Total 12 ‘12

aCompleted diploma in Japan. bone of them finished highechool
and the 0th :- completed her B.A. in Japan. 0Received 15.5. or B.A.
1n Jepena Among seven five persons cemented Bachelor's degree in
Japan. Received water‘s degree in Japan.

73
new 18

Pres-3.12m OCCUPATION or ms nzFozozAzeTs. BI sax

_— .4 .A...‘

Occupation Mmber of women Number of Men

 

 

 

Student w ‘1 1 1
Faculty 1 1
Houewito 7 0
Total 12 #12

TABLE 19

OCCUPATIONAL EXPERIEhCE OF THE Deromm’rs. BY SEX

   

 

 

 

Occupational Experience amber of. women Number of Men
No experience ‘1 1 3
Have experience 8 9
TOTAL ‘ V 12 12 W
TABLE 20

FATHER'S OCCUPATION OF THE INFORHAI'ETS, BI SEX

   

Category of Job Number of Woman Ember of hen

 

 

 

Executive of private co. 3 2
Officer of private co. 0 1
Owner of factory 1 1‘
Merchant or ealeanan 0a 1
College professor 1 1b
Teacher 1 2
Interior decorator O 1
Medical doctor 0 1
Accounting bucineee 1 0
Local civil service 2 0
Agriculture 2 1
Retired 1 1
Total 12 w 12

#‘J , 1 L4

1
1

“Her father died.
bOne or their father: died.

711
TABLE 21

STATUS OF THE mmnwzrs AMONG BROTHERS AND SISTERS. BI SEX

 

 

 

 

 

Status Among Brothers
and Sisters Rumor of Women Number of hen
Eldest daughter or son “— h 6
Total 12 ”12

The effects on marital choice in age preference hsve been
studied in the past several decades. and to some extent well
illustrated by the scholars of psychology. sociology. anthropolow
and other disciplines. In fact. it has been said thst. “the age
at marriage is related to mic-economic status." in terms of
success or failure in marriage. Some stated that the variable
of ego is almost meaningless when compared to the difference in
physical and psychological growth among and between ems. Some
mmdwomn st eighteensrsnorssetursthan othersinthe same
group who are three or four years older. On the other hand. some
study revealed that there is s genera tendency in society to feel
that the non must be older than his site. or vice verse.

The rector of ego in relstion to marriage adjustment has been
considered in this reeeenh. Although the following analysis is
more ”preferred" than 'ootud.‘ it may be used es an indication of

'Fieyor F. Kmart. WW (BMW Hwehton
Firms Go... 19117). p. 137.

75
the expected age of the Japanese for both men and women. First we

shall examine the tussle group. to see how Japanese women feel about

IDEAL MARRIAGE AGE
QUESIIQN: 'fiHAT WOULD BE YOUR IDEAL AGb FUR.EARRIAGE?'

Female F e

20 a 22 years 01d eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
22 years old eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
23 o 25 years old eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
2” 3.8!! 01d eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
25 years 01d eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeee
25 a 28 years Old eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
27 years 01d eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
28 years 01d eeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
29’138r8 01d eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
It depends on individual eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

¥ Total TZ‘M 12“
mm: Our couple data reveal that the ege between 23 and 25 was
considered the most ideal age for marriage; the average is about

dOOO-bOOOO-e

.al
0
1
O
1
‘I
0
lb
3
2
0

2h years. This finding is similar to that of new other studies

of college graduates. and is accepted as the nest comcn age for
marriage of Japanese college graduate».2 Since I majority of the
interviewees were college graduates. the age between 23 and 25 should
be ideal because of the factor involved in receiving the college di-
ploma. Because. as we shall see later. e majority of the inter:-
rievees preferred higher education: this effected their choice of
'preferred age tbr'nerriage." Also. some preferred to work after
their college education. e. preference which also tends to delay

4“ )—

2For further information on age at first earrings of the Japanese.

see Harrin B. Susman. «W boo is an _ (2d. ed.:
Boston: Roughton Eifmn Co. 963 e P. .

  

76
their marriage. Thus. educationominded persons are likely to marry

considerably later than those who are not.

rm: According to the data for men. four of then preferred their
marriage age to be 27 years old; the lowest age specified was 22
and the highest 29. The average is almost 27 years.

Compared with aforementioned data for women. the age men pre-
fer for marriage seems to be approximatel: 2 to 3 years older than
factors should be considered while evaluating a ”preferred age“ for
marriage. It is reasonable to assume that the man generally must
support e wife. and. in addition. try to advance not only his educ-
cation. but also his economic position in society after ccnpleting
his education. In short. the age differences between the male and
female in choosing their mates will be about 2 to 1} years depending

upon various criteria.

 

311) passing. we may quote research findings made by an snori-
oan scholar in Japan on the preferred age for marriage. In fact.
the trend chm-m by the Japanese students in Japan on this subject
falls into relatively the same pattern with a slight variation.
i.e.. ". . . the male student does not expect to marry until age
28 or 30 (the median and the mode). This is true for both uni-
versity and high school boys. Moreover it is not a local expec-
tation. but holds in great urban universities and rural provincial
ones alike . . . The girls likewise show remarkable agreement. the
median and mode both being 25 for all girls combined. The only
difference is that the median eccpected age at marriage for high
school girls is 2% instead of ‘25. but the mode is the same as for
university girls . . . At the turn of the 20th century the age for
first marriage was quite high. In 1908 it was 26.8 for the male
and 22.9 for the female. By 1915 it was 2? and 23. respectively.
and stayed there until 1938. when it rose to 28.1!» and 2b.!» By
1950 it had dropped to 25.9 and 23.0.” For further information

see Ray E. Baber. Youth Look at Harri c and the Fanil (Tokyo:
International Christian Univ" 19-5-3). pp. 55:57.

 

In the pro-modern period. it was someplace in Japan that the
age difference between the husband and wife was extreme. because
lax-rings was based on the parental arrangement rather then the

individual preference. Also. a wide age gap between the husband
andwife inpliedatmdemyofthsvifetobe mzborchatetoher

husband. is a result. the age difference was sometimes as great
as ten years. Hanover. when the decision of nets selection rests

on the individual. the age difference narrows. ihe reasons for this
narrowing are probably that (”he mate is often introduced by the
friend or 'cloes-aoquaintenos' at school. at a friendly gathering
place. at work. etc.: (2) those who belong to the sale generation

held the same pattern of ideas. a pattern which reflects the social
thought of the ties to which they belong. and it is easy for than

to understand each other.
TABLE 23

ILEAL AGE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPOUSES
QUESTION TO THE MALE! 'h'HAT WOULD BE THE IDEAL AGE DIFE'ILRMKJE
BETNEEI‘! IOU AND IOUR WM"
TO THE PJIEAIEI “WHAT WOULD BE THE REAL AGE DEEREHCE
BETWEEN YOU AND XOUR HUSBAND?"

Fuels
NO 38. difference 1. desirable seeee 2
2 s- g ””8 Old” than I eessesseeee 2
3 as years older than I sessesessse 3
2 es 5 years older than I seseesesee '
I} I- 5 years older than I seeeeeeeee 1‘
3s 5 01' 7 1383‘ older than I s‘seese .
It W! on W171“ eeesseseea 2
Total in A a W
12

, *7 w

hale
2yearsyoungerthan1...3
3yoersyoungerthen1...3

byesrsyoungerthanl...3

5 years younger than I ... 2

It d00$ nOt matter sssseee ‘
Total: e

72

78
w: No woman preferred her husband to be younger than herself.

There was aside epreed otopinion eetojuethownanymreolder
then the her husband should be. Among many replies the most popular
age difference betwem the husband end wire owed to be two to

three years. It in interesting to note that two tom desired their
huebande to be the same age as themselves. Both of then give the
reason that in order for husband end wire to under-steed each other
well it is ideal to have 1 husband or the name age. The person who
aid that her husband should be thm. rm or seven yeere older than
she we brought up in e vinege and wee educated in the pro-1916 period.
ae said: 'hnyvulege oommity. three. five and mm re-
garded as lucky numbers. and I was taught to eeleot e hueband or
these age differonoes.‘

w: All of the melee who eteted e preference desired to have their
mete younger than they were. The range or the desired difference of
the age was two to five years. and two-thirde or our informants
preferred to be two to {our years older than their wives.

W
Investigation of the uhtimehip between marital ideele and

marital choice hue been confined elnoet wholly to deter-inns whet
m the ideale or e given'poz'mletion. Whether and in what manner
marriage ideals actual]; mnemeflae choice of a marriage he not

yet been established.“ The tern “ideal note” retere to the image or

“A

It discussion at the above ie found in Roy E. Baber. “Some
Fete Selection Standards or We Students and Their Parente.‘
WW. xx (1936). 115-25. and F. won-r. ”Student

Attitudes on fmtso Purim-J WW- XXVI
(19%). 512.2». _

79
the person one Niches to marry.

In the Heat. e common mod to nan-inge is that or “dating“
and then "steady-dating.“ Upon reaching e certain level of agree-
nent. the pair may become “engaged” and then merry with or without
the consent or the parents. In other words. selection or 11 rate
can be. to e larg o'e extent. based on the individual “ideal" and
"tes’ee'l rather than on the parente' wishes.

In Japan. however. selection of e sste was for e long time
determined by the parents. or by relatives. and the nerryim
parties. particularly the women did not have e say in the nntter.‘5
However. the changes in the traditional mete selecting method is
clearly with in our study.

 

TABLE 21}
MATE SELECTION
QIESTIONI ”WHAT METHODS FOR summit) A MATE no You PLAN TO USE?“
Female Male
I prefer to eeleot e mete by myself eeeeeeeeeeeeee 8 3
Arranged by my parents but final decision is
bIBOd on me eeeeeeee‘eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3 2
I prefer to select mate by myself but consult
With W parents eeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee O 5
Introduced by friends but I will decide by my
m preference eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ‘ i
0th” eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee‘ee o ‘
Total w “w
12 12

PEI-film I Eight out of twelve female interviewees express that
they wished to select their mater by theneelves. Three persons

4...... .4 “lg—A A AA w

5011 the subject a: ”mate selection method" in treditional
Japan. see Chapter II in thie thesis.

80
stated that their parents might initiate marriage arrangements.
but that they thwselves will make the final decision. 02:]; one
stated that her note might be introduced by Mends (she also in-
cluded parents. relatives and teachers). but. she said. "I will
decide by my own preference."6 According to the above date. the
traditional practice or "arranged marriage“ had almost completely
disappeared from the minds of contmporsry'Jepmese fomles.

On the basis or this study. it can be safely seamed that
unlike women of the pest. contemporary Japanese Immen prefer a
democratic procedure in marriage. that is. they wish to make the
decision on marriage by themselves.
We Like the women, all the m preferred to make their final
decision on marriage by themselves. 'Ihe only differeme with the
men was how they filmed to meet their mates: some informants
wished their parents or friends to introduce prospective mates
to them. and some preferred to find their mates by themselves.
In effect. no one desimd that his marriage be handled enlusively
by his parents. . they thought the decision of marriage would
me on the‘individual. 1m. trend 1. in direct contrast to the
Japanese society of the pest. Characteristicsnymnder the in-

.—

6In passing. we should clarify the words "introduced" and
'arranged.” Hereafter. the word. ”introduction" refers to non.-
obligatioml relationship. in terms of marriage. In other words.
one may be introduced to someone but she is not obliged to marry
him. She can maintain the friendship. 11' she wishes. But the
word ”arranged" is s much stronger term. it contains some degree of
obligation: the purpose is directed toward "marriage.“ and there is
no connotation of ”friendship.“

.A_.

W

80
fineness of the modern West. some Japanese youths in Japan. too
think this way.7 ‘Ihis research finding indicates a possible
trend in the formation of the family in Japan. In fact. in
laws and in mores modern Japan saphssizcs more the 'individual"
than the “family” under the none or family continuity. The recog-
nition of the "individual” and his 'rights" are two basic ele-
ments which ultimately influence the mind of Japanese youth.
and thus will change the shape at the future society or Japan.

a d F S o

In traditional Japan. the obedience of the child to the
parents was regarded as one of the most important virtues. Women.
who had no economic or political power or legal protecbn. were
panicularly obliged to follow parental authority amonditionally.
it that tine there was no recognition at the individual. Thus
the Japanese woman was taught to think of others rather than her-
self. Indeed. for e long time it had been the accepted custom

 

_'

7The samtrendsareslwnninthetollowing quotationuto

method of mate selection in Japan: I'It is interesting to note that
both boys and girls seats to think of themselves as 'rather special.’
for somewhat more of them said they would do their own choosing
than thought it best for boys and girls in general to do so. For
example. 35,.» of the high school boys think it is best for sons to
do their own choosing. but 393» expect to do so in their own case.
For university boys the corresponding figures are 38?} and #23:».
Likewise. 155% of the high school girls think it is best for daugh-
ters to make their own choice. but 203?": of then sweet to do so in
their own case. It is perhaps only natural for a student to feel
that he has somewhat better judgment than young people in genera

. . . Fewer than 1;.» of university and high school boys and girls
combined think that parents should choose a son‘s wife for him. but
the story is far different about the parents choosing a daughter' I!
husband- - . -" Baber. 1W.
op. cit... pp. 57-58.

81
for the Japanese youth not to have his own voice in his marriago

and in other social matters. The majority of women had to ac.-
cept whatever the parents had decided. However. the responaea
listed below meal a rapidly charming node of Japanese atti-
tudes toward marriage and the family.

up; 15.} 25
P193223? A230 HATE WTICR

QUESTION: “I: you had chosen a mate and your parents doomed
with your ohoioo. what. would you do?"

Imdmototalkoverflniammnny

parents and myself understand each other. A180
I would try to persuado my parents to aooept by
choice but if they continually disagree. than I
Willa g1“ up 000000.600oioooonooooooodooooooooooo 3 ‘

Female Halo

Even if 11w parents disagreed with my choice in
spit. of w pormaaaoion. I would marry him (her) 9 9

flax-riage belongs to individual decision and
pmn’co' disagreement should not be taken too

 

”1401181? 00.0900090.000.00....000000000000000000O 0 2
Imem (he) amount-onto disc-
W With my choice oooooooooccoooooooooo-oooooo 0 0
Total __ z:
12 12

FIE-ALE: As Show above, three-fourths of the female interview”
wished to marry aooordim; to their own choice even if they could
not get parental consent. Q1131 three persons felt that they could
not. marry 11' they finally failed to got parental mpport. Cm of
them rowed. ”It is hard to live happily without parental sup-
port and moral omouragmt.“ flowevor. the same three person:
also stated thaf. may uidmd to act according to their mm

82
decisions. It should be mentioned here that those who said that
they would give up it their parents continuously disagreed in
spite of their persuasion had had no occupational experience.
were rather weak in economic independazce, uhile other women had
had occupational experience: some of them had been economically
independent. from their parents before they had married and no
parental consent had not been a vital problem for them because
they had been able to establish a new family without having re-

ceived financial support Mm their parents.

m: Except for one person. the men wished to marry even it
their parents disagreed with their ute eclection. In other
words. the parental authority or influence on the part of 5011'.
narriege is getting mine This tendency in directly related to
the previoue question on mate selecting methods.

g o 5.
This subject deals with relatively the same ”child-punt“
relationship as in the proceeding question. This. too. in one
induct with which to determine what are the parent—cmd re-
latimahipe in matrimonial issue. Throughout Japanese history,

8Beber'a research showed the same trend: On the question of
when the parmte‘ disapprove of.“ the girl their son White to marry.
those will should prevail. ”Fears and girls, both mnivoroity and
high school, are overmzelningly agreed (approzdmtely 85;?) that
the son's will should prevail. with relatively 31ml]. difference
beta-teen urban and rural youth." On the question of the danchtm'
case. approximtoly 7115}?~ o! the boys. both university and high
”11001.83” of the university 9:1rls and 71% of the high school
girls tha‘ nk don; htere' voice should prevail rather than tgez-gzmte.

 

 

33

are we observed previously. the parental involvement in state
selection for their eon. or daughter. wee practically regarded ee
standard procedures. However. our reeearch reveals e rapidly
charging attitude on the pm a: the child total-d their parents
on mate selection.
TABIE 26

PARENTAL SELECTION OF MATE

QUESTION : ”IF YOUR PARENTS PAD WCTED .A MATE FOR YOU WHAT WOULD

100 nor-
remele Male
Since my parents had arranged it. I would. I would
“If, 111' (ha) eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee o o

I Will consider the ieeue eericnely Fill!“ In
perente think that the person is sppmpricte for

w meeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3 o

I will consider his (her) as one or the
candidatee for my mate but rinel decieien will

lad. by IOeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ‘6 "

Ivouldsdteyperenteto eendneherpietnre end
then ask m to send her to the United State»
I diould get to know her for e eondderable tine

 

MO“ I (1me what to doeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 0 1

Iwillnotnerryherbeceueewpareate errmged

iteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeebeeee 0 0

Icmtthimctthethappeningtone. eel

cemot think mt to dOeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3 O
W v V 12 127

W: Nomeuhoeneueredthetehemnldeeceptthenateher
parentehedeelected. Althoughncet ettheintomntemevillinx
tceceepttheirperenteleftere.theyviehedtonakethetinel
decision by theuelvee. Ill ct themintervieveee wouldheve chosen
their natee by their own personal preference rather than have followed

 

poi-mm protoronoo audition-.111. Novortholooo. thoro um
ditforomoo 11) toms of how ouch thoy took parontal authority

into thoir consideration. Ono of tho single girls ototoo: “It
dooonotmako wwfmownwmflmypuonto. whimdo

or colour” colootod o unto for no. boomioo in any coco. I on tho
ono who will mko tho final dooiaion.‘

m! 1110 majority of tho uloo phood hem omphooio on “individual
11ml dooldon' rather than tho thought of othoro. onoh u mt:
ondmlouvoo. 1hooo datooovolluthopmiouo dotoruool

that tho traditioml prootioo of tho Into ooloottou (to zottim weak.

 

Tho grotto: who and onoourogouont of "oduootton' in tho
pact-World War II pox-10d brought about a "national. ohongo in tho
ooononio. political and social life of tho Japanooo pooplo. particulorly
tho younger generation. Education to uportont not on}: for tho
future formula!) of tho oooioty no o. whole but also for tho No of
tho individual. For mun-no. tho mum occupational otrotun is
determined largely by mama. new». oducotlon to closely
rolatod to am solution? mi. notion doolo with oducotioml
m but not with oduoational noldo.

w if _.

9Karon o. tannin. “Marital Instability and Its Rolotion to
Education. Income. and Occupatiomg AnAmlycis Based on Census Into.”
3; '._:.w.- - r n. ‘ od. Robort 1“. Much and
no t. Hindi“ md “111m. 1%2). ppo w”.

    

O'thoro Now You: : V

85
71:31.23 27
2313;511:1022 Aim mm; 3:1,:ch

QUESTIUi-u ”1101.4 :«IUCII IIIL‘IJCATIC-zé biGULD YOU Emma tom MATE To :IAZIL?‘
Female Kale

High $611001 ouoooooooooooooooooouuoooooooooo 0 2

00116276 o-unooooooooooouoooooooouoocouoooo ‘0 9

Graduato School ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 0 ‘

Mgher than 1138611 oooooooooooooooooooooooOoooo 2 0
Total _

12 ‘2

 

Among twelvo persons. on of who: had waived o B. A... and.
mo 01’ than woro prooooding tor highor deal-coo, protmcd their
mtoo to havo at. least o oonoao oducotion. The reason for this
no «grossed in tho {011.com stator-ant. given in cm for! or
mthor by mm: of tho intorvicuooo: '1 think it is necessary for
boththoviroammbondtohovothomdogmotomioatimin
order to mdontmd omh other and oooporoto on on oquai book."
This tweak that thoit idea of tho rolotionahip Wool: tho
husband om! niro io cm of. oomniomhip “that than tho ooh-
ordimtionorthowirotothohusbmd. Inoddition. mainten-
viowcoo ploood o considoroblo W8 upon tho spouse's odo-
cation for reason that without an oqual motioml level the
”equalitarian family“ system is rather difficult to minuim
122on1. it is likely that higher education enables a mum

to attain higher social prestige and higher income.

W' with two maptiona. o. majority of the mm W their
mtoo to have «mind at loaat o oollao «fixation. But it

mould be mentioned hero that although most of the men were contont
with college graduate girlo. loss popularity is notiood toward the

 

woman at tho {graduate mhooi love-3.. The reason that can favor

only college education and diormr graduate education for girls

86
is not under discussion. though ago seems one important factor.

guthoriy metribution in the Family

in we have eeen elsewhere in this report. the concept of
democracy has penetrated deeply into the minds of the Japanese.
Applications of democratic principles are to be men in political
affairs. educational processes. legal procedures and all other
oooial milieu. Japanese society rooOgnizoo the constitutiorb
olity or human rights and motion and equality roganflooo of
cox. religion and social close. In a moo. the words “dance.
my- and “individualian' are inseparable. may are inseparable
because these two elucnto are basic to a tree minty. than
society respects one'o dignity. freedom and hmdamental rights
as a human. ouch ideas also penetrate into ouch primary instin-
tutiona as the family. and vice versa. As a result. unlike the
family of the traditional past. the democratic faflly is most
likely to prevail in Japan in the fixture.

For a long time. Japanese society regarded woman as in-
ferior to men and considered that the male would stand above
the female. The hierarchio diti‘erontiationa. or cldora over the
younger. and males OVOI‘ females. were the elements which governed
the family members in the past. However. ouch differentiation
some to be rocketing and the ova-called 'equalitarian i'omily'
has become more important. lhe husband no longer holds hie tra-
ditional advantageous position of authority within the family.

8?
TABLE 23
mommy DISTRIBUTION IN THE min!

QUESTIOHS "n-‘IIAT WOULD BE A?! IIEAL WAY TO DIREBU‘I'E AUTHORITY
BETWEEN HUSBNID MID WIFE IN YOUR FAMILY?"

Femalo Halo
Husband and wife’s authority 50.50 basis in ideal ... 9 5
Husband 75, Wife 25 133815 ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 0 6
Wife 75. husband 25 basis ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo O 0
Husband 70. "1:8 30 basis ooooooooooooooooooooooooooo ‘ 1
Hire 70 on the internal fanny matters and husband
70 on ”’10 matters outeide the home ‘oo‘oooooooooooooooo 2' 0

Total

 

w 12 12
m: 'lhroorourthaofthouomenconsideredthatanoqualdio-
trflmtion of authority between the husband and wife in ideal. M
persona among the remaining three said that the authority or the
husband should not necessarily be stronger than that o: the wife
because of the dividon or labor.

w. According to the data. eeved a: the twelve non preferred to
give mro authority to the husband than to the wire. while the other
five thought equal distribution or the authority between the hue-
band and wire is ideal. The nativee behind this answer however

are not clout. But it is conceived that the hueband'o mode
ultimately influom on the division of labor. and the amount at antho-
rity ho viehco to mice.

From the stoma data, it can be tentatively concluMd that
more women prefer oqualitarian family Immature: than non. Men
vioh to hold noro authority than women. Hero we find a conflict
of interest between the woman and can OVOI‘ authority. The question
romaine aoto howthio difforomonayborooonoilod.

W
Throughout Japanese history. the marriage was chiefly re-

garded as “perpetuation of the family name and line.‘' In order

to perpetuate the fondly name and line. it was neceseary for a
family to have more chilch'en. paticularly sons. Any married couple
who produced more eons were honored as “the family saver and a duti-
ful man.’ 011 the other hand: any couple who could not produce

a son was despised by the others. It would came the man to (1)

get a conoubine. (2) divorce. (3) adopt a son. and thus often
brought about family unhappiness and fanny disgrace. In short.
under the traditional Japanese social system. society emouraged
people to have more children. particularly m none. Now. those
concepts and practices are quickly dyirg of: in the Japanese society
and completely reversed attitudes are shown by contempomry
Japanese as a result or the ammoan problem and other taotare
such as the one relateo to the rise of educational otanderds.

These changes will be shown in the following table and intonation.

TABLE 29
HUI'ZBER CF Cmmflfl

QUESTIOIEI "1103'! EL“?! CHILDIEAI ID YOU WISH TO BA 43-?"

Female

One eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeee
THO eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee-
TUO or three eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
thGO eeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeee
Four eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Three or Ibur eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
F1?! eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

33V. no fiat 1d08 about it eleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Total

-e<3\d<>4?LO<3F‘
E
C3-5<DF0‘G<353C’C

 

.e
M
(
1
.a
h)

89
,1 The data show that the favorite number of cl'fildren. among

 

our interviewees. was three. The majority Opinion was that they
preferred three in order to give enough care and education to all

the children. If they had more than five oMldz-an it would be hard
to send them all to college in Japan. 5“ so, "no or two children

are not enoudi for the children themselves because th re are many
things children can learn from each other." as one interviewee stated.
The person who said one child is enough had her reason in "inter-
national m ridge." She stated: ”If I were married to a Japanese

I would like to have two or three children. But in my case I am
rather afraid that no; child will be unhappy, being born as a

hybrid, and therefore I plan not to have more than one.“

km: Like our woman interviewee. a majority or the men preferred
to have three children. More specifically. all of those who wanted
to have three children were in favor of two eons and one: daughter.”
The question as to why the majority of them wished to have two
none and one daughter was not answered. If our informants. both
men and women. thought that a eon and daughter were equal in value.
then the preferred W of children by sex should not have been

no different. It seems that even if they agreed, with the principle

_.____ “A A‘Awéiy

‘OBeber'e research phone the same trend: 'There in over-
whelming agreement on this matter. The median for both boys and
girls. both university and high echocl. is 3. The mode through in
also 3. In tact. this amber is so dominant that more students (both
boys and girls) anewered 3 than all those who snenered any other num-
ber. combined. Ihie was also true for both boys and girls. whether
they grew up in city. teen. or country . .' . As to the desired sex
of their children. for those wanting 3 children. the ' standerd'
choice is 2 boys and 2 girls. 1110 number making any other choice is
mgligihle.‘ Baber. 1 ,_ .- 1‘ e . . - ‘

p. “7e

 

90
of equality of the sense. they thought that there must be e social

and economic difference between s can and 3 daughter. The number
of children they wish to have my be controlled as we shall coin
the next question. but sex-preference is rather difficult to control.
In emery. the follovim remarks will be mos regarding the
m or children the Japanese will wish to have: (1) hora
children will mean more effort on the part or parents: (2) although
there are some advantages in having many children. in most instances.
puents unavoidably suffer financial]: from sending all children to
higher institutions! (3) future society may be more labile. and s
large number of children will hamper moving from one place to another:
(it) medical insurance. mdical check-up bills and other expenses are
costly; and (5) s smaller number or children will help raise the
standard of living and education.

mm

Japanese population density has been among the highest in the
world. Since World War II. the Japanese govcmnent has oticiany
encouraged the people to limit the number or their children. As a
result. each year “messed a decline of the Japanese birth rate.
Various educational mtcricls. scconpanied by the medical education
corps. we sent throughout Japan. and particularly to the rural
areas. to help edmstc people on this matter. New law permits both
contraceptives and abortion. In this question. our informants
opinions about the idea or birth control were ssked. The governmental
policies vouch aimed to control powlstim are supported by Japanese
youth as our data indicate.

mm 30
BIRTH 001mm

QUESTION a "DO YOU AGIEE WITH THE INA OF BIRTH COI‘ETROL'E'

 

Female I-Eale
I agree With birth control eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 12 9
I fundamentally disagree with birth control. but
under certain circumstances. it is unavoidable eeeeee 0 1
I dimer” with birth control eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 0 0
I have no opinion about it eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 0 2
Total A
12 w {2

w: The question regal-dim favor or diatcvor of the idea of
birth control received muons agreemt tron both married end
angle females. Most of them felt that e planned family in neceeo
nary because it would enable par-onto to care for and educate their
children more effectively. end e compact family is more free and
mobile.

w: A majority of the men were in favor or birth control. although
two persons stated they hed ”no opinion about it.“ In not. nine
persona mm agreed. and one per-3n agreed but only ”under cer-
tain oinunetamee.’ It is certain thet the remaining two persone
were not indifferent because one or them wished to have only three

children end the other wished to have four children.

WW

Traditionally. higher learning had been emphasized only for
boye. In the pre-i 9+5 period. many parents objected to their
daughtere going to college because of the public disfavor of higher
education for women. However. in the post-World War II period there

92
have been marked the changes in attitude toward education. for boys
and girls. Universal education was established and no discrimination
was directed because of sex. religion and social status. People also
feel that m indwidual'e creativenese and initiative should be en-
couraged regardless or sex. so that the true democracy may be pre-
served. Such a concept is indicated in the following responses.

_ mm 31
CHEDREN'S EDUCATION

QUESTION: ”HOW MUCH EDUCATIDN DO IOU'WISH IEUR.CHILDREN TO HAVE?“

 

 

Female hale
Son Daughter Son Daughter

High Behooleeeeeeeeeeeeeee 0 2 0 O

conegfleeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ‘0 ‘ 8 2 6

Graduate SChOOIeeeeeeeeeee O O h 0
It depends on child's

ability and ambition. e ee 2 2 6 6

Total? 12 h - 12 W w 12 12

M: A majority of the tvelve Ito-en wished both their eons and
daughters to have at least a college education. These women had
themselves received a college education and some of Men were
graduate students. me two persons who wished only to send their
daughters to high school had not themselves received any education
beyond thewcoupnleory man." and one at then said. '1 will not

"'Compulsory' was referred to before 1945. as demanding every
citizen: to be educated at least through hath grade and penitting
no one by the educational laws. to withdraw prior to that grade
level. unless by due process of the laws. Homer. this ”compulsory'
requirement has changed since 19+5. At present. mry citisen ie
mated to complete a minimu- ci' ninth grade. In short. prior to
1945. compulsory would referto sixth grade and in post-World war
II. it means ninth grade.

93
force w daughter to enter college. but if she wishes to enter college.
Ivillnot objecttoit. mdlwouldbevillirgto emortherfl' This
woman mad he in the same group she enmred. "It depends on the
child's ability and ambition." if she had not wished her daughter to
go at least through high school. The other one stated: '1! my
daughter wishes to enter conge. it is all rigat with no. but
financiallylenplarmingtc mpportheronlyuptomdthroughthe
big: school level. not more than that.”

his study reveals that the overwhelming majority of women
interviewees both married and single. preferred higher education for
boys and girls. though there seem to be some variations. Such ecu-
pressions are practically unthinkable under the traditional system
of Japan. The chief reasons behind such changes in the attitude
about female higher education were to be are three: first. more
and more male college graduates are seeking their mtes from college
graduates and thus higher education is preferred so that damghters
nay marry sen whose mtures are promising: second. sending both
boys and girls to college implies greater wealth and social status:
and. third. the tendency tmrd more education for all is becoming
a part of society.
we According to this date. six of the non wished to send their
sons at least to college and. if possible to graduate school. while
the me persons stated that they wished to send their daughters
throng: college. In the previous section. we have already observed
that the majority of non wished to marry college graduate girls but
not the girls who had had graduate level education. The same

9h
phenomenon appeared here. in that the men were reluctant to send their
daughters to graduate school. though they were willing to send then
to college. The reason for this phenomenon is not clearly revealed
in this study. Here. it can be seen that ball or the non wished
their sons to finish college at the minimm and graduate school it
possible. On the other hand. they do not favor their daughters'
attending the college level.

We

The parent-child relationship is univerod. In any given
society. the child is at first entirely dependent upon the parents
for care. protection and security. mrough various “socialization"
practices by the parents and society. the child is able to learn to
play an appropriate role as a catcher at family. peer group and
society.

In Japan prior to 19%. parental autlwrity over the children
was intomaii‘irem‘2 In traditional Japanese society. mate selection.
place of residence. and other things related to marriage were
detemined by the parents and the child's Opinion was largely
ignored. In fact. the parents and society regarded the marriage
and its basic aim as “continuity of the M13! line.“ rather than
attainment of individual happiness. Traditionth in Japan nest
of the first sons were obliged to live with the parents. I. first
sons responsibility was to support the parents until they died. At
the some time. the first son was the only legal heir to the "head-

 

”For further information regarding parental authority over
children on marriage. see Chapter II or this thesis.

95
ship” of the family and the tamly property. Ideally. the second

and later eons ultimately would separate from the original parente‘
house. In recent years. however. many such traditional practices
have become viewed as ”unnecessary." “undemocratic“ and 'irrational.‘
Since 1916. the younger generations have tended to stay away from
their parents after nan-inge. As has been made clear in the previous
ehaptere. practically all aspecte or the internal tamilv organizetion
and function have changed markedly. Two such changes appear in this

and the next question.
TABLE 32
mmocmm AND 2’: MIKE
QUES‘I‘ICN: "ARTS YOU WILLIIG To LIVE Ei-I'I’FH THE I~KJS£:.£.i-..D'S sz‘z-JTB ?”

Female Male
368 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
noeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeee
If my permute directly request me. I will eeeeee
I don't RED“ eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
If “3' wife refuses. than I W111 m eeeeeeqoeeee
Even if my wife remsee to live with my
parents. I Will Still 1170 With than.eeeeeeeeeee
It depends on the circumstances eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
If it is necessary to live with my husband's:
parents. 1‘3111 eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
other eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

0U! 00 OOONI‘O
#00470

NO “0

Total $2 12

w According to the interview. all unmarried women wanted to
live separately from the hu aband' 9 parents. Five of the nine married
women said that it was all right to live with the husband's parente
under certain circmnstcmcee. i.e.. if the husband were the eldest
son. or in case either one of the parents were left alone. All but
one of the married womn said thimgs such set “I think it is ideal
to have a household separate from the husband's parents. However.

96
if both my husband and his parents wish to live together I will
follow than" The other said: "I think it is ideal to live apart
from my husband‘s parents. but it is very hard to change tradition
since my'hquand is the eldest son."

Among; the seven persons who were not willing to live With
the husband' 3 parents. only one person caressed the following
opinion: "Since the married couple should start a new family we
by themselves. I will not marry a man who is obligated to live
with his parade.”

Since most of our twelve interviewees preferred a compact.
l'squalltarien" type family. they tended to want to separate from
both spouse's parents new... possible. However. somewhat less
than he): of them reluctantly accepted the idea by saying that.
under certain specific family conditions. they wand live with
their husband's parents. ‘ ' *

HALE: According to the above data. it may be said that four of the
hen vented to have households separate tron their‘pmtt-s, and

five of them said that it would depend on the circumstances. me
man who belongs to the category of “other." a second son. felt that
the eldest son ehofldlivevithhisperents. The taotthettin'eeoi‘
the six eldest sons in our sample vented to establish separate
households indicates that the traditional patrilocal {an}: structure

18 “We

 

The preceeding table showed that the traditional patrilocal

practice is becoming less popular among contemporary youth. In
this section. this some problem is asked from the parente' View
point. 1.63.. whether they prefer to live with their sons' mm

or “(The
mm 33
THE P510331 * ’1 CF MST SCH
QUESmIOIH “DO YOU WISH TO LIVE 153er YOUR Fl‘UST 30?? AFTER HIS

PWiFJALLEE, 03 A313 IOU WIILIIJG TO LET HIM BE SEPARATE!)
FROI"! ETC-UR HCUI‘JEHOLB? " '
Female Male
I am willing to let my first son be separated
m my 1101186130“ eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 7 6

I think it is good for the young couple to have
a house separate from their parents.

 

though I WiSh to 11“: With them eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3 2

I “1811 to 11“! with W first GOD'S £30113 eeeeeeeee 0 2

It depends on the ciromnstances eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 2 2
Total fiififi A

12 ; 12

w: The data reveal that a majority of the women do not expect
to live with the first son after hie carriage. The persons who re-
plied “it depends on the circumstances" said such things as: “In
ass I are left alone after w l'msband has passed away. I would like
to live with my first son’s family as I think I would need emotional
support." Host of the other interviewees also said things like:
‘I think a person needs emotional support when he gets old. So I
hope to get emotional support from my children. But I plan to live
separately from my first son after his marriage, because it is ideal
for both parties to have a separate family. liioreover. it is very
hard for two families to live together in the same house because

of the interpersonal adjustment which so often causes problems."

One important olemnt should be noted. Nine at the twelve
mm were married and seven of then had children. The seven who
had children tended to oomit themselves by saying that ”to live
separately is a good idea' or ”it depends." but seldom stating their
willingness to let their first eons be separated from their houses.
In other words. the single person: stated that they were willing to
live separately: those who were married and had children felt such
practices were good. but inprecticable.

MI 1m: 01' the twelve men anmered that they were \rfiling to live
separately from their firet sons after their son's marriage. or the

two who answered negativefly one expressed the idea that the first son
should live with his parents unfler any circumstances.

In any case. since four out of our informants did not wish to
live with their parents. it is difficult to expect mom to have wanted
their children to live with them. In short. the eon' 3 choice of
residence any eventually detenfine the type of the future family.
1.6.. larger extended family, or small nuclear family. These data
indicate that the {wily will be very mall and the parents would
expect little i‘rou their ehildrm in the future.

Tamfimrfiag
Primogeniture had been practised for a long time as the only

legal way of succession to the new preperty. Only after World

h’ar II. other children besides the eldest eon came to have the right

t° inherit a part of the tent]: property. In the traditional family

99
system. primgeniture was closely rolatw with the eldest son’s duty
to support the aged parents until they die. as mentioned elsewhere
in this report. Rot only the new civil law. but also a break in tho
traditional patrilocal family ewstem. and the ciovelopment of indivi-
dualim planted an important. role in weakening the idea. of priming-nil

tun among contemporary Japanese. as appeared in our sample data.

man: 3:;

IKKERITAKCj
QUESTICI‘E: "1310 ID Iii-L? 'l'lL'IQIfii {£101.13 13311313? T231; FAHILY PROVE-TEX?”

Female
Eldfilt non only‘...o..¢...o............oo..cocoo..
Eldest sister only tooooccooooooooocooooooooooOIOQ
All brothers equally coco-woo.OOIOQQOtooOQoooooUOG
All brothers and sisters equally cocoooooooooaoooo
It depends on parents' decision ooooooooooooooo-oo
ThOSB Who ultimately support parents ooooooaoooooo
Those who are finamially in need ahould got
much family property'............o....o........o.o 1 0
Those who did not receive enough financial
support from the parents should get much

OOCJOON
*‘U-fiOC‘O

 

family'proporty'o....a..o.......oo.......o..u..... ‘ 0
Other 0to...0000009000coo-0909.60.00.00.000000090. 0 1
Total “f A A“. r

‘2 12

The so answers showed the widen spread of opinion. Host

 

of the women said that they did not have much interest in the

family property at. that. time. Two persona answered “eldest. son only“
stated that their family occupation was agriculhtro. and that it was
convenient for the eldest son to follow the family occupation and to
inherit the family property. :35. gm. of the twelve women interviewed
stated that the family property should be inherited by all children
regardless of sex and. age. Formerly. the civil law sections on in-

heritance pmscribed that the family property should be transferred

100
only to the eldest son because he was the only leggé‘illy megnized hair
to the family line. Homvcr. most of the people in this study are in
favor of equal distribution of the farsily wealth. also. it shovld be
pointed out here that although the interviewees were in favor of equal
distribution, most of them. stated they did not expect to inherit
i’é‘u‘njlsl property; One of them said: "I do not expect to receive any
family property because my parents gave me enough money to study,"
w: According to the deter more than half of the informnts think
that all brewers and sisters should inherit the ferily preperty
equally; no one said that the eldest son should inherit the family
property although there were six eldest sons, The traditional
Japanese system or primogenitnre no longer mains as a'predordnent

concept for our ini‘orxrzu'mte.z

The previous questions on ”petfllocolit ' and marriage” and
“irfixeritzmce' are closely related to the question of the care of aged
parents. Since cos-looms of patrilocality and priaogenlturo were
weakening among our ini‘omcmts. it is conceivable that less people
regard care of the aged. as only the eldest son's responsibility..-
“0318?”th of the aged parents had been regarded as the most
important filial piety and this idea had been implanted in the minds
of the Japanese for over two centm‘iee., So it is interesting to see

how changes in concept in other aspects on marriage and family... each

as c-hildnparent relationship. problem of inherit once and petrilocality

101
effected the long wported concept of filial piety. 1116 following

two tables clearly meal changes tward this idea.

more 35
Mm AID “mus; m-im (1)
53311924: “um YOUR may-:3 m3;- 250 1.9mm now To SUPPORT nuisewm,
mo SixLLLI) owner men»

 

Female Male
deS‘b eon 00000000000.000.00.000.00000.000.0000coocoo 3 0
All brothers eeeeeooe00000000000000.0000...eeeeooeoeeo 0 ‘
All brothers and sisters oeeeeeeecooooeeeoeeeeeeooeeou ’4 7
All brothers, sisters 811d relatives eeeoeeoeeoceeeeeee 0 0
llcononically wealthiest among the brothers and
sisters econ-cocoonteeneeeeeoeeoueoeoeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeo 3 b
one who received family property from the parents co. 0 0
Children and 30013113 oeeeeeeeoeeeoeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeoeee 2 0
Ctete welfare agency. social security. national
home £0! £8“ oeeeteeeeeeeooco.eoeeeoeeeceOOQeeeeeoeee 0 0
Total w w
12 12

w: the data show that the all interviewees were in accord with
the idea that the child has a reamneibillty to support the parents
when the parents are no longer able to support themselves. This
idea 19 possibly an mtgrowu: of the traditional concept of £1113].
piety that the child should support the We until they die. Two
persona stated that the aged parents should be supported by both the
children and society. These two felt that the children 31de
support the parents no for as possible. however. in times of family
deterioration. society should eemme a certain part or the respond»
bilit},r for caring for the aged. They were killing to see their own
parents be taken care of by public institutions.

pg; (1) Ito one felt that the parents ought to be cared for by the
eldest son alone: (2) fora than half felt that parental care ought

to be shared by all brothers and sisters equally; (3) 230 one was

willing to see than parents taken care or by a public insti-
tution. regardless of the situation. An interesting result that
appeared hero is that the man were indifferent to so: and age
criteria but rather regarded parental support as something that
ought to be every family membel" a responsibility.

Under the traditional family ayatau. aldeat $0113 were
obliged to mxpport their parents with or without tho help of
brothers. sister: or relatives. flow they are willing to extend
thin division or labor to all broth." and tutors. Still one
important question is 103 to be animated; that is. who 1- going
to anwmaum burdm isomtantlypudndto.
or amaodby.ouru1nnmboroo£thofam1y. Hmhnproblu
is overto be tacodbytho Japan-no poop]... tho only solution
may val). be through public and private agenda nah as ”metal
security." and “retirement pension.” ”spatially. A: has been
atated previously. four of our informants wished to ”pant. Iran
the parents upon their marriage. and so have a small compact family.
and six were willing that their that can establish n separate
household after mugs. the natural ooanuenooa or those desires
seemmg to be that the aged pas-mt: will 1170 alone.

 

Tm; 36
name mm 1m: max (II)
aux-mum: ”DO IOU EXPECT mm 05113932: TO SUPPORT IOU may IOU

GET OLD.“
Female Kala
Yes ounuucu-uuouunoon"...ounuoocv-uuo 1 2
H0 oooooooooooo-ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooono.0... 7 9
I (10 Mt m oooooconcoct-00009000600ooovoooiooodo. 0 ‘
Idonot mtwohildronto support no
“1181313113. but I Wt emotional support 000.006 ’3' 0

Total T12 12

‘03
m: Except for one. all the interviewees did not expect to re-
ceive their children's support when old. However. opinions were
divided into two areas. The seven women who mound “no" had a
more positive attitude than those who said that they expect emo-
tional support end stated such things as “It 13 our responsibility
to prepare to be able to support ourselves when we get old.“ Bo-
oanse of traditional practices. it seems hetero}. that Japanese
people upset their children to support then when they get old.
This study shows that most or the twelve intrusion thought they
should mart their permits. but they did not expect their children
to support them. This result reflects the changing attitude to-
waul traditional concept of 111181 piety. In this study most of
the interviewees Ilene younger than 35 years old. but most of then
received part or their education during the prev-1916 period.

EM' Ordytwomexpootedtheirohfldrentosupportthum
they get old. mess same two sales held tho idea that the ohfld
should take care or his parents. However, nine out of twelve m-
mdthat theydouot most theirohudrento month”. It
is fair to say that since the infomants were receiving or had re-
ceived a higher education. they. thorefore. could estimate their
future occupations and income. and enacted not to have to rely
upon their children. Ms means that they were. in general.
'Mdiflchmnstio” because they tended not to moot help tron others
and they tried not to otter annhing unless it was necessary. A

1011
majority or them wished to have three childrma they wished to send
their children at least to college a they wished not to live with
their parents: naturally. than. they did not expect their children
to support them even when they got old. It is predicted that s
more "impeneonnilJI social system will evolve in Japan within
several decades.

Ho 0 .;

For 8 long time. the lives of Japanese women were strictly
confined to their funnies. and they did not engage in em activi-
ties outside tho home. All women but those of high social class
were heavy contributors to the economic ectiuities of the house-
hold. Present day Japanese society emourages W to engage in
social. political and economic activities outside the hone. Although
it is a generally accepted idea that the husband should support
his wife and children. the above mentioned changes are effecting

the traditional role or a wife and the emectatitms imposed upon her.

Such an effect is observed in the following date.

TABLE 37
mm: m mm m: min!

QUESTION T0 13””‘5ALEI "WI-EH IOU MARTY, 11) You EXPECT IUUR WIFE
TO WORK OUTSIIE ‘IHE ROI-’3 ?"
T0 TIES EQIALEI "WHEN IOU EARRY, no IOU EXPECT TO WORK
OU’I‘SIIE THE HCE'LE ?'

Female Hale
Yes. before we have a child u... 1 Yes. before we have a child .. 1
Yes. before and after we have Yes. before and after we have
s child eeoeoeoeeeeeeeeeeoeoeeoe 2 & child eeeeoeoeoeeeseoeeeeeee 0
Yes. before we have a child If my wife agrees or wishes
and after thO Child has grown “Pesos to work eeeeoeeeeeeeeeoeesoeee 1"
No. I have no intention or I wish my wife to stay at
‘10ng eoeeceeeoeeeeeeeeseeooeeoeea home eeeeeeoeeeeooeeeoeeeeeeee

Iwishto stayhom itit is
financially ”8853310 eeeeeeoeeeeee ’

Total ‘15 15

105
5.!” ‘3: This question reveals that eight of the twelve interviewee

wanted to work outside the home after their marriages. These women
stated such fixings as tluir reasons: "I would like to work outside
the home even if my husband earns enough money to support the faulty.
because work outside the home makes me feel as if I as young.“
However. five of these planned to stay home after having a child.
The reason for this is mmmarised in the following statement made
by one of the interviewees: "I think a mother's existence at home
has a great influence on the personality development of the child.
solwouldliketo stayhomeuntilnychildrengraduatefrmhigh
school.“ 'lhere were. in fact. four persons who planned or Iielnd
to stayhomswhethertheyhadaohildornot. These four said that
if their husband earns enough money to support the family. it would
be wise to stayhoneto take care ofthehusband andthe family
matters.

M: Seven out of twelve persons felt that the wife should stay
home. whether they had s child or not. the mining five seemed
to have agreed to let their wives work outside the home. ihe
question as to why more non wished their wives to stay home while
more women wished to work outside is not under discussion. However.
in any case. there are indications that. unlike in the past. both
men and women approve of wives working outside the home when necessary.

CHAPTER VI

 

In the Tokugawa period. the woman was the chief victim of
the prevalent social system. The most influential principles of
social order placed women's position under men‘s. Moreover. the
civil law institutionalised the patriarchal family system which
gavethehead ofthefamilymflimted authorityand defined
woman's position as subject to man.

In the political sphere. the Shogunate performed all the
governmental functions. This autocratic organization winded men
as well as women from any political participation.

In the economic domain. the agricultural enviromsnt con-
tied women's activities to the family. Under the patriarchal
family system. the properties of the family were controlled by the
head of the muddy. Upon the death of the family head. his possessions
went to the eldest m. The women did not have any economic power
to Operate an independent business. control an estate. hire slaves.
buy and sell property nor retain her legacy. in spite of the demand
for female labor )in the economic activities of the family.

Moreover. education for women centered on female duties and
virtues which euphasizcd respect and submissiveness to non. The
ideal woman was polite in her speech. deferent in her behavior.

107
zealous in her duties. unassuming in her intellectual abilities.
constant in her fanininity and all-rays obedient.

In such a social system. the woman was regarded as the map-
erty or some nan. For this reason. Japanese women were never in-
dependent and did not achieve ireedon and independence until
recent times. Japanese women had no rights whatsoever from the
time of their birth. since the tamill;r held the power of life and
death over them.

In the post-Heidi period transformations in various parts
of the society occurred. The Japanese realized during this period
that it would be wise to open the country to the West and learn
from then. Governmental officials were sent to France. Germany.
England and America to learn Western experiences in last. govern-
ment. education and technology. I

First of all. the political organization changed. After the
Emperor was restored to the throne. there was a separation of power
under the nondnal headship of. the Emperor. and a system of
”Deliberative Assembly“ was adapted from the West. although it was
essentially aristocratic. In 1928. the first general election was
held. but suffrage was limited only to men.

The new civil code was adapted partly from Geman and me
civil code. though it retained the traditional concept of the
family. The new law made nonogamy the fundanental basis for marriage
and gave the right to appeal for divorce to both the husband and
wire.

108

In economics. a significant transformation was observed.
Since the Japanese statesmen of this era strongly sensed the
weakness of the agricultural basis of the state. the govemment enu-
ccursced the development of industries through learning western
technology. Horeover. victories in wars enabled rapid economic
growth. is a result. transportation. commnication. industries.
and social mobility were further expanded. The demand for labor
motivated men to move from rural to city mas. and at the same
time increased the professional Opportunities for women. lhese
helped to change the public image of the exploynent of women.

In the field of educaflon. a new system was adopted which made
education comlsory through the elementary level of the sixth ‘
grade. Beyond this lava. secondary and normal schools for females
were established by the government.

E‘Eomen's status improved in correspondence with the social
transformations indicated above. But not everything was changing
as fast as it appeared on the surface. The centuries of female
submission still made themselves felt. Organizations conxposed of
some women. the intelligentsia of Japan. and foreign missionaries
tried first of all to raise the legal status of women still more.
but these attempts did not most traditional social thought.

his was the state of affairs when World War II cans to an
end on August 15. 19%. The third period. and the second great
change in the status of women. began when General MacArthur ordered
the repeal of the laws restricting freedom of thought. assembly.

109
religion and speech. The right or woman to vote. and better edu-
cation were included in the sweeping reforms that were begun. A
new constitution based on the principle of equality of all um
mad women was promulgated and democratic ideals were thus in-
planted in Japan. The rise in the status or women was mrthered
by the co-echxcational system being made more effective and by the
witch from war products to consumer goods. which increased the de-
mand for professional women even more. Organised men's associ-
ations and the developmnt of mass communication also helped to
change the public attitude toward women' s position.

i I
sq

1.3.910 aw -. ‘ . a 1-1:... as)», 2 ”Less” u- w .1 -°.-'v~ 11.13. «c 1v,-‘..t-

W
Although the generalizations are confined to the limited

number of the informants. the tolloxdng sumary may be drawn from
the findings of the survey stated in Chapter V.

is to choosing one's mate. every man preferred his wife to
be younger than he and every woman desired her husband to be the
same age or older than she. The most preferred ages for marriage
were 23-25 for mo and 27 for man. All non students preferred
college graduates but not girls in graduate schools. On the other
hand. all men who had received a college education and who were
studying in graduate school desired their husbands to be at least
college graduates. but they did not care whether their mates had
a graduate degree or not.

with regard to parental authority concerning mate selection.
a majority or our informants thought that marriage should be an

110
individual decision rather than parental decision.

The traditional patrilocal family system scene to be weaken-
ing. More women wished to have a household separate from their
parents after their mrriage. although carried women would accept
living with parente-irhlew under certain circmnstencee. About
half of them were willing for their first sons to live spart‘rrom
then after marriage. However. it is interesting to note that all or
the informants were in accord with the ideas that the children.
equally or depending upon capacity. are responsible for Importing
the aged parents whether they live together or not. On the other
land. those people did not cement to be lupported by their children
when they get old.

is to the question of succession to the family properu
about two-third of then thought brother: and sisters should receive
family property equally.

Their ideas about the number and education of children
showed an interesting attitude toward boys and girls. The most de-
sired number of children by both men and women was three and all
of them wished to have two boys and one girl. if possible. All
the men wished to send their eons to college or graduate schools
but their daughters only to college. as they preferred their wives
to be college graduates but not more than that. A majority of the
women wished to send their sons and daughters at least to the college
level arfl did not object to sending their daughters to graduate
school.

111

In the family. more than half of the men wished to have more
authority wan their wives while most of the woolen thought emzal
authority between the husband and wife would be ideal. Also more
than half of the men preferred their Wives to stay home. while
more than half of the women wished to work outside the home be-
fore and after they had a child.

It should be noted here that the majority of our infomants

‘ More females came from

were raised by liberal families in Japan.
liberal families than male informants. It was shown in Chapter V.
with regard to the attitudes toward authority between husband and
wife. and the attitude toward education of children that women
tended to be more liberal than men. on the other hand. about
half of the men retain some of the traditional concepts as to the
method of mate selection. distribution of authority batman the
husband and wife. and the higher education of the Inhale. etc.

An equally significant finding is the indication that
those who have remained in the United States the longest have be.
come increasingly liberal. In addition. those who left Japan to
take urflergraduate level mark in the United States seem to be the

most liberally oriented.

 

‘me term "liberal“ here refers to those families parties.
larly the parents who (1) attained higher education. (2) «peerage
higher education for both sons and daughters. (3) treated both
sons and dmghters equally. (h) lived in the city.

112
In terms or the educational level. there seems to be. in the

case of women. a correlation betwaen liberal attitudes and length
of time spent in school. The men's groups showed fewer changes in
attitudes.

Those persons. particularly the women. who have engaged in
occupation or in graduate work prior to their marriages seem to
show a more independent attitude regarding the pWhild rela-
tionship and the formation of the family. ’

In short. the following findings may be mentioned to illus-
trate the fundamental questions which ultimately influence the
mind or a man and future society. In this study. one of the most
influential elements which shape one's attitude and opinion or
family organization is the economic position or the permits.
Secondly. the parents' educatbn and their attitude concerning the
family admnistration. including child care seem to have a strong
bearing upon the attitude of their sons and daughters. third}.
one‘s social associations have some influence on the formation or

one‘ s attitude.-

 

We have learned that along with the overall social processes.
the somept and votes: of marriage and the family has changed
and can be used as an indoor to the changing status of men in
Japan. In present-day Japanese society. the transformation of the
traditional family to the modern fondly is taking place. The ideas
which people have about rarriage and the family do not always reveal

"3
what actually 15 done. But their ideas are a reflection of social
thought. Even 11‘ they do not practise those ideas themselves.
their clflldmn awn. It 13 thus conceivable that some of $233.30

fleas held by ccntmgarm'y Jainanose 1.111 be rarefied as an actuality
in we fixture. Thus. the opt-21mm or the limited grmp maple-cl
in this may can serve as wimp-oats to possible .f :tum a‘ititwio
toward carriage and the farm.

From the obeewatione of our 0133711162.]. stu‘iy. the following
imitations for the future Jagzanese marriage mud family pattern
are arm

h mommam'ing the develoment 01' the cancer-t or indivi-
dualism is the rechw‘tion of mum autiwrlw. In the future.
mrriago decisions will be more fully in the Mnds of the sen. er
dauww. tamer than the parents.

:1. Mon mflay is initiated by the individual. greater
mam-c.313- will be placed an permml ammo u‘mmua. abili Ly 3.1111
charmter 1n mate-selection than on the new or the family.

3. men flawless: 13 based on we indivima. the rela-
tionsédp between the parents mad 301mg couple will be less in-
tomive. The married acme will be 16 an depazmémt won the
panama and in turn parents will mate-r 1035 into the problems of
the myriad couple. 1‘. my be safely prnu’dc‘mi that; more and more
a sled ample: v2.1 consult. with ”marriage cowuselora" or ou-xer

social Lemma-time. rather than mu: their pan-ems.

Hit
it. Both parties will tend to select a mat. tron tho same

kind or educational hooky-cum! so as to understand each other
more fully.t}ma the relationship between 1111st and wit. m

be more equal. In the fixture. the equalitarian type or family
will prevail in Japanese society. and the rolationship between
the husband and wife will take precedence over an other human
associations.

5. The ciao of tho family will be ninifized in the near
mm as a result of tho :0de who: or children and the con-
tinuing preference for a mi]. fanny.

6. On the whole the Japanese educational standard is
rising. A majority of Japanese youth wish to have In: children
and they maize and encourage more education for children. They
agree to invcst whatever money in necessary for their children to
couplotc a college education. They too]. that. money imrutod for
the childrm'a education means more than giving them a dowry or
property. Subject to those tendencies. the odmational level
certainly will become higher as generations pass by.

7. The study reveals that the majority or Japanese youths
are reluctant to send their daughter: beyond college. They want
rather to see their daughters comlcte their college education
and than mm. This indicates that in tho More. professional
women will not be popular as mate choices.

8. In the Japanese society of tho futon. the traditional
patriarchal and patrilocal family will be replaced by an equalitarian
family of nuclear lino. Internally. the traditional authority

H5
based on hierarchical rank will disappear and the individual“
rights and dignity will be stressed. This means a shift tron
the {only to the individual person as the basic unit or society.

9. 0n the other hand. when a society becomes complex and
the basic unit of the society becomes the individual. the function
of the family is minimised. A function previously assumed by
the tamymaybetakencmbythe stateorbythevarious social
institutions. Japanese society will be no exception. The reasons
for this are (a) the parents no longer expect their children to
support then when they get old; (b) some of the Japanese younger
gmeratbn think that society should take the responsibility at
supporting the aged: (0) they think that the family property
should be divided equally among all brothers and sisters and that no
one will receive a major portion of the family property; (d) the
concept of "family continuity’ has weakened: they feel that a
family is created by marriage and comes to an end when both
spouses dis: (e) Japanese youths will try to be less dependent
upon their parents but instead will seek help from outside agencies
for help in times or personal crisis. Thus. it is predicted that
in the mture. social institutions. such as church. marriage
counselors. psychological clinics. and clubs will seem some
portion of the family mnction. and governmental institutions will
inturnprovide themesnstomrviveintinesofindividualend
family crisis. through social security. unemployment compensation.
medical care. housing and education.

116

10. When society becomes complex. people come into contact
with one another. regardless of differences in age. sex. religion
and social class. and formal customs. such as laws and regulations
will control the people. Thus. the individual and state will
interest more frequently than will intomal groups such as the
family. In short. in the Mars society of Japan. a more in»
personal mechanism will govern the life and action of the
individual.

22mm
The factors or social causation in the changing status of

Japanese women must of moessity be selected by sons mm

X standard. The forces bearing on the life of nan. his society. and
his culture are many and as old as hman somerisnce. One can study
1; social change as history or as currently active forces. In this
thesis. basic attention was directed towards those tomes which
seen to be cost immediately connected with. or involved in. the
change in the position or Japanese women tron 1600 to the present.
Certainly nobility. urbanisation. rapidity of cultural change.

the appearance of s mowing-group society. importation of
Western ideology. and the dominance of secular philoscw .-
natural meat. or the mama-m and agricultural evolutions ..
are sons of the other more dynamic forces productive of progress
in this area. Also we have learned that men's swarms» of
their own situation. m‘ s understanding or women. economic
stability. the raising of the educational level and rationalisation

117
ethanelitearepreremisitetorthewum's
position.

The attitude of sons Japanese towards serriage and the
family was the subject of the empirical study as an index to
mine the questions mder consideration. We have observed that
the above mentioned factors brought about a transformation in the
type. else and organisation of the traditional family.

This thesis has shown the following inortant alnents:

(1) the kind or culture man has Mtg. once relatively simle.
and relatively static. is now extremely complex. and dynadc in
tempo. as compared with the previous agrarian cultures: (2) the
kind 01' population aggregates in which man lives. once essentially
rural and scattered. are new essentially urban and dense: (3) the
kind of residence that characterizes man's habit or life. once
stable. rooted in the ease amenity for a lii‘satime. is new highly
mobile: (1+) the kind or group emerienoe that characterizes man's
associations. owe primary and intimate in character. is now
essentially secondary and. to an increasing degree. mercenalg
and (5) man's conception of the universe and or his place in it.
oneebasedonabelietinthenireonlcas. isncvbasedcn science
and social control. once rooted in divine or Connoian authority.
is now rounded in the precepts of can. ‘

We also noted previously that change in the material
phases of culture. that is. customs. beliefs. conventions. etc"
is a result of the growing complenty of material culture. Man’s
conceptions of the universe have also changed immeasurably. and

118
along with these changed conceptions have cone new notions of
social control. Throughout Japanese history. and particularly
after 1600 as we have seen. a dynamic cultural change has occurred.
not only in science. but also in the inclusion of the Western
ideological principle of equality in the field of corals and
philosophy. These developments in the material and nonnstcrial
aspects of culture. supplement and reinforce each other. Our
cenmry has been especially impressed uith the dominance of
material culture change because this has been so obvious and so
rapid.

The degree of improvement of women's status is in
accordance with the gradual improvmcnte made in (1) politics.
(2) economics. (3) cdmation. (‘5) law. and (5) social thought.
he one element completely date-mines the other elements. It is
intersting to note that ehilelthe material adaptation may be
accomplished within a short span of time. the adaptation of social
thought is slow. This lag has been seen in the carry-over of
thought patterns from the Tokugawa period into the post-heiji. and
thence. as the empirical study showed. to the present. In less
than a century traditional Japan changed into an industrial nation
that shook the world. yet the thought patterns of its people nay
take another century to make the same adjustment. One may as:
why this discrepancy exists. why Japan has been able to revolu-
tionarize her material culture. while the changes in her horn-material
culture has been slow?

The answer must be drawn from the totality of culture. and

119
particularly mu social process itself. In other words. the
inferior position or the woman is. in fact. suply s portion of
cultural heritage item. we learn cultural responses in the same
way that we acquire other attitudes and behavior patterns. The
language one speaks and one's observation regarding women’ s status.
the Jokes one hears. the history one reads. and the rewards and
punishments one receives for various actions toward master of
opposite sex. he will often be equipped with readyomade responses
in advance of any such experience. even in the complete abscess of
previous contact.

The also change or wmen's status is not a setter for Japanese
society alone.for many Western societies show similar patterns.
Young and Mack remrkeda

Changes in {anilial patterns cane slowly. Besides
her role of bearing and training children. the woman
was obedient to her husband and a heavy contributor
to the economic activities of household. at least

in all but the highest social class. She had no
property rights or her own. and in law she was
treated as a minor. She could not enter into a
contract to do work or perform other services. and
wages paid her went to her husband. She had no
political rights or duties. such as voting or Jury
service. ‘w’ith the Industrial Revolution came the
gradual emancipation of women from complete domineme
by father of husband: the attainment. finally. of
political rights such as the vote: the gradual relaxation

of the more assoc-e Christian taboos on sex for both son
and women.‘

Landis. while oomentating on the herican family and
tracing the historic transformation or contenpcrery prises-y group.
makes the following statemnts

The American fanily of today has its roots in the

father-What“ family of previous generations.
lnthispatriarchalunit ituessozpected thetthe

1Kinball Young and R. W. Mack. W 2d odd
lieu York: American Book 00.. 1962). p. 3.

120

wife would be subservient to her husband and that
the children would honor and obey their parents.

The father’s discipline was designed to protect his
authority and was assumed to be for the good of the
child... (how) almost entirely absent tron our
society are the ideas or early cultures which
severely condemed the sterile wire. Similarly.

the measurement or e couple9s success in marriage
by their acquisition of tangible property. real
estate. and comon economic goods is almost entirely
gone. The modern family is not an economic
institution in the old cause. Both members may work
and may even have their seperate bank accounts. but
their standard of living is in no sense dqaendent on
the property they won or on the amount or money they
have saved. bgtonreadyeadxtobeusedtorcurrent
expenditures.

Our modern civilisation has changed the lives of women
everywhere. The status of wonsn has changed much more rapidly
in Japan than in any other society in the Orient. After a long
struggle women have attained recognition as human beings equal
to“ men. The present situation concerning women in Japan is
unique. for it is entirely different tron what used to be and
yet can be only an intermediate stage of development. because as
Reishhwand Fairbank stated the Japanese have a ”...tendency
toward cultural conservation. The old and outmoded were not
bmshed away by foreign pressures or discarded in the stmggle
for survival. but could be lovingly preserved alongside the new.
This does not mean that the Japanese have been particularly
conservative in temperaments they have usuale been as interested
as most other peoples in imovatione and in keeping hbreast of
styles. But they have. at the same time. shown an amazing

 

  
     

     

M 1.!

CO. e

1.1

 

29am H. Landie. A- -

e . - .4! 9: "
WW rev. ed.: New York: D
1952 0 PP. 0

 

Heath

121
capacity for holding on to the old. even when the old was clearly
eta-inane."3 One mat expect that women'e social status and indeed.
any other area of Japanese society. cannot remain as it is new.
for cultural change- is. in essence. a universal characteristic
of society. '

In comluding this study. the following question concerning
the fixture position of Japanese women is posed: if industrialization
and rapid urbanization and increase in social mobility. together
with immanents in politics. education. and prevailing social
thought are the basic elements v: rich tend to equalize. and maintain
men's and women's status at an "cqfllibdun," as in the case of
United States, will Japan fell-ow fize ezqacrience of the United
States, or will she sustain her tradition and change her course

of history?

 

122

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