MANAGEMENT TYPES AND COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ELDEAN BENNETT 1969- r'. -. one-o”- '0‘. ‘NM O ABSTRACT MANAGEMTNT TYPWS AND OHMUNICATION BEHAVIOR by ElDean Bennett Relationships between management types and communic- atignfgggggiors of professional radio and television station managers in the United States were investigated. Questionnaires were administered in part by live interview and in part by mail to 52 subjects from all geographic areas of the country. Correlations were obtained on all the management type-communication variable relationships. Jennings' definitions of autocratic, bureaucratic and democratic managers were used to isolate specific types of managers and their use of communication processes and methods to reach their employees. The process of management communication to employees and employee communication to management was probed in the first main hypothesis. A non- significant result was obtained for the first portion of this hypothesis, but a significant positive correlation was found between the managerial type and the way he preferred his employees to communicate with him. A second hypothesis tested the relationship between manager type and non—verbal forms of communication. ElDean Bennett A significant positive correlation was obtained. A final hypothesis predicted that autocratic managers would participate in less personal interaction with employees than would a democratic type manager and that this interaction would be of a more formal nature for the autocratic type manager. This hypothesis was confirmed. Demographic information on the broadcasting station manager was obtained through use of the same questionnaire. These data are indicators of the type of individuals who become managers of broadcast facilities. MANAGEMENT TYPES AND COMMUNICATION BEHAVIOR by ElDean Bennett A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ‘MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1969 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Communication, College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. {twin '8; Ifiafifivuj ' (:Lftt-L 1L Director of Thesis ii ACKII 02341150017"!er T3 In the course of the time this thesis took shape I have become indebted to many persons. without question my greatest debt is to Dr. firwin Bettinghaus, without whose guidance, patience and encouragement completion of the thesis would have been impossible. To Dr. Larry Sarbaugh for his critical comments and help in the methodology and interpretation, and to Professor Leo Martin, whose early help and encouragement led me to leave business and return to the classroom, I give my'thanks. I accept full responsibility for that which is contained in this thesis whatever it may be. I am deeply grateful to my wife, Maralin, for so patiently maintaining optimal work conditions through the years and for assuming the role of both mother and father for our six children in those moments when I could not be present. To those six, my sincere gratitude for understand- ing. It is to them and their mother that I dedicate this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I THEPROerinOOOOOOOOO The Autocratic Manager The Bureaucratic Manager The Democratic Manager Review of the Literature Rationale and Hypotheses Summary II MWTHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . The Subjects Summary III FINDINGS O O O O 0 O O O O O O O v/ADescription of the Sample Test of the Hypotheses Summary Iv DISCUSSION I O O C O O O O O O O 0 Summary of the Results Implications and Recommendations APP ’1:NI)IX . g . Q Q 0 O O O O O O O O O O BIBLIOGRAPHY . 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iv Page 11 15 18 19 25 3-5" 35 he as us ha 51 6h LIST OF TABLES Table ._ Page 1. Description.gf the Sample by Age Group 26 2. Description of the Sample by Years of Experience in Broadcasting 27 3. Description of the Sample by Years of Management EXperience 27 k. Description of the Sample by Years with Present Station 27 5. Description of the Sample by Number of Stations Associated with in Career 28 6. Description of the Sample by Political Preference 29 7. Description of the Sample by Salary 30 8. Description of the Sample by Age, Radio vs TV 30 9. Description of the Sample by Education, Radio vs. TV 31 10. Description of the Sample by Salary, Radio '5. TV 31 11. Description of the Sample by Newspaper Consumption 31 12. Description of the Sample by News Magazine Consumption 32 13. Description of the Sample by Trade Magazine Consumption 32 1h. Description of the Sample by Radio Listening 3} 15. Description of the Sample by TV Viewing 33 16. Description of the Sample by Service Organization Membership 3h LIST OF TAB ES (Continued) " 17. Description of the Sample by Management Type 36 18. Description of the Sample by Demographic Attributes and Autocratic and Democratic Classifications 37 19. Description of the Sample by Age, Radio vs. TV, by Autocratic and Democratic Categories 39 20. Description of the Sample by Education, Radio vs. TV, by Autocratic and Democratic Categories 39 21. Description of the Sample by Salary, Radio vs. TV, by Autocratic and Democratic Categories no 22. Correlations between Manager Type and Preference for Outgoing Communication hl 23. Correlations between Manager Type and Preference for Incoming Communication hZ 2h. Correlations between Manager Type and Importance of Non-verbal Communication Methods hZ 25. Correlations between Management Type and Amount of Interaction between Manager and Employee h3 vi CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM Scholars in the area of management have been very interested in defining, or isolating, different management types. Most writers on management categorize managers as autocratic, democratic or bureaucratic. Some writers use different names, but refer to essentially the same manager- ial types. Occasionally a fourth type is mentioned, a composite of all or any two of the three major types. The nature of the industry apparently makes little difference in the process of management. While most managerial texts are concerned with industrial or retail management, within the field of broadcasting, this process of management is much the same as in other fields, though activities participated in may differ for individual managers. Like his counterpart in industry, the manager of a broadcast facility must be concerned with a product, product deve10pment and/or change, personnel, budget and finance, public relations, advertising and so on. He is involved in the decision making process in each of these areas and therefore his process of managing is little different from that of a manager of a steel mill, a food retailing concern, life insurance company, auto manufacturer or any organization that Operates under a management system. 1 2 A few differences do exist for the broadcasting manager, however. One is the nature of the product, time. Time on the air is an intangible, to be filled with material produced by an advertising agency or the station's program department. A second and perhaps greater difference is the fact that the broadcasting industry is controlled by a government agency, the Federal Communications Commission. As such it is dependent upon the FCC for its very permission to go on and continue on the air. This places the industry in a distinct category and much of the station manager's time is spent in handling matters related to the government regulations concerning broadcasting. Management in any business is concerned with basically the same kind of decision making processes, namely, product deve10pment, employment of personnel to produce and market that product, and the marketing process itself. Despite certain differences broadcast managers differ but little from any other manager in any other business. In studying the management of organizations the processes of internal and external communication have been of great interest. A theory of organizational communication is currently being developed. This theory involves: (1) accepted forms and channels of communication within the hierarchy of the organization; (2) a knowledge of who speaks to whom within the firm; (3) the formal channels of communication between the firm and its external environment; 3 (h) the communication patterns among specific positions within the firm, and so on. Each of these areas of study has its application to the broadcast industry. A search of the literature has failed to turn up any studies which seek to identify commun- ication patterns and processes as being characteristic of a particular type of broadcast managers. The problem which the present study explores is the identification of specific communication patterns of identified managerial types. The managerial types, "autocratic," "bureaucratic" and "democratic" are defined for the study by Jennings (1962). It is difficult to make a sharp distinction between each of these types of management. A modern organization cannot be without order and system, nor can it be without the personal authority and power of an individual leader. Thus we find a melding of the three types of management in today's organizational leader. Situations requiring his attention may call forth either autocratic or democratic behaviors. The times at which he may exhibit one or the other style should be predictable, and in the complete analysis, the manager may be categorized as predominantly autocratic, bureaucratic or democratic in his behavior. It is the administrator's job to direct and control the activities of humans in the process of accomplishing a given task. Traditionally this control rested with the one who owned the business. He was entrepreneur and manager. But as society grew in size and complexity and organizations h grew along with it, the leader found need to delegate some of his duties and responsibilities and with them his power to subordinates. As Jennings points out: "Whereas in the autocratic style of control, the superior limited the authority of his subordinates through his personal will and control, in the bureaucratic style the superior limited the authority of his subordinates through routine, a set of directives and specified responsibilities."1 Thus came advancement from the rule of the individual to rule by rules, or the bureaucratic type of management. More recently in our society regard for the human element of the organization has attained a place of prominence. The manager has begun to seek ideas and advice on how the firm can serve the major interests of those involved in the company making the decision-making process a function of the group as well as of the system. This brought about the democratic style of management. A closer look at the types of management and the behaviors distinctive of each will help establish the guide- lines for this study. The Autocratic Manager Autocracy is synonymous with power. The concept of one-man control is basic to organization theory, for it derived from proprietary rights which came with ownership. However, a distinction between power and authority must be made. Authority has to do with the right, recognized 1Eugene E. Jennings, The Executive: Autocrat, Bureau- crat, Democrat, (N.Y.: Harper & Row, Pub., 1962) p. 2. S by all concerned, to use power. Power is the ability to accomplish things and change people. One may have power without the authority to use that power, or likewise may lack power to use the authority he has. Anthropologist John Honigman writes that: "An administrator possesses authority when the decisions he makes and executes are legitimate in the eyes of the organization in which he acts . . .Basically it emanates from the explicit or implicit consent of a group to follow a particular administration and to accept its policies because morally they are justified." Another useful distinction made between power and authority comes from Thayer: "One person has power over another to the extent that he can arbitrarily divulge or withhold information for which the other has some past, present or future communicative need. Authority is formalized, standardized, "position- alized" power. Authoritg is legitimized or conventionalized power." The executive whose style of management is autocratic puts great faith in himself and his abilities. He is very conscious of his position in the hierarchy of the organiza- tion. He knows he owes deference to someone above him and he also eXpects deference from those below him in rank. Power is his basic method of getting on in the world. The autocratic manager believes that without power, and the exercise thereof, organization could neither be established 2John Honigman, The World of Man, (N.Y.: Harper & Row, PUbe, 1959) p. “77. 3Lee Thayer, Communication and Communication Systems, (Homewood, 111.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 19687, p. 207. 6 nor maintained. Normally the autocratic manager aspires to power greater than his authority. His need is self rule. The strongest ability of an autocrat is being able to mold and modify the behavior of others, without, at the same time, having his own behavior changed by the environment of those about him. In establishing the criteria for determination of the autocratic executive, the guidelines included the following: a. The executives‘feelings toward status in his company. Status, as used here, is not power. Status comes with position in the hierarchy of the firm. But the autocrat believes that one who is high in the organization may not be the one with power. b. Popularity versus power. Popular executives are not always powerful. Powerful one's are frequently not pOpular. The autocrat believes that differences are solved by relative measures of power. He may never make the attempt to become popular. c. The importance of the position in the company. The autocrat sees positions as remaining the same regardless of the person who occupies that position. d. Domination in decision making, especially in trivial matters. The autocrat believes it important to show his power in all things. e. Action and reaction in crises. The autocrat thrives in a crisis situation, believing in his power and moving through details easily because of his arbitrariness and lack of resistance to his power. 7 f. An unpredictable personality. The autocrat believes in keeping people off balance, enabling him to achieve a type of control lacking in more consistent patterns of action. He seems to waver between dependence and indepen- dence. g. His methods of keeping people in line. He believes in using two major forces: intimidation and seduction. The first force is threat with implied or stated penalty, the second is threat with implied or stated reward. ' The auto- h. Monopolization of "control resources.' crat keeps close to him information that gives power to those who possess it. He believes that sharing such information with others minimizes the power-status of his own position. He also minimizes the amount of advice requested from others. i. Hiding problems or emotions he may experience. The autocrat believes exposure of emotion to be a sign of weakness. j. The placement of loyalty. The autocrat demands complete loyalty to him, not necessarily to the firm he heads. He believes in treating subordinates equally, his one bow to the democratic element. It may turn out, however, that all are equally inferior before him. To summarize, the autocrat sees himself as a masterful individual, unusually competent. He is the key to all that goes on about him, seeking to control through his use of power so that in the end he becomes the one to whom all must turn. The Bureaucratic Manage: A clean distinction between autocrat and bureaucrat is difficult. Both are power systems, overlapping consider- ably. Both are radically different from democratic forms of management. As Jennings points out, "Theoretically, one is to acquire the power of authority, the other, power to order.""L The guidelines for determining the bureaucrat are: a. Concern for authority. Where the autocrat is unconcerned over whether his power is based on authority, the bureaucrat is. But in using order and authority, the bureau- crat becomes robot-like. He believes in seeking power by seeking elevation within the organizational hierarchy. To do this he seeks to fulfill the demands of his present position, appearing loyal, expert, unambitious, in short, a company-man. b. The responsibility of decision-making. The bureaucrat is usually fearful of having to make a decision. Instead he believes the rule book has all the answers. 0. Orientation toward routine. The bureaucrat's philosophy is "a place for everything and everything in its place." In the eyes of the bureaucrat spontaneity is the cause of much inefficiency. d. Attitude toward rules and regulations. Rules and regulations are viewed as being not only correct but uJennings, The Executive, p. 120. 9 they are also moral, thus may be impartially administered. The bureaucrat sees this as taking decision from his shoulders and placing it elsewhere. In essence, the bureaucrat is an impersonal autocrat. He rules impersonally, divorcing himself from decisions, seeking his power in higher, authoritative positions in the organization. The Democratic Manager The unit of organization for the democratic manager is "the group." The democratic philOSOphy is based on the philosophy of sharing, of giving himself and his resources to others to the end of individual and organizational welfare. Although all executives are to some degree autocratic, bureaucratic or democratic, Jennings points out, "They are most precisely pegged by the kind of power, order and love that evolves from their administrative activity."5 The democratic style of administration attempts to make power and order tolerable, to give them purpose and meaning and to reduce their negative effects. Such terms as I! ll "team spirit, group cohesiveness," " esprit de corps" are used to describe the effects of democratic management. The criteria for determining the democratic style of management includes the following: a. Group oriented. The democratic manager seeks to involve everyone in the organization in planning and decision SIbid, p. 120. 10 making to accomplish the stated objectives of the firm. He believes such involvement heightens commitment. To do this he shares information with all. b. Oriented to "getting the Job done." He sees everyone working as a team, organized with a definite purpose. 0. His views of people. People are not classified as big or small, good or bad, important or unimportant by the democratic manager. He sees people as individuals as well as being members of the team. He is concerned with individual needs and sees individual differences rather than individual similarities. d. A member of the team. In being part of the team, the democratic manager has the same ideals and goals that the team has. He sees the needs of the workers as satisfied by work done. e. Attempts to provoke workers to think. The democratic manager attempts to get his employees involved. He believes strongly in deve10pment of training programs, management schools and growth and deve10pment programs. f. Does not delegate freely, but rather responsibly. His democratic tendencies enable him to interact effectively in giving information, posing alternatives and suggesting possible consequences. He believes in communicating freely with his subordinates. g. Orientation to "control resources." Where the autocrat assumes the role of the source of information, the democrat assumes the responsibility of keeping employees informed. 11 h. Types of freedom encouraged under the democrat. He encourages freedom of discussion, lack of formality, initiative, freedom of choice and so on. This puts on the subordinate the necessity of developing the desire and ability to act responsibly and productively. Thus the democratic manager, always aware of the tendency to abuse and misuse his position, uses constant interaction with his subordinates to establish firm guide- lines for the responsible channeling of activity, keeping a watchful but friendly eye on all company activities. Review of the Literature While it appears that little if any study has been done in the area of this thesis, there is research that can provide guidelines for exploration. Management spends approximately 73% of the time at work communicating in some form or another.6 Recognizing that communication is important in business, students of management have pursued interests in studying networks of communication within the organization, the process of communication from level to level of the hierarchy, up and down, frequency of exchanges between levels and positions, who initiates specific messages and so on. Most writers on the subject have pointed out a need for concern with communication as it may be utilized in achieving specific objectives in the administration of 6C. J. Dover, Management Communication on Controversial Issues, (Washington, D.5.: BNA,‘Inc.,’l96§7, p. 56. 12 organizations. The most distinctive job of the manager is communication. His objective is to get work done through other people, and to do this he must communicate with them. As Dover points out: "Effective communication should be recognized as a basic function of managing the enterprise; a way to improve employer-employee and community- employer understanding; a way to upgrade performance in waste, spoilage, quality, productivity, absent- eeism and turnover; in short, a method of achieving legitimate objectives of the enterprise. Management communication should also meet the accepted tests of ethical information transmission or persuasion."7 Two important occasions for communication within an organization have been outlined by Hall: "The first of these is when decisions have to be made and a search for information provokes reports, discussions and so forth. The second is when attempts are made to modify the behavior of organization members, by the communication of decisions to initiate the performance of tasks and by the Bommunication of propaganda to modify attitudes." Hall does not say they are truly separate activities nor does he imply that there are no other occasions for communication. But the two specified are certainly occasions with which this study is concerned. Some studies of management communication patterns have been carried out in the area of "who initiates what kind of communication to whom." It is known that inter- action between members of an organization or group is unevenly 71bid, p. 31. 8M.F. Hall, "Communication Within Organizations," Readiggs in Organizational Theory: A Behavioral Approach, Eds. W. A. Hill & Douglas Egan,TTBoston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. 1966) P0 MOB. 13 distributed. Several authors have observed that a few typically do most of the talking in a small group discussion (Bales, et al., 1951; Stephan, 1952; Stephan and Mishler, 1952). This tendency becomes stronger as the group increases in size. Stephan and Mishler indicated that the difference between the most active person and the next most active person is greater in large groups. There appears to be a tendency for a few people to dominate the interaction within a group and this tendency becomes more pronounced with larger group size. In 1951, Bales, Strodtbeck, Mills and Roseborough gathered data using Bales' Interaction Process Analysis. Some of the findings indicated that the more interactions initiated by a group member, the more interactions will be directed to him by other group members. This tendency represents what is apparently the strongeSt and most consistent influence on communication flow. Bales' design (1950) is a method of communication record taking which notes who sends and who receives each communication. Bales, et al., noted that: "The findings reported indicate that if participants in a small group are ranked by the total number of acts they initiate, they will tend to be ranked: (1) by the number of acts they receive, (2) by the number of acts they address to specific other individuals, and (3) by the numbes of acts they address to the group as a whole." 9R. F. Bales, et al., "Channels of Communication in Small Groups," American Sociolggical Review, 1951, p. u68. ILL It has been determined that the high power-status persons, i.e., those of higher ranks of managership, will initiate more communication than will low status persons. Borgatta (195M) reported that subjects who were told they were the boss and could tell others what to do, sent more messages. This finding was supported by Gerard (1957). The positive relationship between power-status and number of communications initiated is supported in a number of studies. Hurwitz, Zander and Hymnotitch (1953) found that the power-status hierarchy will influence the flow and content of communication in face-to-face situations. When there is an established power-status hierarchy, all group members will direct more communication to a high power-status person. Lana, Vaughan and McGinnies (1960) found that in a situation of a status hierarchy still in the process of development, participants who aspire to high status will communicate more to potentially low status persons than to other aspiring high-status persons. This was substantially verified by Mussen and Porter (1959) in an earlier study which also added the fact that the content of communication from low to high order power-status persons will depend on what the low status person has learned is most likely to obtain reinforcement. Other conclusions reached in previous studies of organizational communication include the fact that communication is more likely to be directed to persons in close physical proximity, to persons in the same work group 15 and also to those in the same socio-economic status. In other words, they related to a "reference group." A reference group is any group or aggregate, or any other categorizable set of people, with whom an individual identifies, or from which he derives certain aspects of his consensual reality. This identification may be only private, not as an official member of this group.10 Communication serves to increase the uniformity of Opinion within the group. Especially where the democrat is concerned, if misunderstandings occur it is because he has failed to convey to others the prOper meanings. This is unlike the autocrat who believes that communication is the passing of words from one person to another. Other researchers have studied communication patterns among peers rather than in an hierarchical setting of the organization. However, none of this previous work has attempted to establish a relationship between communication patterns of a manager and the type of manager the individual is. Rationale and Hypothesis An autocratic manager, in his concern for and with power, would have preferred forms of communication between his position in the company and those he works with. The 10A good summary of this concept is in P.F. Secord and C.W. Backman, Social Psychology, (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Book 00., 196k) pp. 209-12. Cf. M. and Carolyn W. Sherif, "Reference Groups in Human Relations,” in their Groups in Harmony and Tension, (N.Y.: Harper and Bros., 1953). Ill. 1*! 16 democratic manager, in his desire to share information with the group, his team, would have communication preferences that would be different from those of the autocrat. (a) Forms of communicating. In the first case, it appears reasonable to suggest that the autocratic manager would have a prepensity for more fozmglmmethods of communication, reports written out in detail, a minimum amount of information passed back and forth in oral, impromptu situations. He would also keep a tight rein on department head and staff meetings, limiting the range of subject matter for such meetings to those things he is personally concerned with, and avoiding free and Open discussions that might have a tendency to stray into areas he is reluctant to have aired in open forum. In the case of the democratic manager, it appears logical to suggest that the desire for team effort and his willingness to share information with the employees in an effort to further the progress of the firm will lead to specific forms of communication of a more informal nature. The democrat will also use a wider variety of forms of personal interaction, especially in personal contact to insure his group understands the problem. This leads to the first main hypothesis: H1: Messages instituted and received by autocratic managers will be: (a) of a more formal nature; (b) generally written rather than oral messages; (c) channeled through hierarchical, formally structured channels in the firm. In contrast 17 the democratic manager will prefer: (a) less formal forms of communication; (b) more frequent personal interaction; and (c) will accept oral communication on a par with written messages. (b) Non-verbal communication. In addition to formal versus informal forms of message transmittal, it may be supposed that a manager's position within the organization may be communicated tohis subordinates through certain non-verbal means. Specifically these would include the size of the office, furnishings in the office, carpet on the floor, use of a company car, more flexible lunch hours and coming and going privileges and so on. Each manifests the manager's power and position, items which are of greater interest and importance to the autocratic manager than to the democrat. This leads to the second main hypothesis: H2: Non-verbal forms of communication of power- status may be seen as more a function of the autocratic type of manager than of the democratic manager of a broadcasting station. (c) Personal interaction between manager and employee. As the autocratic manager strives to keep unknown his weaknesses as well as his source of power, in contrast to the democrat's willingness to make available information and data that may be of help to the group, it seems logical that there may be deduced a difference in the amount of personal interaction of each of these types with subordinates in the organization. This enables the prOposal of the third hypothesis: 3/ H3: The amount of personalwigtpgagtion entered into \ by the autocratic manager will be significantly less than that participated in by the democratic type of manager in the daily activities of the operation of a broadcast facility. Summary In the absence of information relevant to the relationship between managerial type and communication behaviors among managers of broadcasting facilities, a problem is posed, with its goal being threefold: (1) to identify through administration of a questionnaire, managerial types which fit the definitions of autocratic, bureaucratic and democratic within the broadcast industry; (2) to ascertain the characteristics of the particular communication behaviors of each of these types; and (3) to determine the degree of correlation netween the communication characteristics and types of management. The methods and procedures for testing these hypotheses will be presented in the next chapter. CHAPTER 2 METHODS AND PROCEDURES The main purpose of this study was to isolate and identify a relationship between management type and comm- unication behaviors of professional broadcasting managers. The study was conducted with 52 professional managers of radio and television stations. A questionnaire was developed and administered through a combination of live interviews and mail questionnaires. The 52 subjects, from all parts of the country, make up what approximates a national sample of station managers. There was no attempt made to approximate the national distribution patterns of broadcasting stations in selecting the sample. All areas of the country are represented, though not in prOportion to the number of stations which exist in each area. For example, the sample is weak in both the Southwest and the Northeast and New England states. Though the sample was not randomly selected, it is representative. The experiment encompassed two areas of interest. Area 1 was designed to ascertain the type of manager being interviewed, i.e., democratic, autocratic or bureaucratic. Because of the difficulty of differentiating the bureaucratic manager from the autocratic manager, the subjects were 19 20 divided into only two polarized categories, autocratic and democratic, for the purposes of analyzing the data. Area 2 was designed to isolate the Specific commun- ication characteristics of the individual being interviewed. In addition to these two primary areas, a large amount of demographic information was gathered on station managers in general. The development of the instrument (see Appendix A) made heavy use of Jennings' work. As he has pointed out, it is difficult to draw sharp lines between the management categories, so a score on each individual's characteristics was taken to determine the division between autocrat and democrat. Some questions were directed specifically toward ascertaining the characteristics of the manager. Other questions, some open ended, were added to further aid in determining placement of individuals who fell in the gray area between the two polarized types. The original plan to interview each of the subjects personally was changed when a test of mail questionnaires was made with a few managers in other parts of the country. The results were compatible with the questionnaires obtained from interview and so the study drew a little heavier on the mail questionnaire than originally intended. However, the mail interview technique allowed broader coverage of station managers and gave a better cross section of stations and geographic areas of the country for the study. The foils for the questionnaire vary from question to 21 question. Some questions call for an answer that identifies an office or individual within the organization. Other questions ask the respondent to check on a 5-point scale from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." A few questions are open-ended allowing the individual to explain his own position. Each question and its foil may be.found in Appendix A. In section 1 of the questionnaire subjects were asked to describe their role as they saw it in relation to the majority of employee activities. Ql: Which of the following terms would you say best describes your role in relation to the majority of employee activities within your organization, supportive, restrictive, as an enforcer and controller, a hands off policy, or other? Another question sought to determine the procedure followed when staff and department head meetings were held. Qh: When you hold staff and department head meetings which of the following procedures do you follow: a set itinerary, free exchange of Opinion and ideas, all comment to be funneled through the department heads, other. The questionnaire also probed into the importance of someone's being responsible for a decision. Q5: Which do you feel is most important, that there be someone responsible for a decision, or that a decision be made by someone? How a manager deals with mistakes that are made by his employees was sought in another question. Of interest was whether or not a manager involved himself directly with 22 discipline matters or delegated them to some other area of the organization. Q6: How are mistakes by staff members in your organization dealt with? stiff discipline set forth by company rules, you have a friendly visit with constructive criticism, the department head should handle discipline in his area, other. Another area of management responsibility probed was that of determining goals for the station and for the individual departments within the station, as well as flow of information affecting such decisions. Q13: When a new goal for the station, i.e., sales quota, budget, new program format, etc., is established for your station, who has the major responsibility of finalizing that goal? Whether a manager delegates authority willingly and liberally, or whether he retains for himself the power of decision is a determining factor in the type of management that rules the organization. In this respect, whether or not a manager has freedom of decision over his company's policy setting may be a determining factor. Q37: You as a manager should be free to make decisions about your station operation even if they may conflict with company policy. The autocratic manager believes his authority and power should be easily visible to those under him. Q38: It is important that your authority as general manager be recognized readily by subordinates in the organization. And of course, the most distasteful of all management obligations, the dismissing of an employee for disciplinary 23 reasons is an important determining factor of the type of manager. Qh5: When a person must be dismissed from your employ by whom is it usually done? Only you, by his immediate superior, by personnel director, other. Other questions further helped delineate the managerial type and seemed to allow for a substantive division of the subjects into the two categories of autocrat and democrat. In determining communication characteristics in section 2, it seemed logical to probe both the non-verbal and the verbal areas. The area of verbal communication, oral and written, is concerned with the daily contacts the manager has with employees and superiors, with interviewing, orientation of new employees, appraisal of employee activity, instruction and order giving, counseling, recognition awards, training courses, grievance processing, internal public relations and manager-employee social functions among other things. As an example, question 50 asked: Q50: When you as general manager have in your possession data and other information which should go to a subordinate (other than a department head) by what method do you usually get that information to him? And question 51 probed the opposite flow of infor- mation, from the employee to the manager. Q51: By what method do you prefer receiving information from the lower echelons of your company? 2h Verbal communication of a written nature includes more specifically the production of memos, monthly house organs, newsletters to employees and their families, handbooks, bulletin board use, payroll envelOpe inserts, annual reports, audio-visual methods of communication, in short, all forms of written and graphic communication between management and employees. The area of personal intgggggion was probed in questions 57, 58, and 59 which asked: Q57: How frequently do you find yourself stopping and talking informally to members of your organization other than your department heads? Q58: Do you have an Open door policy in your office? Q59: How would you describe that policy? (1.6., anyone can see you at any time, only important matters must be brought to you, only department heads, etc.) The area of non-verbal communication involves a preference for the size of office, furnishings of the office, name on the door, use of company car, expense account, flexible hours and other relevant items which are considered as definite forms of communication according to Hall (1966). Such questions as numbers 15 and M3 probed this area. Q15: How important do you consider status symbols, i.e., your name on the office door, size and kind of desk, carpet on the floor,use of the company car and so on? Qh3: A station manager should set himself up as an example for lower level executives to pattern themselves after in dress and action? 25 "Where" employee-manager communication takes place is also of concern. Hypothesis 1 proposes that one type of manager, autocratic, prefers to conduct his business with employees on a very formal basis, using specific channels and methods. For example, questions 17 and 27. Q17: Other than any regular meetings you may schedule how often do you invite the views and opinions of your department heads on company policy, proposed changes, new ideas, etc.? ‘ Q27: How regularly do you schedule and hold department head meetings? Supposedly informal business could be transacted in the hall, at the elevator, over lunch and so on. Serious business would be taken care of in the office of the manager or the employee, or in the board room or a similar location. The Subjgcts The subjects of the sample were all individuals who held the position of station manager or higher in the broadcast industry. Many were vice presidents and general managers of their organization. Some held the title of station manager. On at least two occasions, for autocratic and democratic, those men contacted headed an organization which included both a radio and a television station, and had as subordinates men who were station managers of the stations within the organization. Market size and the size of the station in number of employees are not variables with which this study need be concerned. The purpose of the study was only to determine 26 management type, wherever it might be found. At least one of the respondents indicated that he had no superiors to be responsible to, when he answered a question on relationship to his superiors with, "I own the company." Questions in the last part of the questionnaire were used to obtain the demographic information on the subjects. There were very few refusals for this personal information, which included revealing the salary of the present position. The following tables outline personal characteristics of the study's subjects. TABLE 1.--Description of the Sample by Age Group Age Group No. % 20 - 29 0 0.0 no ' an 15 28.9 MS - h9 3 15-h 50 - 5h 10 19.3 55 ‘ 59 5 996 60 - + 3% 16%?% The age group table indicates that men in broadcast- ing rarely (we cannot say "never") become managers before the age of 30. The median age group of managers in the sample is h0 - nu. The following three tables, having to do with the length of service in the manager position, years of experience 27 in the industry and years with the present station tie closely to one another. TABLE 2.--Description of the Sample by Years of Experience in Broadcasting. No. Years No. 3:3 % 0 - S 0 0.0 6 "' 10 6 11.5 11 - 15 9 17.3 16 - 20 12 23.1 21 - 30 15 28.9 31 - + 10 19.2 32 16676 TABLE 3.--Description of the Sample by Years of Management Experience. No. Years No. S's % 0 " 5 21 “-00% 6 - 10 16 30. 11 - 15 7 13.5 16 - 20 h 7.7 21 - 30 g 3.3 31 "' + e 32' x6876 TABLE h.--Description of the Sample by Years with the y . Present Station. No. Years No. S's % 0 ' 5 17 3207 6 - 10 9 17.3 11 - 15 10 19.2 16 - 20 7 13.5 31 - + 2 . 5? 168.5 28 These tables indicate that most managers have had long experience behind them before making the move into management yet most have been managers for less than 10 years (71.2%). Apparently a large number of present managers have held only one managerial job, and that with the station they now manage. One other question helps shed some light on this. TABLE 5.--Description of the Sample by Number of Stations Associated with in Career. No. Stations No. S's % One 8 15.h two 7 13. 5 three 1h 26.9 four 10 19.2 five 7 13.5 six or more 6 11. 52' l . Most of the managers have had experience with several stations before moving into managerial positions. The mean number of stations associated with during the career is 3.36 for the sample in this study. Management apparently means a degree of community permanence and position. 0f the 52 who answered the question- naire, M6 owned their own homes, six did not. Fifty were married, and one of the single managers was a widower. The educational question indicated most managers had at least a college education,,but very few had gone on to 29 any graduate work. The mean number of years of education was 15.69. Only six (12%) held no college degree. Thirty-one (62%) held a bachelors degree. Eight had claimed a masters degree (16%). There were no managers in the sample who had a doctorate. Five listed other types of degrees held, including teachers certificates, special degrees for two years work and so on. Fifty of the 52 subjects answered the questions on degrees held. The managers interviewed leaned strongly to the Republican party in political preference. Twenty-seven of the 52 listed the GOP as their preferred party. Only seven were Democrat by preference. Two listed themselves as independent and twelve claimed no political preference. TABLE 6.--Description of the Sample by Political Preference. Party Preferred No. S's % Republican 27 56.3 Democrat 7 1h-5 Other 2 3.0 None 12 25.0 Not Reported '3% . 1 . The salary range of the managers surveyed ran from a low of $15,000 to a high of over $50,000 per year. 30 TABLE 7.--Description of Sample by Salary. Salary Range No. S's % $15,000 - 19,999 12 2u-S 20,000 - 2h,999 7 1h.3 30,000 - 39.999 10 20.h 50,000 - + 9 8 as 5} Only three refused to divulge information on their annual salary range. The indication is that management is well paid for eXperience, know-how and the acceptance of responsibility. The sample includes managers of radio stations, managers of television stations and a few individuals who are managers of combined operations. One question that seems relevant is whether there are differences between individuals who manage radio stations and those who manage television stations. The following tables look at some of these differences: TABLE 8.--Description of the Sample by Age, Radio vs. TV. Age Radio Television Both 30 - 39 9 2 1 hO - ha 10 5 0 AS - h9 6 2 O 50 - Sh h S 1 SS - S9 1 1 2 6O - + 0 2 0 31 'T7 '71 31 TABLE 9.--Description of the Sample by Education, Radio vs. TV. Education - Years Radio Television Both 6 - 10 1 0 0 11 - 12 2 l 0 13 - 1h 5 g 1 15 - 16 11 _E_ 3 17 - ;g 0 31 17 ‘E TABLE 10.--Description of the Sample by Salary, Radio vs. TV. Salary Radio Television Both $15,000 - 19,999 6 5 1 20,000 - 2h,999 % l 0 25,000 - 29,999 1 0 30,000 - 39.999 3 7 O h0,000 - h9,999 3 O 1 50,000 - + 6 2 1 Not Reporting 1 1 1 31 1'7 "E Another area concerning personal characteristics of the subjects had to do with media consumption habits and patterns of the managers. Tables 11, 12, 13, la and 15. TABLE ll.--Description of the Sample by Newspaper Consumption. No. Papers Read No. S's % None 2 30 8 one 13 25.0 two 16 30e 7 three 16 30.7 four 1 2.2 five or more 3% 7.6 100.0 32 When asked if they read any newspapers other than from their home city, thirty-six (69.2%) answered yes. Fifteen (28.8%) answered no. One did not answer. The papers most mentioned were the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. Others mentioned were papers from a nearby major metrOpolitan center. TABLE 12.--Description of the Sample by News Magazine Consumption. No. Magazines No. S's % None 1 2.2 one 13 25.0 two 21 h0.% three 5 9e four 3 7.7 five or more 13.1 3'2 1 . TABLE 13.--Description of the Sample by Trade Magazine . Consumption. No. Trade Magazines No. S's % None 2 3.8 one 0 0.0 two 11 21.1 three 18 3h.7 four 9 17.3 five or more 12 . s 33 TABLE lh.--Description of the Sample by Radio Listening Hours Listening No. S's % NOne (J- 707 one 15 28.9 two 16 30.7 three 8 ISeLI. four 5 9.6 five or more h 7.7 52 10070 TABLE 15.--Description of the Sample by Television Viewing. Hours Viewing No. S's % None 1 1.9 one 19 36.5 two 17 32.7 three 9 1703 four 3 five or more .3; IO§;§ For a comparison of these media consumption patterns with general population figures, Greenberg and Kumata provided figures from a study of mass media exposure in five nations. Those for the United States included: Mean hours per day, watching TV, 2.26. Listening to radio, 1.95. Mean number of newspapers read per day, 2.66.11 For the present study the following figures were found: (in mean hours and mean newspapers read) Watching TV, 2.06. 11Bradley S. Greenberg and Hideya Kumata, "National Sample Predictors of Mass Media Use," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. h5, Winter, 1968, No. h, pp. 6hl-6. 3h Listening to radio, 2.13. Newspapers read, 2.29. A final question had to do with the executive's involvement in local service organizations, where he has the opportunity for participation in community affairs, to meet other business people in a way that may be advantageous to both his company and his personal life. TABLE l6.--Description of the Sample by Service Organization Affiliation. No. Organizations No. S's % None 2 3.8 one 10 19.2 two 10 19.2 three 7 130 5 four (4 geg five or more 19 . 52 18—10. Although there are no comparative statistics available the indication is that managers of broadcasting outlets are a highly involved group of men in community and service organizations. Summary The questionnaire provided a large amount of infor- mation on the subjects who made up the sample of broadcast executives, giving a well documented picture of the men who head up this country's broadcasting facilities. Tests have been applied to find correlations between management type and communication behaviors. The results are tabulated and discussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS Description of the Sample As stated earlier, respondents for the study came from the ranks of managers of this country's radio and TV stations. They were all male and represented stations of all sizes and with a wide variety of program formats. A total of 52 questionnaires were administered to these managers in all parts of the country. Questions instrumental in determining the managerial type of the individual manager were numbers 1, h, 5, 6, 13, 1h, 3h, 35, 37, 38 and A5. (See Appendix A) The possible scores for each question were 1, 3, 5 and 7. Lower scores indicated an inclination toward autocracy, higher scores indicated democratic tendencies. The scale: Autocrat . . . . . . . . . 1 Somewhat autocratic . . . 3 Somewhat democratic . . . 5 Democratic e e e e e e e e 7 Lowest score on the 11 questions for the 52 subjects was 17. The highest, and therefore most democratic oriented manager, scored 63. Table 17 represents a description of the sample in terms of manager type. 35 36 TABLE 17.--Description of the Sample by Management Type. Management Type No. % Autocratic 28 53.6 Democratic 2h h6.h N= 2 One section of the questionnaire was devoted to determining demOgraphic characteristics of the subjects. Table 18 represents a description of the sample on several of these attributes by autocratic and democratic type of manager. There appears to be little difference demographically between the two managerial types. The mean age of the auto- cratic manager is h5, the democratic manager, hh.6. The mean years of experience for the autocrat is 21.8, for the democrat 20.6. The autocrat has been a manager of a station 9.3 years compared to the democrat's 8.3. The mean number of years of education is 16 for the autocrat, 15 for the democrat. .The autocrat and democrat types both favor the Republican party but the autocrat by a larger percentage. More democratic types list no political preference. The autocrat's salary range appears to be slightly higher than that of the democrat. Both groups of managers are very similar when viewed from the standpoint of demographics. 37 TABLE 18.--Description of the Sample on Demographic Attributes by Autocratic and Democratic Classification. CHARACTERISTICS Autocratic Democratic Age . No. % No. % 20 - 29 O 0.0 O 0.0 30'- 39 6 21.0 6 25.0 no - in 8 29.0 7 28.5 50 - 5h 6 21.0 h 17.0 53 - 59 i 7.8 g 12.5 '28 16876 ‘EE 1 I Years Experience in Broadcasting 0 - 5 0 0.0 0 0.0 6 " 10 2 7.0 S 2005 ll - 15 6 21.0 3 12.5 21 - 3O 9 33.0 6 25.0 ‘28 10076 ‘Zfi 10 . No. Years as Station Manager 0 - 5 11 39.0 10 u2.0 6 - 10 10 36.0 6 25.0 16 " 20 2 7.0 2 8.0 21 - 30 1 h.0 1 hes 31 "' + 2 e0 0 0.0 23 1 . 'ZE 10670 No. Years Education 6 - 10 0 0.0 0 0.0 11 - 12 1 3.0 3 12.5 13 - In S 1 00 9 3805 15 ' 16 13 “3.0 7 28.5 17 - + 9 .0 20. 28 l . IHE 10 . 38 TABLE l8--Continued. Characteristics Autocratic Democrat Political Preference No. % No. % Republican 1? 60. 10 h2.0 Democrat 5 18.0 2 8.0 Other 1 h.0 1 %.0 None 3 11.0 9 38.0 Not Reported 2 .0 2 .0 ‘23 16676 ‘22 16676 Salary Range $15,000 - 19.999 u lu.3 8 33.3 20,000 - 2u,999 u lu.3 3 12.5 25,000 - 29,999 5 17.8 2 8.h 309000 ' 399999 6 21.h h 1607 h0,000 - h9.999 h 1h.3 0 0.0 50,000 - + h 1h.3 5 20.8 Not Reported l . 2 8.3 ‘28 1 0. ‘2H 1 .0 In the previous chapter we took a look at the break out of radio and tv station managers. to be little if any significant difference between the managers Since there appeared of radio and television stations, the two were combined for a test of the hypotheses. However, a further look at this division is included here with a division into autocratic and democratic categqries. 39 TABLE 19.--Description of the Sample by Age, Radio vs. TV, Autocratic/Democratic Categories. Age Radio Television Both Autocratic 30 - 39 5 1 0 uO-Lm S 3 0 (15"14-9 3 2 0 50 - 5h 2 3 1 55-59 1 0 1 6O - + O l 0 I6 '15 '2 Democratic 30 - 39 h l l 11.0-uh S 2 0 115-119 3 O 0 50 - 5h 2 2 0 55-59 1 1 1 6O - + 0 _l 0 13 7 ’2 TABLE 20.--Description of the Sample by Education, Radio vs. TV, Autocratic/Democratic Categories. Education Radio Television Both Autocratic 6 - 10 0 O 0 ll - 12 l l . 0 13 - 1h 1 1 1 15 - 16 7 5 1 l7 - 7 0 1'5 :8 ‘2 Democratic 6 - 10 l O 0 ll - 12 l 0 O 13-1LL LL 3 0 l5 - 16 h 3 2 17 - + 5 1 0 1'57 ‘7 '1‘ no TABLE 2l.--Description of the Sample by Salary, Radio vs. TV, Autocratic/Democratic Categories. Salary Radio Television Both Autocratic $15,000 - 19,999 1 3 0 20,000 - 2h,999 l l 0 25,000 - 29,999 6 l 0 30,000 - 39.999 2 h 0 h0,000 - u9,999 3 0 1 50,000 - + 3 1 0 Not Reported 0 0 1 '1? 1'6 "2 Democratic Not Reported $15,000 - 19,999 5 2 1 20,000 - 2u,999 3 0 0 25,000 - 29,999 2 -0 0 30,000 - 39.999 1 3 0 u0,000 - A9,999 o 0 0 50,000 - + 3 1 1 1 _;, 0 I? 7 ‘2 Test of the Hypotheses H1: Messages instituted and received by autocratic managers will be: (a) of a more formal nature; (b) generally written rather than oral messages; (c) channeled through hierarchical, formally organized channels in the firm. In contrast, the democratic manager will prefer: (a) less formal forms of communication; (b) morefrequent personal interaction; and (c) will accept oral communication on a par with written messages. This hypothesis was divided into two areas for the purpose of analyzing the data. One area included questions 50, 53, 55 and 56 and concerned the flow of information from the manager to his employees. The results of the study relevant to this part of H1 are summarized in Table 22. Correlations are presented for each question individually hl and for the scores of all four questions summed. TABLE 22.--Correlations between Manager Type and Preference for Outgoing Communication. Question Zero-order r (N=S2 ) Q50 Method of disseminating information to subordinates. .11 Q53 Nature of content of greater number of memos issued. .18 Q55 Number of memos issued in a day .03 Q56 Average length of memos in lines -.17 Summed scores from above h questions .15 (r .05=.27, Z-tailed test) The hypothesis would have predicted the autocrat would use specific means of communication that are in contrast to those used by a democratic manager. This is not supported by the data. The second part of this hypothesis produced more encouraging results. Here the hypothesis predicted a difference in what the two managerial types expect in receiving information from subordinates. Table 23 summarizes the computations relevant to the second part of hypothesis number one. Although two of the questions did not individually show significance, they were in the direction hypothesized. The summed scores are significant indicating some support for this part of the first main hypothesis. h2 TABLE 23.--Correlations between Manager Type and Preference for Incoming Communication. Questions Zero-order r (N=52) Q17 Frequency of soliciting the views of subordinates on company business. .21 Q2? Regularity of scheduling meetings of department heads. .30* Q51 Preferred method of receiving information from subordinates. .21 Summed scores from above 3 questions .35‘ (r .05 = .27, 2-tailed test)* H2: Non-verbal forms of communicating power-status may be seen as more of a function of the auto- cratic type of manager than of the democratic type of manager in a broadcast station. This hypothesis predicts that the autocrat will place more importance in such status symbols than will the democrat. Zero-order correlations were computed between management type and the areas of non-verbal communication identified by questions 15 and h3. Table 2h summarizes the results. TABLE 2h.--Correlations between Manager Type and Importance of Non-verbal Communication Methods. Questions Zero-order r (N=52) Q15 Importance of status symbols .20 Qu3 Importance of dress and action as standards for employees .26 Summed scores of above questions .28* *(r .052 .27, 2-tailed testTi #3 The hypothesis is supported by the data. The individual questions do not reach significance, but are in the direction hypothesized. H3: The amount of personal interaction entered into by the autocratic manager will be significantly less than that participated in by the democratic type in the daily activities of the operation of a broadcast facility. In hypothesizing greater personal involvement in employee relationships by the democratic manager, this study is concerned with planned, deliberate interaction. The autocrat's attempts to isolate himself from employees is just as deliberate and planned. Table 25 summarizes the findings on this part of the study. TABLE 25.--Corre1ations between Management Type and Amount of Interaction between Manager and Employee. Questions Zero-order r (N=52) Q5h Content of informal conversations between employee and manager. .3u* Q57 Frequency of informal interaction by manager with subordinates. .21 Q60 Degree of attempt to influence thinking of department heads in informal communication situations. .27* Summed scores of above questions .h5** §(r .05=.27,‘2:tai1ed test) **(r .01= :55, 2-tailed test) M4 Summary The study found both support and some lack of support for the hypotheses. Hypothesis one was divided into two parts. Part 1, concerning the type of communication originated by the manager to his subordinates found no support at all. However, part 2 of the first hypothesis did indicate that there is a difference between the communication received by the autocrat and that received by the democratic type of manager. Non-verbal cues, the subject of hypothesis two, appears to be a concern of the autocrat and less of a concern of the democratic manager as the hypothesis predicted. The third hypothesis provided the strongest evidence of correlation between manager type and communication behaviors. This hypothesis was supported by highly significant correlations on two of the questions and the summed scores indicating the democratic manager is more personally involved with the employees than is the autocratic manager. Some possible explanations for the results obtained and implications for future research will be undertaken in Chapter he CHAPTER u DISCUSSION Summary of the Results The motivations for this study came from the work of Jennings (1962) and from personal experience and interest in the fields of management and communication by the researcher. The problems of organizational communication are paramount to those who enter the field of management in any business. In broadcasting, where communication 13 the business, it can be exceedingly embarrassing when internal communication is poor for the results are frequently manifest in subsequent action on the air. Jennings has isolated the characteristics of the manager types so they can be readily identified. But he recognizes the difficulty in sharp separation of the auto- cratic and bureaucratic types. Much sharper identification is gained by polarizing the categories into the dyad of autocrat (to include bureaucrat) and democrat. Textbooks on organizational communication point to the possibility that there are identifiable patterns of communication within an organization and also suggest that the businessman has identifiable communication patterns which he uses. Results of the study indicate these communication h5 A6 patterns canine identified and further, can be related to manager types. Each of the hypotheses of this study should be considered as to results and consequences. Breaking hypothesis one into two Parts for analysis enabled the distinguishing of incoming and outgoing commun- EEEEEEE.PEEESPHS‘ It would appear from the results that instead of seeking to determine whether or not a manager prefers or chooses one way of communicating over another, a better approach in future studies might be to ascertain the degree to which he will use one method over another. All executives use standard procedures for communicating information, ideas, requests and so on to subordinates. Memos, written reports, staff meetings, etc., are found in use in every organization--to some degree. What that degree is and the reasons for choosing a channel are areas to be pursued in future research. It is possible that any lack of significant results occurred because the Questions did not probe in the right direction or did not probe deeply enough. In part two of the first hypothesis, significance was achieved on question 27, having to do with the regularity of scheduling meetings of department heads, and on the summed scores of all questions in the category. The autocrat, it appears, is more keenly interested in the type of communication channels used when he is on the receiving end of the message. #7 As Jennings points out, the autocrat expects deference from those below him. Some methods of communicating to the "boss" may indicate this difference of position and emphasize his power—status. Other areas suggested by the results as fruitful avenues of further study are: (l) The types of communication the manager sends upward in the organization may contrast with the type of message sent down the hierarchy; (2) A study of the types of communications sent by the manager to his superior contrasted with those sent to his subordinates; (3) A study of the types of messages expected from his superiors compared to the type he expects from his subordinates; (A) Is there a communication "style" for the organization, set and regulated by the manager; (5) A content analysis of the style of communication of the autocrat and democrat to determine what, if any, difference exists. For instance, a hypothesis might predict the autocrat would use an imperative form in his messages to his subordinates, but another style in the messages going to his superiors. Another closely allied area of study would be the reaction of the receivers to the manager's style. The second main hypothesis of the study again was given support in the summed scores of the questions, but not in any of the individual questions within the category. Jennings again points out that much of the manager's communicating is done by innuendo, of which the non-verbal aspect is a part. This form of communication is more implicit than explicit. LIB It would appear that much more definitive work could be done in the area of executive non-verbal communication. While seeking to ascertain the importance of status symbols this study did not determine which status symbol was more important, or if there was any hierarchy of preference. The relative importance of status symbols would help establish a set of values for the manager type. Further research might also probe "why" one status symbol is more or less important, and how the executive uses these non-verbal communicating devices to his benefit. The most promising area would appear to be in the subject matter of the third hypothesis, the personal inter- action of the manager with his employees. The rationale behind this hypothesis was Jennings assertion that the autocrat seeks to minimize his personal interaction with others in hopes of minimizing exposure of his shortcomings, mistakes and weaknesses to those who could take advantage of this knowledge. The greater the amount of interaction, the higher the chance of these weaknesses becoming known. Power is diluted when weaknesses are exposed. Even though two of the three questions and the summed scores were significant, there are indications of areas for further research and study. There is a need to know where personal interaction takes place, how much takes place and so on. This study assumed there was interaction, but there may be more or less than supposed. 1&9 Another area for study is that of what roles are performed by both the manager and the employee in such a situation. The autocratic manager may use such an occasion for strengthening his power status. The investigation of the effectiveness of personal interaction is also an area of possible research, especially in the relative effectiveness of the democratic versus the autocratic form of interaction. As it now appears, both manager types have specific forms of boss-employee relationships they prefer. This is not to say that one type of managership is "better" or to be more preferred than another. Further definition of those relationships is needed. Implications and Recommendations 1 Further work in the area of management type and communication process is needed. Nothing was done in this study to corroborate the findings from the managers with any other data. Support for the findings should be sought now by surveying those who work for the managers, the employees and department heads in the stations, to see if their concept of the manager is radically different from the way the manager sees himself, both as to type and communication behavior. Do the employees see their manager as autocratic or democratic in his approach to management? Does he have a preference for one communication channel over another? What does he demand in the way of form, content and so on in the 50 messages from the employees to the manager? These are but a few of the questions posed by the present study. More work and study is needed in the area of inter- personal relationships of manager and employee. It is suggested, too, that it may be advantageous to study organ- izational communication in the term of efficacy as well as efficiency. That is, consider the communication systems of the organization as having or not having the qualities and characteristics that would facilitate effective communication by their user. A study of the employees might provide further information in this area. In summary, the findings of this study provide support for most of the hypotheses proposed, that the managers of a television or radio station, when identified by type of management, autocratic or democratic, do follow specific communication behaviors and that they are discern- ible by type of manager. Support is found for the hypotheses in that managers have specific attitudes toward status symbols as forms of non-verbal communication, and finally, that these managers follow an identified pattern of employee- manager interaction. APPENDIX "A" THE QUESTIONNAIRE 52 Michigan State University Department of Communication Management Questionnaire On the following pages are questions designed to determine the presently existing policies and operational procedures of this station, especially as they relate to general manage- ment. In order for this material to be most helpful, please be objective in your choice of answers. Some questions call for presently existing practices. Others call for the ”ideal” practice in a situation. Please make a differentia- tion between the two kinds in your answers. 1. Which of the following terms would you say best describe your role in relation to the majority of your employee activities within your organization? Check one. Supportive An enforcer-controller Restrictive A hands off policy Other (specify 2. Which do you think more important, a strict budget and living within its limits at all times, a flexible budget that allows for handling things as they arise, or another approach? ' Strict budget. Flexible Budget Other (Specify ) 3. How freely do you encourage discussion of company business problems or policy among your subordinates, especially your department heads? Very freely. Fairly freely. Not freely. Should not discuss at all. h. When you hold staff and department head meetings, which procedure do you follow? A set itinerary, closely followed with no deviation. Free exchange of opiniontand ideas from all. All comments from the staff to be funneled through your department heads. Other (Specify ) 5. Which do you feel is most important: That there be someone responsible for a decision? That a decision be made by someone? 53 6. How are mistakes by staff members in your organization dealt with? Stiff discipline set forth in company rules. The manager has a friendly chat with constuctive criticism. The department head is responsible for discipline in his area. Other (Specify ) 7. Do you seem to consciously or unconsciously categorize your employees as good-bad, above-below, weak-strong, etc.? yes no 8. Do you think this is a good way to consider employees? yes no 9. If one of your employees deliberately bypasses a company procedural rule in the performance of his job and still successfully performs the job, how serious do you consider this to be? ‘ Very serious. serious. Not very serious. Not at all serious. 10. Would it be more serious if the rule bypassed were a company policy rule rather than a procedural rule? yes no 11. How cohesive (i.e., closely knit) would you say your department head group is? Very cohesive. ' Fairly cohesive. Not very cohesive. Not at all cohesive. 12. How cohesive (i.e., closely knit) would you say your entire staff is? ' Very cohesive. Fairly cOhesive. Not very cohesive. Not a1 all cohesive. 13. When a new goal for the station, e.g., sales quota, budget, new program format, etc., is established for your station who has the major responsibility for finalizing that goal? ’ Ybu as general manager. The department head in the area concerned. An operational committee, such as department heads. A committee from the department and the general manager. ' The company has rules which set goals for you. Other. 1h. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 5h Who in your organization has free access to such information as sales figures, company financial statement, personnel records, etc.? Only you as General Manager. All department heads and you. The entire staff. Only the department head involved and you. Other, singly or combinations. How important do you consider status symbols, i.e., your name on the office door, size and kind of desk, carpet on the floor, use of company car, etc.? Very important. ' Fairly important. Not very important. Not at all important. What steps do you take to encourage discussion of station policies, invblve your employees in the company business, etc.? (i.e., suggestion box, staff meetings, company paper, awards for ideas, etc.) Other than any regular meetings you may schedule, how often do you invite the views and Opinions of your department heads on company policy, proposed changes, new ideas, etc.? ' Very often. Fairly often. Occasionally. Not at all. When a new employee is being hired for one of your departments, such as a secretary, who makes the final decision on the individual to hire? You as general manager. The department head under whom he will work. A personnel director. ' Ybur superiors or parent company. The operational committee (department heads). Other (Specify When a problem arises in your organization, one that has to do with talent, or with budget apprOpriation foreaxample, who usually makes the decision that leads to solving that problem? ' Ybu as general manager. The department Head involved. Operational committee. Company rules, tests, questionnaires, etc. Other (Specify 20. 21. 22. 23. 2h. 25. 26. 27. 55 About how often would you say people asked you for your opinion on tOpics which get a lot of attention in the news? Several times a week. About once a week. Once or twice a month.’ Less than once a month. About hOw many people you know would you say look to you for opinions on majOr topics in the news fairly regularly? Four or more. 1 to 3 persons. No one. Compared with your circle of friends, are you more likely or less likely to be asked for opinions on topics in the news? ' More likely. About the same, or don't know. Less likely. WOuld you like to be thought of as a person whom others depend upon in making up their minds about major issues of the day? Uhqualified'yes. I guess as. Don't know. "Probably not.” unqualified no. How many company social events, i.e., the staff Christmas party, does your station have in a years time? Four Or more. Thréee Two. One.’ None. Do members of your organization socialize with one another away from work? yes no don't know IF YES: Do you know about how much Socializing is done? Several times a week. About once a week. ' Once or twice a month." Less than once a month. How regularly do you schedule and hold department head meetings? ' Every week. Bi €513 ekly. Irregularly, only as need arises. Not at all, don't have them. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 56 How strictly do you observe fixed starting and stopping times for the work day in your organization for the regular staff? ’ Very strictly. Loosely. Not at all, employees can set their own schedule. Where do the majority of new ideas (for programs, promotions, contests, sales approaches, etc.) usually originate in your organization? With you, the general manager. From department heads. From staff members. From outside sources (agencies, audience, etc.) Combination of staff and management. Other When a new project or campaign is to begin in the company what is your usual role in connection with it? Plan it and present it to department heads for initiation and follow through. Assign the program to department involved for work and recommendations. Assign a committee to work it out for your approval. As an encourager of new ideas from the staff. Other (Specify Which kind of manager would you most enjoy being? A gambler who attempts new things in hopes of a big payoff. A more conServative manager who accepts smaller returns per project, with a higher probability of success. ' Some other kind (Specify ). If you were to accept a job as manager with another station are there persons on your present staff you would want to take with you? Definitely yes. Possibly. ' Don't know. Probably not. Definitely not. Did you bring any of your present staff with you from your previous position or station? yes no The following group of questions are designed to be answered by placing a check on the scale of degree of agreement, or how strongly you agree with the statement. 3h- 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 57 It is more important that decision making authority and power be centered in the general manager than delegated to lesser executive ranks. _Strongly agree. _Agree. _Don' t know. _Disagree. :Strongly disagree. The job is more important than the person who fills the position and does the work. Strongly agree. Agree. Don't knew. Disagree. Strongly disagree. A general manager needs constant feedback of information from all parts of his organization through regular channels of communication, i.e., memos and reports from department heads. _Strongly agree. :Agree. :Don't knew. :Disagree. :Strongly disagree. Yen as General Manager should be free to make decisions about your station Operation even if they may conflict with company policy. ' _Strongly agree. _Agree. Don't knew. Disagree. Strongly disagree. It is important that your authority as general manager be recognized readily by subordinates in the organization. *Strongly agree. :Agree. ”Don't knew. “Disagree. :Strongly disagree. A station manager must use subtle persuasion techniques to get his employees to perform as he wants them to. Strongly agree. _Agree. —Don' t know. Disagree. Strongly disagree. LLOe M1. 1L2. (43- hit. 58 It is important that anyone entering the broadcast industry have a desire to move eventually into the management area. Strongly agree. Agree. Don't know. Disagree. Strongly disagree. The general manager should involve himself extensively in the details of projects his department heads are working on. Strongly agree. Agree. Don't know. Disagree. Strongly disagree. A crisis situation in the station should be considered a challenge by anyone involved rather than an unfortun- ate incident. Strongly agree. Agree e Don't know. Disagree. Strongly disagree. A station manager should set himself up as an example of good dress and action for his lower level executives to pattern themselves after. Strongly agree. Agree. Don't know. Disagree. Strongly disagree. A general manager gets far more information on the operation of his station and activity within it than he can possibly ever digest and make use of. Strongly agree. Agree. Don't know. -——'Disagree. Strongly disagree. Now, here are some questions about your station's policy and operation. 1L5. When a person must be dismissed from your employ, by whom is it usually done? The general manager. By his immediate superior, the department head. By a personnel director. Other (Specify ) 59 A6. Have you asked anyone for his or her opinion on company matters in the past week? yes no A7. IF YES: h8. Is this person a member of your family, a neighbor, a relative, someone you work with or someone else? Family member. Neighbor. Relative. Someone you work with. Othere M9. All decisions that could involve the entire station by their consequences should be made by: You as general manager and no one else. The department head involved. An operational committee (department heads). Your superiors or parent company (if any). Rules exist to handle such matters. Othere 50. When you as general manager have in your possession data and information which should go to a subordinate (other than a department head) who is doing a job, by what means do you usually get that information to him? Memo." : Tell his department head, have him tell employee. . Personal contact by you. Telephone. ave your secretary tell him. Other (Specify 51. By what method do you prefer receiving information from your employees? Well planned, formal written reports. Informal, personal notes and reports. Verbal reports, planned, presented in meetings. Informal verbal reports. Other (Specify 52. What method do you use to call your secretary into your office? Buzzer. Voice, call her. Telephone or intercom. Other (Specify 53. 5h- 55. 56. S7. 60. 60 What is the nature of the content of the greater number of memos you issue? Orders to employees. Instructions. Information. Requests for information or action. Other (Specify ) What, generally, is the content of informal conversations you may have with your employees? Which is most common? ‘Work related matters. Personal information, i.e., health, families, etc. Public affairs, news, etc. Small talk, weather, temperature, etc. Other (Specify ) How many megos would you say you issue in a day? 0 - 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 - 20 More than 20 What would you say would be the average number of lines in a memo you issue? 1 — 3 . k - 6 7 - 10 ll - 15 More than 15 How frequently do you find yourself stopping and talking informally to members of your organization other than your department heads? Very frequently. Fairly frequently. Not very frequently. Not at all. Do you have an ”Open door” policy in your office? yes - no . IF YES: How would you describe this policy, i.e., anyone can see you at any time, only important matters must be brought to you, etc. When you and a department head talk about station affairs do you mainly listen to his ideas, or do you try to convince him of your ideas? Mainly listen to their ideas. Listen and try to convince equally. Mainly try to convince them. 61 FOLLOWING ARE QUESTIONS ABOUT YOU PERSONALLY, YOUR LIKES, HABITS, PREFERENCES AND PERSONAL BACKGROUND. 63. How many daily papers do you read? 0 1 2 More than 5 3 6h. Do you read any newspapers other than from your home city? yes no 65e IF YES: What are they? 66. How many news magazines (i.e., Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report, etc.) do you read each week? 2 More than 5 67. How about trade magazines? About how.many do you read each month in your own or related fields? (I.e., Broadcasting, TV Age, Ad Age, Anny, etc.) 0 1 3 68. About how many hours a day would you say ou spend listening to radio (outside working hours ? N More than 5 0 h ____l ____5 2 More than 5 3 69. About how many hours a day would you say you spend watching TV (outside’working hours)? l-‘O N More than 5 U) 70. In what age group do you fall? 20-29 hS-h9 30-39 SO-SM AO-hh 55-59 60+ 71. 72. 73- 7h- 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 62 How many gears experience have you had in radio/tv? 0. 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30 31 or more How many gears have you been a station manager? 0. 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30 31 or more How many gears have you been with this station? 0. 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30 31 or more How many stations have you been associated with in your career in broadcasting? 1 it 3 6 or more Do you own your own home? yes no Are you married? yes . no IF YES: How many children? 0 ' 3 l 2 More than A How many years of education have you had? 0 13-1% . 1-5 15-1 6-10 More than 16 11-12 Degrees held? BA or BS Masters Ph.D. Other (Specify 80. 81. 82. 83. 63 Do you have a political preference? Republican. Democrat. Othfire None. How many service organizations do you belong to (or social clubs?) 0 ‘____3 1 h 5 or more Ml How often do you and your wife go out socially each week? 0 1 w 2 More than 5 times What is the approximate salary you receive per year? $5,000 "‘ 9,999 10,000 ~1h,999 15,000 -19,999 "‘“2o,ooo -2u,999 _____25.000 -29.999 LL0,000 “Ll-9,999 50,000 or more # # # BIBLI OGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY American Management Association, Effective Communication on the Job:éA guide to Supervisors and Executives, New York: lgbBe Bales, R. F., et a1, "Channels of Communication in Small Groups," American Sociolggical Review, 1951. Blau, Peter M. and Scott, W. Richard, Formal Organizations, San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1962. Borgatta, E. F., "Analysis of Social Interaction and Sociometric Perception," Sociometrics, 195k, 17: 7-32. Brown, Leland, Communication of Facts and Ideas iniBusiness, Englewood Cliffs, N.Y.: Prentice Hall, 1961. 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W., "Personal Motivation and Self-conceptions Associated with Effectiveness and Ineffectiveness in Emergent Groups," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1959. 59:723-27. Redfield, Charles E., Communication in Management Theory and Practice, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1958. Stephan, F. F., ”The Relative Rate of Communication Between Members of Small Groups," American Sociological Review, , and Mishler, E. G., "The Distribution of Partic- ipation in Small Groups: An Exponential Approximation, American Sociological Review, 1952, 17: 598-608. I? Thayer, Lee 0., Administrative Communication, Homewood, Ill: Richard D: Irwin, Inc., 1961. . Communication and Communication Sygtems, Homewood, IlI.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1968. ‘IICHIGQN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES l I! 111 Ill llll "I ("III 11 1| III III llll "Will! 1111 1293101273849