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I .I I ..' .I III" "I I ' ' | TOWARDS AN INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION MODEL FOR PARKS AND RECREATION WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR AN INTERPRETIVE SIGN PROCESS INCLUDING AN ANALYSIS OF SIGN MATERIALS By Richard Alfred John Nuxoll A THESIS Submitted To Michigan State University. in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Park and Recreation Resources '” 1 ABSTRACT TOWARDS AN INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION MODEL FOR PARKS AND RECREATION WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR AN INTERPRETIVE SIGN PROCESS INCLUDING AN ANALYSIS OF SIGN MATERIALS By Richard Alfred John Nuxoll In the field of park management generally, the use of non-verbal communication can be a great asset. If utilized in a well thought-out manner this visual communi- cation process can aid in the functioning of the park. This is also true in the specific case of interpretation. Many disadvantages for the incorporation of other communi- cation devices such as interpreters, coupled with the ad- vantages of interpretive non-verbal media produce an un- matched opportunity to communicate to the park visitor. It must however, be approached at a s0phisticated level with the full knowledge that resources both financial and personnel will have to be expended. This thesis is directed toward three important factors. The first is to present the interpretive concept in an acknowledged but seldom stated light. This first i purpose will also propose and investigate a model that can 'be used to better understand interpretation and communi- cating the objectives of this concept. The second major concern is to present a framework for developing an efficient and effective interpretive non- verbal communication system. It has its base within the proposed model as mentioned above. This process, if ad- hered to, will provide the reader with parameters within which to establish such a system. Materials play a large role in this discussion of non-verbal interpretation and, therefore, comprises the third factor to be presented. In this section of the thesis both Canadian and American sources and examples are utilized to gain the added dimension of applicability by numerous agencies and individuals. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .. ........................... ...... ...... LISTOFDIAGRAMS 00...... ...... ....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... LIST OF FIGURES ............ ......... .......... ......... V111 Chapter I. II. INTRODUCTION .. ...... . ........................ Preamble ........... ... ...... ............... Purpose .............. ........ . ............. Need and Significance ....... .... ........... Limitations ........ ........ .... ...... ...... Definition of Terms ..... ........ .... ....... Interpretation Defined .......... ........... MODEL OF THE INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION PmCESS O. ...... 0.0.00.0000000000000000 ...... Communication Models ... .......... . ......... marketing MOdels O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Interpretive Communication Model ........... The Sender ................................. The Result .....HHH........................ The Message ................................ The Vehicle ................................ The Receiver ............................... Behavior ................................... Feedback 000......0.00.00...00.000.00.00...O iii Chapter Page III. UNDERSTANDING THE RECEIVER COMPONENT OF - THE INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION MODEL ....... 58 The Receiver ......................... 59 Stimulus ............... ...... .... ..... ..... 61 Perception ................................ 55 Market Segmentation ........................ 95 IV. A PLANNING PROGRAM FOR THE INTERPRETIVE SIGNAGE PROCESS ............................ 100 The Interpretive Signage Process ........... 100 Purpose of Interpretive Signage ............ 102 V. INTERPRETIVE MESSAGE CONTENT AND DESIGN ...... 117 Message Content ........... . ..... ............ 119 Design Factors .................. ....... . . 136 VI. INTERPRETIVE SIGNAGE PLANNING ...... .. ...... 157 Location of Signs . .......... ............... 159 Siting of the Sign ....... .................. 162 Evaluation ................................. 165 Performance .......... ..... ............... . 170 VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ..................... 173 Needed Research .................. ..... ... 174 VIII. INTERPRETIVE SIGN MATERIAL ANALYSIS .......... 179 Methodology ............. ..... ........ . 132 REFERENCES 213 APPENDIXIOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOO.0000 219 APPENDIX II 00.000000000000000.ooooooo 224 iv Table l. 2. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. LIST OF TABLES Definitions of Types of Interpretation ... ....... The Sender--Some Considerations for Interpretation 000.00.000.00...0.00.0.0... ..... Characteristics of Interpersonal and Mass Media Communication Channels .... ..... . ..... ... Techniques for Evaluation ....................... Characteristics of Traditional and Modern Norms ......OOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOO Characteristics of Social Classes .... ........... Learning Theory Generalizations and Implications for Interpretation ....... .. ...... Interpretive Signage Process ........... ......... Basic Kinds of Signs and Objectives ....... ...... Basic Kinds of Interpretive Signs and ObJeCtj-ves OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Sign Factors that Influence Visitor to Action Content Styles ..................... ..... ........ Examples of Symbols ............................. Communication and the Senses ..... ..... ...... .... Various Lettering Styles ........................ Visual Impressions of Color ..................... Exemple of Color Uses and Categorization . ..... . . . Color Combinations for Best Legibility .......... National Parks Signage Manual: Signage Evaluation O00.00.00.000...0.0.0.0...0000...... V Page 17 36 47 57 85 88 94 101 109 112 118 129 133 137 146 154 154 156 167 -Table A Page 20. Performance Criteria ............................. 180 21. List of Potential Sign Producing Processes and Material ..................... ...... ........ 199 22. cost or cast A1m1num000000000000 ...... 00.0.00... 201 vi LIST OF DIAGRAMS Diagram 1. A Model of Consumer Behavior ................. 2. Elements of the S-M-C-R-E Communication Model 3. Elements of the Receiver Component ......... 4. Theoretical Weighting of the Emotional and Informational Components of Attitudes .... 5. The Sub-components of the Receiver Element of The S-M-C-R-E Communication Model vii Page 29 60 81 90 LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1. Examples of 'Directional' and 'Identificational' Type Signs ............................. ...... .. 113 2. Example of an 'Informational' Type Sign .......... 114 3. Example of a 'Regulatory' Type Sign .......... .... 115 4. Example of an 'Interpretive' Type Sign ........... 115 5. Professional Jargon and Interpretive Signage ..... 123 6. Layout Styles for Signs . ....... ....... ..... ...... 143 7. Layout Examples .... ..... ...... ..... . ............. 149 8. Placement of Interpretive Signs ......... ......... 163 9. Example of a Situation with Too Many Signs Within the Same Visual Zone ............ ........ 164 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the writing of this report, numerous sources were utilized, ranging from personal experiences to related publications and materials. As such, the foundation or basis of this report is rooted in the minds, imagination, and expertise of numerous individuals concerned with the fields of interpretation, communication, marketing and the behavioral sciences. To these peOple thanks is extended. Of special note is my wife, Janette, whose constant encouragement, judgement and assistance were always un- failing as was her patience. I wish also to thank Professor Lewis Moncrief for his aid, constructive criticism and encouragement in the writing of this thesis. Professors Paul Risk and Michael Chubb also added constructive criticism. All opinions, analyses and statements in this report are the accepted responsibility of the author. ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Preamble Visual communication in parks is one of the most important means of information dissemination, identifica- tion, interpretation, direction and control of the visit- ors. Our eyes are continuously investigating, absorbing and seeking things out. Sight is our most important information gathering sense. 0f man's sensory receptors, the eye is the most powerful. It can make more discrimina- tions. It has the furthest range (i.e., we can see great distances, all the way to the stars). As such, it seems obvious that the park personnel have a potentially influencing Opportunity to affect the actions of the park visitor and therefore, increase their effective- ness. Also, it offers the opportunity to overcome a frustrating fact of life: we cannot be in more than one place at one time. Through this media, park personnel can be at many places at the same time. Most parks, be they public or private, utilize various kinds of visual communication. They are used for 1R. Harrison, An Introduction To Non-verbal Communi- cation (U.S.A.: PrentICe-Hall,‘Inc., Revised Draft, Spring, V-4 , O . 1 2 park entrances, directions to campgrounds, interpretive centers, swimming areas and the like; identification of interpretive features; to diSplay rules, regulations and guidelines to the visitor. Signs are used for identifying biological plant species, special historic areas and archeological interests. They can remind, encourage, in- form, identify, interpret, and direct. All this can be accomplished by use of the print media located in the prOper place and produced of the most beneficial material. As stated, visual communication devices are used, but is their fullest potential reached? This is the major issue of this report. As park personnel, the superintendent and his staff usually know the park very well and often this is a draw- .back. By not being a stranger in a strange place it is difficult to appreciate frustrations that may result if good instructions and explanations are not evident. The park visitor does not want to waste his time by looking all over for his camping site or a concession building or nature trail. They come to the park for an enjoyable, not frustrating experience. Likewise, the park personnel need not be slowed down by questions that can be answered before they are asked. The answering of many simple questions can be accommodated by use of visual communication releasing the park personnel for more beneficial work. Print media speeds up search time, minimizes errors for both park personnel and the user and decreases wasted time for both groups. 3 Signs are one such print media that can be used in a park and is presented in this thesis as the interpretive visual communication focus. Depending on the purpose of the sign and the priorities set by the park administrator, signs produced from wood to metallic photographic imprinting can be used. Priorities on material inevitably involve money and time considerations plus material availability, especially in the case of wood as the material is often the deciding factor. Money and time also play a primary role and must be weighed, in a long and short term framework, against the purpose to which the sign will be used. This usually involves factors such as harmony with the environ- ment, durability, clarity and so on. This balancing process is not always easy and for the most part it has been ig- nored in favor of using signs based on the past uses. It appears that a major reason why this balancing process has not been utilized is due to the obvious lack of information available that deals with the range of purposes of signs, their potential uses, their impact on the user, their availability, qualities and their cost. Pugpose It was the purpose of this thesis to analyze the concept of interpretation. The often implied but seldom stated purpose of this concept was investigated with the result of a specific emphasis in the definition and components of interpretation. This emphasis hopefully will permit the interpreter or those engaged in interpre- 4 tation to understand and thereby better focus on the goal or purpose of interpretation. Definitions per se are not explanatory to the degree required when one is attempting to operationalize the con— cept and evaluate its success. Models are often used in this way to simulate the actual world in a complete and more easily understood manner. For an emerging art such as interpretation this is important. Therefore, it was the second purpose of this study to present a model of the communicative aspect of interpretation. A modified com- municative model was utilized based on the primary purpose of interpretation as presented in the thesis. The third purpose of this study is to present a rational and systematic approach to the incorporation of interpretive signage in parks. This process is based upon 1the conclusions drawn from the first and second purposes and therefore focuses on (a) the goal of interpretation and (b) the interpretive communication model developed. The fourth purpose of the thesis is to provide the reader withan analytical source of the various types of sign material that can be used. This purpose will further facilitate theeprocess identified as an approach to in— terpretive signage in parks. Nged and Significance Recently, several public agencies have been in- terested in the use of a communication model for the under- 5 standing of the communicative aspects of interpretation.2 This thesis will be a positive step toward the use of such a model. Also it will present to the reader and student of interpretation a better understanding of the various components involved in the communication of interpreta- tion. To the knowledge of the author, no such model for interpretation has been investigated in any systematic, vigorous fashion; therefore, this model will provide the first attempt in this area. When any discussion concerning interpretive park signage is taking place, a sub-theme is usually the target of the discussion. Maintenance personnel refer to the technical capabilities of the signs in general; the in- terpretive staff usually discuss the content, design and location of signs; superintendents usually are more concerned with cost and timing. However, few times, if ever, is the interpretive signage in a park considered in total. This thesis presents a planning program that by utilizing a rational and systematic approach will bring these divergent thoughts and concerns together for an improved non-verbal communicative system in the park. 2Specifically interpretation sections within Provin- cial and National Parks Systems in Canada are investigating the potentials of such a model. This emphasis was presented at the 1975 Federal Provincial Parks Conference held in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories through a publication produced and named Task Force on Interpretation, 1975. 6 In the field of park signage, little comprehensive material is available. The information and data that there is available has been gathered and presented in a piece-meal fashion and most of it applies in general, non-specific terms to the various aspects of interpretation, communica- tion and signage. Nowhere to the knowledge of the author has such a compendium of information with in-depth examina- tion and accompanying suggestions been presented in one source. More likely, the scene of an interpreter wading through various publication is the norm. This study is directed to fill this vacuum. This vacuum has largely been the result of the apparently mundane standardized practices that are apparent in many park scenes. For the most part these practices have been allowed to continue to exist while studies on camping preferences, socio-economic and other sociologi- cal studies have been pursued. Rarely is it recognized that park signage is a challenge incorporating the many disciplines of sociology, communication, psychology, marketing, design and technical expertise such as material evaluation,method analysis and evaluation. Considering this great challenge and.knowing that millions of dollars are expended each year on the production of signs, based on little knowledge of the true sophistication involved, is startling. This report will attack this situation in an attempt to provide useful information, constructive analysis and positive accurate suggestions regarding the whole field 7 of park interpretive communication and signage. All too often visual communication is a hodgepodge of improvised signs, warnings, instructions and so on. In other cases signs are just not there. Signage offers a great opportunity to manage the park. Why has such an obvious method not been exploited? Often we can go to a park, miss a turn off, select the wrong trail because of confusion, go on a trail and get lost, eat poison fruit or touch poison ivy. Much of this has occurred frequently in a park. The use of Signage as a potential solution often does not rest well with many park persons because it appears too simple--it will never work. The normal course of actions tends to be directed to more complicated alterna- tives. For example, of a large portion of visitors are ending up at the beach when they wanted to visit an archaelogi— cal dig the solution will probably be one of redesign of the pedestrian or vehicular traffic pattern. The answer may be a relocation of a sign or more probably, the erection of a sign or cleaning of vegetation from an existing sign. The obvious often haunts our actions. Another reason for not using signs revolves around the issue of practicality. In too many parks no concerted effort has been made to make the signage effective. Also, the expertise to accomplish this has been missing. Effi- cient signage is not a half-day endeavor, it does take time and mental exercise, however, the return for the input is relatively large, especially when compared to other alterna- tives. Hopefully this study will be a contribution to the field of interpretation and park signage. It should aid administrative and planning methods by isolating the various components involved and prove of value to both public and private park endeavors. Limitations 1. Throughout the presentation and analysis of the interpretive communicative model frequent mention will be made to the fields of behavioral studies, marketing and communications. The latter two fields of marketing and communications are heavily reliant upon behavioral studies and in a similar manner interpretive communications find their base in behavioral work. However, little empirical .research has been conducted to verify the many implications that are drawn from behavioral studies, marketing and com- munications. Therefore this thesis is based on conceptual thoughts that typically have not been tested. 2. With specific reference to interpretive signage, the information presented in this study is based on previous written material, subjective experience and limited agency evaluation. Therefore, the cited works and reports dealing with the Specifics of materials, costs, capability and the like used in this thesis are presented as a general state with respect to the topics. The issue of reliability of the information presented should be kept in mind by the reader. 9 3. A third limitation deals Specifically with agencies and companies that were contacted and those that were not. Since the author was probably not aware of all potential companies, completeness of conclusion might be challenged. The companies that were contacted, in all likelihood, have available a full array of the materials and procedures that are used for signs and the prices given probably represent fair averages. As such, even though some may have been missed theothers not answered the queries of the author, the number of respondents, and corresponding information received, is adequate for analysis. 4. The fourth limitation concerns the element of time. This is the greatest disadvantage of the fourth sec— tion of this report and all reports of its type. New products, price changes, inflation, advances in technology, and the like, all contribute to the shortened life Span of this type of report. To offset this problem to a certain degree a broad comprehensive viewpoint of knowledge related to park signage is emphasized and all companies and agencies surveyed are listed. Therefore, to Update this report is relatively simple--only a matter of a few letters to the appropriate companies. 5. The last limitation concerns what can be termed "the state of the art." Although signage in parks is an old procedure, only recently has any attention been given this problem. As mentioned, past procedures were heavily reliant upon tradition: for example, what was done in the 10 past is done now. Due to this "old" approach, new analyti- cal procedures, criteria and the like have only been developed recently. Hopefully, this report will advance this state. However, since much of the information to be presented is new or relatively so, its effectiveness has not been measured. In fact, the entire area of monitoring of the effectiveness of signs has not been done on any firm or consistent basis. .Definition of Terms 1. Sign: A sign is a stimulus which, for some communicator, 'stands for' something else, it 'means' something above and beyond itself.3 2. Communication: Communication is the process by which messages are trans- ferred from a source to a receiver.4 3. Behavior: For the behavioral scientist, the behavior of living organisms may be understood as the outcome of (a) past learning in relation to similar situations, (b) current states of motivation With their influence upon both activity level and sensitivity to the environment, and (c) individual differences of a biological order.5 4. Sensation and Perception: Sensation is in effect a one-stage process, it is little (if at all) affected by learning; and the same stimulus must have the same sensory effects on each reception, apart 3R. Harrison, An Introduction To Non-verbal Com- munication (U.S.A.: Prentice-Hall Inc., Revised Draft, Spring, 1973), pp. 11-12. 4E. M. Rogers and F. F. Shoemaker, Communication of Innovations (New York: The Free Press, 1971), p. ll. 53. A. Maher, Principles of Psychopathology (U.S.A.: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1966), p. 32. 11 from fatigue. On the other hand, perception normally requires a sequence of stimulations, and even when recogni- tion occurs with a single glance it may depend on an internal sequence of mediating-process activities; it is very much influenced by learning, and its relation to stimulating events is highly variable.5 5. Visual Perception: Visual perception in general depends on complex eye movements, tactual perception on movements of some part of the body (a hand . . . is characteristically brought into play). In short, perception involves a sequence of events. 6. Motivation: . . . tendency of the whole animal to be active in a selective, organized way (selective, because not any kind of activity but a particular kind, at any one time, dominates).8 7. Personality: The total pattern of motivational and social characteristics that distinguish one subject from another; by some writers used to include distinguishing intellectual characteristics as well.9 8. Socialization: Through socialization society teaches the child what he needs to know to be integrated into the community, to develop his potentialities, and to find stable and meaningful satisfactions.10 9. Norm: A norm is, in the first place, a regularity of learned behavior. In stating a norm one must Specify the kind of be- havior, the kind of situation in which the behavior occurs and the kind of person who 6D. O. Hebb, A Textbook of Psychology (U.S.A.: w. B. Saunders Company, 1966), p. 257. 7 Ibid., p. 258. 81bid., p. 334. 91bid., p. 336. 10 L. Broom and P. Selznick, Sociology (U.S.A.: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc., 1968), p. 86. 12 behaves so. Because there are regularities in social behavior and because peOple can learn, we find that for each behavioral norm there is likely to be an expectancy norm. Very generally the expectancy is likely to be held by everyone familiar with the class of persons, class Of situations and class of behavior specified in stat- ing the behavioral norm. Expectancies and regularities of action usually go together and one term, social norm, has been used for both.11 10. Model: A model is a replica of the phenomena it is intended to designate-— that is, it specifies the elements and represents the nature of the relation- ships among these elements. As such, it provides a testable 'map' of reality, and its utility lies in the extent.to which the model makes possible a successful prediction of resulting behavior or out- comes. ll. Cognitive Dissonance: A state of cognitive dissonance is said to be a state of psychological discomfort or tension which motivates efforts to achieve consonance. Dissonance is the name for a disequili— brium and consonance the name for an equilibrium.13 12. Homeostatisis: . . . maintenance of a constant internal environment, chemically and physically.14 11R. Brown, Social Psychology (New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 49. ‘— 12J. F. Engel, D. T. Kollat, and R. D. Blackwell, Consumer Behavior (U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1968), p. 35. 'E— 13R. Brown, Social Psychology (New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 584. 14D. O. Hebb, A Textbook of Psychology (U.S.A.: W. B. Saunders Company, 1966), p. 331. 13 Interpretation Defined Before any discussion concerning interpretive sign- age can be attempted, clear, concise and understandable parameters are required. However, this is not easily accomplished, primarily due to the nature of interpreta- tion itself. Without a doubt, the most utilized and significant description of interpretation lies within the book by Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage. Tilden's famous six principles, although repeated in numerous other docu- ments are herein stated. (1) Interpretation is not the presenta— tion of information: It is revela- tion based on information. (2) Interpretation must relate what is' being displayed or described to some— thing within the personality or experience of the individual. (3) Interpretation must present the complete story and should relate to the whole person. (4) Interpretation for children should be specially prepared and not be a dilu- tion of the adult version. (5) Interpretation's primary purpose is provocation, not instruction. (6) Interpretation is an art, combining many arts. An art canrbe taught and successfully learned. ° Based on these six principles, Tilden's definition is, Interpretation is an education activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, first 15Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage (Chapel Hill: University of North—CarolinafPress, 1967), p. 9. 14 hand eXperience and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information.16 Upon analyzing this definition (based upon the content of his book) three factors are evident: (1) educational activity, (2) revelation of meanings and relationships, and (3) utilization of original objects, first hand ex- perience and illustrative media. Tilden's referral to education is not to be construed in the formalized sense of the term. Rather it refers to the process of living as educational inclusive of experience, personality, environ— mental factors (psychologically Speaking) and the like. In this way Tilden is attempting to relay to the reader that interpretation is part of living--an integral part directed toward man understanding the position he plays in .the great scheme of things. To arrive at a comprehensive definition of inter- pretation, however, is more than just a look at one person's definition or idea. Other concepts will now be discussed to illustrate how interpretation is viewed by various other individuals. Interpretation is a process or activity which strives for conception between man and his environment. That conceived being the enlightening knowledge of the environment and the part man plays in it. (Mahaffey) 17 16Ibid., p. 8. 17John Hanna, Interpretive Skills for the Environ- mental Communicators (Texas: Department of Recreation and Parks, 1972), p. l. 15 This definition obviously has its roots in Tilden's mind. As Tilden does, Mahaffey makes reference to an understand- ing that is the goal of the process--an understanding of how man relates to his environment. In addition, Mahaffey implies an in-depth relationship between man and his environment--more than just an understanding. Important words such as "conception" and "the part man plays in it" clearly indicate Mahaffey views man as part of the environ- ment and like any other component of the whole, man has his role to play. In this way Mahaffey intensifies and clari- fies the interpretive process by first assuming that man is a part of the whole and secondly, stating that it is the purpose of interpretation to help man understand this relationship and his relative position. Interpretation is the art of explaining the place of man in his environment, to increase visitor or public awareness of the importance of this relationship, and to awaken a desire to contribute to . environmental conservation.18 (D. Aldridge) Similar to Tilden and Mahaffey, Aldridge makes reference to a goal of interpretation being an explanation to the visitor of how man relates to his environment. He extends the previous two definitions by including a second goal--that being a contribution to environmental conservation. This steward of our environment concept is the most important 18Don Aldridge, Upgrading Park Interpretation and 99mmunication with the Public (Scotland: Education Country- side Commission for Scotland, 1972), p. 5. l6 and is seen by the author as the foundation to any defini- tion of interpretation. Aldridge also goes on to present what is included in the subject matter of interpretation under four typolo- gies, they are shown in Table 1. It appears however, that Aldridge's type, Conservation/Education is out-of-doors education as Opposed to interpretation. Out-of—doors educa— tion places a greater emphasis on teaching and therefore, is more dependent on the communication of factual informa— tion and learning. Interpretation, on the other hand, is primarily understanding not necessarily learning. There- fore, although Aldridge's definition dOes go beyond those suggested by Tilden and Mahaffey, it includes an area of discussion that is not part of what this report considers to be interpretation. Most interpreters agree on the general purpose of interpretation in a National Park--to stimulate the visitor's interest and promote his understanding and apprecia- tion of the park, thus making his visit more meaningful and enjoyable.19 (D. C. Thompson) Thompson's definition is limited in SCOpe to interpreta- tion in a park. This is largely due to the direction or readers of the article as presented. He is discussing interpretation in parks and not interpretation per se. 19D. C. Thompson, "Interpretation of the National Park System" in Interpretive Skills for Environmental Communicators, ed. by Joseph J. Shomon (New York: National Afidubon Society, 1968), p. 20. 17 TABLE 1 DEFINITIONS OF TYPES OF INTERPRETATION TYPE OF SITE WHAT? WHO, WHERE, WHEN? HOW? WHY? Historic Site The art of explan— ing the past in relation to envir- onmental and social conditions. to casual visitors in the field often with preparation and follow- up in a visitor center by bringing it to life dynamically, usually in thematic or story form to increase visitor aware— ness of the significance of the site visited and the desire to conserve it. Natural Site The art of explan- ing or revealing the character of an area through the inter-rela- tionships between rocks, soils, plants or animals and man to casual visitors in the field with prepara- tion and follow-up in a visitor center usually in thematic or story form as above. Environmental The art of explain— to the general public as a prelude to increase ing the relation- in the field or in in- to a site public aware- ship of man and door situations related visit or ness of the his environment to field experiences discussion importance of meeting this relation- ship and to awaken a desire to contribute to environmental conservation Conservation/ The art of teach— to students and course in depth by to increase Education ing or devising menbers with prepara- heuristic or understand- learning situa- tion and follow-up in discovery ing and as tions about the classroom, workshop or methods far as pos- environment, laboratory sible aware- through the ness of the disciplines of the problems of earth, life and environmental social sciences conservation and the arts Source: Don Aldridge, Upgrading Park Integpretation and Communication with the Public (Scotland: Education Countryside Commission for Scotland, 1972), Fig. 2, pp. 12-13. 18 What is important is Thompson's expansion on other definitions by the inclusion of goals he sees as being attained via interpretation; that being a more meaningful and enjoyable experience. By including these words and resultant ideas, Thompson is further adding to the concept of interpretation indicating that the individual should be rewarded by enjoying his experience. It is an added dimension that is imperative when discussing interpreta- tion. Outdoor interpretation can be defined as that branch of human communication which has to do with explaining things out-of—doors in meaningful terms to man--be it the world of nature, or certain aSpects of natural resources or man's history. The process is both an art and a technique. Closely involved are th8 processes of education and enlightenment.& (w. H. Carr) In his definition, Carr takes a comprehensive approach by providing direction as to what interpretation means while at the same time indicating that the process is one of communication and the end result or goal should be meaningful to the individual. As such, he touches on three of the four aspects of interpretation in definition terms; the process involved, what interpretation has as a goal and individual involvement in meaningful terms. He omits, however, the recreational connotations as suggested by Thompson. 20W. Carr, "Meaning and General Principles of Out- door Interpretation," in Manual of Outdoor Interpretation, ed. by Joseph J. Shomon (New York: National Audubon Society, 1968), p. 15. 19 In retrospect the sum of these definitions identify the following aspects of interpretation; 1. Interpretation addresses the importance of the relationship between man and the environment. 2. Interpretation should attempt to aid the individual understand the relationship between man and the environment. 3. Interpretation should contribute to environ- mental conservation. 4. Interpretation is a communicative process. 5. Interpretation should incorporate recreational or enjoyable experiences. It appears to this writer that interpretation is not a communicative process but rather a control type of _process. It has as its goal not to communicate per se but rather to convert the park users to environmental conserva- tion or stewards of the environment. Similar to education, interpretation has its goal predetermined--to create a public attitude that is receptive to the acceptance of an assumed worthwhile goal. The principal task of interpreta- tion is therefore to encourage the park users to align their attitudes and actions with the goals of the agency. The difference between a communication process and control process has been identified by Stidsen and Schutte in an article Marketing as a Communications System. A communication process differs from a control process in much the same manner as an open systems differs from a closed 20 one. In a control process the emphasis is on producing specific outcomes. Thus, if the optimum inventory level size is known, a control process may be estab- lished to attain and maintain that optimum level. In a communication process, how- ever, the emphasis is on the process rather than on outcomes. Thus, if it is not knOMlWhat is in the interests of consumers, a process must be developed by which these interests can be identi- fied. In a free enterprise system, there is no justification for arbitrarily decid- ing what is in a consumer's interest. Consequently, an operational marketing concept must be expressed in terms of the dimensions of a particular com- munication process, rather than specific outcomes to be produced, or particular- interests to be satisfied.21 This concept of control as the primary purpose of interpretation is one that is seldom acknowledged. How- ever, for purposes of establishing an interpretive com- munication model this point is critical. Returning back to the issue of this section, a definition of interpretation, the following is offered. lpterpretation is a contrOl process which explains natural and cultural subjects to people in a manner that is relevant to their lifestyle and is enjoyable with a view towards helping them understand the subject so they will Ibecome more sensitive and aware of the place in which we live, our relation to it and the need for stewardship_by all. ‘The communication_process is the major tool utilized in the 218. Stidsen and T. F. Schutte, "Marketing as a Com- munications System: The Marketing Concept Revisited." Journal of Marketing, No. 4, Oct. 1972, p. 23. 21 operationalization of the concept of interpretation. Hopefully this definition will further advance the state Of interpretation. It will be used as the basis of this Study and as can be observed, has its roots in the minds of many concerned with the field of interpretation. CHAPTER II A MODEL OF THE INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION PROCESS It is surprising that with the vast amount of related behavioral, marketing and communication information and models available that students of interpretation have not pursued this line of work. In addition, considering the complexity of the interpretive concept it is obvious that a model or formal structure is needed to provide a coherent explanation sorting out the various components involved and their interrelationships. A model is essentially an analogy that is used because it is easier and less costly to manipulate than the real system in the real world and/OrébeCRUSe it is impossible to manipulate or experiment with the total real world system. When develOping a model, a process and accompanying structure or flow is established which contain all the elements of the system. One major purpose there- fore is understanding, another is prediction. AS identified by Engel, Kollat and Blackwell, the major advantages of models are: 22 23 l. A frame of reference is provided for research through description of elements and relationships, gaps in information and potential areas for fruitful inquiry are identified with a clarity not other- wise possible. 2. Research findings can be integrated into a meaningful whole. When a model is available of the entire process of interpretation, it becomes feasible to utilize research findings from a variety of behavioral sciences with greater sophistication and precision. In other words, an understanding of underlying relationships provides a perspective for assessing the significance of new research data. 3. Models become useful in theory con- struction. Researchable hypotheses flow readily from a carefully designed model, and a basis is thus provided for extending knowledge. 4. Explanations are provided for performance of the system. A mere description of the motivational determinants of (the park user) is of little use; it is necessary, rather, to explain relation and thereby gain in ability to predict outcomes under varying sets of circumstances. This process is virtually impossible without a model of some type, no matter how crude.22 Practitioners of interpretation in the past have not been amenable to this model approach in spite of the many advantages. Models are often viewed as theoretical or non-pragmatic techniques that really do not help the in- terpreter understand his field or improve his work in the field. It should be recognized, however, that models are f _— 2“J. F. Engel, D. T. Kollat and R. D. Blackwell, ggnsumer Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. 35. .e 24 not intended to give fast "frontline" information. Rather, their purpose is to provide a conceptual framework for the philosophical and theoretical basis of interpretation from which implications for fieldwork become evident. In addition, models can help interpreters isolate areas of concern of which little is known. In this way future research to increase knowledge is identified and can be pursued. The importance Of models and theoretical con- ceptualizing is emphasized in a brief discussion by McCombs as it relates to communication work: To be fruitful this consolidated approach must be presented in theoretical terms. What has passed for mass communication theory has been, in reality, a loose collection of orientations toward data and a few empirical generalizations. While our knowledge has high empirical import, it has little of theoretical import to contribute to an explanation of mass communication and its role in political behavior. The few concepts that exist should be classified and linked with new insights. Descriptions cast in primitive terms abound about what there is, but gxplanations of why it is are missing.2 In an attempt to circumvent such an occurrence in the field of interpretation, the model methodology is being used. Another concept to be applied is systems theory. Systems are composed of the three components of inputs, a 23M. E. McCombs, "Mass Communication in Political Campaigns: Information, Gratification and Persuasion," in The Effects of the Mass Media: Readings in Mass Communica- tion and Society, ed. by C. Atkin (U.S.A.: Department of 'CBmmunication, Michigan State University, 1973), p. 25. 25 process or manipulative cycle and an output or result. The result is then fed back into the first two stages based Upon and determined through, an evaluation stage. Ellis and Ludwig define this concept as: . . . a device, procedure, or scheme which behaves according to some description, its function being to operate on information and/or energy and/or matter in a time reference to yield information and/or energy and/or matter.2 Combination of the two concepts of model and system gives rise to a systems model which purpose it is to provide a component by component structure that will represent the interpretive communication process. The systems model will be used in this thesis as a tool to aid in the conceptual analysis of the use of communications as applied to interpretation. Communications, it is felt, offers the student of interpretation a potential source for better understanding of his complex field. In addition to communication work, investigations in the field of marketing are also seen as important to this thesis. As such, both disciplines are investigated with respect to model construction. Communication Models To date, there are four widely known basic communica- tion models that have been proposed. They will be briefly 24D. 0. Ellis and F. J. Ludwig, Systems Philosophy: An Introduction (U.S.A.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 3. 26 presented to indicate past and current thinking in this area.25 The first major model postulated was the hypodermic needle modellduch conceptualized mass media as having a direct, immediate and strong effect on the public at large. It had as its basis, the stimulus-response principle developed in the field of psychology. It did not recognize any intervening or mediating variables; all that existed was the media that had the ability to control the masses in any fashion desired. As with most overly simplistic models and theories it soon gave way to more SOphisticated thoughts. Today the hypodermic needle model is used mainly for historical perspectives. The two-step flow model was "discovered" more than it was "conceptualized." In the classic study of the 1940 presidential election, Lazarfield et a1 were expecting to discover more about the hypodermic needle model when their empirical findings suggested that almost no voting choices were directly influenced by the mass media. They discovered that ideas flowed from radio to print to opinion leaders to the general populace. Therefore, the two-step flow model was hypothesized; the first step was from sources to opinion leaders and the second step was from Opinion leaders to their followers. This model, therefore put the peeple 25For a more detailed explanation see Rogers and Shoemaker, pp. 203-209. 27 back into the picture but many researchers felt it did not tell them enough. The one-step flow model was a revision of the hypo- dermic needle model with three important improvements: (a) the media was not considered all-powerful; (b) sel- ective exposure, perception and retention affect message impact, and; (c) various members of the audience view the communication message differently. This was an important step forward but critical factors such as opinion leaders and the like were not incorporated. The most recent and perhaps most widely accepted model is the multi-step model which does not set down a particular number of steps nor their sequence. Some receivers obtain the message directly from the source while others are several times removed. It is probably the most accepted model because of its inherent flexibility allowing the researcher or user to account for the various aspects of different communications. Marketing_Models In addition to these four basic models the field of marketing has developed several models which were also important in the final determination of a model for the interpretive communication process. The models considered were the Howard Model, the Nicosia Model and a model dev- eloped by J. F. Engel, D. T. Kollat and R. D. Blackwell. This latter model will be referred to as the Consumer Behavior Model. 28 The Howard Model is based primarily upon learning theory and problem-solving behavior.26 In this model, behavior begins with a drive represented as a goal which then makes the individual attentive to some triggering cue that will satisfy the drive. The one activates a choice preference which is mediated by high or low predispositions to buy. If the predisposition is low the individual searches out other information til a selection is made. The results of the decision are then stored and become important for future decisions. This model appears to be the first true SOphisticated and interdisciplinary approach but suffered the same major problem as the two-step flow model of communication-~it just did not go far enough in explaining the processes involved. The Nicosia Model includes more detail than the Howard Model but still leaves much to be discussed.27 This model proposes four fields that interact through the receiver's or consumers's lens in his decision process. These four fields are: (l) firm's attributes and the consumer's attributes; (2) the search and evaluation of products and information; (3) the act of purchase, and (4) storage. 26J. A. Howard, Marketing Management Analysis and Planning (U.S.A.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1963), chapters 3-4. 27F. M. Nicosia, ggnsumer Decision Processes: Marketing and Advertising ImplicationSEZU.S.A.: Prentice- Eall, Inc., 1966, Chapters 6L7. 29 The Consumer Behavior28 model attempts to go beyond the two previously mentioned models especially with respect to detail of explanation. It borrows heavily from the behavioral studies in both theory and empirical evidence. The model is presented on the diagram 1. It is presented here because the model and the multi-step flow model are used as the primary basis for the construction of the interpretive communication model. Interpretive Communication Model In the interpretive communication model presented herein, the structure of the basic communication model is utilized; that is, the source (sender)~-message—-channel (vehicle)--receiver--effects--feedback process. It is presented in diagram 2. In understanding this model it is advantageous to understand the components in the following order of priority: 1, 5, 4, 2, 3. This priority listing indicates that the sender must first understand the role he plays in the process and secondly, clearly determine the result he hOpes to attain. The result, or at least the anticipated result, is the objective that the sender has identified as being important to communicate. After these components are identified and implications determined the next step is to 28J. F. Engel, D. T. Kollat and R. D. Blackwell, Consumer Behavior (U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), pp. 40-517 ' DIAGRAM 1 A MODEL or CONSUMER BEHAVIOR A l PERSONALITY STORED IN- w ‘ CHARACTERISIICS PORMATION and Traits, Motives PAS! EXPERIENCE PHYSICAL socm r I VALUES AND seusonv ATTITUDES ntcsrroas Vino-03117 h—-- cmm I \ comm. mm PERCEPTION > (Memory and Thinking) + Attention,Distortion \rcfifin'fi'ofi‘ Y: i L mocess _, r--- - -. — - - I RESPONSE SETS I PROBLEM - "F" " ascocmnou +_-_- --.. .. -..Y ' . l ® 0 MALI | Paar? I rtfidafirw '- - 4 ' consequences ' mama suncu *________ L--. ..- forAUERNATIVES ' f I I r---"'1 l macaw I mm 1 I L——> ' mama , . I BEHAVIOR r I... ..- J I‘ ' Ar . summon of ________ I ALTERNAIIVES _: I 6 ¢ IL»- I I ‘ moms: I mocesses ‘ —'——‘———- —1 I fix—s I I [ omcomcs l.— ________ _I‘ roswuncrus: FURTHER EVALUATION BEHAVIOR > V Source: J. E. Engel, D. T. Kollat and R. D. Blackwell Consumer Behavior (U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1968), p. 50. 3O understand the receiver or target of the message. This involves several sub—components to be detailed later. The last two steps utilize the information gathered and applies it to the vehicle or communication channel to be used and finally the construction of the message itself. The remainder of the discussion in this chapter will address the four components of the sender, the result, the message and the channel and their implications for in— terpretive communication. The receiver component, due to its complexity, will be the topic of the next chapter. It will only be briefly mentioned in this chapter to complete ('5 the model components as seen in diagram 4. The Sender In acting as a communicator it is obvious that one must know something about the message or subject and also something of the market the message is directed toward. Less obvious, though, is consideration of the characteristics of the institution or agency that is the author of the message. In a business framework this is often referred to as the "corporate image." Before a message can be designed and develOped to reach the receiver, the sender therefore, must first determine this image. For the purposes of this thesis, the focus of this section will be formal organizations. The nain feature of any formal organization is that they are deliberately created to achieve pre-determined 31 .om .a .Aaema .wmmna mega one ".<.m.ov mnofipw>oasm Ho aofluaoficsesoo .uoxdboonm .m .m can whomom .2 .m . 3 a3 gamma $ Wu 1 a Hoccaao t omamwoz co>fiooom ammo: ZOHBwcem doamaeaan Hmaoom dowumeouem sugamdomuom mandamus dowunoopom o>HuooHem 336.3 m Alli! ahead”; szzomZUo MM>HNUMM any we mHZMZMAN m ZdMQ0H Ammo: ZOHB~momm mmfi m0 mazmzomzoclmbm Nah m 2wonfi omnoaflnno ..o.HV oEnm .xnnm on» n“ onnOu oomnomOE o>HuouQ tuopnfi mo onOammnomHo omnnnoono oHnn Iaan>n Oman maonnnno Honoononnopna HH .HHH one HH nopanno nH oopnofionfi on ooaufipnooa anoumsnoon nnonw omnanoonm .ooupaafionm no own mawsam omnunonom. 94 .pnopnoo o>fiuoennonna n“ ossm .oonowuonxo Annofiposo unnoooan n ecu «HnEHao oonmaooo Haos om: nofiannOmnw pno Inauuon one Han mnfiofi>oun Op nOuufioon nH .Aunon .Haoao .ouonu .ooo .nonOu ..o.Hv and lemons“ ow omnmoofi one news ponnouna Op uo>aooou on» mnfiBOHan «O wooded on» p59 uaonnnno nfiooe owns na oanfiomonsa he owns .nofipnuonnnopna HO o>HpoonnO one name unopoaonoo on neapnoannssoo o>Huonnaouna canaoonw one no cc>aeocnno one seneemen .nowpnaflpano ceseneea one tonoooona ownnnoonm .ooa uponnn ounwnnonnnn you ownnan< .pnosuHEEOO ops upfiafionm Op wooden snoop anoum om: .eone noenOunH onopxm .ouoonno oonp tween spas ooonoH Inonxo HnnOHpOEo pnnmnoan oofi>oum .maooos annflnsoxo ooaaoum .unmnnu on O» moon» uneea one sneeccen .moonuapun mufiooa no ouwnuon Op uoouo an Hence>neea ca an amendenen on has mnfinunoa anmooomunm .u .nofipnNHnnmuo oHnneo now moofi>oun onofipnnuao pnn>oaou n“ oonpwupn no wnfiwapoonm .o .oounonnuo nnonm nods znOEHnn n“ n0w>nnon Ow unos auHEEOO one HO wnauoou no“ mooaaonn nofivonnounfi nnouu .m .oonpappn one HO npmnoupo on» Op mnfioaooon .nHHaHpnoaeneee mmeneneee ocean Igooa mao>fiponooan mnfixnfinu one nOwunauOHnfi unanwnmoo .v .oonoamou ooOAOHnH nos one new: moonpnnonoam HO wnflxnfia one nonounp onn unos Ioouomnaou one ownonoou mo has Inmapnoo nmnonnp moonuaupn no unawnoupo onoouOmnHou oafiaaoom .m .nOaunpwEa nmnounu oufiOpuo noon n30 own Own“ nOa>nnon HooOE n oovnuOnnoonw noanoo use undononoou .oaapnooou 4 .N unmade on nno one oonunoa one .ooEOOpnO nonuo on .ooonvfivvq .H on0aunowansm oanfionaum 1", ||||| nonpeuwaenon zonenennnnnezn non moneeOHnnnH nz< moneeunnnnmzno unease oznzn Feedback 3 -> STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE II III IV VI VII VIII IX 102 organizing for the incorporation of a meaningful and effective sign system. This report will also follow this path in present- ing critical information related to interpretive signage. Throughout the report references will be made back to this table to enable the reader to follow the process in an organized manner. Pugpose of Interpretive Signage The purpose of interpretive signage is to communi- cate to the visitor certain subject matters that are deemed appropriate for a park. Use of signs, however, requires a firm understanding of the advantages and dis- advantages of this communication channel. At the outset it must be emphasized that interpretive signage is only a part of interpretation. It does have its role to play, however, and to maximize its effect we must first under— stand the limitations and strong features that are involved. Without a doubt, the major limitation of interpre- tive signage is the lack of personal involvement. Communica- tion is one-way and all questions that arise (hopefully there are many) must wait until the visitor is able to locate an interpreter or other source to answer his question. The inter-action and flexibility that are evident in personal service makes it an excellent method to accomplish interpreta- tion. Personal services have, with good reason, been considered the ideal interpretive 103 method when they can be used. All other interpretation may be considered supple- mentary to direct personal communication. It has the unparalleled advantage of being alive and capable Of being tailored to the needs of individuals or groups. It can take advantage of unexpected and unusual opportunities (i.e., the teachable moment). Most visitors enjoy and are therefore receptive to personal services. The personal- ity of the interpreter can enhance the appeal Of the message and the effectiveness of com- munication and can enable deeper penetration of subject matter.10 It is the problem of ". . . when they can be used," that limits personal service. The costs of hiring, train- ing and maintaining good interpreters, especially on a year-round basis, is usually not feasible. The return on the dollar Often does not warrant the full-scale use Of interpreters. In addition, good trained interpreters are in short supply. As such, techniques like interpretive signage are used. As is implicitly evident, the costs involved and the wide use they can be adapted to are two important positive advantages of interpretive signage. Another drawback Of interpretive signage is that presented on their own, they may not be able to present effectively a complete logical story. This limitation is likely to occur unless the visitor is extremely interested and capable of following the story line. Most visitors 107D. C. Thompson, "Interpretive Planning in the National Parks Service," in Interpretive Skills for En- vironmental Communicators, campiled by J. W. Hanna (Texas: Départment of Recreation and Parks, 1972), p. 38. 104 however, are either not that interested,-or are incapable Of following a story line. In addition, many visitors are not readers, they are listeners and as such, usually pass by signs Of any kind with only a brief look. The design, plan, content, and presentation Of the sign, however, can overcome many of these problems. Other problems related to the use Of interpretive signage can also be overcome to a certain degree by the four above mentioned techniques. These techniques areto be discussed later at which time other problems facing interpretive signage will be mentioned. There are numerous positive aspects with respect to the use Of interpretive signage in parks, two of which have already been mentioned-~cost and wide applicability. Seven other advantages are; viewing period, self—interpreta- tion, souvenir value, presentation flexibility, number of individuals served, maintenance ease and receiver versus sender. Viewing Period This refers to the length of time one wishes to Spend at a particular sign. For example, an interpretive sign may include an aerial photograph Of the park with labels correSponding to various features in the park. One visitor may be exceedingly interested in it and later will follow up by going to a particular feature. Another person, however, may have come to the park to see and enjoy one particular feature, to him a glance is sufficient. In the first case the visitor is using the sign as an inter- 105 pretive feature, and will stay longer if not forced to move on before he is ready, whereas in the second case, the individual is using the sign more on an interpretive in- formation source and is not forced to stay longer than he wishes. If a guided tour were to start here and the in- terpreter were to mention the map and dwell on it for a few minutes, neither visitor would be satisfied. In addition, an interpreter is forced by a limited number Of working hours to schedule activities such as walks or trail hikes. Due to these constraints the visitor either shows up at 10:00 a.m. or 2:00 p.m. or he misses the conducted hike. Interpretive signage along a trail is not limited in this way and is always there when the visitor wishes to use it. Self-Interpretation.108 Many people enjoy going to a particular feature in a park and explaining it to their group or family. This is especially true of parents who often enjoy explaining things to their children. In such situations, although an interpreter may be able to explain the phenomena better and is more knowledgeable, the parent—child relationship is usually lost. Interpretive signage permits this situation and actually encourages it by posing questions or stimulat- ing minds. 108For examples from Communication Theory see Klopper, ed. by Atkin. p. 9- 106 Souvenir Value Interpretive signage can be of souvenir value. A sign located with an aestheticbackground, detailing some phenomena is good material for photographs. For example, an interpretive sign located near the edge of a geomorpho- logically significant bluff, overlooking a lake can provide a good scene that not only depicts the scenery Of the park but also the natural feature. The sign, if designed properly can greatly add to such a photOgraph and the memories it brings at later time periods. Presentation Flexibility.109 In interpretive signage your imagination is usually a major limitation on the use and attractivity of the inter- pretive sign. Pictures, maps, and diagrams all can be incorporated in an interpretive sign. A picture Of a forested area before it was burned explaining the principle Of natural succession can lead a visitor from the way it was, to the way it is, to the way it will be. Interpretive signs are often more realistic than an interpreter describ- ing the way it was and the way it will be. Number Of People Served The number of visitors an interpretive sign can 109For examples from Communication Theory see Harrison, pp. iv-9 and pp. x-4-16. 107 reach in one day can be large. This is largely due to the fact that the sign is always there, whenever the visitor wants to make use of it. Maintenance Ease With the new materials for signage and the accompany- ing decrease in maintenance and with the improvement in maintenance techniques, the overall maintenance ease of signs has increased. Interpretive signs can now last up to twenty years with a minimum of maintenance. With this time frame costs are also reduced. Receiver versus Sender In a communication link (sender-receiver) it is usually easier to speak for the sender than it is to hear for the receiver. Messages can be easily lost due to a number of factors such as poor vocal projection and out Of clear hearing range. Also, once stated, the message is gone. In addition, people Often do not understand what is meant and repetition may be required. Illustrations, pic- tures and the like, easily clarify what is meant.110 For a person on a well designed interpretive trail the above problems are either eliminated or cut down via the use of signs. 110As related to Communication Theory, Harrison states, "While the words seem ambiguous at first, the non— verbal context reduces uncertainty about what might he :meant." Harrison, pp. i—9. Also see Star and Hughes, ed. by Atkin, p. 6. 108 In addition, signage can augment interpretive trail walks. The interpreter can mention the plant and the sign will be there for all to read. Questions such as, "How do you spell that?" or "What did you say?" will be fewer. Kinds Of Sigpg In the decision on what the interpretive sign will say, the knowledge of the various kinds of signs for use needs to be examined. There are numerous signs in any park designed for a specific purpose. These can and have been categorized. Parks Canada suggests five kinds Of signs as seen in Table 9. The objective of the interpretive sign as stated in this table is of first concern to this report because of its limited scope (see section on Definition Of Interpretation). However, this is not the only concern. Interpretation relies on the other four kinds Of signs and should be con- sidered in this light. Information is the basis of interpretation, without it there is nothing to be interpreted. As such, a sign directed primarily to information dissemination is still part of the interpretive signage in total. In like manner, the other three kinds of signs, identificational, direction- al and regulatory are also part of interpretive signage. To illustrate this an example will be given. A visitor arrives at Park Camp-in-the-Rain and wants to see and discover the major geomorphological features of the Park. 109 pudenda Hanna m>ouo mafia opens Hansen: a poumnopafi oe o>auonnnouau mammm on» comm p.con whom: 02» Houusoo oe showcasmom .mumaumowa oooanoam snow adamuoflpcouu on» oumuosossoo wounposow o» ”opam ofiuoawH: oHauwsm moans mo onoosom Shoes“ 09 HmcofipwEHOHaH ouao oocwuusm swam mpfiHHoam a mmfipcoofi o9 acupdouwwuaoon oufinumoum audm can: msfipnowosa an pooufio oe Intuit: :oHpooufio aou< caaoan opanpmoum wsfiuaofiocfi up pooufio os moswpwfio moafla N xudm Haflonw>oum msfiudanca an pounds 09 Hacowpoouun mam2~eomwmo aznm gmsamo de mZOHm mo 22mm 0Hm¢m m m4m¢9 110 The park has a Visitor Center which orients the visitor to the park and its offerings. As the visitor passes the gate he notices a sign stating Visitors Center ------ >- accompanied by a picture of the facility. This is a direc- tional sign. As he parks his car he notices three buildings, one is labelled the Visitor Center Entrance. This is the identification sign. Within the center he is told via a display incorporating signs, that the park is located adjacent to a marvelous lake and has, within its boundaries, unique and world-significant parabolic dunes. These are informational signs. After completing his tour through the center he is directed to an exit that leads to the dunes area. As he walks along the trail he is told not to pick the flowers nor to step on the lichen that seem to thrive under the sandy conditions. This is a regulatory sign. Then he comes to the highlight of the trail--a very large sand dune hill that lays before him the whole dune system. The large hill has part of its side hollowed out. A large sign at this point explains to the visitor how the-dunes formed and why it is moving. It also incorporates graphics. It ends by stating that this is a phenomenon known as a blowout and in this case it has been the result of improper recreational use destroying the vegetation which had anchored and stabilized the dune system. This is a true interpretive sign. All the signs mentioned, however, are part of the total interpretive feature and as such, they must be 111 included in any report on interpretive signage. They are part of the Master Plan for Interpretive Signage at Camp-in-the-Rain Park. To make effective the true inter— pretive signs, the whole plan inclusive of identification directional, informal and regulatory signs must be in- cluded. They are all required to permit the functioning of the interpretive programme/facilities and interpretive signage. With this in mind Table 10 is suggested as the basic kinds of interpretive signs and objective. As can be seen, the objectives are a modified ver- sion of the Parks Canada Table which emphasizes the point raised at the start of this report, that being, interpretive signage is the main issue of this report yet much of what is discussed can be easily related to all kinds of park signs. In this way this report can be used by those interested in the general area of park signage or one particular type. It was written with this aspect as a design feature. 112 has an uo>oaumoo mason was owonp new ensue: an couaouo mum omen» moscflasoou o>apoaquopsfi dH> nouwmfi> on» on ma nozm mezzo ofiflonanaa moasueou consumesa no afieadxo oe o>avmuauopau dynamo ado» spas mconoaa oawmanm on» manpaao anon: on» Homecoo no suds oe mHOudnsmom moasa ouapmom\>uwawown o>fiuounuousw as ofiHonauam mo aowpafiuommn ozone cofipwEuomaw omuonmao oe HanauaEMOHoH nopaoo noufiww> casuaou\zpwafiocm Hanna mosum moaanpcm unannoucnuo mmwucoca OB ao«uaowm«uaoou mouse afiaonanam can: mswpsofiona an Hookah OB taunt: noncoo acuwma> oOavoouao msfipaowccw an pooufio 09 was: H noucou nOHHma> ooaaumfio msfiadoficca an poouwo ca HdooHaoonun mam2~somhmo aznx m>HBUmme Qz¢ mzuHm m>HBmmmmmBzH m0 szHM UHm HaaoauaoauapaoeH Husoavoouqa .mauam was» :HanofiuaoanapumeH: and =Haaoaaoonan= «0 mmaaauxm H a.mDGHh 114 . — .lv‘ .f .... v .n . .14. ....y...?n......,..~.. .... ,6 . I .o I . . o .u u . 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I .32. ..Ioloc Ito-20 .3122..." .a its-Co‘IiII-‘oloozC III-‘- in! ziigog ...-II 6".- .octoco .305 :01; 1 icing-£3.53; nggiiif’!‘ Ill!!! Static-lit; .Iaioililgplsl ills-ill... iilii‘£.{ izgiil 8..- 23...! ...-o. .38 co... 33¢ ucawon—Xw . . ZO.h(>w.—u - ...}! I.9!I « . quota—.552. gnaw—3.8:... image—tun W592.» :. 29. «caucan_.1:u«>oj_d E» a £52389; o .2. so .2? a o maocaoounésmoaxobo newest....comugofif_ v. . 9.- . . .t.. O \D . ¢‘.-' " .0. .t A‘. I: down-5.0 Boo. «out»... a >> no notc> conned 3.533 Eamon—wane 6385a . .. . n?“ a . . . . . Q o . . L .v.‘ a . . ~‘l .2539. 2:3 05 £5. ll.l|b 1‘ .smfim mama :m>fipoadnop=H: an no oHQdem ¢ mmeHm CHAPTER V INTERPRETIVE MESSAGE CONTENT AND DESIGN Communication of a message to the visitor is the essence of interpretive signage. Table 8 showed how the various factors involved in interpretive signage operated to produce the kind of interpretive signage system that will be effective. Chapter IV dealt specifically with the aspects of communication and purpose and kinds of signage available for use. This chapter will continue with the process as identified in Table 8 to deal with the two signage factors of message content and design. Table 11 indicates how these two factors can be subdivided and their obvious impact on the visitor. The purpose, as seen, of these two signage factors is then to encourage the visitor to action, dependent upon the poten- tial objectives that may be envisioned by the park staff. The objectives themselves are what the park staff deem as important, based on the particular park. For example, the destruction of significant parabolic dunes may be the feature to be interpreted and the objective may be to make the visitor more aware and sensitive to the feature and how man can control its destiny. Or, the objective might be to show how man relates to the dunes in terms of exploit- er and preserver. Or, the objective may be to encourage 117 118 .umpuas poonnsm m.oEEdumoum o>wuohg thounfi one saw3 pompous“ can manage lawman o» novflmfl> onus soapcoaaseeoo madam pampcoo sawsog on» owansooco oh omaosoo .mpwndao «season soap wafisdoz owsmmo: Iwaooaqad commenced unammusooso .oouwmoo spams 0:» o» damsosonm one pso season On nouwmw> on» “wagon oe .mdfinwcoflpaaon numbed Hanson: use Hausuaso no mmoaoumsm m.oco omaouo:« oh waauwmwww .onspdom anomaq swam an» op.sam>apamamm muam swam Howamu> changes“ 08 mampm swam swawon m>~aomwmo zouaos mOEHwH> mmoeo MUZWDAhZH B munacoo :pcoopco>om a mo mccowmoflnnoo on» Ca mo>oe poafiww> map .ofiuazaouafldm Ho canoe musaaoo zucmoaco>om on» Eouh .mmao oHaOpmHn canons» .mqmooo paw mpoocfipcoo mmouom .moauos so: on» was cHo on» npon can“ nowwuso 1x0 as ma Snows: owadznouafimm one .oofiuo: mananoam see so» m¢ .aopsox pz< .aumoq .copmfiq .nozoe .oaoHaxm .mhmn oqapm .anoumw: no use uneasnu3p one ofifimcmo a canons» xflap .ooqmum mo mafiasoom on» son“ moHHa ooo.n .oeom Scam wmafia ooo.® case macs pawsn was oaamznopzfidm .mcousm one wcoad owamzuounfiam endow 0p nnuofinopcfi man one“ mama named a woman moflsw:0amnae can whoonofiq «0 been one woman m>fipmucou omonp umofiea pom .mom one o» boa page muo>fiu macaw pafisn no moafiaummoo swsou so coappom hone .doanoe< nunoz Mo oaaoa to: map maofiaxo op maopm mqflnoam mafia gamma maaoaoasm .mnsucoo :pcmmpeo>mw one zucoopxfim zflaao map :H .uao>OUMHo can Moment mo .aflnmunan «o .mmonamoH«3 no Abandonm a no hpfinzseoo moo:0an a was muonsm on» wqosa ofiudzuopafidm own wanes coupons mouse can» onoz Hacomuomaa announce o>apdoo>oum ofieaomam Amneaama snowmv o>apdauuz o>upnauomon NAQE¢XM NAME mmawfim BZHBZOO NH mqm<8 130 .Aosma .nopcflum m.:oo=0 ”ounouoev bassooum .mvoa Immoa mocks: one mdos< oflamz opqwam .woousowom Hauspez Ho muumaaas candpco .mefiuoohm Beams Ham 0» doggone maqoasoo moocouwmoa cw moMSuwnoasou uswfiz .mooaaq Imufim no maaopcea .moaocmo mafiaoxowaw mums munmfia maco on» mafia swam: map pmcwaww omamom mucfioafisn :H .UHoo was mmocxumo was umpcfia .mfinmopan Ho mafia a was mfiamzuounfimm pd mafia qw>m a.mudon mmoauaa: .HHwEm on anus .ooom ao>oa can hon» gowns .wwan page oopaasoomm one Mooumo>wa cmoaousm ho Hopcoa aw woo»m maoasm one m4m2¢xm Auosqapaoov NH mqmea .wHumH .nmw.msma ..uoo .v amnezz .mmwpmxuaz Ho Haas:0h a“ :ucfimwuhm>v< an hoesm: .m .0 new Haapcuowm .Q mom mazpm muonoess mo cofiuddam>o ouoaaeoo a mom ”mousom oauaadun maouoasm HAVE 131 view._ Different interpretive signs lend themselves to different degrees of symbolism. Directional, identificational and regulatory, inter- pretive signs are more compatible with symbolism due to their standardized nature. Signs of this kind should not be complicated but rather simple--the message they are com- municating to the visitor is uncomplicated. In this situa- tion symbols can be used to aid the visitor in under- standing and finding out facts that should be relayed in a fast,simple and brief fashion. Symbols aid in the accomplish- of these aspects. They should however, not be used on their own due to the fact that they must be learned. The use of symbolism has a major drawback in that it has to be learned by the visitor. A directional inter— pretive sign to a trail using only an arrow and a symbol of the trail may be confusing. Therefore, the initial use of symbols on their own should be practiced with care-- it requires a few exposures to the same symbol before its message is firmly imbedded in the mind of the visitor. Granted, after thelearning process is completed, symbolism can be effectively used in the three interpretive signs mentioned above. Informational and pure interpretive signs do not lend themselves as easily to the incorporation of symbols. The reason for this is the conflicting goals of the two. Symbols are used primarily in situations where the subject matter can be reduced to a standardization, within the park 132 and between parks. Facilities such as washrooms, camping areas, directions to a trail, swimming areas and so on are examples. Informational and pure interpretive signs are usually directed toward explanation and discussion of a feature or phenomenon. As such, simplicity of meaning is not the purpose but rather explanation: not standardiza— tion but rather uniqueness: not commonality but rather importance. Symbols therefore, can be of use in the area of interpretive signage but care is necessitated. The kind of interpretive sign and purpose of that Sign must be first isolated before the use of symbols can be incorporated. Table 13 illustrates some of the possible kinds of symbolism that are available. Often companies dealing in this field, will create designs or symbols that are apprOpriate for a park. They usually have specialists in this field on staff. In a generalized format, the National ParL Service, 14 has developed some basic guide- in the publication §lfi£§'1 lines and principles concerning the area of message content. They have made a division between (a) basic principles of the writing of the message content and (b) guidelines to composing messages. As adapted and modified by this report the accepted principles and guidelines are as follows: 114United States National Park Service, Signs (United States: National Park Service, ), p. 133 TABLE 13 EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLS Campers Marina, Boating Skiing Source: Spectralite 70 Limited, Pictographs: of Paul Arthur and Associates Incorporated). Picnic Midway ’ Area Life Snowmobiling Preserver C) o O b Soccer Ice Skating [flu w -v—v Trailer Train Camping Football (Trademarks 134 Principles of Writing the Message Content (1) Careful thought should be given to the place that each interpretive signage message will occupy in presenting a part of the total interpretive message to be conmunicated in the park--it may often supply the first and only understanding of the park that the visitor may receive. (2) Before the message content is constructed, the writer must have a thorough knowledge of the park and all its features. Only in this way can a writer decide on the importance of what is to be communicated to the visitor. (3) Message content requires two basic states: thinking and composition-~with about eighty percent of the effort devoted to thinking and subject and twenty percent involved in presenting it through composition. (4) In thinking through the subject of the message attempt to place yourself in the role of the visitor--what is it that you would like to know about the key meaning of the subject matter?—-what is needed?--what is interesting? (5) Since personal interpretation is not feasible under all conditions, the interpreter, therefore, cannot be on hand at every site or every trail and the like. As such the interpretive sign message should attempt to provide the visitor with the various communication styles. As mentioned however, be careful. 135 (6) The rule of thumb in the length of the message is to consider first and foremost the clarity of the message--do not employ brevity in all situations. The message should be adequate, the explanations complete and tricks to achieve brevity should be avoided. (7) Express one or two thoughts per message and interpretive sign--certainly too many is a mistake. (8) The use of quotations, or the fine thoughts previously expressed in a striking and eloquent manner may be considered for the enrichment of the meaning of a text. However, as Freeman Tilden has observed, It is really uncommon to find one that 115 exactly fits the needs we are discussing . . (9) Message content should be revised and brought up—to-date to reflect advances in knowledge and information. Guidelines to Composition of Texts (l) Captions, if used, should have headline qualities in style and meaning. (2) Do not repeat the caption in the first line of the message content. (3) Get action and interest expressed in the Opening sentences. (4) Be dynamic in getting to the heart of the story to be told. 115Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), p. 61. 136 (5) Avoid the use of the passive voice; replace the verb "to be" with the action of participal form of the appropriate verb. Use words conveying a sense of movement. (6) Attempt to make a few words tell the full story. Freeman Tilden cites the classic couplet inscribed on the monument at Thermopylae: "Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that here, obedient to their laws, we lie!"116 (7) Avoid the use of technical or unfamiliar words as far as possible, since they make the text difficult for the visitor to understand and his interest in the site may quickly wane. When unfamiliar names of Spanish or Indian origin, for example, are used, a supplemental pronunciation guide would be helpful to visitors. (8) Use expressive and descriptive words known to nearly all intelligence levels. (9) Employ words accurately and in their most commonly used sense or meaning to the layman. Design Factors What makes the design factors important to the process of interpretive signage is its potential effect on the visitor. Managed to their fullest potential, these factors can have a great influence on whether the message content is read or not and the feeling engendered. 116Ibid., p. 58. 137 As identified by numerous experiments and studies, the eye is our most powerful communicative media. importance of the eye is seen in Table 14. The With these impressive statistics the importance of design is further exacerbated. TmmEl4 COMMUNICATION AND THE SENSES SENSE % RhSPONSIBLE FOR COMMUNICATION Sight 83 Hearing 10 Smelling 4 Touch 2 Taste 1 Source: Harrison, R., An_ln££gdpction to Nonverbal Communicatiogg(TiS.A.: Prentice—hallglnc., Revised Draft, There are four under the general title sign size, sign layout, Sign Style The style of a lar, elongated, chipped 1973), p. 9. aSpects to be considered subsumed of design. They are, sign style, lettering and color. sign refers to its shape; rectangu- and the like. Its purpose is to create interest and attract the visitor to read the message content. As such the sign style should be dynamic. To motivate the visitor to read the message content of an interpretive sign is imperative. Numerous signs plague the land, informing us of gas stations, hotels, motels, no parking, one-way and the like. Many peOple are 138 now presently at the state where they must limit the visual input they can process. Our minds can only handle a defin- ite limit of stimulation and the rest is omitted. The numerous signs that are imposed on us cause a situation whereby many signs are not read—-they become part of a scene that is not taken in. To overcome this, a novel or interesting sign style is required. The effect of these styles relates to the visitor that this sign is Special and therefore, should be read--it may contain some information that is of interest to me. There are however, two cautionary notes. The first concerns the needless dominance of the sign shape and the second addresses the issue of appropriateness and variety. The first cautionary note to be recognized by the person reSponsible for the sign style is not to over stylize the Sign so as to make the shape the primary factor.117 Priorities are the key issue here. The most important reason for the existence of the sign is the message to be communicated. Therefore, to design a sign that has a very unique shape that does attract the visitor but because of the novelty of the sign and not the message is over-design. Priorities are mixed up. The sign style should be attractive but the essence of what the interpretive sign is 117For a good example of this principle see M. Ray "A Decision Sequence Analysis of DevelOpments in Marketing Communications” in Journal of Marketigg. No. 1, Jan. 1973, p. 35. 139 all about must be the priority. The goal is first to inter— est the visitor in the sign style, then communicate a message to him. Do not have the visitor admire the sign at the expense of the message. The second cautionary note concerns the apprOpriate— ness or variety of the interpretive sign. To produce unique, interesting interpretive signs each time a message is to be communicated would detract from the interest-getting appeal of the style. As such, dynamic sign styles should be used carefully and sparingly or else the purpose of the style will be defeated. A unique style should be used at the start of trails, at the location of very meaningful or unique features and so on. They are used to stimulate the visitor and this precaution should always be kept in mind. Sign Size Closely tied with the style of the sign is its size. The size of the sign is dependent on (1) the com- plexity of the message, (2) variety and (3) readability. Size, as related to message complexity and variety have previously been discussed in this chapter. Size of the interpretive sign and readability are discussed here. Signs must be large enough to read. Two factors affect the size of the signs with respect to readability: (1) speed at which one is travelling and (2) the lettering style used (to be discussed in the next section, Lettering). The higher the speed the harder to read and consequently 140 the larger the sign and lettering must be to offset this. Also, straight letters make for easier viewing. Standards are available concerning speed and sign size. Naturally, the sign size is a function of the letter size required. A standard develOped by Parks Canada will be given as an example. (a) 0 M. P. H., or non-moving viewers, (i. e. Information sign should be 5" or I“ depending on the distance between the viewer and the sign (up to 50'). (b) l - 5 M.P.H. pedestrian (i.e. guide directional trail sign) (lower case). (c) ‘SP- 10 M.P.H. vehicular (i.e. guide diregtignal campground road sign) or from a distance of up to 100'” 2" letter character (lower case). (d) 10 - 40 M.P.H. vehicular (i.e. guide directional recreation site access road sign) or from a distance of up to 150': 4" letter character (lower case); (e) 40 - 6O M.P.H. vehicular (i.e. identifiga: tion recreation entrance area Sign) or from a distance of up to 300': 6" letter character (lower case). (f) 0 - 60 M. P. H. vehicular (i. e. rggulato_y warning type signs) will follow existing traffic manual guide lines. (The above are standards developed by Parks Canada in their preliminary draft c0py of Park Signage.118 Most Federal and State or Provincial Governments have similar standards usually available upon request. Sign Layout One of the most important aspects of interpretive 118Indian and Northern Affairs, Engineering and Architecture Branch, Park Signage (Ottawa: draft c0py, March, 1974), p. 43. 141 sign design is layout--the relationship between the place— ments of the message, picture, illustration. It is import- ant because of the readability and resultant effect of the interpretive sign. A sign with a poorly or unthought—out flow of message usually results in visitor confusion. If the design is good, then all elements, will be combined in a unified arrangement that is both pleasing and effective. Whether this final arrangement is symmetrical or asymmetrical it must give prOper emphasis to each element. What are these basic elements? They are the wordage used, titles and text, symbols and graphics. These elements, or the ones that have been decided upon to use, should be arranged, rearranged, studied alone and together and in various styles for each interpretive sign. The title may be in one line or two; it may be along the top of the sign or along one of the sides. The text and wordage may be in one section taking up half of the sign; it may be spread out; it may be in caption form under a graphic; it may be a combination of these. The symbols and graphics may dominate the sign by size or be supportive and much smaller; they may be one or more than one; they may be along one side, covering half of the sign; arranged diagonally and the like. Before the final arrangement or layout is 119United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, "Developing the Self-Guiding Trail in the National Forests," in Interpretive_Skills for Environmental Communi- cators, compiled by John W. Hanna (Texas: Department of Recreation and Parks, 1972), p. 31. 142 decided upon, various combinations should be tried and evaluated based on the purpose of the sign (perhaps large graphic is needed to depict the forest fire situation), the attractiveness of the arrangement, the flow of the message and the compatibility between the various elements used. It is important also in this stage to maximize Space or else the sign will appear cluttered. Do not hurry through this phase of the sign design because the layout determined will have to be lived with for a long time. Figure 6 indicates several kinds of layouts. There are several prOposed guidelines that can be followed with respect to sign layout. After discussion with personnel from the Media Design Unit of the Parks Branch, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, the following points emerged: (l) Attempt to balance the maximum number of messages per sign with conciseness. Also, attempt to balance the message with any graphics to be used. (2) Since eyes are accustomed to reading and looking horizontally, this is the preferable method of lettering if possible. (3) Attempt to keep each line of the text approxi— mately the same length. (4) When combining the various types of messages to be relayed, a suggested method is: activity/facility ----—» direction -----> distance 143 JoEcptoaao pco 20:026.. 2. 0. Romeo 333 so... .333 :3 .3 .232 2+. to; to; 3.2.3 >68 .0 :02 fizocotoob! 2:0. 2: :3 :06 into» .332. .29. men «3230 3 aofon pco 5030905 .coEoEOu 3 we; 3) 9.5 ....3 59...... z. .683 .2: ._ 5233 21. 2 :38 ea... 9.: 59; 1:3 26.: 2 .32 of 9.0.0 :9. o :5... .393 .29; vco pica 305:2 x10. :2: «£8 2: V3: 96... on €20.93 .coE 3.2.295 vco 305.5 3 v3: 8:0 .39 Io co .0 :36 {6:3 It? 2: Exam 95:). $00. 2: .‘lll'l U..|‘P.lfvu-2n'll|'l.".c. I .o .=.<~_._. mmm<1m m1... ._...:Q ...-......a .oandafld>d mahoppwn machoazn one am>oowfio zoom HHHB soaluwowamwoe omen» wcfivnomoua no man; meoHnd> has .mpzomaa mo wccfix econommfic Ho onaEaxm opwofiecfi m:Maw oops» omega 9 mmDUHh 144 Lettering The purpose of prOper lettering is to encourage the visitor to read the message and to facilitate the reading. Factors to be considered here are style of lettering, effects of various letters (and resultant words) and the spacing of the letters and words. With respect to the use of capital letters it is usually beneficial not to utilize all capital letters in the word or sign message. Generally, people are not used to reading words in capital letters and if forced to they will become overwhelmed and not read the message at all. Conpare the following two hypothetical message contents for read- ability. More recently the glaciers passed over and altered the shape of the landscape. Long gouges, which were deepened as the ice pushed out of the Lake Ontario basin, can . be seen today as low depressions running from southeast to northwest throngh the park. MORE RECENTLY THE GLACIERS PASSED OVER AND ALTERED THE SHAPE OF THE LANDSCAPE. LONG GOUGES, WHICH WERL DEEPENED AS THE ICE PUSHED OUT OF THE LAKE ONTARIO BASIN, CAN BE SEEN TODAY AS LOW DEPRESSIONS RUNNING FROM SOUTHEAST TO NORTHWEST THROUGH THE PARK. The use of capital letters, as can be seen, is more difficult to read--it is overpowering to the eye which is not accustom- ed to reading sentence format material in this fashion. As such, the use of capitals should be minimized and applied only to titles if they are used at all. 145 Lettering styling as a general rule should be simple rather than ornamental. Although unusual or ornamental lettering sometimes does increase the meaning of the mes- sage its use should be carefully considered. If the visitor makes the effort to read the message and if the meaning of the message and the interpretive phenomenon are, therefore, lessened, the use of non-simplistic letter styling is not warranted. As mentioned, numerously throughout this report, the purpose of interpretive signage is to communicate some- thing to the visitor--all techniques available to facilitate this communication should be used only insofar as they do not become the prime ingredient nor confuse the meaning or intent of the sign. Table 15 taken from the Letraset Company brochure lists some of the various lettering styles (available in various sizes). Letters have Optical weights and this is what is meant by the effects of letters. Due to this they do not all fit into the same width nor height-~if forced into standard- ized dimensions the result is an awkward appearing Word or phrase. Some letters require more room, others less; some, therefore, appear light or skinny, and others heavy. The following quote adequately discusses the effects of letters. Compressing a wide letter, such as an M or W to fit into the same width as a narrow letter such as J or S will make the wide letter appear darker, or 'heavier' than the rest of the letters in the word. Only these letters just touch both the top and bottom guidelines: B, D, E, F, H, I, K, M, N, P, R, T, X, Y, Z, because of an 146 TABLE 15 LUDAG QADHICA ! 09111 01311inst 57 Aachen Bold 10 22.2%; as AIRKRAI‘T 78 @1404mu5 85 Krnold Bocklin 12 Pretorian as Avant Garde Bold . mmemrm 62 Avant Garde Bold Conn.: QUEETIH ,5 Avon? Gorde Med. 13 Ringleg ,6 Avam‘ Garde Med Con'd 1. gjgga‘fifia‘ggans 86 AVOHT Gorde XnghT . 14 8&338 8313939 ,6 BABY 1%le - 14 smegma}: as mews .5 STENCIL B0”) as BINNEQ ,9. m®fl©U>C€§GG© 87 %@g@®g 16 * II]! Top ,8 BRANDUNG .7; Tabasco Bold 71 9.399933 9mm 80' Tabasco Medium 7.! mg” 8° zipper .. d, .30”? .. . -ALV'PSO .. ., Cflmfilflfl .. Caslon Antique 81 CW 540 [$11. 19 ' 147 TABLE 15 (Continued) sans serif Annonqe 11 Forlo Medium Ext. 34 AMique OIIVB 30” 11 Franklin Gothic asi Antique Giive 11 Franklin Gothic Cond. 351 Antique Olive MEdiUl'n 12 Franklin Gothic Extra COM]. 36 Avantearde Bold .3 Future Bold 37" Avont Gorde Medium 13 WWW 301mm”: 37 AC” GOfde X'Lgii 14 FUI'UI‘CI Demi Bald 38 cable Heavy 18 FU'UI'C! EXITC Bald 38 Cable Li ht “mg" 39 8 80 FU1'UI’O Medium 39 campacta Bold 23,2. Mum Mum MC 39 ”0111113018 Bald Italic 24 Gill Extra Bold ' 40 W MUELLER} 2. GILL SANS LIGHT .1 Eumnantallafin 25 GM SANS 4‘ flnmpacla lignl 25 WW“ ‘2 flumuacta mm 26 Gmtesque 9 ,‘ ‘2 MM’WMILHIE 26 Grotesque 9Itallc 42 Din17 Medium 30 Grotesque 215 . 43 . eurostile bold a1 Grotesque 216 43 eurostfle medlm 82 Helvetica Bold ... FQIIO 30” 3?- Helvetica Bold It. 44 Palm Bold Condensed He|vetica Light ,4,“ F050 Light Helvetica Medium 46 33 F953" Extra 3°" 33: Helvetica Light Italic 4s ‘Fofio Medium ' 34 Helvetica Med Italic 148 optical illusion the remaining letters are drawn as noted, to make them appear to be the same height as the other letters: The point of the letter A extends just a little above the tOp line, while the legs rest on the bottom; the t0p of the letters J, U, V, and W touch the tOp guideline, but extend just a little below the bottom line; the round letters C, G, O, Q, and S, extend just a little beyond both the tOp and bottom lines. The middle bars or lines of a letter vary in height. If all were placed on the true center some would appear high and others low. The letters A, G, P, and R have bars just a little below center. The letters B, E, F and H have bars just a little above center. On some letters it is a good idea to keep them from looking top heavy. These are: B, G, K, R, S, X, Z. All the differences noted above should not be so great as to be obvious. One of the most frequent mistakes made by amateurs in lettering labels or signs is the mixing of capitals and lower case letters within a single word. Another is to have the slant of the N going in the wrong direction.120 As is obvious, the above relates primarily to those who will be involved in preparing and constructing their own signs. Constructing your own signs can be much more inex— pensive if there is talent within the park personnel to accomplish this task. If this is the avenue that is decided upon the publication by A. Neal will be of benefit. The Spacing of letters and words is dependent upon the Optical illusion of letters and the sign style. 120A. Neal, Legible Labels, Technical Leaflet Number 22 (U.S.A.: American Association for—State and Local History, 1971), p. 7. 149 The sign style affects the spacing of letters and v words in that an irregular shaped sign may require spacing that accommodates this unusual shape. In the creation of the spacing in this instance, care must be taken in the layout as previously mentioned. For example, study the following two signs both with the same message and style. As is obvious, the second sign exhibits better spacing and layout with respect to words. The message in the second sign appears to flow with the sign whereas in the first sign the message is jumpy and cut off in places which does not lend itself to FIGURE 7 LAYOUT EXAMPLES THE BLUFF Glacially produced this feature provides us with spectacular views. THE BLUFF - Glacially produced this feature provides us with spectacular views. 150 easy reading. A few words from the publication, Developing the Self-Guidinngrail in the National Forests further emphasizes this point. Spacing should be adequate for ease in reading. Never run sentences together. Never let Spacing be so irregular as to make words in a sentence seem dis- connected.”1 The effect of optical weights of letters and words was previously briefly mentioned in a quote by A. Neal. Neal further goes on to state what effect this optical weight variance has on spacing and the procedure to follow to maximize, for your purposes, this effect. Because the letters carry different optical weights, they will not appear properly spaced if they are placed on a line so that each letter occupies exactly the same area, or with exactly the same distance between each letter within the word. (e.g., LOCAL HISTORY) If a measuring unit is set up which is half again as wide as the letter 'I' is thick, it can be used to show the correct proportional spacing of letters to achieve the correct visual balance. (e.g., LOC AL HISTORY) .Use half of this space when the letters S, L, T, V, W and Y are followed by a straight vertical. (e.g., AN, LETTER) Wedge-shaped letters occurring together, such as A, V, ana Y, should be kept a full space apart on the diagonal. (e.g., AWE, VASE) When the round letters C, D, G, O, Q, and 8 come next to a straight vertical or occur together, they are placed closer to- gether than the space between two straight vertical letters. (e.g., IDIOM) When the letter A is preceded or followed by T or Y, the bottom of the A comes directly under the curved part of the P. (e.g., HAY, YAK). 121United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, p. 30. 151 When the letter L is followed by T, V, W, or Y, the lower right hand corner of the L is directly under the top edge of the other letter. (e.g., BELT, ELVES). A letter which follows 'open' letters such as C, E, F, G, K, and P, is placed closer to the Open letters than to gastraight vertical, (e.g., FIG, KEG).1 ‘ Although the above discussion on lettering may appear unduly lengthy and needlessly detailed, it is imperative. Due to the great amount of lettering that does take place by amateurs working in the park, it is necessit- ated. Signs and labels, eSpecially in Visitor Centers, where rapido—graphs and other similar devices are used, often desperately require this information as evidenced by the product presently on display in numerous parks. Color It is widely recognized that color can add signi- ficantly to the effectiveness of any visual communication message. Some reactions to colors are the result of a learning process whereby certain colors are associated with certain concepts. Other reactions have their roots in a psychologi— cal dimension. In the first instance, arbitrary decisions were made that assigned certain ideas to colors. For example green means go, red means stop, amber means caution. By use of these arbitrarily assigned colors, actions can, therefore, be controlled in a uniform manner. Their uses 122Neal, p. 9. 152 for interpretive signage is limited however, due to the fact that, as mentioned, these types of sign communications do not lend themselves to a standardized approach. In some cases though, their use can be incorporated, especially in the use of directional, identificational and regulatory interpretive signs. It is the primary psychological effects of color that is of importance to interpretive signage. Psychologists working in the fields of industry, defense, decorating, media design,communications and the like have begun to provide us with the effects of color based on experiments and theory. Color has the following properties: as identified by Engel, 123 Kollat and Blackwell in ggnsumer Behavior and as adapted by this paper: (1) Color can be used to create moods, ranging from the somber appeal of dark colors to the cooling affects of greens and blues. (2) Color can increase the attention--attracting and holding power of the message. (3) Color can emphasize certain features of an interpretive sign and de-emphasize others. (4) Color can add a prestige or quality image to the interpretive sign. The combination of colors is also important in this respect. 123James F. Engel, David T. Kollat and Roger Black- well, Consumer Behavior (U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1968), p. 89. 153 (5) Color, that impresses a message upon a visitor, facilitates greater message recall. In addition to these impression oriented qualities of colors, they also have distance or weight qualities. For example, black has the visual impression of retreating whereas light bright colors come forward. Table 16 lists six colors and categorizes each by weight, distance and psychological effects. As is illustrated, orange is light, brings the message in closer and appears active; green is medium, tends to recede the message and refreshes. If, therefore, the interpretive sign is telling the story of how a volcano is activated and erupts, the orange color may be more appropriate. The previously mentioned aspect of defining what the purpose of the interpretive sign is, is seen to have relevancy to color. As an example of possible usage of colors Table 17 is presented. It illustrates how color is used to com— municate various messages. Although interpretive signage does not lend itself to a categorization as presented in Table 17 some generalities will be suggested based on the above. The color or color combinations chosen for use in the design of the interpre- tive sign can, therefore, be selected using the following evaluative criteria. (1) Color for backgrounds should be carefully chosen with a view towards enhancing the message; the case of a volcano in a park was given as an example above. 154 TABLE 16 VISUAL IMPRESSIONS OF COLOR Color Weight Psychological Effect Black heavy subduing Red heavy lively Blue medium cooling Orange light lively Purple heavy subduing Green medium refreshing TABLE 17 EXAMPLES OF COLOR USES AND CATEGOPIZATION National Safety Council Air Force Red: Fire protection equipment; Red: Fuel severe danger, stop buttons. Grey- Red: Water injec- Green: For safe materials; pro- tion tective equipment. Yellow: Lubrication Purple: Radioactive material. Blue: Coolant Yellow: Hazards such as overheads or edges. Green: Breathing oxygen. Orange: Dangerous parts of machines. Source: Dymo Products Company, Visual Communication for Business and Industry (U.S.A.: 1971), p. 15. 155 (2) Color (as seen in Table 16) can create an atmosphere. This must be consistent with the materials to be used, the setting of the sign and the message. (3) Color has the ability to enhance or detract from the legibility or readability of the message content. Good color contrast between the various elements to be incorporated (language, symbolism, graphics and the like) is a prime consideration. Table 18 exemplifies how the National Park Service views color combinations for good legibility. (4) Vivid colors can be easily used in small amounts to augment and intensify the message. bsed in large amounts care and caution should be exercised. (5) The primary consideration, when deciding upon the various colors and when and where they should be used, is the goal or purpose of that sign. The most favored kind of colors and sign is the routed wooden sign using a brown background with yellow lettering. Although this combination does meet with the criteria listed above, care must be taken so as not to bore the visitor through redundancy. The cardinal error in the exclusive use of this type of color combination and sign material is that it countervails a primary purpose of the use of color, that is, to interest and attract the visitor. The yellow on brown suffers from a problem as mentioned earlier——that related to not reading a sign because it is just like any other and therefore, probably does not have anything of 156 TABLE 18 COLOR COMBINATIONS FOR BEST LEGIBILITY* Letter Color Background Color Black Yellow Green White Red White Blue White Black White Red Yellow White Blue White Red White . Green White Black *The best legibility is listed first. SOURCE: National Park Service, Sign and Wayside Exhibit Handbook Part II (U.S.A.: 19o07: p. 5. interest for me. To guard against this problem, imagination in the use of colors and combinations should be expressed and experimented with. By using the guides listed in this section and the accompanying criteria, more interesting interpretive signs should be resultant. CHAPTER VI INTERPRETIVE SIGNAGE PLANNING In the creation of a meaningful and effective interpretive sign communication system, the purpose of interpretive signage, the role of communication, the kinds of signs available and design factors must all be part of the process. The extent of interpretive signage to be used, how communication influences the signage to be used, what signs will be used, what they will communicate and how they will be designed are all aspects that must be decided upon. In addition, after these aspects have been decided upon the location of the signs and siting of the signs must take place. Sign Study Team_ In addition to being aware of the various elements involved in the interpretive signage process, the setting—up of a sign study team is imperative. This team is based on the assumption that a well planned sign system enhances the interpretation of the park via signs by creating a unified whole rather than an accumula- tion of unrelated pieces. The team should be composed of one person with technical knowledge of the various materials, one person with communicative/interpretive expertise, one person with design/landscape architecture ability and the 157 158 superintendent of the park. The communicator/interpreter is required for his input primarily into the areas of communica- tions and message content. No one knows better than this individual what features, phenomena and so on are to be interpreted and how. The designer/landscape architect is needed for his ability to translate the message to be com- municated into a system of interpretive signs coherent with the environment. Also, between the interpreter and designer the total sign system can be laid out to most effectively meet its goal. The technician is reSponsible for input from the possible range of materials available that would efficiently accomplish the task. The superintendent's role is one of co-ordinator and final decision maker exercising control, especially over the areas of costs, time and working relationships among the team. The objectives of this sign study team are (l) to identify and determine the communicative and interpretive requirements by analyzing the park in its entirety, incorporat- ing the uses of the park, the facilities (natural, recrea- tional, service) any dangers or cautions that may exist and the existing (or proposed) vehicle traffic patterns.(2) to determine and isolate location and siting guidelines and apply them to the park and the interpretive signage to be used, (3) to prepare a sign system plan document that must be field checked, (4) to determine the maintenance schedule and procedure.and (5) to develop an evaluation or monitor form of the effectiveness of the interpretive signage 159 including all necessary factors. In an attempt to meet or achieve these objectives of the team, the following guidelines and/or discussions are presented. For maximum effectiveness the interpretive signage system must be tailored to the specific conditions, needs and users of the park. The effect of the users has been previously discussed in Chapters II and III. The Specific conditions and needs of the park refers primarily to the interpretation that will take place in the park. Therefore, before the interpretive signage process can take place an interpretive directional plan is required based on the master plan of the park. The master plan determines the goal of the park; the interpretive plan determines the goal of interpretation in the park, the various themes to be used and the programmes, facilities, methods, techniques and media to be used to accomplish this. As is obvious, the interpre- tive plan lays the foundation for the interpretive signage plan which facilitates the goal and themes determined as important. The signage plan, therefore, should also use the interpretive plan goal in deciding upon issues such as purpose of the sign, kind of sign, message content and design factors. Location of Signs Locational guidelines depend upon the mode of trans- portation that will be used by the visitor when exposed to 160 the sign. There are two basic kinds of tranSportation, motorized and non-motorized. Non-motorized transportation is usually slower and also has the advantage of coming to a complete stop without causing a traffic problem. Conversely, motorized traffic is faster and therefore, the interpretive signage plan must accommodate higher speeds. The following is a list of guidelines to be considered in locating the interpretive sign. (1) Clearly identify all intersections of roads, trails, trail and road, paths and the like. Look for traffic patterns and intersections. (2) Follow all traffic patterns and isolate where interpretive features/facilities are located. (3) Identify what interpretive signs are required and how many. (4) Locate interpretive directional and identi- ficational signs (a) at least twenty feet off shoulders of major roads; (b) at least ten feet off shoulders of internal minor roads; (c) at least three feet off shoulders of pedestrian or non-motorized trails and paths.124 124Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Park Signage, p. 74. 161 (5) Locate interpretive regulatory signs, (a) close to the safety hazard; and (b) at regular intervals for control of visitors. (6) Locate interpretive informational and inter- pretive signs close to the subject matter or central to the feature to be discussed. Also consider the traffic pattern with respect to interpretive informational signs. (7) Entrance signs to trails, visitor centers, and the like are usually placed at or in close proximity to, the feature/facility. (8) Interpretive signs should be set at an angle so they can be easily read from a car. This guideline loses importance on slower pedestrian routes. (9) Interpretive signs should be located in such a position so as to allow sufficient time for corrective action by the driver of the vehicle. This is a convenient and safety oriented aspect. It again loses importance on slower pedestrian routes. (10) Some examples of locations that should be isolated are: (a) park entrance, trail entrance and the like; (b) by parking lots and along traffic routes; (c) by facilities such as campgrounds, washrooms and swimming areas. (d) by natural features such as bogs, dunes, white pine groves, wild flower valley and 162 the like; and (e) by historic features such as forts, canoe routes, battle fields and the like. Siting of the Sign After the location of each sign has been established, field checked and mapped, the siting of the sign takes place. The siting of the various interpretive signs must take into consideration the sign itself (height, size and the like) the visitor, the line of approach to the sign, the environ- ment or background, the amount of sunlight that will hit the sign, safety and soil conditions. As is obvious, it is no easy job to decide upon the actual siting of the signs to be used. It is mandatory that each site decided upon, based on the above criteria, be field checked. To rush through this phase of the planning process may spell doom for the sign system and the effort expended to date. To aid in the siting of the interpretive signs designated for use are the following guidelines. (1) An attempt should be made to place signs at visual height of the reader where the natural focus of the eye is. Excessive placement of signs at various levels and positions tends to confuse and frustrate the user and also leads to missed instructions. Placing signs at standardized levels and positions facilitates the task of the park user. 163 Figure 8. Placement of Interpretive Signs. Source: A. Neal, Gallery and Case Exhibit Design, Tech- nical Leaflet Number 52 (U.S.A.: American Association for State and Local History, 1969, Figure l, p. l. (2) Too many signs within the same visual zone gives rise to confusion and poor aesthetics. A sign should be sited so that it is the center of interest and is not in competition with other signs or messages.”5 (3) Signs should not be sited where they may obstruct or detract from a scenic view. Good sign siting occurs when the sign is clearly seen but is not conflicting with a view zone . 126 125Indian and Northern Affairs, Engineering and Architecture Branch, p. 77. 1261b1d., p. 75. 164 I I} A // NV, .3950 ‘l nopama> . cease mawwspam undo: ///\\\ new Amen cause .osou Hanna> mean on» canvas named made cow new: nodudspwm a no annaaum Q mmDUHm 165 (4) Signs located near natural or man-made visual conflicts are often missed. As such, these conflicts must - be identified and the sign must be sited so as to avoid such conflicts.127 (5) In an attempt to maximize the aesthetic nature of the sign it often blends too well with the environment. Signs should be clear to read and not hidden by the back- ground of the park. They should be compatible but not hidden. (6) Insufficient light or glare can reduce the readability of the sign. Each sign site should be checked to avoid these potential problematic factors. (7) Is the siting of the sign safe? It must be determined if the sign is obstructing the view of an inter- section, for example. (8) The soil in which the sign is placed must be compacted and able to support the sign. This is especially important in the siting of large signs where weight and size are considerable. Evaluation All signs must be evaluated from the point of view of communication and structural efficiency. The evaluation should be continuous and have as its goal maintenance of an effective sign system. 127Ibid., p. 76. 166 The objective of the evaluation is to collect meaning- ‘ ful information concerning the sign system so it can be analyzed, evaluated and corrected if need be. The study team should be the persons reSponsible for the setting-up of the evaluation of the system. Without such a feedback mechanism the effectiveness of the sign system that is implemented will not be known. That is, no one will know whether the system is meeting its objectives or if it needs moficiation or change. There are two evaluations which must be made, the communicative efficiency of the sign and the performance of the material. The communication evaluation should take place on a continuous basis whereby park personnel make notes on siting, content, and so on. Two formal evaluations are required each year-~one after the user season and again in the spring. These formal investigations could be accomplished in co- ordination with the maintenance program. The evaluation should be completed on-site (field work). Office evalua- tion may be incomplete since it is difficult to remember the location, content, siting, and so on, of each sign. There are typically too many signs in a park and recall will hurt the evaluation. Parks Canada has established an evaluative system that incorporates the above mentioned factors. Their methodology and evaluation is given as an example of this process in Table 19. 167 TABLE 19 NATIONAL PARKS SIGNAGE MANUAL SIGNAGE EVALUATION Liegion Park Date Sign No. Type Location Legend SITING VSign Siting - Correct Incorrect Comments READABILITY By Day - Readable from Ft. Walking- Ft. Driving- By Night - Readable from Ft. Walking- Ft. Driving- If readability suffers for any reasons, describe; Should sign size be increased Decreased Comments CONDITION OF SIGN Date of Installation Date of Inspection Does sign require constant maintenance Yes No Comments Damage to sub Strate Delamination - Yes No Others Yes No Surface Vandalism Peeling Crazing Color Retention Cracking Reflectiveness Comments 168 ' TABLE 19 (Continued) Hardware Condition ' Good Damaged Replace Posts ' Good Damaged Replace Comments Should sign be replaced Yes No Comments PHOTOGRAPH If additional photographs required NOTES insert in envelope and attach to this form. Evaluation carried out by Title Signature Source: Indian and Northern Affairs, Engineering and Architecture Branch, Physical Planning, Park Signage, Draft Copy, March, 1974. 169 The first point raised concerns the approach to the evaluative process, They will allow the evaluator to approach the signs first as the visitor, second as the parks staff officer, third as a designer 128 and fourth, from a personal point of view. The method129 is as follows: (1) Observe the reaction of the visitor to the sign. This evaluation could be facilitated considerably by carrying out periodical, unofficial evaluations, in enquiring from the visitors about their reaction or lack of reaction to the sign. (2) Using the portion of the form designated for this, look at the sign from its objective point of view, in other words, does it communicate its function propertly? (3) From a structure point of view, using the evaluation guidelines as a sample, go through a systematic inspection of the sign's physical condition. (4) Briefly note your overall feelings on the sign's function physical performance. (5), If the conditions of the sign get too complex for words, remember that a picture is worth a thousand words. Photograph it and fix the photo in the space allotted for it on the evaluation form. 128Indian and Northern Affairs, Engineering and Architecture Branch, p. 93. 1291bid., p. 102. 170 (6) Indicate on a map of the park next to the area of the form allotted for the photograph, the location of the sign in the park. Performance To ensure that the cost/useful year of sign life is maximized, a performance program should be initiated. This program should incorporate a monitoring of the condition of each sign during the day and at night. Night monitoring is essential to check on the quality of the reflection of the sign. Day time inspection checks deterioration, vandalism and the like. Monitoring for reflectiveness should be completed frequently--annually, or rotation throughout the region. Since the period during which the reflective quality deteriorates varies, it is wise not to over estimate the extension of the durability. Day monitoring should occur at least once every two weeks because of the vandlism and accident problems. Deter- ioration, like loss of reflectability, is a gradual process and as such, signs need be checked within a consistent time frame. Monitoring should be regulated and controlled or else its effect is diminished. Special crews are not res quired as the inspection can be completed by regular main- tenance crews in the course of their other duties. However, two things must be noted, (1) all routes must be covered and repetition must be avoided,and (2) the crew must know that they are looking for in terms of deterioration, vandalism, reflectivity and the like. There are six performance variables that will aid the maintenance crew in their evaluation of the sign system. These variables are a list of the possible problems that may arise and therefore, the crew will be able to identify what the problem is. (l) Cracking and crazing of the surface - essentially a drying out process. - occurs anywhere between five and eight years. - adversely affects visibility and legibility. (2) Corrosion - depends on substate (material acted upon by an enzyme or ferment), particularly noticeable with steel. - corrosion or reflector coat in the sheeting itself. (3) Pitting and Fragmentation - caused by impact, bottle throwing and the like. - adversely affects visibility and legibility. (4) Peeling - usually early condition, and caused by poor adhesion, possibly unsatisfactory fabrication at the place of construction, watch out for 172 out out letters and numbers. (5) Fading - will be noticeable with colors used on sheeting - colors should be equal in performance to the sheeting. (6) Brightness‘ loss of reflectivity occurs between five and eight years. less than fifty percent of original brightness not acceptable. - dust and dirt coating may deteriorate.130 13°Ib1d., p. 96. CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This thesis had a four fold purpose: (a) to contribute to the phiIOSOphy of interpretation; (b) to present a model in an attempt to better understand the interpretive communication process; (c) to present a plan- ning strategy for the interpretive signage process; and (3) to present information related to signage material. It was based primarily on the phiIOSOphy that interpreta- tion, as a discipline,has a major objective to achieve and this objective can best be understood and achieved by use of an interpretive communication process. The interpretive ’communication process in turn was founded upon S-M-C—R-E Communication Model and a model of consumer behavior. The essence of the model developed in this thesis is based upon the premise that people can be grouped into "target groups" whose makeup can be determined. This makeup then is used in structuring the message content and message design and selection of the communication channel and its design, most likely to achieve the objectives set. The purpose of such messages is primarily behavioral modification, reinforce- ment or change. The objectives of both the organization and specific park interpretive message were noted as being critical as was the evaluation procedure. 173 174 In the construction of the interpretive communication model material was liberally used.from the fields of market- ing, communications and the behavioral sciences. In turn much information that presently is used for the basis of both the marketing and communications disciplines is derived from the behavioral sciences. This is necessary since these two disciplines deal with behavioral issues and consequences. The major problem area is however, the use to which behavioral theory and research is put. In other words, behavioral studies are for the most part not initially directed toward other disciplines and to liberally draw implications is at best hazardous. In addition, the implications drawn from the fields of marketing and applied to an interpretive frame- work suffer from similar drawbacks. It was indicated that if the planning strategy developed in the thesis were followed, the use of inter— pretive signage in the communication of interpretive messages was great. Much information gathered from the area of interpretive signage was adjusted to follow the interpretive communication model suggested in Chapter II and was presented to provide a one-source document for such material and as a focus for the planning strategy. Needed Research Research is required because the interpretation discipline can only succeed if its students and practitioners have accurate and up-to-date knowledge dealing with the concept of interpretation, the process of interpretive 175 communication, the elements of that process and effective evaluation procedures. In addition, this research is a continuous task because the elements of the interpretive communication model are dynamic. Problems and questions exist in the field of inter- pretation and the communication process. These questions and uncertainties were constantly referred to throughout this thesis. However, in the establishment of a research study or program more than generalized statements are required; clarity is necessary. In the identification of research three important factors must be raised: (a) the question must be clearly stated; (b) the objectives or anticipated result_must be clearly stated; and (c) the research-study must be clearly organized. The classification of the question to be answered is primary to all other issues; a question clearly identified is one half solved. A case in point is the numerous occurrenc- es of the hiring of a consultant to solve a problem for an organization. The consultant, after months of work usually returns with two major statements; (1) an identification of the problem and (2) a strategy to solve it. In these situations, it is realized that a large amount of research is wasted due to poor initial classification. In addition, it is necessary to clarify exactly what is to be achieved, that is, the objectives or anticipated results of the research. This process is one that identi- 176 fies what is attempting to be achieved in terms of the worth of the research. Questions to be answered concern "what will be the consequences or results if an answer to this question were known?"; "Has a decision already been made? and if so, what is the purpose of this research?" Will the answer change or alter the decision? "If a question is answered, can a program be implemented or is the financial and human resources inadequate?" When evaluating the objec- tive of the research these types of questions must be posed if the research is to be useful to the overall program. Based upon the thesis and material presented a great deal of questions come to mind. In fact, this thesis probably poses more questions than answers or possible solutions. For purposes of clearly identifying some of these issues and to provide future researchers subject matter related to the work of this thesis several research topics are offered. 1. General: How is the worth of interpretation impressed upon decision makers? How many individuals are reached through any interpretive program? What are the trends? Who are they? Expansion: In order to convince decisions makers that an interpretive program is bene- ficial, numbers and descriptions are required. As related to interpretive signage: A questionnaire designed to determine the exposure rate as compared to (a) the depth of knowledge concern- ing the message content of the sign and (b) the acceptance of the message is important. In addition, this informa- tion could be compared to factors such as social class, diSpositions, family versus singles and the like to determine who is reading the signs and who are being persuaded by signs. This type of 2. 3. General: Expansion: General: Expansion: 177 research is based upon the condition that a good interpretive signage situation is in existence in the park. What markets or target groups is the message designed for? How are the target groups identified? What are their social class, dispositions, values, beliefs? How are their characteristics identified? Can they be grouped for effective message transmittal? What message design tools are required? How strong are their characteristics or attitudes? Do these conflict with the objectives of interpre- tation? How important is interpretation to these groups? Most public park interpretive objectives are designed to consider various user groups such as the handicapped, the socially- economic disadvantaged, and the teenager as well as those who initially exhibit an interest in interpretation. However, in addition to labelling these groups little is known as to how to communicate to them. As such, research programs are required that have as their objective to identify these groups and analyze their character— istics with a view toward achieving the interpretive objective. How is the message and channel design and selection meaningfully integrated utiliz- ing the characteristics of the target groups? What attributes of the message should be emphasized? What image should be created in the target groups' mind? What is the best media to use? How do the various tools designed to break through the selective perception filter work? Are they valid in a park setting? Do they work for all target groups? The process of identifying the target groups and their characteristics is only part of the overall problem to be solved. The other part is how are these character- istics used to facilitate message trans- mittal (through various communication tools) or, if these characteristics pose a situation of cognitive dissonance how is the message tapered to ensure the suc- cessful establishment of the interpretive objective. 4. General: Expansion: 178 How useful is an interpretive communication model? Will it help solve problems or answer questions? How feasible is it to all involved in interpretation? How valid are the elements? Is the model complete or are factors overlooked? The model presented in this thesis is not to be considered as the final product. Questions must be asked, prOposals for additions or deletions given and in depth analysis of each element completed to determine its true worth to the field of interpretation. CHAPTER VIII INTERPRETIVE SIGN MATERIAL ANALYSIS In the decision of what sign material to use, various performance variables must be evaluated. These criteria when applied to the Specific park will aid in the decision—making process. Table 20 illustrates these criteria with approp- riate comments. Many of the variables can only be evaluated by the particular park--weathering, space, equipment, place- ment, reflective quality, expertise, time, availability-- others are evaluated primarily on the material available. The sign study team should be responsible for presenting the various possible material alternatives--the decision on selection is within the jurisdiction of the park super- intendent or park system management. The evaluation concerning what material to use should take place during the interpretive signage process. As seen in Chapter IV, pagelln, the first evaluative stages concerning potential signage material occurs during the seventh stage. Although the possible material is probably considered before this stage, it must be considered at least by this time. The remainder of this chapter will be directed to a major purpose of this report; that is to present the various possible signage material available in analysis form. Each 179 180 . TABLE 20 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA CRITERIA . . CHARACTERISTICS Cost The cost of the material must be equal or less than the final product, the interpretive sign system. Time The time taken to order, pur- chase, construct and erect the signs must not be pro- hibitive nor unduly lengthy. Usually this is a minor con- sideration. Availability The availability of the material has effects upon cost and time and therefore, must be a prime consideration. Expertise If the sign is to be construct- ed at the park, expertise must be present at.the park. Space, Equipment If the sign is to be construct— ed at the park, adequate space and equipment must be readily at hand or the cost of pur- chase of these facilities must be included in the cost of the sign. Placement Whether the sign is located indoors or out-of—doors makes an obvious difference in the selection of material. Weathering The climate of the area where the sign is to be located must be evaluated to determine the Speed of material deteriora- tion. Various materials there- fore, should be evaluated in these terms. Reflective Quality Some materials are more ref- lective than others which is a definite performance criteria. 181 ..... . TABLE 20 (Continued) CRITERIA , . , CHARACTERISTICS Twenty-four hour Some materials are clearly Performance visible during the day but can not be seen at night. Maintenance Maintenance ease, that is, ease of cleaning, refurbishing and the like is another crit- eria to consider. Vandalism The sign material used must maximize resistance to vandalism. Handling Ease Some materials are easier to handle (that is, form, color, stain and the like) than others. This is especially important if the signs are to be con- structed in the park. Durability Although subsumed under numerous other criteria, the overall durability of the material is a wise criteria to evaluate across materials studied. It usually relates to how long the sign will be effective. 182 material will be discussed from the point of view of ad- vantages, disadvantages and average prices. Following this, a brief examination will be presented dealing with miscellan- eous subject matter deemed important to this report. Methodolggy The method used in the gathering of the material in this chapter was a mail-out letter. It was the purpose of the letter to pose questions with a view towards determining the various types of materials used, their qualities, cost and graphic examples. The letter was followed by one shorter version to non-respondents. The letter and follow-up are. shown on page 226 Appendix II . The information sources--that is, the agencies and organizations to which the letter was sent-—were selected in a comprehensive fashion. A sample was not used. Publications, telephone books, public parks agencies and colleges (those that had an engineering section) were the original sources used to identify sign material handlers and producers. The list of agencies and sign producers to whom the letters were sent and questions posed are listed on page 220 Appendix 1. Responses are also indicated here. TYPE: Photo-Sensitized Aluminum. Discussion This process utilizes photo-sensitive anodized aluminum upon which any line artwork, drawings, maps or photographs can be embedded. The final image and scrip is 183 protected under an anodized, glass clear, saphire hard surface. Both sides can be printed upon. Adhesives can be used to affix the sign or mechanical fasteners can be used. Advantages (1) Impervious to light, weathering, extreme temperatures, corrosion, abrasion, scratching, fading, peeling, chipping, salt spray, moisture, solvents, lubri- cants and fungus. (2) Virtually vandalproof—-the metal itself must be destroyed to destroy the image and scrip. (3) Lasts up to thirty years. (4) No maintenance. If sign becomes dirty simply wash; if spray painted simply remove with turpentine. (5) Reproduces in great detail. (6) Does not fade when exposed to sunlight (ultra violet radiation). Disadvantages, (l) Requires additional support. (2) Metallic appearance. (3) May be undesirable reflections. The brightness and amount of reflection may be reduced by use of a screen in the photographic process. (4) Limited color selection. Not available. 184 Analysis The durability of this material makes it ideal for Outdoor use. The reproduction clarity is also a good feature. It is suggested that this material is good for areas and locations where (l) durability is primary and (2) the site is not one of a wilderness nature. In these latter areas the metallic appearance is a very undesirable characteristic. TYPE: Fiberglass Embedded. Discussion The material is constructed of an acrylic modified polyester resin reinforced with high solubility chopped strand fiberglass matte. The graphics material that can be used is hand lettering, original art painting, silk screening, offset lithography, flexographic printing, black and white photography, color photography, print films, transparancies, photo gelatine prints. Advantages (l) Stronger than some metals yet very light, there- fore, does not require elaborate support. (2) Available in multicolors, Opaque, or translucent, nonreflective matte or glossy surface finish. (3) Lasts minimum of ten years. (4) Material resists shattering impacts, scratches, cracking, warping, peeling, fire, crazing, solvents, acids, mild alkalis, chemical fumes, ultra-violet fading, wind-blown 185 sand and delamination. (5) Weatherproof and waterproof. (6) Easy maintenance. Disadvantages None found . Cost Fifteen dollars per square foot. Analysis This material appears to be highly advantageous to uses requiring a duration of ten years. It is a highly flexible material and considered by this report as one of the best types of materials available for the price. TYPE: Metallic Photo-chemical Etching. Discussion The process involves photo-chemical etching wherein any photographable artwork, including halftones, may be re- produced in metals which have been electro-chemically hardened and colored by a proprietary process. Signs can be made from aluminum, capper,'steel, brass, bronze and stainless steel. Advantages (l) Unaffected by temperature extremes, rain, snow, sunlight, saline humidity and will not rust, chip, crack, fade, peel or fracture. 186 (2) Lasts up to forty-five to fifty years. (3) Weatherproof. (4) Easy maintenance. Disadvantages (1) Limited colors. (2) Metallic appearance. (3) Reflection in sunlight. Cost Twenty-five cents per square inch--usually additional charge for halftone photographs. Analysis The extreme durability of this material is very attractive. The metallic appearance again is a drawback for certain areas, the material is considered by this report as excellent if located in the proper area. TYPE: Cast Aluminum. ‘Discussion There are four kinds of finishes that are utilized in this process; baked enamel, satin alumilite, brite alumi- lite and satin/oxydized bronze. Baked enamel is superior and the only process discussed here. Advantages (1) Very durable-~lasts. (2) Weatherproof. 187 (3) Resistant to extreme temperatures, ultra violet radiation, rust, chipping, cracking, fading, fracturing, expansion. (4) Multicolor--takes durable enamel paint. (5) Easy to mount. '(6) No reflection problems. (7) Easy maintenance. Disadvantages (1) Limited in graphic detail. (2) Limited to use of flat colors. (3) Numerous steps in production. (4) Requires a positive 3 - D plate (Dycril). Cost Fifty cents per square inch. Analysis This product is extremely durable and handsome in appearance, however, the major disadvantage is cost. When compared to other materials the cost of this material is a drawback. TYPE: Wood. Discussion Wood is presently the most utilized material. When looking for good quality wood check against the following 188 criteria provided by Cooper,131 (1) ease of routing and working the wood, (2) gluability, (3) natural durability or ease of preservative treatment, (4) finishing characteristics, (5) occurrence of extrative stains and resins and their effect on finishes, (6) dimensional stability, and (7) resistance to checking and raised and loosened grain. Also since wood (both lumber and plywood) is used often in numerous sign shops, valuable information extracted in summary form from Cooper's study is presented. (A) If cheaper paint is used it may not last as long and therefore, may be more expensive in the long run; (B) Plywood is more economical if signs are over eight inches wide, but lumber is more economical if signs are under eight inches wide (slat signs); (C) Lumber usually requires crosscutting, routing, sanding and finishing equipment. Large edge-glued signs require facilities and machines for clamping, grooving, Splinning, boring and planing. Exhaust systems and handling devices are also required; (D) Air dry wood to average moisture content expect- ed when it will be in service. Green wood will shrink in service; (E) Plywood reduces required labor and eliminates edge—gluing; 1316. Cooper, Durable Rustic Wooden Signboards (St. Paul, Minnesota: North Central Forest Experiment Station, 1969), p. 8. 189 (F) ‘If large signs are irregularly shaped a medium density overlaid plywood is better than edge-glued lumber because layout can be done without regard to grain direction; (G) Grade: higher grades have fewer natural defects and is more expensive than lower grades. For short slat signs it is advisable to use lower grades because it is cheaper. Avoid pitchpockets, bark pockets, the pith, knots and splits. Naturally occurring stains no problem if sign is to be painted; (H) Difference between lumber and plywood: (l) Plywood panels have greater uniformity in strength than edge-glued lumber panels of equal length and width. (2) Plywood shrinks and swells less than lumber, and dimensional changes are about the same along the panel and across the panel. (3) Plywood has greater resistance to splitting than lumber, but it face-and end-checks more than flat-grained lumber of the same species. (4) Plywood has little tendency to warp, whereas poorly seasoned lumber and lumber without straight grain may warp badly in service. (5) Plywood veneers contain lathe checks that may open and cause finish failure where the end grain appears on all four signboard (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 190 edges. Lathe checks are not present in lumber, but seasoning end checks are often present. Most plywood face veneers are 3/32 or 1/8 inch thick and routing letters deeper than 1/8 inch results in excessive bit wear at the abrasive plywood glue line. Thicker face veneers, available on Special order, eliminate glue-line routing. Many plywood inner plies contain voids where they are split or not tightly butted. Lumber sometimes contains pitch and bark pockets, but they are usually not as fre- quent as voids in exterior grade plywood. Most plywood is dried to about a twelve percent moisture content whereas lumber can be purchased ranging from an eight percent moisture content to green condition. Plywood is available from some manufactur- ers as precut Sign blanks; often the manu- facturers can also provide prefinished or custom overlaid blanks. Commercial standards for softwood plywood, are established and lumber is sold by grade, but differing production practices among lumber manufacturers result in lumber size differences; 191 (I) Ultra-violet radiation degrades finishes and wood tissue. Pigmented finishes are more sun resistant than clear finishes; ,(J) Rain, snow, dew and changing humidity cause moisture fluctuations that are damaging to wood and finishes. Windborne particles erode finishes. Atmospheric pollutants attack finishes. Warm, wet climates favor decay andinsect attack. Birds, rodents and game animals mutilate signs. Some rodents are attracted to the glue used; (K) Maintenance of wooden signs is generally high in terms of cost and time; (L) Plywood edges should be sealed for best appear— ance and durability. This can be achieved by a good aluminum paint; and (M) High density exterior grade plywood is the type most commonly used. Commonly used wood types are Douglas Fir, Red Pine, Jack Pine, Eastern Spruce, White Pine, Red- wood, Purple heart. Costs Dependant on local supply and demand characteristics. Analysis Although wood is still a prime material in inter- pretive signage, it has less durability than other methods. It is also less flexible and requires a major maintenance programme. As the price of wood is high today, this material is seen as replaceable in many instances. 192 Its major contribution is the so-called rustic appearance fitting in well with a park environment. TYPE: Plexiglass. Discussion Acrylic plastic that has potential use as a protec- tive screen over another material or as a sign itself. Advantages (1) Available in tranSparent (colorless) or trans- lucent form. (2) The transparent form transmits about ninety- two percent white light while the translucent form transmits about sixty-five percent. (3) Light in weight. (4) Resistant to impact, fire. (5) Durable and weatherproof. (6) Lasts up to twenty-five years. (7) Maintenance is at a minimum. Disadvantages (1) Artificial appearance. (2) Highly reflective. (3) Can be vandalized. Costs $2.00/sq. ft. at &" thickness. 5m; junC' good As a suit used for Two It 1 RES! TYP] pla the sex gr: de in a1 193 Analysis > For the protection of exhibits or displays in con- junction with an interpretive Sign system this material is good as it permits easy manipulation to change the content. As a sign material in the out-of—coors it is also well suited when used in letter form. There are various kinds of acrylic that can be used, plexiglass is only one kind. For example Lexan is used for its greater ability against high impact projectiles. Two pieces spaced about one half inch apart is bullet proof. It averages about $4.10/sq. ft. at one quarter inch thick- ness. TYPE: Reflective sheeting. Discussion Microscopic glass bead lenses are bonded in a hard plastic._ Each head is an Optically perfect retro-reflector that efficiently bounces incoming light directly back to its source without glare. Available in three grades--the Engineer grade has the highest performance and is the most durable under all weather conditions. Durable up to seven years but idependent on (1) substrate selection and preparation, (2) exposure conditions and (3) maintenance. Available in numerous colors and has a high performance rating under all weather conditions. It is also relatively easy to clean and maintain. 194 ‘ Costs One dollar and thirty-five cents per sheet (24" x 30"). Analysis Highly useful for places where signs come in contact with motor vehicles. Minimal use for interpretive signs except in instances such as interpretive snowmobile trails or the like. TYPE: Vinyl Film and Markers. Discussion Multicolored, dimensionally stable glossy film that is able to withstand severe weather and handling conditions. Usually pressure sensitive and can last up to seven years depending on quality purchased. It is fungistatic and resist- ant to fire. Cost Not available. Analysis Good protective film especially where there is a high vandalism rate because it can be replaced cheaply. TYPE: Polyester Films and Markers. Discussion This material is tough, dimensionally stable and effective both indoors and out. It is limited in color 195 range available with a durability rating of two to three years. It is fungistatic and resistant to water and salt. Costs Not available. Analysis Good for places where vandalism is extremely high because of its inexpensive cost and limited durability. TYPE: Wood Finishes (Material adapted from C00per).132 Discussion (l) Enamel - These are natural or synthetic varnish- es or lacquers to which opaque pigments have been added. Varnish enamels are usually the most dureable finishes. Pigmented nitro-cellulose lacquers are brittle and not durable. Varnish—base enamels form smooth, tough elastic films with better wearing properties than paints and trans- parent finishes. Furthermore, enamels dry faster than oil paints. However, enamels differ greatly in their properties according to their formulations. Usually the best enamels are the most expensive. (2) Paints - Paints consist of finely ground nig- ments in a liquid vehicle. They protect the wood from weathering actions and splintering but do not prevent decay. 1326. Cooper, Durable Rustic Wooden Signboards (St. Paul, Minnesota: North Central Forest Experiment Station, 1969), p. 11. 196 Two general types are in wide spread use on signs, oil paints and emulsion paints. Water vapor generally passes through emulsion paints more readily than through oil paints, and water vapor blistering may be greatly reduced. Such emulsion paints are sometimes called exterior latex or water- base paints. The most widely used emulsion paints for signs are the acrylic resin and vinyl resin types. Both types usually dry faster, are more fade-resistant, and spread easier than oil paints. However, the emulsion paints may require more coats to build up the same thickness as an oil paint; and they can be stained by extratives. Some exterior emulsion paints are very durable and some are almost useless; further- more, emulsion paint durability depends on how long the film has cured before it is exposed to rain. ' Oil paints, if properly applied will last more than three years without failures on wood signs. (3) Semi-Opaque Pigmented - These differ from paints in that they penetrate the wood. These stains do not raise the grain, and the colors are fairly light resistant. Furthermore, pigmented oil stains that penetrate wood sur- faces do not blister, crack or peel. They are very durable on tough-sawn lumber, but on planed surfaces of signs they erode in about four years. However, stain finishes are easily refurbished. Often a roller-applied coat of boiled linseed oil will brighten a stain that has not lost its pigmentation. 197 (4) Varnishes - Transparent finishes, such as these, are usually not satisfactory on signs. Ultra-violet radia- tion causes photo chemical degradation of the finishes and of the wood fibers holding the finish. (5) Lacquers - Clear lacquers are rapid drying, how- ever, the film created is brittle and dimensional changes in the substrate often rupture the film. They are not durable on signs and usually begin to fail in less than one year. m In any discussion on signage the method of support is also important. For the most part the previous state- ments apply to potential kinds of material for posts. How- ever, the use of wood demands that preservatives be applied. Pressure treatment of the wood is the most superior method because the greatest penetration of the wood by a sufficient amount of preservative is achieved. Possible preservatives 133 as taken from Park Auto Barriers is as follows: (a) cresote and solutions containing cresote (not used if possibility of staining clothing exists), (b) oil—borne solutions in which petroleum oil acts as the vehicle for toxic chemicals such as copper napthenate and pentachlorphenol and (c) water-borne solutions using chemicals such as chrom- ated zinc chloride and zinc meta-arsenite. 133W. Wilcox, ed., Park Auto Barriers (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State College Agricultural Station and Co-Operative Extension Service), p. 5. 198 Miscellaneous There are numerous ways of producing interpretive signs in addition to the materials previously listed. How- ever, the base of those materials are similar to the base of other methods; that is, the base may be aluminum, however, instead of a sign the process may be lettering of aluminum letters directly on a variety of substrates. Table 21 lists other possible sign products that can easily be secured from a local supplier dealing in signs, lettering, graphics, art materials (art store), hardware, lumber and the like. In the search for possible sign material (eSpecially when concerned with price) only one's imagina- tion is the drawback. Pages 199 to 212, give examples of these other methods inclusive of characteristics and prices. Often signs per say, are not the most effective means of communication in a park. Also, signs can be more expensive than composing your own communication device. For example, letters on buildings can adequately be used merely by using the structure as the background. Since individual letters and numbers are of use they are in~ corporated into this publication. TYPE: Plastic (formed). Characteristics Light weight, available in colors, durable to normal weathering. 199 TABLE 21 LIST OF POTENTIAL SIGN PRODUCING . PROCESSES AND MATERIAL PROCESS MATERIAL Lettering, Numbering Plastic (acrylic, laminated, Arrows and Stencils polyester and the like). Bronze Baked Enamel Cast Aluminum Vinyl Cloth, Vinyl Strip Plexiglass Wood, lumber and plywood Etched Aluminum Brass Plus others.' Tags and Markers Cloth Aluminum Galvenized Steel Silver Aluminum Foil Plus others. Plaques Bronze Brass Aluminum Plus Others. 200 Mounting Flush and stand-off. Prices Height Width Stroke Weight Cost Egyptian Round Face 6" 7/8" 1;" 6 oz. 2.10 ea. Egyptian Flat Face 6" l" 1 3/4" 6 oz. 2.25 ea. 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