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A ' v " .k 6.1.494" ,.. , .‘ 3.4.1349 ; Ad \ I n shy (;.{,m"fW;flM§-‘~W ,. thesis entitled , K1 "NEChanization of Agriculture in presented by -_. 1- - e... Rug-MW” Nuredin N. Mohsenin . f \‘f‘n has been accepted towards fulfillment - ‘3'? 0- f‘fij ‘ SUV-3:50! of the requirements for rt ' _ ‘ ~ ,‘w ‘y‘ -, TIM ‘ (- I « L (“1: M,S, degree in Agricultgral Engineering . 'l' ,. ‘ “48959“ ‘:‘t ‘ . 1* . r'l.'. \ 7(7))7.‘ Major professo .2 3“ 2’ Date NOV- 2’4: 1953 ~ . . . ..'Q‘ - .‘V. .- . . ‘: s .. . . w «9% ' " ' ‘ - » ’ ’1‘1.;7‘2'?g:. ._ ,q‘.’ _ . p'f’D‘.".O'. ‘. .3'. ' ' ' ‘ 0 v . .- ‘ .:., ‘ , ' ' b 0’ A r I F A. MECHANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE INIRAN By NUREDIN N. MOHSDJIN A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of mm OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Bigineering 1953 THESIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks and appreciation to Professor H. F. McColly under whose guidance and assistance this study was undertaken. He is also greatly indebted to friends and colleagues in Iran who have assisted in securing information either direct from the farmers or from the government sources. Special acknowledgement is due to Mr. Iraj Nuban of the Iranian Ministry of Agriculture for his help in taking same of the pictures used in this manuscript. The writer appreciates the valuable information received from Mr. R. V. Ramiah, of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, in regard to investigations conducted at the Institute for improvement of the bullock- drawn implements. fifi'?fi1’l(l MECHANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE IN IRAN Nuredin N. Mohsenin AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science ‘ in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Engineering Year 1953 Approved 7% 7- >27 flag, _ NUREDI N MOE-is EN IN A 85 THAC ‘1‘ About 78 percent of the Iranian pOpulation is engaged in farming of only one—third of the total cultivable land with the most grimitive methods and tools of agriculture. DevelOpment of irrigation water for the other two-thirds of land nlus modernization and mechani7ation of agriculture constitute the first steps toward economic development in Iran. The imnrovement of the nresent agricultural implements and the de- sign of ways and moans by which a Persian neasant can he given the bene- fits of modern farm equipment and thus a greater income have been the purpose of this study. Some of the criblems of agricultural mechanization in Iran are as follows: (1) lack of a stress, stable, and well-financed government, (2) landlordism and share cropning, (3) low income of farmers and high cost of imported machinery, (h) lack of education and transportation, (5) shortage of trained personnel, (6) displacement of farm labor, (7) presence of irrigation borders and saving of straw in mechanized harvesting of crains, and (8) the improvement of the rresent agricultural implements. The low—income peasant can be civen the benefits of modern farm e— quipment either through farm machinery cooperatives or through custom work. An illustrative example of a farm machinery coocorative snowed that a lO-acre farmer can save up to l,lh0 hours of time. Working these hours in rural industries will enable the farmer to rev his co—on share of eXnenses and bring additional income to his family. The limited number if trac ors and farm vaccine y in Iran can be used most efficiently t rough specialized custom organizationsrwhich are su plied with work shops, mechanics, agronomists, skillcinVerators, in 4_ ‘ N UREDIN MOHSENIN ABSTRACT addition to a complete line of machinery. The construction of irrigation borders with a border drag can fa- cilitate the Operation of combine and other machinery. From the nine methods which can be developed for harvesting of grains and saving of straw, the combine—buncher and binder-thresher methods were selected. Com arisen showed that despite the high cost of imported twine and the large demand of labor, the binder-thresher method would be the cheapest method of harvesting. manual narvesting was proved to be 3.7 times as exnensive. To meet the demands of a peasant whose average investment in agri- cultural equipment does not exceed 10 to 15 dollars is the most difficult problem faced by an agricultural enpineer. Better methods of yoking oxen, design and construction of imoroved plows and harrows, small an- imal-drawn grain drills, hand or animal-ooerated winnowers, and animal— drawn border dikers are among the problems to be handled by the agricul- tural engineer. To illustrate how the modern agricultural machinery fits into the production of crops under the Iranian conditions, eiah farming situations were considered and the preper machinery was selected. On the flat plains of Iran where several machines can be used in series combination, the extent to which such combinations are economicailv justified was found to he a problem which requires further study. he tnree nomographs which were developed for findinc iima loss caused by idle-travel at ends of small fields, for selection of tractor size, and for selection of till- age and harvesting equipment, showed the application of this graphic aid in the selection of farm machinerv. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . TABLE OF CONTENTS Land and Topography . . . . Climate and Rainfall. . Soil and Soil Erosion . gv‘ter . C 0 . C O O Forests and Pastures Mineral Resources 0 o o o o o o o 0 011 md Coal O O I O O O O O O O 0 Fisheries . . . . TranSportation . . . Industry . . . . . . The People . . . . . Education and Public Health. . . . II. AGRICULTURE IN IRAN . . . . . . . . Persian Peasantry Irrigation Sources of Water for Irrigation Free-flowing open channel . Ghanat system . . . . . . . Water from wells. . . . . . DeveIOpment of Water for Irrigation . . Farming Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13 15 17 18 21 22 25 26 30 3b 3b 37 37 37 38 h2 h2 L6 16 Soil Fertility and Yield . . . . . . . Harvesting and Threshing . . . . . . . Labor Requirement for Crop Production. Introduction of Modern Machinery Agricultural Regions Northwest Region CaSpian Region . Northeast Region Southeast Region Southwest Region and 0 Western Region . . . Central Plateau Region PrOdUCts 0 Classification of Farms . .{ Agricultural Instititutions Point Four Program in Iran III. 1. Class I Farms . . . . Class II Farms. . . Class III Farms . . . . PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL NECEJANIZATION IN POSED SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . Lack of strong, stable, and well financed government. The Iranian Seven-Year Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . Land Ownership and Share Cropping . . . . . . . . . . Types of Land Ownership . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . IRAN AND THE PRO- Division of CrOp , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Need for Land Reform MCthOdS Of Land RQfom c o o o o o o 0 land Reform in Iran and Agricultural Mechanization . . . . Vii Page be So So 52 53 53 57 58 S9 60 62 63 65 65 65 66 66 68 7O 7O 71 73 7b 7b 76 76 78 3. Page Low Income of Farmer and High Cost of Imported Machinery. 80 Farm Machinery Cooperatives for Iran . . . . . . . . . .. 82 TVpe of cooperative farm machinery association . . . . 83 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8h Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Distribution of savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Operating methods and policies. . . . . . . . . . . . .9h Labor Settlement in Threshing Rings . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Settlement on bushel basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99 Settlement on acre basis .,. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 SBttlement on time 13335.3 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o e 101 Compulson Of the three methOdSO e o o o o o o o o o 103 Farm Machinery Custom Work in Iran . . . . . . . . . .. 103 Custom work as a sideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10h Custom work as a business enterprise. . . . . . . . . 107 Shortage 0f Tr‘ined Personel o e o o o o o o o o o o o o 0109 Introducing Agricultural Engineering . . . . . . . . . . 111 Agricultural engineering in the Ministry of Agricul- ture O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 111 Duties of agricultural engineering department . . . . 112 Short dourse training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Agricultural engineering curriculum at the University Of Tehr‘n O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 113 Training.of agricultural engineers in foreign countries‘.)......o..............115 DiSplacemeint 0f Farm Labor 0 o o o e o o o o o o o o o o 116 DeveIOpment of flural Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Problems of Mechanized Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Irrigation Obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 viii Page Saving of Straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Methods of Harvesting to Save Straw . . . . . . . . . . 125 Combine and buncher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Grain binder and threshing machine . . . . . . . . 132 Cost Analysis of Combine and Binder and Thresher . . . 133 IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE PRESEWT AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION OF NEW LOW COST EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . 1h5 Justification of the Present Methods of Cultivation . . . . lb5\/// Draft Animals . O O O . O O . O I O C O O C O O O I O O C . 1h? P10W3 e o o o O o o 0 0 e o e o o 0 O o o o O o o o o o o 0 1&8 H‘rrows . . O O . . . . . . . . . . . O . . . . . . O O . . 15h Seeding MaChinCSQ o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o o 1S1!» Harvesting and Threshing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 &rd er Dikers . O O O O . O O . O O C O O O O C I . O O O O 160 V. SELECTION OF MODERN FARM MACHIHERY FOR VARIOUS FARMING SITUAHOPJS O C C O C O C 0 O O 0 O 0 O I 0 O O O O O O O O O 163 Procedure for the Selection of Farm Machinery . . . . . . . 16h Analysis of the farm enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . 16h Preparation of a time table for various farming operations 16h Selection of tractor and necessary equipment . . . . . . . 16? Use of Machines in Series Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188 APPENDIX A o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 o o o o e e o o o o 205 Estimating Size of Machines and Onerating Costs. . . . . . . . 206 Useful Life of a hiachine and Empair Costs . . . . . . . . 206 Operating Days per Year and Daily Capacity . . . . . . . 207 . . 207 EGFCPKU Tim? LOSS — NOmOEFSDh . o o o o o 0 oo o o o o . "a - . V Is',~,,,,- ,. ’3 1 Selection of Tillage a“d Harvcsfiag ecuipmemt - ni_o;rnph 203 . . . . . . 209 Selection of Tractor 312» — Roxograpn . . . . Fixed Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operating Costs . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . EStimating Costs of Draft Animals. . . . . . . . . ‘APPENDIX B . . . . . . . fl .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page as .209 O O 210 Summary of the Iranian Seven-Year Plan Irrigation Project Map of the Primary Groups of Soils of the World . . . . Relief Map of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rainfall and Forestry Map of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . Map of watershed Areas, Rivers, and Irrigation Projects in Iran Map of the Mineral Deposits in Iran . . . . . . . . . . Map of Oil Fields and Coal Mines in Iran . . . . . . . 212 217 218 218a 219 220 221 222 223 BIBLIOGRAPHY O o 0 o e o o O 0 o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o 022’... xi LIST C)?“ F {GUESS Figure Page 1. Peasant women carrying firewood (Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine) 2. Iran — the crossroad of the Middle East . . . . . . . . . . 6 (Courtesy, Life Magazine) 3. A battery of Persian windmills in Sistan, an eastern pI‘OVinceOfII‘an....oooo.o...........1’4 (From PUmpelly, R., The Basin of Eastern Persiafand Sistan) h. Drying of molded animal dung on a sunny rooftop . . . . . 1h (Courtesy, National Geographic Magayine. ) . S. Abadan refinery . . . . . . . . . . . O . O . O 0 . . . 0 . 19 (Courtesy, Life Magazine) 6. Burning of gas in the oil fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 (Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine) 7. Railways and main roads in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 (From Millspaugh, A.C., Americans in Persia) 8. The Trans-‘Iranian Railwa o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o 23 (From Haas, W. 5., Iran) 9. POpulation map of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 (From Fisher, W. B., The Middle East) 10. A night Class on a PerSian model farm a o e o o o o o o o 031 (Courtesy, Life Magazine) 11. Elimination of malaria-carrying mosquitoes by D.D.T. Spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 (Courtesy, Life Magazine) 12. 1111ng Of the 5011 o 0 e o o e e o o o o o o o o o o o 33 (From Groseclose, B., Introduction to Iran) 13. Mud houses of a Persian village . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 (From Groseclose, E., Introduction to Iran) 1h. An old village with a mist of poplar trees in the foreground . o O 0 e O o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o 35 (From Haas, W. 8., Iran) xii Figure Page 15. Remains of an ancient diversion dam on the Karun River. . . 39 (Courtesy, Civil Engineering) 16. A bird's eye view of an old—style ghanat range in the central plateau . o e o o o e o o o O o o o o o 0 0 O 0 O O .39 (Courtesy, Life Magazine) 17. Lifting water from a shallow well . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h3 (Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine) 18. Lifting Water from a deep W81]. 0 o e o o o o o o 0 o o o o o 113 (Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine) 19.mePeTSlanplflo...........o.........b6 20. Plowing with oxen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .h6 21 . mreShing . O O C O O C O O C C . O O O O O O O . O . C O 0 ‘19 (Courtesy, National Geographic Magazine) 22.Winnowing......-..................119 (Courtesy, Foreign Agriculture) 23.ThreShingslal......................51 2h. A plank of wood used for packing the seed . . . . . . . . . 51 25. A shepherd on the Gorgan lain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 (Courtesy, Life Magazine 26. The plain of Khuzistan flooded by the Karun River . . . . . .61 (From Elwell-Sutton, L.P., Modern Iran) 27. Chart showing distribution of the savings of the farm maChinCWCOOperativeoo00000090000.cooco93 28. Chemistry building of the Karaj Agricultural College . . . 11h 29. Engineering building of the University of Tehran . . . . . 11b 30. Border drag for construction of irrigation borders . . . . 120 31. Border diker in operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 (Courtesy, Union Pacific Railroad Company) 32._ A camel caravan loaded'with straw . . . . .. . . . . . . . 121 (Courtesy, Farm and Home Science) 33. Straw carrier or buncher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 (From Dodds, M.E., Methods of Collecting and Handling Combined Straw) 3h. Trailer-type straw buncher . . . . . . . . . .H. . . . . . 130 (From Dodds, M.E., Methods of Collecting and Handling Combined Straw) . 11!, ‘l xiv LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Climatic data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Ia. Soils of the agricultural regions of Iran . . . . . . . . .12 II. Development and production of oil in Iran . . . . . . . . .20 III. Papulation of Iran by EEEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 IV. Average yield of the major agricultural products . . . . . h8 V. Man and animal hours required to produce certain Crops , , 52 VI. Land utilization in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . Sh VIa. The most important soil and animal products of Iran . . . Sh VII. Farm machinery cooperative — Land acreage and membership . 87 VIII. Farm machinery cooperative - Cost of farm operations . . . 90 IX. Farm machinery cooperative - Cost of machine use for a 10- acre farmer o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 091 X. Farm machinery cooperative - Savings of a lO-acre farmer- member 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 91 XI. Data used as a basis for settling labor differences among members of the cooperative who exchange labor . . . . . . 99 XII. Threshing ring settlement based on number of bushels thr68h$ . O C O O C O O Q 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 0 01m XIII. Threshing ring settlement based on number of acres of grain thrCShed o o e o o o o e o o o o e e o o o o o o o 101 XIV. Threshing ring settlement based on the number of hours ' of man labor furnished and received . . . . . . . . . . 102 XV. Comparison of the three methods of settling labor dif- ferences . O Q 0 Q 0 Q Q O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 103 XVI. EBtimated annual use of the tractor for the two methods Of haweSting . O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 137 XVII. Estimated operating cost of the McCormick—Deering W—9 fraCtor o e o o o o o e o o o o o e e o o... e o e o o o 138 XVIII. Estimated operating cost of the combine, grain binder, and thrCSher o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 139 Table XIX. XX. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. A—I. A—II. A—III.’ A-IV. A—Vo 9’1 0 Cost of hauling with the ox—carts . . O O O 0 Comparison of the two methods of harvesting for a 500- acre Class II farm Analysis of eight farming situations for the selection or farm mQChineI'y O O O O O O O O O 0 O O I 0 O O O O 0 Time available and time required for farm Operations in Situation V e e o o Assumed percent time loss for various farming Annual hours of use of tractors and farm... Annual hours of use of tractors and farms 0 Annual hours of use farms . . . . . . . Annual hours of use farms 0 o o O O O O O o o O o of tractors and of tractors and O O O O O I 0 equipment equipment equipment equipment Comparison of physical properties of kerosene operations . in Class I in Class 11a in Class 11b in Class III and distillate Fuel and labor costs used in estimating operating costs . . lethod of calculating costs of draft animals . . . . . . . Draft and power requirements of crop machinery . . . . . . Estimated life and repair cost of farm machines . . . . . . Summary of the lranian seven-Year Plan irrigation projects . Page 011.12 1&3 165 166 165 170 171 172 177 211 212 21h 215 .216 218 “:27? ‘ k~ r.” .h“ ~.;..“f....w. . $13 ...a Fig. l. The tomb of Cyrus the Great stands as a reminder of glorious ancient Persia as peasant women carry precious fire- wood picked from a desert 260 miles away from the oil fields of modern Iran. 3 IN THODU C TI ON At one time, Iran or Persia was among the great powers of the world. Its territories were extended to the north, east, and west, covering an area many times as large as the present area. ts cities and towns were the centers of culture and civilization of the world of that day. Its farms and gardens were famous for their fertility and productivity. Today, Iran is no longer the land of prOSperity. The old large populated cities have been changed into small, ruined villages. The green productive lands have been replaced by the Vast deserts and a sub— soil eXposed after centuries of deforestration and erosion. Politically powerless and economically prostrate, Iran still holds its importance as being a great reservoir of oil and an important strate- gic point between the Soviet Russia and the Western powers. What the future holds for this country, no one knows. One thing is certain, however, that a country with such underground wealth and strate- gic position in the world, and nevertheless, with such poverty and famine in its towns and villages cannot exist too long. Only an economic devel- Opment which utilizes the Iranian national resources can bring economic and social prOSperity hack to this land of ancient civilization. Considering the fact that over 78 percent of the Iranian population 'is engaged in farming of only one—third of the total cultivable land of Iran, and that the tools and methods used in farming are of the most prim- itive kinds, it is easy to see that modernization and mechanization of ag- riculture should be one of the first steps toward the economic improvement in Iran. The mechanization of Iranian agriculture is not an easy-to-solve problem. There are many other social and economic problems which are closely associated with the technical problems of agricultural mechan— ization. For a practical apnroach to these problems, a thorough under- standing of the natural, social, and economic conditions of the country seemed essential. For this reason, the first two sections of this study were devoted to a brief discussion of the land, climate, soil, water, and oirer resources; as well as the agricul‘ural practices, regions, and 0p- portunities existing in Iran at the present time. The Space devoted to these two introductory sections may appear to be more than is necessary. This was justified because of the belief that technological changes must always be fitted into the social and economic pattern of the country. For example, the improvement of the methods and tools for the construction and maintenance of the underground irrigation channels (ghanat systems) rather than the expensive process of storing water in great reservoirs has been recommended. Th. logic of such a recommendation can be understood by an American agricultural ennineer only if he knows the relation of this ancient system of irrigation to the economic, social, and cultural pattern of a Persian village. The low income of the farmer and the high cost of imported machinery, which has been discussed as one of the problems of mechanization, were the rruiding factor in this study. In other words, the improvement of the present imolements, the design of means and ways by which a peasant can be given the benefits of modern farm equipment, and the resulting greater income for the peasant have been the goals in this study of agri- cultural mechanization. The most difficult problem faced in this study was the securinc of information and data in regard to those hand and animal—Operated farming tools which are being used in Iran. The available information on such questionsas the draft of the native plow, labor requirements for various farming operations, and the ownership costs of farm animals are generally based on estimates rather than being the results of organived research and eXperiments. It was only in l92h when the first agricultural college was estab- lished in Karaj, 25 miles from Tehran. Before then, scientific agricul— ‘ture was known by only a few Iranians who had their training in EurOpean countries. The first Persian periodical in agriculture appeared in 1932, when the Ministry of Agriculture undertook the publication of the hajalleh Falahat. Recently, because of the lack of budget, the publication of even this single neriodical has been discontinued. 1he limited number of Persian books which are available about the agriculture of Iran do not contain much information to be used in the analysis and comparison of farming operations. Therefore, some of the data used in this study were taken from the notes of the author who ras completed the College of Agriculture in Karaj and has travelled extensively in the agricultural regions of the country. Also, the Iranian Ministry of Agriculture has provided some data in re— gard to the cost and operation of many of the old and modern agricultural tools and machinery in Iran. This information, incidently, was obtained through a series of interviews between a friend of the writer and the head of the Farm Machinery Bureau in Tehran rather than through any pub- lished material or direct correSpondence.. Due to the remote distance from Iran and the lack of data and in— formation on Iranian acriculture, the subject of agricultural mechaniza- tion in Iran anneared, at first, to be a task of utmost difficulty. It was only the personal interest of the writer and cooperation of others To make the results and findings of this study known to the fbrsian farmers and the Iranian psorle interested in the progress of agriculture in Iran, it is txe hone of the author to rather the most important find- lings of this study and translate them into Persian, so thnv can be pub- lished and be available to the Iranian public. I. NATURAL, ECONOMIC, AND SOCIAL CONDITIOHS OF IRAN Land and Tapography The present territory of Iran covers some 628,000 square miles, an area almost equal to that of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California combined. The landscape and climate offer general resemblance to those of the American Southwest with the exception of being more arid, more desolate, and having greater expanses of desert. The greater part of Iran is a vast plateau, or more properly a series of high valleys, lying between mountain ranges, which also form a wall around the country. Generally speaking, three large ranges cross the Iranian plateau. One is the Alborze range*whioh begins from the Caucasus and has a gen- eral eastfwest trend. It continues south of the Caspian Sea and cross- ing the Khorasan province joins the Hindokosh and Himalayas. The second is the Zagros range in the West which has a general north-south trend, beginning from the Caucasus extending toward the Persian Gulf. The . third is a range crossing the interior from north-east to south-east. Thus, the great Zagros and Elborz ranges form a huge V'upon the surface of the country. The area within the V forms the high plateau'with its own secondary mountain ranges- The elevation of the Iranian plateau varies from 3000 to 8000 feet above sea level, while the mountains reach as high as 18,600 feet at Mt. Demavand north of Tehran (33). There are four principle drainage basins in Iran: the Caspian, the Lake Rezaieh ( in the northwest region ), the Persian Gulf, and the great desert basins. I E5.E{I. {E .(f’lf “(Uh rill if! I..Il| Fig. 2. Iran - the crossroads of the Middle East. The more important rivers which drain into the Caspian are the Arss, the Sefid Rud, the Chalus, the Haraz, the Lsr, the Gorgas, and the Atrak. None of these rivers carry s great volume of water except in the spring. ( See map on page 221. ) The Caspian Sea is the largest landlocked body of water is the world. Its level falls by about five inches per annum. At the pre- sent tine, it lies about 85 feet below sea level (33). Its salt con- tent is considerably less than that of the oceans, and is only one- quarter as salty as the Mediterranean. Lake Rezsieh is about the same size as the Great Salt Lake of Utah. Only s few minor streams flow into this lake which is so high is salt concentration that no fish can live in it. The largest river flowing into the Persian Gulf is the Ksrun, the only navigable river in Iran. The two largest desert areas are known as the Dasht-i—Lut and the Dasht-i-stir. Some sections of these deserts contain salt lakes, which in spring are swollen by the spring torrents from the interior rivers, and is summer disappear beneath a hard salt crust. Other areas are stony wastes, wide stretches of saline soil or deserts heaped with sand dunes, which forbid human settlements or almost any animal or vegetable life. Climate and Rainfall Frye (35) in "The United States and Turkey and Iran" states: The Persian has little of the coMplex material structure of civilization enjoyed by the Westerner to shield him against the onslaughts of nature. The slow and ice of severe winters followed by swollen torrents, parched earth, locusts, and dust storms, all tax the ingenuity of man in his struggle for existence. That man has been able to exist on the bleak Iranian plateau and develop flourishing civilizations is a tribute to his kind. The three main features of the climate in Iran are as follows: TABLE I CLIMATIC DATA Temperature.( degrees F ) - Rainfall ( inches ) J F t A m J J A s o m' 0 Total Tehran femperature 3% hl h? 60 7O 80 85 8h 77 6b 53 L2 , Relative Humidity 76 6h hh L6 51 60 h? h? 50 Sh 00 77 Rainfall 1.7 1.0 1.9 1.1 0.L 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.3 1.1 1.3 9.2 “ainy days , h 3 0 3 2 l 1 0 1 l 3 L 2 * fleshed . I‘emperatur 3h 38 hé 36 67 7h 77 7h 07' Q? h? 3, hethive humidity 3 C3 77 LC 59 L? )5 }u( by (2 7O '1) Rainfall 0.3 1.0 2.2 1.3 1.2 0.3 0.1 0. o C. 0 C. » ( .6 (.7 9.1 Rainy days 2 2 q 5 3 1 1 O O l 2. 2 2 Abadan , - Temoerature C3 S? 56 76 87 93 97 97 90 Cl 69 Cd Relative humidity 77 7G 79 Lg 33 23 ?§ 29 33 19 éo 7G Rainfall 1.5 1.7 0.7 0.3 0.1 0. C 0. 0 0.0 (.0 0.1 1.6 1.5 7.0 Rainy Days 1. 1 1 l l O O O C 1 1 1 fl Sistan ‘ Temperature h? 51 39 70 31 E7 90 89 79 69 57 h? Relative huflidity Rainfall O.h 0.hC C2. EC 1 C C C.C 0.C 0. O C. C O. O C .C -03 1.7 Rainy days ,1 1 .2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 l o Jask - remr rature 07 59 7h 80 BS 90 91 69 87 8< 70 71 helzltlve huridity 63 71 65 CS 5h. 27 63 72 5h Cu 02 B2 dainlall 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 (. 20.3 1.2 h.7 , Rainy days 2 ' 2 1 1 O 1 1 O C 1 1 2 9 Lenkoran ( Hussion station north of Astara ) {emwerature 33 L1 be Sh 05 7h 79 73 71 C? 31 h} uelative humidity 90 37 57 ”g 31 7% 73 7b 32 52 99 8) Rainfall 3.1 3.2 3.7 1.9 1.2 1.1 0.6 2.h 6.6 9.3 a. 6Lh.2 Rainy days 11 11~ 12 10 9 a 3 S 11 13 '13 12 115 * Phis total rev no ex.1ct1v aareevith tile monthlv total of rainv dav: 3, because in the latter, a total of 1 mav indicate a fall of rain onlv once in several years, and should appear as a fraction of un tJ. 1. Extremely high summer temperatures and an unusually cold win- ter. 2. Great contrast in rainfall, the extreme north and west receiv- ing considerable amounts, and the remainder of the country little or none. 3. Frequent high winds, which intensify the effects of extreme temperatures. Altitude is partly responsible for the unusually cold winters and although altitude does not much alleviate the intense heat of the day in summer, it does produce a rapid fall of temperature at night.(Teh— ran, altitude, hOOO feet, mean day maxium July 99 degrees F., mean night minimum July 71 degrees F.) Frost is, therefore, common in most parts of the central plateau in late autumn, winter, and early spring. The only regions of Iran where frost does not occur are the coastal plains of Mokran. The north-west is the coldest part of Iran, and temperature below zero degrees F. are by no means unusual. During summer, most of inner Iran is intolerably hot. The mean in parts of Sistsn is over 120 degrees F. and in the region of the Persian Gulf, l2S degrees F. has frequently been recorded (6). Strong winds blow at certain periods and often fill the air with a haze of dust. In south-east Iran, summer winds blow steadily over a period of weeks which last from May until September, hence a local name for this wind is "Wind of 120 days". The velocity of these winds at times exceed 60 or even 70 miles an hour, and their force is util- ized by windmills to grind flour. Elgin Groseclose (36) mentions that the windmill, so common on the Great Plains of the United States, was first known in Iran (Figure 3). lO Practically all of the rainfall of Iran comes from eastward nov- ing depressions that originate over or near the Mediterranean Sea. These depressions are, however, greatly weakened, as most of their moisture is deposited on the highlands of Syria and Iraq and the re- maining moisture is precipated during the crossing of Zagros ranges, so that little or none falls in the central plateau. Only depressions moving toward Iran via the Black Sea, and entering Iran from the north- west give the heaviest rainfall. . As is usual under Middle Eastern conditions, the amount of rain- fall varies greatly from year to year, and in one case, even in regions where annual rainfall is below ten inches, falls of two inches in 2b hours are known, and in others, years may pass without any precipita- tion. The distribution of rainfall in general is closely related to tepography. As seen from the map, page 220,the isopluvials, that is, lines of equal rainfall follow contour lines, and the northawest Zagros and Elborz regions lying close to sea areas, receive by far the heaviest rainfall. Therefore, it is not surprising that this part of the country is by far the most fertile and productive part of Iran. The amount of rainfall decreases towards the south-east, as indicated on the map. Rain in the valley means snow on the high mountains, and many of the highest peaks are crowned with snow until late in the summer. 0n the valley plains, heavy snowfalls are cohparatively'rare, and the snow usually melts away in a few days. As for the special climate of the Caspian region, as the result of the presence of the Elbert range and proximity to two eXpanses of sea, rainfall and relative humidity is much higher. Low altitudes of 11 the coastal plains give mild temperature in winter and it is very un- usual for the thermometer to reach 100 degrees F. in the hottest day of July. This subtropical climatic regime of this region makes the Caspian provinces stand apart from the rest of the country. Although very productive, the Caspian lowlands are a breeding ground for dis- ease, and in some districts, chronic malaria affects 80 to 100 percent of the total pepulation (33). Soil and Soil Erosion Soils. As shown on the soil nap, page 218,Appendix B, soils of Iran are classified as sierozen and desert soils. The characteristics of this class of soils is described in the Yearbook of Agriculture for 1938 as follows: Sierosen and desert soils occupy vast reaches of desert or semi-desert in the western internountain region. The climate is arid and warm to cool tenperature. The vegetation is of desert shrubs, principally sagebrush and shadscale. The surface soils typically light grayish brown or gray in color and low in organic flatter. Subsoils are slightly lighter in color and verv'liny. These soils are very little leached, are rich in ninera plant nutrients and in places contain very high concentrations of soluble salts. Host of the land is useful only for livestock range with low carrying capacity. Under irrigation, these soils are highly productive of a wide variety of crops, including alfalfa, potatoes, small grains, vegetables, and fruits. Sone areas are too salty or alkaline to produce crops. Most of the statements in the above quotation hold true for those regions of the Iranian plateau where the annual rainfall is below ten inches. Obviously the soils of the Caspian and the northwest regions are exceptions to the above soil classification because of the abundant annual rainfall. The information available on physical and chemical characteristics of the soils in Iran is extremely scanty. For the inprovenent and ex- tension of agriculture, this infornation is essential. Studies of the 12 soil and subsoil characteristics such as salinity, productivity, texture, depth, color, inherent fertility, erodibility, slope, crOp adaptability, suitability for irrigation, and resistance to draft of tillage imple- ments are still among the projects to be carried out in the future. From the neager infornation given by Bahrani (6) in his Farhang Rustai, one of the few Persian books in Iranian agriculture, the soils of the agricultural regions of Iran can be classified, on the basis of texture, as shown in Table I. TABLE Ia Region iype Of 50il Azerbaijan : Tabriz and Sahand Maragheh Miandoab Rezaieh hehabad Gilan, Mazandaran , Gorgan Varanin Arak Isfehan Khuzistan Farce Sistan Kernan Mokran and Baluchestan Sandy loans Sandy clay loans Silty clay loan Clay loans Clays, loans with black soil Clays, loans with black soil Silt loans Sandy clay Sandy clay Silt loan . Silt loan Clays, sands, silt loans ' Sands Sands * Toxtural designations were translated according to the United States Soil Conservation Service definitions given on page 170, Israelsen (SS). 13 Soil erosion. Soil erosion in Iran is most violent and extensive, and it is a serious matter for the agricultural economy of the country. The principle erosive agents are water and the main reasons for the rapid erosion are as follows: .1. Physical features of the country, extensive mountain ranges With steep slapes. 2. Lack of vegetation and over-grazing specially near urban cen- ters of population. 3. Denudation of lands adjacent to villages and farm lands of trees, shrubs, and other vegetation and plants which can directly be used as fuel or making of charcoal. h. Lack of proper soil conservation and soil conserving crop ro- tation practices. 5. Lack of humus in the soil brought about by the removal of all crop residue and the utilization of manure, which should be returned to the soil as fuel. From the above discussion, it is apparent that the use of power and machinery in Iran should be linked together with soil conservation practices if any positive result is to be obtained. Sources of Water Among the most urgent agricultural needs of Iran is an adequate water supply. 'Water is the most soarce and therefore the most valuable asset for a Persian farmer in Iran. As shown on the map of watershed areas and rainfall information on page 221,Appendix B, besides the relatively small area of the Caspian provinces and parts of the north- west, other parts of the country are very dry. Even in areas Where the amount of rainfall is not so scarce, peak rainfall does not use fortunately fit in with the agricultural calendar. The peak arrives Fig. 3. A battery of Persian windmills in Sistan, eastern province of Iran. ' s? Fig. h. Drying of molded animal dung on a sunny rooftop. U- tilization of this source of fertilizer as fuel is respon- sible for the lack of fuel, low yield, and violent erosion of the soils of Iran. 1h 15 too late for winter crops and the period of lowest rainfall coincides with the growing season of summer crops. In early spring, as the result of rainfall and melting of snow on the high mountains, many small streams are formed. No attempt has yet been made for the storage of these streams in Spring and utiliza- tion of the water in summer. Only a part of these spring waters is diverted to the fields, the balance flows into salt lakes or into the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf. According to the reports of the Iranian Seven—Year Plan, the total average annual intake of water by Iran ex- ceeds hSO billion cubic meters, of which, at present, some three- fourths are lost by surface run-off and evaporation (ll). Underground water is utilized either by the ancient method of the ghanat system, described on page 37, or by drilling deep wells and pumping water which has been adapted recently. Forests and Pastures Forests. According to the figures reported by the Ministry of Agriculture, the country's forest area, not including woodlands, is estimated to be about 19.5 million hectares (8b). This is nearly one-eighth of the total area of Iran. Of this area, only the forests situated on the CaSpian shores are thick forests, the others consist of sparse growths of oak tree, cypress, and other limestone mountain trees at higher elevation of the mountains. The forests of Iran have been divided into five regions (see map on page 220); l. CaSpian forests in the northern districts. Much of this area is virgin forests of oak, elm, box, walnut, beech, maple, cypress, ash, silk-tree, poplar, and others which cover an estimated area of 3,600,000 hectares of which 1,500,000 hectares are high grade and dense, includ- ing trees of 25 to to meters sigh and three to seven meters in diam— 16 eter(8h). 2. Oak tree forests in the central and western regions covering an area of about 11,300,000 hectares (8h). Only one-tenth of this area is dense and productive, the remaining nine—tenths are low grade forests without being capable of nroducinp timers in commercial quan— tities. 3. Limestone-mountain forests in the north-eastern region which cover about 1,300,000 hectares of the high parts of the regional moun- tains (8b). The predominate tree of this region is juniper. h. Pistachio tree forests in the east, south, and southeastern districts. The area of these desert-like nature trees, which grow on the dry sites of the region with some almond trees, is estimated to be about 2,800,000 hectares (8h). Some of these wild pistachios are grafted and produce good fruits. S. Subtropical forests of the Persian Gulf Coasts which consist of very low grade forests covering some 500,000 hectares with some I rubber nroducing scrubs which might have some economic importance (8h). Wood in the form of telegraph poles, timbers, and firewood is transported to the cities by train, truck, or animal. A government factory near Babol on the Caspian coast cuts and creosotes the ties for the Iranian railwav system. Deforestation of Iran has been going on for centuries and still continues. Improrer cutting, making of charcoal, land erosion, cleaning of forests for wheat and rice cultivation, overprazing, and attack by parasites are among the factors contributing to the defor— estation of the country. In a country so rich in oil, the price of petroleum products has been so high for the peasants that they have never been able to use this most valuable asset of their home land 17 except in lighting their homes with a simple kerosene lanp. Wood and charcoal are the main sources of heat in Iran. Charcoal is prepared in charcoal ovens in the dense virgin forests of the North. Fires from these charcoal ovens destroy hundreds of acres of forests every year. Pastures. Stock breeding is a main occupation of the Iranian peasantry and particularly of nomadic tribes. It provides meat, milk, butter, and other dairy products for internal consumption and skins, leather, gut, and wood for export. The plains and hills in western and northern parts of the country provide good pasture for livestock. The good pastureland of the coun- try is estimated at 15 million hectares, of which about five million hectares are situated in forest areas (8h). Mineral Resources The work of mineral exploration and geological survey in Iran was started only recently and great areas are as yet uneXplored. One of the metal mines with considerable reserve is the red oxide mine on Hornoz Island. The exploration of this mine was undertaken by a Dutch firm through a concession until the break of the world War II. Besides the Hormoz Island deoosits, there are other iron ore reserves in various parts of the country as shown in the map of Appendix B, page 222. The presence of these iron ore deposits and some of the re- quired alloying elements for steel manufacturing such as manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, eto., together with the available coal and lime deposits indicates possibilities of steel industry in Iran and the manufacture of the many simple and yet heavy farm equipment and implements which at present are to be imported from Europe or the United States. 18 In addition to metal deposits there are an abundant reserve of important salt deposits such as borates, sulfates, and nagnesite. Lake Rezaieh has important iodic and bromic chemical resources. Also important deposits of lime, gypsum, and marble which provide good con- struction materials are available practically all over the country. Oil and Coal Oil; The problem of the oil dispute between the Iranian govern— ment and the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, which led to the nationalization of the oil industry in Iran on March 20, 1951, has covered the headlines of newspapers and periodicals for the past three years. It is assumed that the importance and value of Iranian oil not only for the develop- ment of the country itself but also for the-security of the western powers and the world peace is well known. The success of the projects pronosed by the writer for the mechanization of agriculture in Iran de- pends on the financial ability of a stable government. This financial ability can be obtained only thr ugh the development, production, and sale of the oil reserves of the country. The following information is given to emphasize the importance of Iranian oil as a source of revenue for agricultural and industrial developments of the country.' Abadan refinery, started in 1911, is now the largest refinery in the world. Its pipelines, refinery, and port facilities can han- dle some 12,000,000 tons of oil a year (12h). It manufactures a com- plete range of products from aviation fuel to fuel oil and aSphalt. A plant for production of lubricating oil was under construction when the oil nationalization became effective. Now the plant is comuleted and is Operating by Iranians. 19 Fig. 5. Abadan refinery with a capacity of 12,000,000 tons of oil a year is located at the head of the Persian Gulf. Fig. 6. In the oil fields of Iran every day mil- lions of cubic feet of gas are burned and wasted while the peOple use charcoal, firewood, and dried animal dung as fuel. dutiqn‘nhi A." .W. b .. V .- ~ . _....s_.'-. I -—o __-L-_L. '- '- "1- :. . -Z‘S-LLLMJQJ L‘_-I‘ _ ’h" '1"- - 20 TABLE II DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION OF OIL IN IRAN (36) Fi 1d Masjid Naft Haft Gach Naft Agha Paza— e Sulaman Shah Kel Saran Defid Jari num ‘ has been studied. 1900 1923 1928 1928 193b 1937 1937 1928 19ho 19h0 19h5 l9h3 Year of discovery Production commenced 1911 1933 Daily average production in December 19h? ( in 1,000 barrels ) 73 3 I92 38 38 lhh shut in Cumulative production till the end of 19h? ( in million barrels ) 793 9.6 750 75.8 12.8 9h.3 6.5 Estimated reserves The total proved petroleum reserves of Iran is estimated at 7,000,000,000 barrels by DeGolyer and at 9,500,000,000 barrels by Warren W. Burns. The Iranian Seven-Year Plan for Reconstruction and Development (see page 70) at a cost of $700,000,000 was to be financed by the revenues de- rived from oil royalties. In many areas outside the zone of the former Anglo-Iranian Oil Com- pany concession, investigation of oil in commercial quantities has been carried out in the past. The information thus far available indicates that there are many other areas of major oil interests in northcentral and southeastern Iran (see page 223, Appendix B). At the present time in the oil fields of southwest Iran, every day more than 120,000,000 cubic feet of gas are burned in flares without making The waste of this important natural re- A any use of it whatsoever (12h). source in a world so short of fuel is to say the least, deplorable. project for a piping of gas from the oil fields to Tehran and other cities The use of this gas as a source of fuel and power, for certain chemical industries such as ammonium sulphate and soda ash is also 21 under study. EEEEL. At present, a number of small coal mines and a few relatively large ones are Operated in the Alborz and parts of the north, east, central, and southern Iran. Generally speaking, coal mining in Iran has not been recommended to be a very economical preposition because of the poor quality of the coal which are laid in very thin seams of 15 to 20 inches. Also, the availability of fuel oil in abundant quantity has checked the devel- Opment of coal mines in many areas. The map on page 223,Aonendix B, shows the locations of the present coal mines in Iran. Fisheries The waters of the Caspian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Sea of Oman possess a variety of fishes, among which many are edible. Caviar, a famous luxury food, is prepared from a Species of fish called sturgeon which live only in the CaSpian Sea (8h). Also, the pearl fishing of the Persian Gulf has been known since ancient times. The concession of the Irano—Soviet Fishing Company for the exploit- ation of Caspian fisheries was terminated recently and this enterprise is now handled by the Iranian government. The Caspian fishing products in the year l9h7-l9h8 amounted to 5,0(h tons of fish and 7h,572 kilos of caviar (8h). Fishing in the Persian Gulf add the Sea of Oman is canniei out by local independent fishermen with very limited means. Also, a canning factory has been constructed by the government at Bandar-Abbas. The byeproducts of this factory are a good source of fertilizer for agriculture. 22 TranSportation Lack of transportation is a contributing factor to the economic backwardness of Iran. When account is taken of the great size of the country - 800 miles from the CaSpian to the head of the Persian Gulf, and 1,500 miles from Tabriz in the northwest to Zahedan in the extreme northeast - it is apparent that a total of 9,000 motorable roads (33) is too small. At the present time, only one-tenth of this total length of major roads is asphalted. Every route of any length crosses high mountain passes, and in winter, hundreds of villagers are employed in keeping the passes Open. Stations with gasoline pumps are found not less than fifty miles apart aid in many villages, gasoline is obtainable in five gallon tins. . In addition to the major roads, there are some lS,CCO miles (2h) ()f second and third class roads. Second class roads carry less traffic than the main roads and are narrower and more lightly graveled. The third class roads, which lead from main roads to isolated towns and villages, usually are only a cleared roadbed with neither foundation nor ton dressing and are often impassable after Spring rains. The animal trails which wind from village to village are usually wide enough for a car or small truck to travel and over areas where no motor roads have been built. It is on these roads that the Persian farmer is to transnort his farm products to the nearest market. Often, even these roads become blocked by the snows of winter and are washed away by the floods of Spring. Means of transportation are usually asses and mules for mountain regions, and camels for the deserts and flat plains. The camel is one of the curiosities of nature. An observant European traveler (2h) who visited Iran some two centuries ago said this about the camel: "Camels, 23 Fig. 7. Map of roads and railroads in Iran. Fig. 8. The construction of the Trans-Iranian Railway has met with more natural difficulties than any other railway line in the world. 2b a beast abounding in Persia, and of great use, esteemed and valued in those oriental parts; long lived they are, oft-times exceeding three score years,of disposition very gentle, patient in travel, and of great strength, well enduring a burden of towards a 1,000 pound weight; con- tent with little food, and that of the meanest sort, as tops of trees, thistles, weeds, and the like, and less drink, in those dry countries, usually abstaining little less than four days." Until 1927, the only railways in the country were a small rail sys- tem from India across the southeast frontier to Zahedan, and a Russian owned broad gauge link from Tabriz to Jolfa in the Soviet Union. In 1927, however, a trans-Iranian railway was planned and eleven years later, the single tract, standard gauge line was in operation from the newly'built port of Bandar Shapur on the Persian Gulf through Tehran to the new port of Bandar Shah at the southern corner of the CaSpian, a total distance of 808 miles. Further lines from Tehran to Tabriz and to Meshed have been under construction, but so far, both links are un- finished. lProbably the construction of no other railway line in the world has met with more natural difficulties than did that of the trans-Iranian. The southern section runs for miles on ledges, blasted out of the pre- cipitous walls of deep gorges, and finally climbs to the plateau through a pass over 7,000 feet (33) above sea level. Hundreds of bridges had to be built and there are 125 tunnels with a total length of 35 miles (123). Besides the irregular terrain many other problems, such as the necessity for water softening equipment in many areas, were met and solved. Heavy gradient sometimes necessitates a special sand car in front of the locomotive, since normal methods of sanding the track is ineffective. The cost of this line (37) has been estimated at $125,000,000, all of 25 which was raised within the country and represented a serious drain on the national economy. This railroad, on which millions of tons of American supplies were sent to Russia during World War II, and Persian oil were considered. two of the major factors in the allied victory. Industry Apart from the installations of the former Anglo-Iranian Oil Com- pany, no modern industry of any kind existed in Iran before 19311. Efforts, however, were made by the government during 1930-111 to intro- duce modern factories as a means of reducing Iran's dependence on menu-- factured imports and within the last 20 years over 200 industrial establishments have been brought into existence. The government had played a great part in this development, so that a number of larger in— dustries are government owned. The government activities in this devel— OPment had been concentrated largely on textile, food industries, and small metallurgical and chemical industries closely related to supplying light, armaments for the Iranian army and police. There are nine spinning and weaving mills in Esfehan, where about half of the cotton production of Iran comps from. Other cotton mills are Scattered in various cities of the Caspian region and other northern provinces. Silk worms are bred along the Caspian, where a government faCtOPY at Chalus produces silk piece goods. Woolen goods are produced in ten large factories and many smaller ones. Sacks, ropes: and twine are made from jute in the Caspian provinces. 'Ihe carpet industry, for which Iran has long been famous, has Show“ itself to be much less susceptible of mechanization under modern °°nditions and it is still carried on by hand. So far, eleven large sugar factories have been erected in parts of 26 the country where large tracts of land suitable for the cultivation of sugar beets are available. At Tehran, the Government Tobacco MonOpoly operates a modern tobacco products factory, which produces cigars, pipe and water pipe tobacco. Flour milling is carried on in many places, with the largest mills in the northwest where most of the cereal is grown. Other factories such as food canning, distillery, winery, the man- ufacture of chemicals, glass, paper, cement, pottery, etc. are mostly concentrated in Tehran. The constructiOu of plants for smelting ahd'working of mineral ores has not kept pace with industrial developments in other fields. There is a copper mill near Tehran turning out cooper ingots and comper wires. The armament plants of the government handle some light metalworks. Recently, they have started to manufacture some of the more simple agri- cultural inplements such as steel plows for the Ministry of Agriculture. At the present time, all steel and iron for building construction must be imported from other countries. At the break of'world War 11, a large steel mill which was to include blast furnaces and a rolling mill was more than half completed at Karaj near Tehran. This mill which was planned to use the coal of Tehran and turn out the iron ore of Semnan into rails, heavy forgings, and castings for railway lines is not yet in operation. The People Although Iran at one time is said to have supported a population of no millions (29), today it has a population of only 16.5 millions dis— tributed as shown in Tatle III and Figure 9 . As seen from Table III, rural population consisted 77.7 percent of the total population in the census of l9b0. The migratory or nomadic tribes of Iran, who exceed two million in number, are included in this rural pepulation. The problem TABLE III THE POPULATION OF IRAN BY OSTAN*(L3) 27 19h0-h1 Ostan E6. of No. of No. of Population $322233 ?§:::::n:f Villages Total Rural aural as % Villages) of Total 1 10 122 5,037 2,367,537 2,022,912 85.5 2 11 121 h,3su 2,30h,677 1,b56,177 63.2 3 8 Sb 2,911 1,5h0,586 1,091,00u 70.8 h 9 69 3,896 1,19h,387 1,010,387 89.3 S 10 118 5,329 1,827,591 1,522,132 83.2 6 12 96 3,91h 1,362,72h 1,083,181 79.5 7 1h 1h5 3,765 1,h03,586 1,038,5b3 73.9 8 1h 1h3 h,358 1,080,h38 911.h38 8h.h 9 11 136 5,806 2,036,5h9 1,613,579 79.2 10 8 58 2,122 1,h31,762 1,106,106 77.2 Total 107 1,062 , h1,521 16,5h9,837 12,855,h59 77.7 h- Iran is divided into ten governmental regions called in Persian ostan. Fig. 9. The Sparsely populated land of Iran has the potentials of supporting a population twice that of the present time. 28 x 5...: “Vt"; "h “OJ-'1' . PC 0., 29 of tribes and minority groups is one of the nreatest facixg Iran and her modernizaiion. The tribesmen owe allegience first to their "khans", or chi ftiins, and Second to the government in Tehran. As it might be exnected, a multitude of languages and dialects are spoken in Iran which an arently presents diff calties in unification of the coun ry. The largest body of non-Persian speakers are the Turkish-speaking people of Azerbaijan. The Turkish-speaking people of Khurasan are the Turkaman nomads who are now mostly settled in towns and villages. The Qashqai tribes of the south also speak Turkish. A other group is the Kurds, sturdy mountaineers who sneak Kurdish and live under a strict tribal system. To the south of the Kurds, live the Lurs and Bakhtiari tribesmen. On the plains of Hhuzistan and the Persian Gulf Coast live some Arabs. Alone the Afghanistan and Pakistan frontiers live wandering tribes of Afghans and Baluchies. In the fall, the nomadic tribes move to the warm low nlains to sow their cereal crops. In the Spring, leaving behind some members of the tribe to reap the harvest, they migrate again into the highest mountain valleys where their flocks can find good grazing throughout the summer. The seasonal migrations may cover distances of more than two hundred miles and may take weeks. Family life of the tribes is nursued in the black tents which are usually made of goat's hair cloth woven by the women of the tribe. The furnishirgs are extremely simple. The flocks furnish milk, butter, and cheese. Their wool is used for tribal weaving. The animals are sold in towns to provide ready cash which is used for the relatively f w items not produced by the tribes themselves such as sugar, tea, tobacco, and arms and ammunition. Besides the various tribes, there are other minority groups, such 30 as Zoroastrians, Armenians, Assyrians, Bahais, and Jews who have almost entirely assimilated with the Moslems who form over 90 percent of the Iranian population. The reader will undoubtedly conclude that Iran is a country beset with many minority problems, but such is not wholly the case. The total number of minority eroups in Iran, including tribesmen, does not exceed four mil- lions, and despite the comnlexitv of her peoples, religions, and tongues, all the peeple consider themselves citizens of Iran and work for the unity of Persian culture which has been maintained throuwhout the centuries. Education and Public Health Education. In l9h0, there were reported to be 8,237 schools of all kinds, with some 500,000 students (36). The percentage of illiteracy, though it has never been investigated, is suspected to run somewhere be— tween 70 to 80 percent. As it might be expected, oeasants and laborers consist the great bulk of the illiterates. Allen (h) reported that in one district he visited of 800 villages, there were not over 30 schools, in another district of 500 villages, there were 20 schools. University of Tehran and recently established University of Tabriz with their affiliated schools and colleges are the only institutions of higher learning. University of Tehran, which was established in 1935, now includes seven co-educational schools or colleges as follows: medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and veterinary; law, political science, and econ- omics; literature; natural science and mathematics; Hoslem law and theology; engineering; and agriculture. There are also other schools such as the School of Fine Arts, Music, Nursing, Dyeing, Teachers' College, and some other technical and trade schools administered by the Ministry of Education. 31 Fig. 10. A night class Sponsored by the Near East Found- ation on a Persian model farm. Fig. 11. D.D.T. Sprayinm with the c00peration of Pbint IV has eliminated malaria—carrying mos- quitoes in many villages of Iran. 32 Public Health. Although the government has taken steps for the improvement of public health through he establishment of the school of medicine, several elaborate hospitals in the cities, and a Pasteur In- stitute for the production and distribution of vaccines, an effective public health program is as yet nonexistent in Iran. WideSpread diseases and illnesses such as malaria, trachoma, ty- phoid fever, tuberculosis, etc., are related to undernourishment and to low levels of housing and sanitation. The struggle against disease must be strenghthened by such social and economic reforms as will help to raise the reneral standard of living. 33 Fig. 12. Tilling of the soil. 3b II. AGRICULTURE IN IRAN Science News Letter in the May S, l9§l issue (103) renorted: Remains of the first known farmers were discovered in a cave on a hillside in Iran, about 50 miles from the Russian border. The discovery was made by Dr. Carleton S. Coon of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. The Stone Age men living in this cave knew how to make sickles to cut their grain. lwidence of the use their stone blade were put “was found in a coating on the cutting edge due to the silica in the grain stems. Thus, farming has existed in Iran for a period of more than 8006) years. EVen today, about 78 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture or related activities. The ancient religious book of the followers of Zoroaster, the Avesta, praises agriculture as the noblest of livelihood, and promises divine rewards to the tillers of the 3011. Since agriculture is so important, the progress and development of Iran depends very much on the welfare of the peasantry. ’ Persian Peasantry The lot of the average Persian peasant is not an caSy one. He finds a traditional pattern of behavior laid out for him by his religion from the time of his birth to the grave. He still lives much the same life as his forefathers two thousand years ago. His house from time immen- orial has been made of mud with one or two rooms. There are no windows and only one door. There may be a hole in the roof where the food is cooked. The floor is also mud, covered with a grass mat or a carpet, usually the only furniture in the house. The stable is usually part of the house where heat of the animals helps warm the home in winter. Hass (37) in his description of a Persian village in Iran states: 35 Fig. 13. Mud houses of a Persian village. Fig. 1b. An old village with a mist of poplar trees in the foreground. \L’ O Nobody who travels on the Persian plateau, across the endless stretches of barren land, can fail to wonder how the country feeds its fifteen million inhabitants. The villages at the foot of the hills, those nestled in the rifts of the mountains, their flat- roofed mud huts almost invisible from a little distance, and even the majority of the settlements in the plain, cannot solve the prob- lem. A few trees surrounded like the scanty vegetable gardens by a protecting enclosure, a bit of tilled soil, a few sheep and goats, ‘whose sustenance too, seem a riddle, and some chickens compose the usual picture of the Persian village; in some parts of the country, as in the arid area around Kerman, and in the zones approaching the formidable deserts, even this would appear paradise. We must turn to the poorest part of southern Italy and Balkans to find similiar living conditions among Western peasantry. That the country can nourish its pepulation and that in good years, there is even a small surplus of agricultural products for export is due partly to its fertile regions, but even more to the extreme frugility of its working class, particularly the peasants. The peasant's food consists of bread, cheese, vegetables, such as cucumber and onions and very rarely, eggs, meat, and fruit. The peasant's income depends upon many factors, such as his relation- ship with the landlord, fertility of soil and availability of water supply, weather conditions, available equipment, and others. Whether these factors are favorable or unfavorable, what the peasant gets out of his labor is just enough to feed himself and his large family. The average peasant will probably own a wooden plow, a sickle, a Spade and hoe, and a few other homemade equipment. His total investment in his farm equipment does not usually exceedl£>to 15 dollars. If he is richer average, he may own some chickens, a few sheep and goats, and even a yoke of oxen. Frequently, oxen are jointly owned by a number of families. Disease is a constant threat which may strike a peasant family when it can least afford the loss. Malaria and typhoid are prevalent, while eye diseases are endemic. A1th99g§_§§§fl?§_§§§ibQing drained. and DDT has been used ,.1...ibsral.,1¥: the lack 23‘ sanitatEnaaarel; .as tb.e,.,iac..l..< orunumti: M-.fi_— —‘...._ .-.’-—’v.-— - 37 tion make the eradication of disease a very difficult matter. While the Persian peasant ras never enjoyed the amenities of city life, he has often suffered from the many evils of urban society. The practice of smoking opium is probably one of the most destructive fea- tures of city life which has stricken many of the Persian villages. The peasant smokes opium to escape from his daily drudgery and more import- ant, to alleviate the pain of his diseases and sicknesses for which he has no medical treatment available. The Iranian government is greatly concerned about the opium problem, but it is very difficult to control the growing and smuggling of Opium in a country where over 20 percent (36) of the people are addicted to this most destructive substance. As for the virtues and personality of the Persian peasant, Donald N. Wilber (12h), American archeologist states: The inherent virtues and qualities of these village people can scarcely'be too highly recommended. They have a quick natural in- telligence, a ready sense of humor, and a lively interest of the world around them. They are extremely h03pitable and friendly, and will place all their meager resources at the diSposal of their hon- ored guests. Irrigation In discussing the water resources of Iran, on page 13, the scarcity of rainfall and the necessity for irrigation was pointed out. Although a good deal of dry farming is carried on in the northwest and northeast of the country, the agricultural productivity in Iran, except for the Caspian region, depends upon various methods of irrigation. Sources of Water for Irrigation Eree-flowing Open channel. A system very common for hillside farm- ing is that in which due channels angling off from rivers and streams carry water directly to the cultivated fields. Parallel ditches at 38 different levels along the slopes are connected vertically by small waterfalls which can be left Open or blocked by stones and brush. In this method a large amount of water is lost through seepage and evapo- ration in the channels. A more effective method of free-flowing open channel irrigation is to lead Off the main channels behind dams thrown across rivers and streams. It is known that dams Of this type and their associated irrigation chan- nels were in Operation in southwestern Iran by the first century A.D. Remains of such<flams have been found over a large area of the south and western Iran. One of these is an earth fill about two miles long and 10 to 20 feet high. Winsor (125), American advisor to the Irrigation Depart— ment in l9b2—l9hh, is of the Opinion that since steel and concrete is scarce in the country, the same ancient design and masonry should be used today for repairing these Old dams or construction of new dams. He argues that many Old structures in this country, which were made in this way, have stood the test of time during oeriods of 1,500 to 2,500 years or more; therefore, it seems entirely without risk to use the same old method to— day. Ghanat System. The second and most important method Of irrigation in Iran is by means of underground channels which in Persian are called ghanat. Over 80 percent Of the irrigated lands in Iran are irrigated by this method. The system is unique and seems to be peculiar to Iran, for it is seldom found outside the country. A ghanat line is constructed to supply water for the needs of a farming village and the irrigation Of its cultivated lands, as well as the drinking water of a city or town. At the base of mountains and at the point nearest in a straight line from the village, a master well or shaft is sunk deep into the ground until its bottom is below the summer 39 Fig. 15. Remains of an ancient diversion dam on the Karun River. Fig. 16. A bird's eye view of an old style gha- nat range in the central plateau. to water table. The water table is a layer of porous rock which retains the water which seeps through the ground after the warmth Of Spring has melted the snow on the high peaks. The master shaft is at least two hundred feet deep. In eastern parts of the country, there are master wells nearly 1,000 feet deep which are known to have been dug at least five hundred years ago. Often a series of horizontal galleries fan out from the base of the shaft so that water from a larger area Of the water table can he drawn into the completed system. After the mas— ter shaft is finished, the ghanat specialist, who is usually the son and son's son of the ghanat Specialist and diggers for long generations back, determines by crude methods of leveling where this water supply can be brought to the surface by gravity. At that point, he starts a crew to work. They dig an Open ditch up the slope and aimed directly at the distant master Shaft, allOWina enough slone for water to flow. Finally the ditch is too deep to permit further economical and practical digging. At that point the crew begins digging a small tunnel just wide and high enough to admit the body of a small man in a crouched position. The excavated material is placed in buckets made of animal's skin or rawhide and a helper drags them to the mouth Of the tunnel, where they are pulled to the surface by another helper. Thus, the digging process continues for a distance of 100 feet or more, at which stage the ghanat Specialist locates a point directly above the end of the excav- ation, where a well is dug from the surface to the underground tunnel. Through this well, the excavated material for an extension of the ehanat is hoisted by a rope and Windlass. sThiS‘Well also serves as a ventila- tor to bring air to the workers in the tunnel. From the first well, digging continues deeper and deeper below the surface, with outlets and ventilation wells 20 to 50 yards apart. Fin- ally the tunnel reaches the master well, and the water rushes through it to the village, where it is carried to a suitable tract for irriga- tion. A ghanat line may vary in length from a few hundred yards to a dis- tance of fifteen to twenty miles. A recent survey made by the Ministry of Agriculture to provide the necessary information for Point Four au- thorities in Iran showed that the lonzest ghanat in Iran (22) is 96 kilo- meters and is located in Turbat Jam of’Khorasan. Also two ghanats in Yazd, one 50 kilometers and another to kilometers long were included in the survey. In most cases, three or more individual ghanats, each of which may have several branches, are dug to supply water for a single village of 3000 to 10,000 acres, Operated by 1000 to 20,000 peOple. This may re— quire years for completion. In soft or sandy ground, a collapse of the tunnel roof is guarded against by lining it with cylindrical lengths of baked tiles. Once a ghanat line is completed, the work is not at an end, for it must be kept clear of silt and debris which has blown down the many vertical shafts. Sooner or later, serious cave-ins take place. At first new sections of tunnel may be dug around such points but eventually the entire line becomes blocked and must be abandoned. Thus when a village is seen from the air the paths Of four or five ghanat lines may be followed by the heaps of earth around the vertical shafts as the appearance of rows of huge ant hills stretching across the desert (Figure 16 ), but Of this number probably not more than one is in active ser- vice. A ghanat linevvhich taps a generous water table will furnish a flow of about four to ten cubic feet per second, and at first supplies the power to turn the grindstone Of the local mill. Beyond the mill, the channel subdivides and its branches flow first through the orchards and grounds Of the village houses and then snrewdout to cover an area of cultivated lands. NO water is lost by evaporation, an inestimable ad- vantage in a dry country, nor can water be stolen, which is equally im- portant where water is so scarce. _ water from wells. The third method of irrigation in Iran is by means Of water drawn from wells. Comparatively restricted use is now made of this means except in the south of the country where animals are employed to turn water wheels or to draw up leather buckets of water (Figure 18). The date gardens of the south are usually irrigated by this method. It is certain that wells play an important role in irri- gation Of Iran, for on much Of the plateau water lies not too far be- neath the surface of the ground. Fewer drilling and pumping have been adopted recently and consider- able attention is given to the method bv landlords and the peasants. Artesian, or free flowing wells may also contribute to the lack Of irrigation water. One artesian well is now flowing in Shahriar near Tehran. DeveIOpment of Water for Irrigation The problem of water supply has been one of considerable interest to the government of Iran, aS‘Well as the foreign observers of the Iran- ian scene. So far, two schools of thought are maintained in this water problem. One view is that the government should undertake great water conservationvvorks, on the order of Hoover Dam and the Grand Coulee in the United States. A number Of sites exists where the results would warrant the eXpenditure. The most promising one is Khuzistan, where the remains of the ancient earth—fill dams still exist. The other view of the water problem is that the water supply should be increased by the storage Of spring run Offs in farm ponds and an ex- tension of the traditional system of ghanats rather than attempt the Fig. 17. Lifting water from a shallow well. Fig. 18. Lifting water from a deep well. Lb expensive process of storing water in great reservoirs. Careful field surveys will locate many sites where small dams could be thrown across narrow valleys at points above and adjacent to farming communities. There, dams would be filled in Spring and the water gradually released during the dry months. Such dams could be built with local labor and from the stone directly at hand, so that only cement and some earth mov- ing machinery would have to be brought to the site. Another method of building small dams by taking advantage of the natural conditions is the dry stone and hydraulic fill method proposed by Winsor (125). In this method, dry stones are placed on the upstream and downstream faces with earth fill between. The fill is to be placed by a hydraulic process so as to deposit the coarse material in the down- stream third and the finer material in the upstream two-thirds of the dam. One dam was located by Winsor, where this process will be ideal since there is an abundant volume of earth fill material directly above the dam site. A ditch from a large spring far above leads to the alluvial fan from which the fill can be sluiced into place. On the other end of the dam site is an abundant supply of loose rock sufficient for the two faces of the dam, which would be placed in successive lifts in advance of the hydraulic fill (Figure 15 ). -Thus, it is possible to take advantage of natural conditions and build structures that would be prohibitive in cost if designs were con- fined to standard engineering practice. "The engineer must resign himself to conditions as they are and modify his plans to meet the requirements," states Winsor. In regard to the utilization of underground water by drilling wells and pumping water in addition to the original cost of drilling and piping, the lack of the source of power for pumping water to the ground surface seems to be a problem. If the original and Operating cost of a kerosene hS or diesel engine is prohibitive, windmills can be used to utilize the fairly'constant and high velocity winds of the southeastern districts into useful power for pumping irrigation water. Farming Methods_ The farming of the land — the plowing, sowing, and reaping is done in the same manner as in other countries of the Near and Middle East and by methods of use for thousands of years. The ground is broken by a team of oxen pulling a DIOW'Wthh is the heritage of the Persian glory in can- turies ago. This plow consists of a cone shape wooden part, a wooden handle, and a long beam which connects the plow, through a chain, to the source of power, the team of oxen. The cone shape wooden part is covered ‘With an iron casing or plow share which has to be changed every year if the plow is to be used in a sandy soil. The only resemblance between this plow and a modern steel walking plow is a series of holes at the front end of the beam to provide the vertical adjustment of the furrow depth. But since the pulling force is not powerful enough to allow for cultivation deeper than five or six inches, even this provision can not be used to any advantage. There is no way to change the width of the furrow. The tool, in its best performance, cuts a vee shape furrow three to six inches deep and about six inches wide. Plowing In plowing a field, the plow man starts plowing in one direction, trying to overlap about one-third of one furrow over the other, until the field is finished. Then he starts in another direction at right angle to the first furrows. After the field is completed, portions of the land ‘which have not been disturbed by the cone shape plow remain untouched and provide an ideal condition for the Growth of weeds and other non-crOp Fig. 19. The Persian plow. Fig. 20. Plowing with oxen. L7 vegetations. In this fashion, a man and a pair of oxen can plow from one-fourth to one-half of an acre in a lO-hour day, depending on whether the field is being plowed in one or two directions. In l9h5, when the writer visited the museum in the ruins of Perse- polis in the south of Iran, which once was the center of the Persian empire, a plow, dated SSO B.C., was noticed which looked exactly like the plow used today by the Persian farmers. It is surprising and yet discouraging to see that the Persian with all his contributions to the art and culture of the civilized world has never attempted to perfect this first mandmade plow which was used by his ancestors for a period of two thousand and five hundred years. It is probably unbelieveable or at least surprising for a wheat farmer of the great plains in the United States to hear that in some parts of the world, wheat farmers plow and prepare their hundreds of acres of wheat lands by their own labors. In some parts of Iran, where good land, animal power, and irrigation water are scarce, the farmers use a special pointed shovel about two feet long and four inches wide at the point to plow and prepare the seed bed for the cultivation of wheat. These men, who work in squads of three to six men, can plow much deeper than the old animal driven plow but every man cannot cover more than ZOO square meters or less than l/20th of an acre a day. However, in plowing a field by this method, the soil is turned over and the clods are crushed with the back of the heavy shovel resulting in a yield almost twice as much as the animal Operated fields. In this fashion, by animal or human labor, the land is prepared and then sowing is done by hand while the old plow and a piece of lumber a- bout six feet long and one foot wide, dragging on the ground, are used to cover the seeds and press them to the soil. h8 Soil Fertility and Yield It seems logical that fertility of the soil should be one of the major agricultural problems in this part of the world where lands have been under cultivation for thousands of years. However, in most parts of the country where lands are most suited for grain farming, soil fer- tility is only a problem of minor importance. The old plow has never obeen able to penetrate deep enough or to turn the soil and bring the vir- gin soil high enough to be used by the short rooted grain plants such as wheat and barley. Besides, most villages have far more lands than can be irrigated with the existing water supply, and so a field which is cultivated one season is permitted to lie fallow for the next year or two. This_fallowing practice is the principle method of restoring fertility to the soil in wheat farming areas. The following table shows the average yield of the major agricultural products in Iran ( l9h3-l9h8 ) when the old Persian plow is usedrrric develonment in Iran was the so called Iranian Seven-Year Plan which was drawn bv a committee comnosed of 50 Iranian experts. After taro arrears of continuous research and study following World War II, the ccnnIDJLeeted plans were submitted for comment to some famous American or- ganizations such as Morrison Knudson International Company and Overseas Consultants Incorporated. The reports of these organizations were sub- rnixttL£eri to the government bv the middle of 19b9 and the implementations 0f the projects began immediately. TFhe following shows the scope of the plan and its estimated costs (8h): Million dollars 1. Agriculture and irrigation 165 2 . Mines and industries ’ 100 3. Ebcploration and exploitation of new oilfields 35 )4. Roads, railwavs, norts, and airfields 165 '5. Post, telegraph, telephone and wireless 30 6. Drinking water and electricity for towns 3S '7. Hygiene and education lOO 8. Aid to the carpet industry 3 9. Miscellaneous __l1 Total 650 The sum required for the execution of the plan was to be derived from the following sources (81;): l. The Iranian government royalties from the Anglo-Iranian Oil Comnany estimated about 60 million dollars a year 2. Credit from the Pank Melli (National Bank of Iran) 3. Sale of government properties 72 Li. Credit from the International Bank for Reconstruction and De- velopment, an estimated maximum of 250 million dollars. It is seen that about 65 percent of the fund was expected to be re— ceived from the only dependable source, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Royalties. The basic principle embodied in the allocation of oil royalties to the execution of an economic development plan was the fact that oil is a vanishing asset and that although the oil fields of Iran have tremendous reserves, they are nevertheless depletable. The revenues derived through such a depletable asset should therefore logically be employed for devel- opment of other natural resources sothat a depleted oil field is even- tually replaced. hv other agricultural and industrial undertakings which Contribute to the national income. After the nationalization of the oil industry on March 20, 1951, the Oil royalties from the Anglo—Iranian Oil Company were cut out. The British government announced that it would sue anyone who bought oil from the Iran- The United States ian government, — a boycott of the Persian oil (23)- Department of State, supporting? the British policy in Iran, announced that a loan from the International Bank (principally an American organization) to Iran for reconstruction had been refused because the Iranian government had the onuortunity to get "adequate revenues" from its oil resources (21;). Thus, the elimination of the bro most important sources of funds bro“ E’Tht to an end the ambitious and hopeful plans that the Persians them— Selves had. proposed for solving their economic and social problems. Besides the lack of funds, the evils of an unstable, weak, and corrupt 910v eI‘rxment also have been contributing to the failure of the plan. There b‘ave been frequent changes in the personnel of the Plan Organization; haI‘liament has not always seen fit to cooperate 'I'ith the pronosed projects and the Orean'zation has been accused of misuse of funds, waste, and in- 73 efficiency by deputies in the parliament. At the time of these writings, Iran is still going through the most critical days of her long: history. The problem of the oil diSpute is Still unsettled. The economic and political pressures of the Western PO‘NeI-s, particularly Ekwland, to collapse the government who nationalized ‘t-he oil still continues. that the future holds for this country no one knows. One thing is certain, however, that a country with such under- ground wealth, and strategic position in the world, and nevertheless, Wi th such poverty and famine in her towns and villages cannot exist too lorig. Only a strong, stable, honest, and sincere government, supported with the cooperation of the peOple themselves, can utilize these national resources and bring, economic and social prosperity to this land of ancient civilization; and only through such conditions can the hrOposed projects in this study for mechanization of agriculture will bee ome effective . 2. Land Ownership and Share Cropping The Iranian agricultural system is predominantly feudal. This feudalism was produced by the same factors which produced feudalism in ELlrope. The fact that tillage is generally concentrated in sparsely lOcated villages, requiring a common supply of water from ghant systems with such expensive construction and maintenance costs that no peasant could afford, has fostered a concentration of ownership. While the peasant is not a Serf and is free to leave the land and move elsewhere, in practice, he is always indebted to the landowner and therefore is bound to stay. The landlord who resides in the city and enjoys the comforts of Civilization, is a receiver of rent in cash or kind; he may even sell 7b the right of collecting the rent to the highest bidder with obvious Consequences to his unfortunate peasants; consciously, or unconsciously, he is in effect an exploiter of the land and its workers. Types of Land Ownership Generally speaking, land ownership in Iran may be divided into four main types; 1) lands ovned by large landowners, 2) state lands 3) en- do‘ment lands, and h) lands owned by peasants. According to a report by the Iranian Seven Year Plan, only five percent of the lands under 0111 tivati on belong to those who actually cultivate it (3'5). The majority of these lands fall in the Class I farms while the lands of the Class II farms involves the other three types of ownership. The lands of the Class III farms are mostly underdeveloned and most of them belong to the state. The most accurate index of the size and productivity of a village is the number of peasant groups who work topether and are called in PerSian bonehs. Each boneh consists of four landless peasants with two tea—Ins of oxen who work in aether in planting and harvestins their crops. 803318 times the number of teams of oxen may ‘r‘e used as the measure of the 35-2 e of a vill aae because oxen are more essential than the men in de— t'er“"4"!ining the amount of land to be tilled. The number of acres which can be handled by each boneh varies, of course, with craps but for wheat aha barley is about 110 acres. This means that each peasant gets a share or the income from 10 acres or from 200 bushels of wheat, if the aver- REM-e. yield is taken 20 bushels per acre. Division of Crop The most common form of the division of grain crop is by fifths; One-fifth to the owner of the land; one-fifth for the water; one-fifth 75 for the seed; one-fifth to the owner of the oxen; and one—fifth to the peasant for his labor. With such crons as sugar heats that require a great deal of hand labor, more weight is given to the labor factor. The owner of the land always owns and controls the water for irrigation Since the construction and maintenance of irrigation canals or a ghanat SVStem is beyond the financial ability of the peasant. In most cases, he also sunnlies the seed, as the average peasant does not have the man agerial ability, so they say, the storage Space, or the capital to hold grain for seeding purposes. Most of the oxen are the possessions of a few nrosnerous villagers who hire out their oxen to the working Deasants. Such individuals are called avband, meaning "ox owners." tvhen a villager becomes a gavband, as Hayden states (1th), "he wears a hat, and a coat, carries a cane, and quits work." A neasant who nroduces 900 bushels of wheat per year and owns nothing but his labor pets only one-fifth of the crop or ’40 bushels of grain. This means that the neasant must live and supuort his family on annroximately $100 per year. It is hardly necessary to point out that the blame for this dis- 7—3 s iirous state of affairs rests not only with the individual landlords but also with the age-old social, political, and economic system in which a sense of responsibility for the well-being of the land and its “rorkers has not developed. In regard to this matter, Allen (14) of the :‘Iear East Foundation states: "All of my observations relative to this mat ter were verified by many intelligent students of this problem who are themselves large landowners. They tell me that they are part of an ancient system that must go." 76 Need for Land Reform Since Iran's land ownership and tenure system has developed through Long years of experience, much difficulty would be encountered in changing them to fit into any so-called land reform plan that would attempt to alter present nmcedure quickly. Lack of education, managerial ability, and capital of the peasant who is to become owner of the land and assume responsibilities of ownership from one hand, and the opposition of the landowners from the other hand are among the many nroblems which may develop as the result of land reform. However, it is apparent that this Dro‘olem of land ownership must be solved before the country can hone for 81137' real agricultural progress. If land reform to improve the welfare 0 f“ the peasants are not initiated before it is too late, and by those who h Q‘re land and the political power, as it was warned at the Wisconsin ”world Land Tenure Conference, "the Communists will do it for them" (59). In that event, the landlords will lose much more than their lands. Methods of Land Reform Two rather distinctive methods of land reform have been proposed for those countries where the problem of land tenure and absentee land- 3‘C3Y‘Ciism still exists. The first method which can be considered as being more conservative, is the establishment of farm credit agencies and ag- t-‘i~<-"111t1.1r.val cooperatives that will enable the peasants gradually ’00 build up Working capital by setting aside part of their earnings which may ‘90 toward the nurchase of land from the landlord. This transfer 0f 13nd “V’Tlership from the landlord to the land cultivator may be accelerated by enacting laws to enforce high taxes on uncultivated lands, laree holdings, and income from rents which would tend to discourage absentee landlordism. This method, which will require years of education and considerable adjust- ments in the financial structure, for such countries as Iran, which has 77 some 1,500 miles of border with the Communist Russia, may give results wh en it will be too late. The second method which is proposed bv another group of land reform- ers is a method similiar to the Communist formula for land reform with the absence of farm. collectivization and the more democratic expropria- tion of large holdings. The three-step formula developed in Russia and now beinw applied to Eastern Europe is as follows (50): 1. Divide up the large holdings and give the land to those who Vtork it. 2. Develop so-called cooperative farms 3. Develop collective farms. Under this Communist formula, the land distribution takes place by the confiscation of farms over a prescribed acreage and the overthrowing Of large landlords. This carrying out the promise of land distribution encourages peasant support while the new government is repairing its fences and purging the major opposition elements in the country. To become eligible for the services of machine-tractor stations a d r“’13F16‘er state aids, the farmers pool their land, their work stock, and their tools and organize the farmers cooperatives. Profits under this type of Codberatives are distributed according to two factors: the amount the faT‘T‘igr puts in, in terms of land, equipment, and stock; and the amount of lalfior he and his family contribute. The n inciple legal factor which changes a Communist cwogprative fwrm into a collective farm is the renunciation of the "unearned" income, namely rent of the land, and other properties which were gained by confiscation- 0“ a collective farm, the farmer is no longer paid for his land, tools, and work stock. We is paid only for his labour. This is the Comuunist goal 78 fc>1~ zipriculture which was stated in the teachings of Marx and Lenin. A Step that begins alone with ladd distribution and continues tLYiI‘cvurhout the other two stems is the creation of state farms and ‘nariczliine—tractor stations. State farms are used for propagation of im- FDI’CD‘Jed seed and livestock in addition to the "roduction of wheat and c>1ztxe>r food stuff. Machine tractor stations are set up to get maximum ‘Ilssee of the limited available machinery. Every station has a collection c>iT 'tractors and tractor-drawn equipment, repair shops, and a staff of TT‘Q3C3}1anlCS and farm specialists. Each station does work for a number of <3<>c3tjeratives and collective farms. The nrcmised service of machine- i3121L¢=tor stations 13 one of the imoortant encouraging factors for the F><=sissants to join coonerative farms during the early period of Commun— 5—531b rule. Once collectivization is complete, machine tractor stations kneec3c3me important means of state control of agriculture. The arplication of the land reform formula in Russia, though, from 1:}159 stand noint of the free world, has shown disregard for human free- ric>rrx and property rights,is supnlying at a low cost the food, raw mater— j—éillrss, and some of the manpower for the evergrowing state-owned industries r153 ‘R'ell as for the World's largest army. Land Reform in Iran and Agricultural Mechanization Coming back to the question of land reform in Iran, it should be reminded that the situation in Iran is slightly different from those countries where the scarcity of cultivable land oresents the major ‘T31?<>¥Dlem. As it has been mentioned before, at the present time, only (>T“=~—third of the total cultivable land of the country is under crop. ‘PV’ Cievelopment of the many irrigation projects which exist in many of thase lands, the rovernment can open up new settlements and sell these 79 lands to the landless peasants under long terms and low rates of interest. Meantime, some sort of land reform should be undertaken in order to ex— prOpriate the present villages from the absentee landlords to the land- less peasants. If this action is to be viewed as a democratic action, O‘Vn ers should be paid the price of their lands and other properties in time form of government bonds Which carry a low rate of interest. The landless peasants who purchase the land will pay this selling price, the interest, and a charge to cover administrative costs. The total sum can be arranged to be paid in 30 to 50 annual installments. In this deal, the government stands between the buyer and the seller, collecting from one and paying to the other. In order to prevent further fragmentation of the eXpropriated lands and thereby facilitate the mechanical operations on the farms, the law Should require that the buyers of the lands should pool their farming lands and organize farmers Cooperatives. These cooperatives should be directed by the state until the members have gained enough eXperience, training, and capital to take over the operation and control of their OW?) cooperatives. This 'rvithdraw and cease of control by the government distinguishes this method of land reform from that ant-lied by the Com- munist world. The fact that farmers pay for their lands, and their T“33"13 perties are not considered "unearned" prevents any tendency toward cc33‘1ectivization and renunciation of property rights. The functions of the farmers' cooperative should include such ser- viCes as administrating the land. eXprooriation law, obtaining agricul— t‘lil‘al lOanS, improved seed and livestock, and farm machinery and nest cOr‘itrol services from the state machine—tractor stations, repair and e~3'C‘t.e'sion of irrigation phanat systems, in addition to marketing the farm products of its members and other agricultural and social services. 80 Paralleling the land exprOpriation and copperative organization is the formation of state or independent farm machinery organizations to rent machinery or do custom work for farmers cooperatives in order to Stet the most efficient and intensive use of the limited number of agri- cultural machines which are to be imported at the present time. Considering the economic and political conditions of Iran at the Dre's ent time, it is not necessary to emphasize the need for land reform too strongly. Obviously, it requires a great deal of education and un- derstanding on. the part of the landowner class, who also govern the po- litical forces of the country. They should act promptly now and figure out, some democratic solutions before they hear the mice of the masses Calling the dissatisfied peasants, "Join us and the land you work will be yours." 3. Low Income of Farmers and Highggst of Imported Machinery Manufacture of tractors and tractor-operated implements is con- fined to a few industrialized countries. The main centers of industry are in North America, Western Europe, and the U.S.S.R. The limited numger of tractors, tillaae ecuipment, combines and threshing machines which are operating on state farms or the villages of wealthy landlords in Iran have been imported mainly from the United States, Canada, and England. In current years, Germany has been resuming its ore-war po— Sfistion in the exportation of machinery to Iran. The following shows the tractor exports to Iran from the United States and United Kingdom 1n the postwar period (1): Year 19116 19,47 19115 1919 1Number of tractors 128 137 2‘9 b1: 8.1 The cost of $1.00 worth of Arerican machine delivered in Iran was es tim ated as follows: eranian rate of exchange for one American dollar 32.5 rials TImport license charge 10.5 Insurance and transportation 12.0 Agency and handling charge 5.0 Total cost of $1.00 worth machine delivered in Iran 60.5 rials or $1.85 511an the orices of agricultural and petroleum products and costs of labor received from Iran were renorted for 1951, the costs of the Amer- ican—made machinery used in this study were also taken for 19‘31. In this year, the official rate of exchange for the U.S. dollar in Iran was 32.5 rials (unit of Iranian currency ). However, to encourage the exports and thereby to compensate the dollar shortage of the country, in the surmner of 1953, the Iranian government guaranteed to buy the American dollar for not less than 85 rials and sell it for not more than 100 rials for a period of at least one year. DeSpite this increased cost of the American dollar, so far, there has been no increase in income of the average farm- er Or the wages of the working class. If the annual income of a farmer were: assumed to be 12,000 rials, according to the new rate of exchance, ha 1’1 as to soend all his annual income in order to buy 65 dollars worth Of American machinery. In other words, a 1300 dollars worth American tuz‘éthor costs a Persian farmer his annual income for twenty years. DeSpite this high cost of modern machinery, a number of methods can b§ suggested for the ownership and management of farm machinery, under the bresent situation, so that both the landlord who owns hundreds f acres of flat land of the nlain and the oeasant who is fortunate enough to own 82 a few acres of slope lands of the mountain region can be given the benefits of mechanical equipment. The following;r methods of management are suggested to cover the wide range of land ownership which exists at the firesent time in Iran. a. Individual ownership where the farm enterorise is large enough to make it profitable. This method of ownership can he annlied to large landowners as well as the state farms Since the owner is not usually present at his farm, the question of a canablo manager for such farms is one of utmost importance. The managers should be riven responsibility for the results obtained, instead of heincr held to a routine handed down from above. This policy seems to strengths: the administration of any ”I‘d .ject and impart enthusiasm in those who work on it. b. Supplementing orivate owned equipment with certain machines ""1 ed cooneratively. Threshimr machine is an example for this method of Ownership. Labor settlements which alwavs oresent a problem in this tvhe of ownershin is discussed on nage 98 of this section. c. Coonerative ownership d. Custom work. Farm Machinery COOneratives for Iran Cooperative associations for the “urchase and use of machinery is E’GE:L.=,eved to be one of thy most practical ways of mechanizing agriculture ilr} :Iiran. These co-op associations can he formed from the farmers who thrr1~ their lands as well as the absentee farmers of the large farms who I‘Esrift. or practice share crOpping with peasants. It is understood, as Ulrey (119) states, that "Cooperative is an j‘rlsrtitution of a mature society which is concerning both human and nat- uI‘El'l resources, rather than that of a primitive and/or eXDloitative so- ciety, develops in an educated rather than among illiterate neOple, de- 83 Velorvs where man has considerable freedom in Spirit and in action, and it is most successful where scientific investigation and political demo— crac;r have made progress." Nevertheless, Iran has been fortunate for being an exception to these rules. As McKay (71) states: In Iran we see that cooperation is as old as civilization, per- lysaps as old as the human race. We see it more clearly as an express- ‘Jron of a'deep rooted instinct to work together for the common goud, aartinstinct in which we now realize lies our hope for future peace sand progress. However pessimistic one may become about the future c31'Iran, he finds in a typical Iranian village qualities that are (encouraging and worthy of admiration. There is industry, loyalty, etnd dignity; willingness to take care of those who are sick or un- ITortunate, and the know-how of working together. Agriculture is organized on a village system. Behind thick rnud walls, the village families live, each falily usually in two Irooms built in a continuous series against one side of the enclosure. 1; typical village will contain fifty or more families. Within the :Large compound, separated from the residential area by another wall, sire found the livestock, the farm machinery, and the storerooms for ggrain and other crOps. The villagers live together primarily for Iorotection. In this country, a family living in an isolated farm liouse would be easy prey to robbers. Therefore, customs and village organization provide a long—established (:C>C>!T*erative foundation on which it is believed the peasants Will be ‘ble to build a more formal cooperative system that will benefit them and thfiir nation. The largest obstacles are the need for the right kind of teelinical direction, proper supervision, and part of the operating capi- 1:;.:1‘ - all of which should be provided by the government. Type of cooperative farm machinery;associations. The type of co- C)‘7‘!53rative recommended for the operation and purchase or repair of farm ‘nlal<3}ninery does not fit into any of the known type of copperatives such as i‘Qderated, centralized, etc. It seems that a cooperative of this type re- clllfigres different types of organization for the various types of Operations. For the operation of machinery, which involves problems concerning ‘143cal farmers and can be solved by them only, membership should not be — 8h extended beyond the local level. For repair of machinery, which, for econovnical operation, requires more jobs and customers than is avail- able from one local co-op, membership should be extended to the district lev 0.1. And, finally, for the purchase of machinery and supply of parts, fuel, and oil, which requires larger capital and volume, essential for reducing costs, and greater authority and central control, membership Should be extended to regional or state level. Qrganization. As mentioned before, this coooerative movement in mecl'ianization should be started and backed up by the government. A few C301'18mner co-0ps have been established in the past bv the government, but the idea of a cooperative in agriculture as a business enterprise is en- tiilf‘ely new for the peasants as well as the landlords. The project should be started on an experimental scale in some more favorable regions such ‘18 the agricultural regions around Tehran, where the problems of fuel, parts, and repair facilities can be handled more easily. Especially Sel ected employees of the Ministry of Agriculture. should get their train— ing in Tehran and then be sent out to get in contact with the landlords in Tehran, as well as the neasants who own their own lands in some vil- 1 =1 g as around Tehran . As a result of this mission, some local CO-OpS can be organized for the purchase and use of some simple low cost machinery, such as small tractors, steel plows, disk barrows for the small farmer, and some of the more costly machinery such as combine-harvesters and larger tractors for the large farm operators. At the same time, sevsral co-Ops can get to{Ziether to organize a repair station and finally a regional co-op for the supply of fuel and parts. In the selection of farms and villages where a co—op is to be or— £1'ilnized, the following factors should be carefully studied: as 1 - Need for an association. a. The foundation upon which any cooperative association rests is the economic need for it as a business enterprise. Is there really a rip-ed for the use of mechanical equipment? If there is just enough land to keep the small farmer busy and there is no chance for other works in the area, obviously the village is not an ideal place for a farm ma- chinery coonerative experiment. b. Is the land topography and field size such that the operation of farm machinery would be feasible and economical? o. Is there more land than can be handled by the present popula- tion? If so, there would be a .wood chance for the machinery co-op to re- Cla-im more land for the members and increase their income while reducing its own operating cost because of larger volume. d. Is there any rural industry, irrigation, or reclamation pro- ject, in the area where the farmers can utilize the time they save, in- crease their income, and pay the Operating eXpenses of machinery? 2. Potential membership aid volume. As the idea of cooperative use of machinery is entirely new to the farmers of the area, we cannot expect a large membership in the beginning. HOWQVer, to make the Operation of a tractor economical, a minimum acreage should be mlaranteed before an association can be organized. There are cert 3'1qu some other areas, where the operation of the tractor would be 80Cfl1r153:inderation. In this village,where peasants owned their lands and t}1€3 ZLargest farm did not exceed 35 acres, about 83 percent of the cap- iiseilL required for the association could be borrowed from the government according to the following formula: P _ (90%)(b) . (soz)(c) + (60%)(d) ( a ) ' (a) percent of capital government can loan “frlesxwelz a total land of all members b‘: total land of members with farms less than 15 acres 0.: total land of members with farms less than 25 acres d total land of members with farms less than 35 acres. It was assumed that twenty farmers in the village participated in the p17c>;1ect with crob land acrage as shown in the following table: TABLE VII ACFPStvrCron13nd Owned Number of Total by Each Member Members Acres 10 '5 So 12 h be} it h 56 18 3 Sb 20 2 to 2b 1 2b 23 l 28 Total 20 300 88 The percent of the capital which was to be borrowed from the government came out as follows: p _ (15h)(90%) + (llB)(SC%) 4 (28)(60%) I. 83 perc ent 300 ‘L‘hen the co-op decided to buy a McCormick Deering uV-é tractor, a small thresher, and some tillage and harvesting equipment, which required the following investments: Price f.o.b.(80) Price in Tehran McCormick Deering W-é tractor . $1329 352,460 International Harvester 22X38 thresher 1727 3200 MC>3—dboard plow, 3—furrOW, lh-in 250 116,4 Tandem disk harrow, 8—ft 250 11511 Spik e—tooth harrow, 2-section, 9-ft bit 31-50 self-rate reaper, 6-ft 500 925 Total W $759h50 If the total cost of the equipment delivered in Tehran (see page 81) 'weléea assumed to be 7600 dollars, the government had to pay 33 percent of thi_s; total or 6300 dollars, and the co—op was to pay the balance or 1300 (21011 ars . It was assumed that the government provides a loan for a period of SGHrsén years under the following conditions: 1. No payment or interest for the first year. 2. The loan should be paid off in the six proceeding years in equal irfi31sallments plus four percent interest. 3. To assure the proper use of the machinery, the government provides eXITrienced machine operators to be stationed in the village for a period (of <3ne year. The machine Operator is to train a young intelligent farmer of the village who is going to be employed by the co-Op as the tractor 89 dnh7e23r' in the coming years. The machine operator is also to train every farmieazrwamember of the co-Op while the tractor is Operating in his field. ifinss :axssures the operation of the tractor at times when the tractor driver is not available. 1;. The co-Op adviser, preferably the person who has helped to organize the comp, checks up on the co-pp oneration as often as it will become neceesssary and gives technical assistance as well as arranging the books and lceeping the members' account straight. Under these conditions, the co-op had to pay about 1200 dollars per yea]? for six years to pay off the government loan according to the follow- ing éannuity formula: R : 1A _i .1 i (1+i)“—1 + (b) “wheere R — yearly payment ( principle plus compound interest ) :D I _ principle i 2 interest per year :3 I _ years paying interest. 6300 0.0h - + 0.0h ( l + 0.0h ) b - l 1200 dollars. lklerefore, R The 1,300 dollars of the capital which was to be paid by the members 31; the time of the co-op organization, could be collected from the members aczcording to the size of their crop land. Under this method, the share (If the member who owned only 10 acres was 10/300 X 1,300 : h3.h0 dollars. 1&1 addition to this original payment, the member had to pay about 136 dollars ( Table IX ) every year for the operating expenses of the machinery on his land. Table X shows the number of hours the farmer had to work in order to make up the cash deficiency. As shown in this table, the number of hours was reduced from 870 hours to 180 hours as the farmer-member BABLE VIII 9O FARM MACHINERY COOPERATIVE - COST OF FARMING OPERATIONS —' Fi eld operation Plowing Biking &. Harvest— Thresha Travel— Harrowing ing ing ing —0;éezrsating hours p433? year b35 1h? 275 150 93 , 1 2 3 h 5 Operating rate 0.69 2.011 1.09 1111 6 acre/hr acre/hr acre/hr bu/hr miles/hr Opeezeating acres 300 300 300 300 Fiaceed costs: (ci<>11ar per hour) zactor 0.5hl 0.5hl 0.5hl 0.5hl 0.5b1 Irnqsiement 0.b61 0.55h 0.991 2.750 (h>€3:?ating costs: ((i<>llar per hour) Gas, oil, driver 0.7511 0.650 0.556 0.738 0.556 'Ibtal costs 1.756 1.7h5 2.09h b.029 1.097 3/hr 8/hr S/hr 3/hr 8/hr 2.5h .0.8SS 1.92 0.092 0.183 3/acre 3/acre 3/acre $/bu $/mi1e Chiarging rate:6 7 Persian units 350 120 280 2110 5 rials/ha rials/ha rials/ha rials/ton rials/km AInerican units b.30 1.h8 3.b5 0.205 0.205 3/acre fi/acre 3/acre 8/bu 3/mile Gl‘oss saving 1.76 0.625 1.53 0.113 o.oo7 8/acre $/acre 3/acre 8/bu S/mile 1 Gets consumption 2.35 gal per hr @ 12 psi draft. 2 Plowing G 2.5 miles per hr and 35% time loss with the 3—lh" plow. Disking and harrowing @ 3 miles per hr and 30% time 1053 with the 8~£t disk . Gas consumption 1.9 gal per hr @ a draft of 230 lb per ft. Harvesting @ 2.5 miles per hr and h0% time loss with the 6-ft self- rake reaper o Threshing 0 88 bushels per hr and 50% time loss. 2.3 gal per hr @ 25 bhp. 5 Gas consumption 1.5 gal per hr @ a draft of 180 lb per ft. Gas consumption Traveling @ 6 miles per hr. Gas consumption 1.5 gal per hr 08.3h bhp. Approximate custom rates in Iran for the Year 1951. Based on about 7% of the yield. 91 TABLE IX FARE} h-‘ACZ-{INERY COOPWTIVE — COST OF MACHINE USE FOR A lO-ACRE FARLim Man and Machine Elan and Machine Hours Net Cost Operation Cost Cost Saved (dollar) Hours Dollars Hours Dollars Feed Cr. Dr. rmowing and dishing 19.11 57.80 1.00 19.60 380.6 8.70 Harwresting 3 9 . 1 3h . 50 1100 none 390 .9 3h. 50 Th? e shing 30 . 0 11h . 0 1100 none 370 . 0 M4 . 00 Total 58.5 136.30 1200 h6.60 11h1.5 86.70 TABLE X FARM MACHINERY COOPERATIVE - SAVINGS OF A lO—ACRE FARMER-MEMBER Eernses and Year Savings (dollars) First Second Third Forth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Cost of machine use 136.30 136.30 136.30 136.30 136.30 136.30 136.30 136.30 PurchaSe of capi- tal Stock 113.110 -—- —-- --- -—- -—- --- —-- Patronage refund: ' Capital stock cer1;ificate -- b0.00 h0.00 h0.00 h0.00 b0.00 h0.00 Saving certifi- Cate ”- -""" 12080 19085 19.85 19085 19085 19.85 Cash. —-- --- 12.80 19.85 19.85 19.85 19.85 57.85 Saving in feed 119.60 119.60 119.60 149.60 149.60 119.60 119.60 149.60 Cash deficiency 130.10 . 86.70 73.90 66.85 66.85 66.85 66.85 26.8; Hours Work to make . up deficiency 870 580 1190 1150 1150 1150 1:50, 180 jgt Saving (hours) 271 S6]. 651 691 691 691 691 961 1 The farmer was assumed to help the tractor driver during farming Operation. 2 Only feed cost during work was considered, becausemhe oxen were kept on the farm and their fixed costs had to be undertaken whether or not they were used for work. NO extra feeding while threshing because oxen eat what they can pick up from the sheaves. Feed cost for plowing and disking was figured from Note 2, Table A—III in Appendix A. 3 The farmer had tO work for other five men who helped him in threshing. The 30 hours shown here included this Off the farm labor. 92 keF3t} Jreceiving more and more patronage dividend. The farmer could utilize the time that he had saved by working in his vegetable or fruit gagrciean, to reclaim new crop land, to raise chickens, to work for the otJueeI‘ farmers, to work on irrigation projects, road construction, rural irujiisrtries, and any other odd jobs which would bring him additional income. The; czcr—op could Set up projects such as irrigation and reclamation of newr Ilaands and rural industries, where the members could work the time 'tluexr lied saved and thus raise their income. The saving account.shown on the “11°ng Pagecould provide funds for such projects. :11} as much as the tractor and most of the machines will be depreci— ated at the end of seven years, it was interesting to analyze the oper- atixori (of the co—op for this period. The following showed this analysis. .Axrerage gross income of the co-on from the following sources: Land preparation @ 82.35 per acre 2.35 X 300acres $705.00 Harvesting @ $1.53 per acre 1.53 x 100 acres 1.59.00 Threshing for members 0 3 0.11? per bushel 0.113 X 300 acres X 22 bushel per acre 7h?.00 Threshing for non-members e $0.113 per bushel 0.113 X 200 acres X 22 bushel per acre h97.00 Traveling char es @ $ 0.067 per mile 0.0 7 X 6 miles per hour X 93 hours 37.h0 Total 321116.110 Less: salary of superviser @ 30.05 per hour of tractor operation 55.00 Saving end of the first year $2390oh0 Less: yearly payment to government 1200.00 Net saving end of second through seventh year $1190.b0 Distribution of savings,» Although the co-Op machinery was assumed t, . <3 1Wave insurance, the carelessness of the operators, which may end up t. . . C’ ESome costly repairs and unexpected depreciation, bad debts, poor years, 31161 many other hazards of business may lead up to those kinds of expenses 32320 $2390 CAPI TAL ERVES 93 farm machinery cooperative 42165.. $595 $2170 1 $595 $595 .flSJJL $595 $595 $595 8980 $595 $595 $595 3595 8385 SAVING SAVING SAVING SAVING SAVING >aETAINED $1000 $1.000 811000 36000 $1000 33580 $1.20 $1.20 $1420 $1120 $h20 $1190 $1190 $1190 81190 81190 81190 $2390 $2390 $2390 $2390 $2390 $2390 CAPITAL CAPITAL tAPITAL CAPITAL CAPITAL CAPITAL ESFRVES RESERVES RESERVES RESERVES RESERVES RESERVES ‘385 :59; $595 $599 3595 RETIRED 2 3 b 5 6 7 IEAR Fig. 27. Chart showing distribution of the savings of the 9b which have not been predicted in the cost analysis. To meet these em- ergencies, the co—0p should decide on a minimum reserve fund to be built up from t he yearly net saving as soon as possible. After the reserve fund has been built. up; 50 percent of the net saving should be allocated to a saving account for future development and nurchase of new machines. The remainder of the savings can be re- turned to the member patrons as patronage refund. The distribution of the savings is shown in Figure 27 , page 93 . The following analysis together with Table X indicate the savings of a lO—acre farmer who has been a member of such a cooperative for eight years . At the end of the second year, a certificate of capital stock is issued to the farmer in the amount of 110 dollars on the basis of his 10 acres . At the end of the third through seventh year, the farmer receives his savings in the three following forms: 1. Certificate of capital stock. 2. Certificate of saving for purchase of new machinery. 3. Cash. At the end of the eighth year, when the government loan is paid off and it is decided that sufficient capital is available for the renewing of the depreciated machines, the 110 dollars for capital stock also can be Pet—1 red to the farmer in the form of cash. Operating methods and policies. Certain principles of organiza- ti On and operation. of cooperative business which form the essential of the bylaws of the most successful cooperatives around the world should be considered in determining the onerating methods and policies of a. fruit-m machinery cooperative. Some of these orinciples are as follows: 1. Democratic control - one member, one vote, regardless of the 95 number of shares of stock owned. 2. Limited rate of interest on invested capital - not more than the current market rate. 3. Distribution of earning oxa patronage basis - any savings or overcharges are returned to each natron on the basis of use or patronage. )4. Membership open, voluntary and automatic - non-member can be c made a member by retiring:r nis patronage refund in the form of share stock. This tray, he can become a member automatically. 5. Neutrality on race, religion, and politics. 6. Equality of treatment of all members - charging: rate as well as the distribution of savings on the basis of patronage. 7 . Continuous program "2f membership, information, and education. 8 . Continuous expansion as long as an improvement of efficiency and Services are possible. 9. High standard of business ethics. ‘The manager of the co—op should be elected by the members. The manager and the tractor driver are reSponsible for the operation and Care of the Irachinerv. It cannot be too stroncly emphasised that in forming a society there must be enough work to be done to keep the tractor fully employed. m «herefore, it is advisable to pet a firm stateaent from each prospective m‘smber of the amount of work which he would have done through the society. In thisway, equipment can be chosen to meet the proatest need, and the 1rulmber of hours work for tr e tractor can be estimated fairlyr well, which in turn means that charges and savings can be calculated on estimated QQSta It seems that it might be advisable to extend the membership in Order to EFT-read the capital cost. This should, however, entirely depend 96 on 1:}1e possibilities of working with equipment. It would be very bad to 'tgake on more members and then be unable to meet their demands. In anir event, the increase in membership will make more difficult the tang Of E:ock?eening and it Will increase the traveling involved. Every year the manager, in cooperation with the wenhers, plans the rcrnite to be taten by the tractor in each Operation. For blowing, dishing, 87*Fi cultivatinr, the heavy land must have priority after which those f8tt~wore « n~ ‘-.r;Yr vii “ l. ‘ 9 alren’y spread manure are Served next. The manager sticsuld take Cnre not to leave the same farmers to the last each yeir. FCDI“ harvestinc +ho demands should he "et according to area and readiness fVDIT harvest. The cutting of each orOp should be arranged as far as pCDsssihle to avoid wasting too much time on road travel. A harvesting method such as the following may he organ zed by the Ccr—op. With one harvester between fwenty members, as the example given 0:1 fage 87 , a strict tine table is essential. The combine may first Crrt for each member, in order of request, a fixed orOportion (about ‘UNo-thirds) of ‘he original acreage which the member on entering the society has contracted to have cut by it. On the second round, the remaining acr age guaranteed is out also in order of request, and fin- ally, if there is any crop still urcut, the farm may be visited for a third time. In this way, those members who have most loyally sunnorted the society by guaranteeiry work and subscribing shares on an acreage basis are able to have most of the r crop cut in the first round and all completed by the end of the second, whereas, those who have guaran— teed only a small pronortion of their acreage and then asked for a greater amount to be out have to wait to the end for most of it to be done. This arrangement has also the effect of stimulatin? some of the members to guarantee a greater acreage and out in more money toward a 97 second machine. fhe land oxmed by one farser is usually snlit up into small strips which may be in quite different warts of the community, consequently, there will be serious difficulties due to loss of time in moving from one strip '00 RDOtheI‘. Ih‘s diff‘ijlty of traveling can he reduced by encouraging: the members to join their lands together to make a larger fir-21d so that cultivation can he carried. out at the same time and a lonrer gf-eriod of 11"‘.n’r.erru*~ted work can be put in by the tractor. This encomrngement can ourhaps be “jade best. by making an additio‘al Charge for travelinw‘ time. If the tract “r visits fore its: owe Folding in one day, the ozmers of the holdinr share the ’.revelingj cost between them. A cereful nlzmning of the trector route at the beginning of esc}: :re'ar can :‘=reve1t anv discussio'z over this matter of traveling. Charges for work are made ‘37: ho‘u‘s or hectares and must conform to d the prevailinr custom rates in tho MTV-38. Then, at he close of the 7-7891", after deduction for expenses, reserves, etc. bis-3.1m bee-1 provided for, a patronage dividend may he declared. In order to avoid. discussion fiver the 3‘10th hf 1': rk done and th time? t when, the. driver can keep a hook containing work-sheets in d1.1j':li- (39139: on which he notes the date, the heme of the member, the field, the area, the ingolements used, the time taken in field work, in traveling, and ~' ~+ ,l . ~ . ln s uOle‘Aach (the reason for which must be given), and the cnarge per hour. The work—sheet is filled in or the Spot and the member for whom the Work has hem, done can verify it imnediately if it is correct. If he egress, he and the driver sign it. The top copy is kept in the mem- ber's DOssession, and the second is handed in to the manager for We aCCOU'ItS and a record of the hours the driver has wt in. At the end .‘I‘ . 0 Of ”ch farming? season, then, the??- ‘11‘31‘5 ""111 be: handed in to the 98 government co—op adVisor who calculates the charges for each member in addition to performing other sccour. ing services for the co-op. If the tractor driver cannot read or write, the work—sheet may be filled out b3r the manager or other liter-ate person in the villas-e in advance, but the numher of hours 1 orked on the field or traveling on the road should be filled in on the spot by numbers or some sort of Sign with which both the farmer and the driver are familiar. The repair and part serVices and fuel distribution Should be han- dled by regional and state cooperatives as indicated on page 811 . Labor Settlement in Threshing Rings Threshing experiences in the United States have shown that in gen- eral, when threshing is done from the shock, one man and a team of horses are furnished for each 110 acres of {train (.39). Under the Iranian condi— tions of irregular and irrigated farms with their field obstructions, such as ditches and border dikes, etc., the lower traveling—7 Speed of oxen (about two-thirds that of horses), and the loser cost of labor, it was probably logical to assume one man and a team of oxen for each 29’ acres of grain. This, of course, may depend on the size of the ring, the amount of help needed, the number of members involved, and the amount, of grain grown by each member. To settle the differences which may occur in the amount of labor receide bv some members as compared with the amount of labor furnished, the three methods of bushel basis, acre basis, and time basis, suggested by Rauchenstein, and Banner of the University of Illinois Agricultural Exberiment Station (89) , were pronosed. In the COOperative example of the r‘revious section, threshing was done from the, stack. Therefore: in addition to the tractor driver, who was furnished by the coooerative: 99 55.}: additional men were required. The following table shows the as— sumed data used as a basis for settling the labor differences between the six neighboring farmers who exchanged labor during the threshing season. TABLE XI DATA USED AS A BASIS FOR SETTLING LABOR DIFFbRENCES AMONG MEMBERS OF THE COOPERATIVE WHO EXCHANGE LABOR Name Acres Yield Bushels [ Number Time for of of per of “heat of Men Threshing Member Wheat Acre Threshed Furnished (hours ) A 10 20 ' 200 1 S B 111 22 308 l 7 c 18 25 £150 1 11 D 10 18 180 1 h E 2h 20 1480 2 11 F 28 15 1120 2 10 Total 10h 2038 8 ha _ Bushels threshed Rer man 2511.75 Settlement on the bushel basis. As noted in the above table, the number of bushels of wheat threshed per man in the ring Was 2514.75 or roughly 255 bushels. A member who furnished one man would be exactly Wen with the ring if the ring threshed 255 bushels of wheat for him. If less than 255' bushels were threshed for him, the ring would owe him the difference, and if the amount were more than 255 bushels, he would owe the ring for the excess. Those men furnishing two men would be exactly even with the ring if 510 bushels of grain were threshed for them. The amount below and above the r510 bushels would represent a- amOlmts due from the ring, and amounts due to the ring. 100 After figuring the debits and credits in bushels of grain for each member of the ring, the next step is to set a rate per bushel of grain which will distribute the labor costs in a fair way. In Table XI the total time for threshing! was given as h8 hours for 8 men or a total of 3814 hours of man labor. At, 15 cents an hour, this amounted to $57.70 for the threshing of 2038 bushels of grain which set a rate of 2.8 cents per bushel. This method and rate applied to the data in Table XI gave the results shown in Table XII. When threshing is done from theshock and oxen or horses are involved for hauling, the animal labor also must be considered. TABLE XII THRESHING RING SETTLEN‘BJT BASED ON NUMBER OF BUSHELS THRESHED Name ‘ Bushels Threshed of Bushels No. of Men Above the Below the Dr. at Cr. at Member 'Ihreshed Furnished Average Average 2 . 8¢ 2 . 895 _ Dr. Cr. per bu per bu A 200 1 ShJS 1.51; B 308 1 53.25 1.h9 C hSO 1 195.25 S.h7 D 180 1 711.75 2.09 E h80 2 29.50 0.83 __ F b20 2 89.90 2.50 ____Total 2038 8 2118.50 2118.50 6.96 6.96 Also, whenever a threshing ring settles labor differences, it is best to elect a treasurer for collecting and haying the differences. mement on the acre bgsis. With 10h acres in the line: and eight men in the crew (Table XI) the acreage per man was 13 acres. Any farmer who furnished one man will be even with the rest of the members of the 101 ring if he had 13 acres of grain threshed. Members who furnished men will come out even if they had 26 acres threshed. Members Who had more than 26 acres threshed will of course receive more than they give. Con- sequently, they should my the rim: for the difference. Those who had less than the above acreage, but furnished the same number of men, re- ceive less than they give, and should be paid the differences bv the ring. In order to determine the rate per acre to be maid or refunded, the same procedure was followed as in the first method. The number of man hours required for threshing the grain of one acre was 3811 hours divided by 1011 acres or 3.69 man hours. At 15 cents an hour, the acre rate for settling differences was 55.11 cents per acre. This method and rate apolied to the data in Table XI gave the results shown in the fol- lowin 52: table . TABLE XIII antistatsino RING SETTLEMENT BASED ON iUMBER OF ACRES OF GRAIN THRESH Name Acres Men Acres Differences At SS.11¢ ”bigger Thrg:hed Furnished atéltled Ii): AcraseCr ger 3°36 ¥ . . . . r. r. {A 10 1 13 3 1.662 B it 1 13 1 0.55h C 18 1 13 5 2.770 D 10 1 13 3 1.662 E 2h 2 26 2 1.108 F' 23 2 26 2 1.108 Total 10b 8 10b 8 8 h.b32 b.h32 Siszsitlement on time basis. With this method a timekeeper is elected Who, . . . . may also act as treasurer. A form Similiar to a time sheet may be TABLE XIV THREBHING RING SETTLEMENT BASED ON THE NUMBER OF HOURS OF MAN LABOR FURNISHED 102 Hours Labor Differences Cash Differences Fur— Total Hours Hours Owed Owed ’Iours (Med Owed to by nished to A B C D E F F‘ur— to by Ring Ring nished Ring Ring By Gr. Dr. Cr. Dr. Or. A -— 7 11 b 11 10 113 8 81.20 B S —- 11 11 11 10 1:1 8 81.20 C S 7 —— h 11 10 37 LO 6.00 D 5 7 11 - 11 10 11b 16 2.LIO E 10 11; 22 8 -— 20 7h 8 1.20 F 10 lb 22 8 22 -- 76 16 2.110 Total hours received Dr. 35 11.9 77 28 66 60 315 118 118 87.20 87.20 Crew time fer farm hours ) 5 7 11 h 11 10 118 Number of men furnished 1 1 1 1 2 2 _¥ 103 used for recording time except that the name of the farmers for whom threshing is done are listed at the top of each column in places of the different days of the week. Applying this method to the data of Table XI gave results shown in Table XIV. Comparison of the three methods. As shown in Table XV the bushel and time basis give fairly uniform results. The acre basis is easy on the man with high crop yields but hard on the man with low yields. There- fore, either the bushel basis or the time can be used with more satis— factory results. In cases where time. is affected by weather conditions, breakdowns, and other factors beyond the control of the farmer whose grain is being threshed, the bushel basis offers the fairest method for settlement. However, in cases where crop and field conditions slows up the threshing work so that more than the average time is used, the time basis results in the fairest settlement. TABLE xv __, czcstgiiaisom OF THE THREE hETHCDS OF SETTLING LABOR DIFFERENCES Name ! Yield Bushel Basis Acre Basis Time Basis 0f per rate 2.81% per bu rate 55.1131? per acre rate 15¢ per hr *1! ember Acre Dr. Cr. Ur. CT. ur. Cl‘. A- 20 $1.5h $1.66 81.20 P 22 $1.89 $0.55 $1.20 0 25 5.h7 2.77 6.00 D 18 2.09 1.66 2.h0 E 20 0.83. 1.11 1.20 __, F l 15 2.50 1.11 2.h0 Farm Machinery Custom Work in Iran Another method for getting most out of farm machinery is doing cus- to - - ' m work for the farmers who do not own machinery. Custom work is a 10h specialized type of famine enterprise by itself. If it is to be done on a sound economic basis, it calls for careful analysis of demand for the service, supply of the service, and costs and pricing of the service. When an individual owner, a cooperative, or a custom work organi- zation supplies mechanical Operations to a farmer under custom work,there The primary one is the are certain responsibilities which must be met. timeliness of operations. Commitments to individual farms should be scheduled as far in advance as possible and should be met on time ex- cept for weather delay. This means that the operator must be able to make immediate repairs on most breakdowns. It is also the responsibil— ity of the custom operator to see that certain practices, essential to proper irrigation and soil management are carried out during~ the mech- anical operations such as plowing. Much needless delay in custom work can be eliminated by: l. Careful scheduling of work including travel routes. 2. Keeping equipment well adjusted and in wood operating order. 3. Instructing users of the service on necessary preparation such as clearingr out the road to the fields, makinp irrigation ditches paSSable for tractor and combines, cleaning up storage spaces for grain or having wrain bags ready, and other preparations. b. Being prepared to meet emergency conditions of machine break- down 01" sickness bv having available the services of other machines and 05‘I‘H‘torso The use of farm machinery in Iran for custom work can "e arranged either as a sideline or as a business enterprise. mom work as a sideline. Off the farm work reduces equipment 008*? . . . . " ‘ to the 1ndl‘fldual owner by spreading these costs arm-'1? several Machines owned individu— \ fa - I'ms through increasing the volume of work. 105 ally or coooeratively can he used for additional custom work for the three followinr obj-ctives: 1. To perform sufficient volume of custom work so that the total of? Off farm work blus work at home will equal an amount sufficient to juustify the ownership of the equipment in question. 2. To perform a sufficient volume of outside work to cover all trier fixed ownership costs of the machinery in question. 3. To do a large amount of custom work enough to add to net farm income. If the first objective is in mind, work at home combined with airs-tom work must equal the "break-even" point. If this total work can- ruot; lie secured, th. owner will be better off if to custom hire his own unox‘k: rather than to buy the machine. Iiis situation can be eXplained 11v ‘tfie following formula: F H- "Tfo—L (Q) Where H — break-even point in hours per year I” fixed cost of machine in dollar ter year, found by the method explained on page 209in Annendix A. O I custom charge in dollar per hour (3 - operating cost which include gas, oil, and grease in dollar per hour L :_ labor cost in dollar per hour. If the second. objective is in mind, the solution will be the same as 1" tShe first case except that the owner will need to give no consid- eratl‘Drl 'to the amount of work which is fwrformed on his own farm. In oth~1~ WWrds, H in the above equation should equal only the estimated hour 3 C’ff custom work oer year. 106 To illustrate these two situations, it was assumed that the owner of the Class IIb farm illustrated on pare 165 decided to buy a 22 x 38 threshing machine for his 125 acres of wheat. FTom Table XVIII, page 139 , the items in equations (c) were found as follows: F 2.528 x 180 _-; $51155 per year : 0.205 x on 3 $9.00 per hour (Table VIII) $1.752 per hour C 0 L :_ $1.060 per hour Th Prefore: H _ ass - 9 - 1.75? —1.0()O 63 hours For a yield of 20 bushels per acre the, owner of the Class IIb farm could use the threshing machin': for 57 hours on his own farm (125 acres times 20 bushels per acre divided by LL bushels ‘T‘QI‘ hour). If he Idici 11(at take anv custom work off his farm, ohviouslv the ownership of the machine was not economicalhr advisable because the break-even point was rig-3 hours. To afford to own the machine he needeo at least six hours of custom work of thrashing. J.owever, if he planned to earn all the fixed or ownership cost of the thresher b'r doing: custom worx, he must have had at least 6? hours of threshing off his own farm. If the objective is to add to the net farm income by doing: custom Work, Etnyrwork‘which is done in excess of the indicated break—even point in the. second case will bring in income of this type. If the aPDFOX'Lmate number of hours of work which can be obtained in the ~--_ei;r‘r;borhoad is 95- timatwgci, the use of the followinr formula will Show the net income which can b" BXnected from custom work. I 2 (T—H) (C—O—L) (d) 107 where I expected net income in dollars per year T the sum of total annual hours of machine use H, C, 0, and L are as shown in equation (0). Custom work as a business enterprise. The limited supply of trac— tor and farm machinery in an underdeveloped country such as Iran can be used most efficiently through state controlled or independent contract- ing organizations which specialize in handling such heavy farming Oper— ations as plowing, harvesting, threshing and have the financial ability to own and operate a complete line of machinery for various conditions of soils and crops. For example, they can afford to own various sizes of moldboard plow for normal conditions, disk plow for sticky or very dry and hard soils, and one-way plow for fast shallow plowing of the great plain farms. Beside the necessary machinery, they are supplied with work shops, staff of mechanics, agronomists, machine Operators, and other facilities which are beyond the financial ability of the in— dividual farmer. . 'Ihe wages of tractor, drivers and combine operators should be ar- ranged such that provide an incentive for using the machinery most ef- ficiently but care should be taken that in the case of more and more acres , not to neglect the qualitative aspects of farming as represented by imhrovement of yields. This is the point which has been held against the Machinee'l‘ractor Stations of Russia as eXpressed by a Soviet news- Paper (122): ' Our Machine-Tractor Stations are not interested in improve- mmt of yields, in good soil management, and in timely seeding and harvesting. The existing system‘of evaluating the work of “chine-Tractor Stations in terms of hectares converted to plows lug equivalent and the system for incentives for the personnel, 1'98 ults in the Machine-Tractor Stations striving to complete as {flatly light operations as possible instead of the difficult plow- lug work. One must ask what good do the state and kolkhozy (col- ee tive farm) derive from such a fulfillment of their clan by the 108 Machine—Tractor Station if it results in low yields. The objective after all, is not to dig the soil a little, but to create the actual conditions for growing a good crop and to harvest it in good time. Also, poor care of tractor and other machinery and wasteful use of fuel by the irresponsible Operators which are prevalant in such large scale custom operations are factors of Special importance. fwasteful use of fuel may result from incorrect adjustments of machines, wasted motions, inexperienced Operator, and inadequate or poor storage and distribution facilities. CR) encourage the consolidation of farm lands, so that plowing and harvesting can be accomplished more efficiently and at lower costs, one of the requirements of the contract for custom operations should be the pooling of the small scattered holdings into large fields suit- able for tractor operation. I As to the charging rate for custom work contracts, there are a number of important factors that must be taken into consideration when a contract is arranged. These factors include: 1. Weather and other uneXpected hazards during the custom work period. 2. Moving operation from job to job. 3. Location of the job with respect to accessibility to fuel supply, parts, and repair services. Under most conditions in Iran, an adequate supply of fuel and parts should be taken to the job along with the necessary machinery. h. Certain soil types and operating conditions require higher maintenance costs and possibly the hourly performance of the machine may be decreased. Therefore, it is apparent that some additional charge is required 109 over and above the fixed and operating costs in order to take care of the above factors and any other unforeseen circumstances that may arise. This, which may be regarded as protective measure for the custom work organization, may constitute an increase Of 25 to 50 percent of the total cost. If the custom work is carried out as a business enterprise, obviously the organization expects profit which also must be added to the charging rate. Summing up the above charges, the total charge for custom service can be shown by the following formula: P_-_ 1.25 (“g“) + (I) («3) Where P — price Of custom work in dollars per acre A - rate Of performance in acre per hour I net income in dollars per acre F, O, and L as indicated in equation (c). The 1951 custom charge in Iran, as shown in Table VIII, was $h.35 per acre for plowing. Substituting the prOper values, equation (e) showed that a net income of $1.20 per acre was drawn by the custom operators in that year 0 b. Shortage Of Trained Personnel The successful and economical use Of mechanical equipment in ag- ricultural production requires skilled Operators, who cannot only handle such equipment skillfully but can also make the necessary adjustments and repairs. The Persian farmer has never had the Opportunity to work with me— chanical equipment and develop the type Of mechanical aptitude which exists so frequently among most of the American farmers. The Farsian mechanics, blacksmiths, and carpenters are usually found to be remarkably 110 skillful with their native tools, in jobs to which they are accustomed. But as the introduction Of farm equipment in Iran has been very recent and to a very small scale, such mechanics and their apprentices have had no Opportunity to become familiar With modern farm machines. The experiences Of village blacksmiths and-carpenters are confined to the construction and maintenance Of hand tools and simple animal drawn im— plements. However, the manual skills thus acquired can provide a good background and foundation for work with more modern equipment. Experiencos Of the past shows that mechanization of Persian farms and villages owned by the state or rich landlords has been hampered by a lack Of‘peonle trained to Operate and maintain farm machinery. Con- sequentlyy costs have Often been rather high, expensive machines have laid idle for lack of repairs, and excessive wear has resulted from lack Of care. The scores Of Diesel tractors, combines, thrashers, plows, and grain drills which were laid idle in the machinery yards Of Karaj Agricultural College and Gorgan Department Of Farm Machinery were exam- ples Of this lack of trained operators and mechanics. Even more difficult than finding peOple to Operate and service heavy equipment has been the task Of finding those skilled in adjustment of relatively simple tools like plows, graindrills, and mowers. Recognizing the importance Of repair and maintenance, it would be the reSponsibility Of the government, machinery distributors, and Iranian manufacturers to see to it that every piece of machinery which is sold to a landlord, a state farm, or'a farmers' cooperative has the services of trained men available for its Operation, maintenance, and repair so that the machine will function satisfactorily over a long period. Obviously the government can contribute a great deal to this matter of training personnel for mechanization of agriculture. The Ministry Of 111 Agriculture in cooperation with the Karaj Agricultural College are tne two government organizations which are better prepared to Offer such training. Plans for training Of farm machinery technicians by these organizations had been drawn in the test but so far no actural step has been taken. The reason for this delay has been mainly the lack Of equipment and ”articularly the shortage of technical staff. Introducing Agricultural Engineering In those countries where the mechanization of agriculture has made the greatest progress the task of training technicians, mechanics, and operators, as well as engineers and research men in the field Of farm nmohinery'aid equipment is the Specialty of an engineering profession called agricultural engineering. Although instructions in farm machinery, irrigation, farm structures, and rural industries are Offered at the Karaj Agricultural College (see page 67) so far the field of agricul— tural engineering, as a distinct branch Of engineering, has remained unknown. For a country where 78 percent Of its people are engaged in agriculture, a department Of agricultural engineering is essential for the progress Of agricultural mechanization. The following suggestions are believed to be helpful in the devel- ooment of agricultural engineering and its related activities: Agricultural engineering in the Ministry of Agriculture. The present Farm Machinery Division of the Ministry Of Agriculture should be expanded into a Department Of Agricultural Engineering to handle the problems in soil conservation, farm structures, and rural industries, as well as farm machinery. Water conservation, and irrigation activities which are at present handled by the independent Office of irrigation should also come under the Department Of Agricultural Engineering. In 112 addition to this central department, there should be an agricultural engineering extension in each of tne important agricultural regions of the country. Foreign eXperts, at least one for each branch of agricul- tural engineering, should be employed to work in cooperation with the Iranian nationals who have Bachelors, Masters, and Ph.D's from the world's best institutions but who generally lack the practical exper- ienceivhich is so important in handling the problems of an underdeveloped country such as Iran. Duties of the Agricultural Engineering Department. The following are among the most important duties of the Department of Aoricultural Engineering, as far as the mechanization of agriculture is concerned, which Should be carried out in cooperation with the Karaj Agricultural College and other institutions: 1. Establishment of schools for training tractor drivers, combine Operators, field workers, and-machinery demonstrators. 2. Establishment and supervision of farm mac:inery c00peratives. 3. Organization and Operation of machine-tractor stations or cus- tom Operation organizations. h. Organization and operation of mobile workshops to ensure prompt repair of machines and their proper operation on the new mechanized farms. 5. Organization and administration of research projects in tillage, planting, and harvesting. One of the most important projects is the de- Sign of eXperiments to test tractor cultivation against the age—old native method both in its effects on yield and on the soil, with Special reference to erosion. 6. Field demonstrations and exhibits of modern and improved farm SQUiants e 7. Control Of the tractors and farm machinery imported and trans- 113 lation and Publication of their instruction manuals. 8. The initiation and encouragement of home-made farm equipment. 9. Encouragement of some of the most successful foreign tractor and farm equinment manufacturers to establish dealership in the agri— cultural regions of Iran and to study the nossibilities of organizing companies in Iran for the local nrodnction of machinery and renlacement parts. Short course training. Due to the shortage of experienced person- nel, the Department of Agricultural Engineering at the Ministry of Ag— riculture and the Karaj Agricultural College must pool their technical staff and equipment in order to organize a six month to one—year course for teaching the construction and oneration, repair, and maintenance of tractors, plows, harrows, grain drills, cultivators, combines, and thresh— ing machines to specially selected sthdents. In selection of high school graduates for this course care should be taken that these students are recruited from the agricultural regions of the country and not necessar- ily from Tehran. After comnletion of theczourse, these trainees should be given employment in their home town, where they undertake the task of traininy tractor operators and farm mechanics for the machine-tractor stations, and farm machinery cooperatives. Agricultural quineering curriculum at the University of rehran. A curriculum in agricultural engineering should be established ifiintly administered by the {A at the university of Tehran and should be School of Engineering in Tehran and the School of Asriculture in Karaj. The students may snend their first three years of training in the school of engineering taking the basic engineering courses and the last year at Karaj takinpnrofessional agricultural engineering and agricultural courses. Summer practice with the machine tractor stations, farm mach- 11b .. ‘ ._ Fig. 28. Chemistry building of the Karaj Agricultural College 25 miles from Tehran. t . '49 . &' . - . ., . _ 7- t. : r " . * '>.— —- . u ' W " - v 7'. A “ A ‘ J. ’ ' -‘W .flcfl-‘W'-I nun-:- - 11.3. “tie-ti“; 53%?!" Fig. 29. Engineering building of the University of Tehran. 115 inery coo eratives and mobile Hork shOps provide sufficient practical training for those students interested in power and machinery.' - ‘The type of training needed in agricultural engineering under the Iranian condition maybe should be different from that of the United States. Lack of manufacturing establishments in farm machinery limits the activities of those students interested in power and machinery to teaching and research for development of new machines and implements which can be economically manufactured at home. For this reason, Iranian agricultural engineers should have training in the development and organ- ization of rural industries, rural sanitation, organization and manage- ment of farm machinery cooperatives, construction of farm-to—market roads, improving farm hauling and transportation equipment and methods, management and organization of machine-tractor stations or custom Operation organ- izations, in addition to the basic agricultural engineering courses such as farm mower and machinery, farm structures, and soil and water conservation. Training of agricultural engineers in fOreign countries. Tb sup- plement the agricultural engineering training of the University of Teh- ran, every year a group of students, selected by competitive examina- tion from the graduates of the School of Engineering should be sent to the United States for a period of at least three years. One of the ba- sic requirements of the selection of these students should be a good command of the English language so that no time will be wasted in the United States for acquiring the language and the terminology of the field. In two years, the students should be able to meet the undergrad- uate requirements of an accredited curriculum in agricultural engineer- ing and complete the requirements of their respective schools for a Master of Science degree. The third year should be Spent for practical 116 training on farms, with farm equipment dealers and in factories. 5. Displacement of Farm Labor Although most of the advantagee of farm mechanization are more or less recognized, there is always a question about the effect of mechan- ization on the labor situation and elimination of jobs. It appears more or less obvious that for a Sparsely ponulated country such as Iran which has some 78 percent of its population engaged in farming of only one- third of its total cultivalable land and which will be in need of thou- sands of workers for the deve10pment of its mineral resources, construction of roads, irrigation projects, and industriliazation, the problem of farm labor displacement as a result of mechanization should be of little con- cern. Hewever, since this problem has been given special emphasis by many of the Iranian agricultural leaders, it would be wise, perhaps, to discuss this subject in more length. To find the answer to the question of just what would happen if there should be a general introduction of engineering techniques in ag- riculture, it is best to look at the history of agricultural deve10pment, in those countries where extensive use has been made of these techniques. It is plain that by reducing the percentage of population required to pro- duce food, more people can devote their time and energies to the deve10p- ment of industries other than agriculture. To this fact, Americans owe, almost entirely, their tremendous national wealth and high standard of living. One hundred years ago, 85 percent of the United States population was engaged in agriculture in order to feed themselves, as well as the other 15 percent. deay, the figures are reversed, 15 percent of the population produces enough food for themselves and the other 85 percent (61). Actually, a surplus is being produced that is going to other parts of the world at the present time. 117 The fact that farm machines enable a small part of the population to produce its own food and enough for large city posulations means that innumerable men must be employed in storing, tranSporting, processing, and distributing the food produced by these machines. In a country where hand methods are employed in farming, there is no such surplus to be moved from the farms; no elevators are necessary to store the enormous quantities of grain3no cold storage wharehouses need be main- tained; no huge freight shipments of food stuffs must be handled; no large flour mills, starch mills, breweries, creameries, cereal factor- ies, etc., need be constructed or ouerated; and no extensive system of retail distribution is required. If tractors and farm equipment required by agriculture are pro- duced in the country, it is easy to realize the fact that the building and distributing of these machines create considerable employments in mines, on railroads, in factories, and in retail stores. Also, that it is more desirable to have workmen engaged throughout the year manu- facturing farm machines than it is to have them employed on the farms during the short pea? seasons at work which the machines could just as well do. Deve10pment of Rural Industries Under the present economic condition of Iran, however, the eXpan- sion and development of rural industries would not only absorb any farm labor surplus which may result from the mechanization of agriculture but also provide employment for the remaining farmers in slack seasons. The progress of farm machinery cooperatives and the Opportunity of the Persian peasant for using any labor-saving farm equipment depends en- tirely upon the proyress of rural industries and the employment Opport- 118 unities for many of new industries for processins and refining of farm products. Hand loom weaving of textiles and rugs, knitting, manufacture of cotton shoes, weaving of straw mats and baskets, preparinr silk for fac— tories, Spinning yarn for carpets, skin curing, manufacture of sieves, drying of fruits and vegetables, and other industries which owe their existance to local materials are examples of present rural industries of Persian villages. Sugar refining, vegetable oil pressing and refining, wine and alco- hol manufacturing, meat processing, fruit and vegetable canning and dry; ing, grain cleaning and grading, flour making, carpet weaving, and many others are among the rural industries which can perform an important function in rural areas. Under a well organized industrial cOOperative, many of the small village industries can be improved and brought together to form chains of small industries which can use local materials to supply the large industries of the cities. The bulky farm products can be processed or semi-manufactured in the production area so as to save volume, tonnage, and cost of trans- portation which ultimately will result in savings for city consumers. Rural industry, which needs a good amount of labor, not only pro- vides employment for farmers in slack season, but also is an encouraging factor for the farmers to use more labor—saving equipment. After a ru- ral industry gets so developed that the part—time workers released from farming during slack seasons would not be enough, there would be inev- itably a decrease in the number of laborers being engaged in farming. Having not enough hands around, farmers will have to look for more lab- or-saving farm equipment. 119 The present need of the Persian peasant is a greater individual income. As long as he remains chained to traditional hand production techniques, his production and his income will remain low. The intro- duction and use of labor—saving farm equipment, accompanied by the opgort- unity to use the time thus saved for employment in rural industries, may hold the solution to this age-old economic problem of Iran. 6. Problems of Mechanized Harvesting Harvest of wheat and barley in Iran is faced with two major prob- lems: l. Irrigation obstructions such as irrigation ditches, borders, and dikes. 2. Saving of straw. With the exception of certain areas of the grsat plains, where annual rainfall is enough to permit dry farming practices for wheqt and barley, the wheat farms of the rest of the country are faced with the problem of irrigation structures as far as the Operation of farm machinery is concerned. Also, the problem of straw saving is not as critical in the great plains as it is in the medium and small farms where a greater de- mand exists for the use of straw. Irrigation Obstructions Border method of irrigation is the general practice in most irri- gated farms of Iran. Dikes or levees are constructed by means of a special drag illustrated in Figure LS, page 162. These dikes, which at harvest time stand some eight to ten inches high from the‘ground, pre- vent the lowering of the combine's cutterbar close to the ground in or- der to cut and save as much straw as possible. The home-made border drag shown in Figure 30 seems to be one so- 120 H II 2x1 2x1u-o" b0 d nails N H I II 2x6xlO—10 ‘\ u I r I II 2x6xll-o. large‘washer countersunk '. sl/2x3 eyebolt 1/bx1-1/2x9” strap iron 3/8x3 bolt I 2-1/2 hitch ring (RUNNER TIP) (HITCH DETAIL AT B) ’I 2x6 cross brace 3/83'ch-1/2" bolts and washers 1/bxl-l/2 x9nstrap iron 2x12xlh-durunners ", M 3/8le bolt J 3/8x9'bolt J wood block cut from 2x10 (DETAIL AT A) Fig. 30. Border drag for construction of irrigation borders. 121 Fig. 31. Border diker in operation. Fig. 32. Carrying straw to the market. 122 lution to this problem. There are other types of implements used in the United States for building dikes, depending on the size of the borders, the slope of the land, power available, etc., but the wooden dike of Figure j“) ap ears to be the most economical type for large irrigated farms in Iran. Figure 116,. page 162 shows an animal drawn diker for small farms. The construction and operation of this diker which are shown in Figures 30 and 31 are self-explanatory. A spike-tooth harrow may be pulled behind the diker for rounding off the dikes and facilitating farm operations. After harrowing, the bottom width of the dike is usually from three to five feet and the height eight to ten inches. The borders are made after plowing and diskinp but before seeding. When seeding with a grain drill, the furrow openers should be raised in crossing over the borders. The track left by the wheels of the drill can be reshaped with a shovel. If dikes are constructed according to the above dimensions and placed 20 to 50 feet apart (soil condition and land topography being“ the controlling factors), harvesting with combine may not be as difficult as it is under the present system of border dikinp. To assure a contin- uous and efficient harvesting operation, however, either a self—propelled or a tractor—drawn combine which has an Operator platform should be ob- tained for the large irrigated farms. In this case, the combine operator can raise and lower the cutter bar if such Operation becomes necessary in crossing the border dike or any other obstructions. Saving of Straw The problem of saving straw, which has appeared after the develop- ment of combine harvester, is a problem which has not yet been solved even in the United States and more advanced countries of Europe. .Ever since the combine harvester was used for harvesting small grains, 123 the question of whether the long stubble left by combine should be re- moved from the soil or returned back to the soil has been the subject of controversy. It is argued that the straw left on the gound protects the soil from erosion, conserves moisture in dry lands, and if returned to the soil, improves the physical properties of the soil by the addition of organic matter. On the other hand, it has been proved (67) that when large amounts of straw is plowed under late in summer, the bacteria which feed upon straw causing it to rot, must have large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium in particular. Since these elements are not found in sufficient quantities in the straw, the bacteria take them from the soil leaving a deficiency for the growing crOp. The re- sult is decreased yield, especially in soils of low fertility. however, this problem can be largely avoided and the decomposition of straw some— what hastened by applying a mixture of amonium sulphate and limestone at the rate of about 65 pounds of each per ton of straw plowed under (67). This material may be applied with a simple hOpper attachment fastened on the back of the tractor and just ahead of the plow. From the above arguments it is obvious that the removal of straw left over by the combine is to the farmer's advantage and can bring a profit to the farmer if it can be harvested economically and sold at a good price. In the United States, straw is used for bedding in dairy barns and poultry houses as well as in livestock trucks and railway cars. Straw is also the best raw material for straw board and cigarette manufacturers. 0f the 63 million tons of straw grown in the United States in l9hg, 37.5 million tons were harvested by binders and combines (63). Only 10 mil- lion tons were used on farms or sold. Of this amount only three million tons were baled, this represents only eight percent of the total straw 12h harvested. Of the three million tons baled, about two million tons were baled in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, where about 80 percent of the straw board factories are located (63). This shortage of straw which has influenced the farmer as well as the manufacturers, is due primarily to the lack of suitable baling e- quipment to handle combine straw economically. As far as the straw board manufacturers are concerned, the best part of straw is at the lowest protion of stubble. But the short cuitina of straw not only in—. terfers with the Operation of the machine, but also carries a large a- mount of weeds in the straw as well as in the combined grain which low- ers the qualities of both the straw and the grain. The problem of saving of straw in Iran is even more serious than it is in the United States. Straw is used not only for feeding and bedding of animals but also as an important material in construction of buildings. Straw is the major feed for horses, mules, donkeys, oxen, and cows. In central parts of Iran, oxen are fed only six months of the year. The other six months, they are left out in the pasture. When oxen are fed, each ox gets about 10 kilograms of straw and four kilo- grams of alfalfa or dried grass (6). Straw is also used as a bond in a special plaster for covering interior walls, ceilings, and even floors of all types of buildings. Straw, clay soil, and water are mixed to- gether and made into a plastic mix which is applied as a two-inch plas- ter on walls. This plaster, after it is dried, is covered with a fin- ishing plaster made out of cement, lime, or gypsum. Therefore, until the economic standard of the country has reached a point where straw-fed animals can get a better quality feed, straw remains to be the major feed. As far as the use of straw in buildings is concerned, as yet no substitute is known for straw. This importance of straw in the economics of Iran encourages the farmers to cut the straw as close to the ground as possible. After threshing and winnow— ing, the straw is stuffed in Special type of nets and carried on the back of camels or mules to the barn or to the market (see Figuresz ). The use of a three—to fourbman power baler for baling of straw may prove economical only in areas where agreat percentage of straw is mar— keted and there is access to a good truck road or a railroad. The main purpose for baling straw or hay is the saving of Space in trucks, and freight cars, as well as barns and storage rooms. If a farm has no ac- cess to truck road or railroad and straw is brought to market on the back of animals, there is no need to bale straw which requires a great deal of eXpense. A camel which carries two nets of straw weighing at the maximum 250 pounds, can be loaded with four bales weighing the same amount. Therefore, there will be no saving in tranSportation. Methods of Harvesting to Save Straw To find a method of harvesting to be most practical for Iranian agriculture,the various harvesting methods, which can be employed for saving straw, were studied as follows: I. Straw Spreader attachment on the combine is replaced by‘a straw windrower which throws the straw of two strips in one windrow. These windrows are reclaimed by: l. Raking with a dump rake or sweeping with a sweep rake to a pile. These piles of straw can be loaded into the native straw nets. 2. Hay loader'whichcielivers the.straw into racks or h qh—side wagons. 3. Pickup baler. 126 II. Straw is elevated into racks from the combine with ext nsion elevator. III. Straw is baled or bundledby a combine which has baler attach- ment (Class harvester made in Germany). IV. Cutting the stubble high (about 12 inches) with a combine, mowing the straw, raking with a Side deliverv rake, and moving the straw to a stationary baler. V. Cutting the stubble low with a combine and elevating thesstraw and chaff directly into a baler pulled behind the combine. VI. Harvesting with a combine and collecting straw into straw carrier or trailer type buncher. The bunches left on the ground can be reclaimed by: 1. Loading into the native straw nets. 2. Sweep rake and stationary baler. VII. Loading of combined straw directly into the native straw nets by a man riding in a light trailer hitched behind the combine. VIII. Harvesting with aggrain binder or self—rake reaper and thresh- ing with a threshing machine. IX. Harvestinrr with a forage harvester, blowing into a high-Sided covered wagon, unloading into a blower which facds it into a threshing machine where straw is separated from the grain. In selecting a method of harvesting for an irrigated farm in the Class IIb farms, the following factors were kept in mind: 1. The most economical method is onewhich demands 'he least num- ber of imported mechanical equipment.‘ 2. As straw is used for feed, thehest method is one which involves the least amount of handling, thus preserving loose grain and chaff in the straw. 127 The use of a dump rake or sweep rake involved additional man and animal hours for their Operation which obviously increased the cost. Also, by using this method, most of the chaff, short straw and loose grain were lost and foreign material such as dirt, sticks, and weeds were in- troduced into the bunch. Delivering of straw directly from the combine into a rack or high side wagon required additional tractor or truck for hauling of straw and therefore was unceonomical. The use of a pick-up baler was not advisable because of the follow- ing factors: 1. High original costs of windrower and baler (too many imported machines). 2. High cost of imported twine or wire. 3. In low yield farms distance that baler travels will be so long that it makes Operating eXpenses too high. h. Besides the difficulties invalved in the operation of a pick- up baler on the rough irrigated lands, it will be difficult to collect the loose grain, and chaff particularly, if the straw has settled into the stubble. The piles of straw left by a buncher can be fed into a three or four man stationary baler and prove to be eConomical only under the con— ditions discussed on page 125 . The Germandmade combine "Class" which bales the straw as it moves in the field was not recommended for the three following reasons: 1. Straw was baled uncut, therefore, it required additional chOp- ping operation and additional machines. 2. Price was too high. A seven-foot combine of this type cost about 5,250 dollars delivered in Iran (16). Considering the additional 128 investment required for a straw chopper and the costs of collecting the straw bales and chopping expenses, the total cost became far more eXpen- sive than a No. 15 Massey-Harris which could be delivered in Iran for about h,h50 dollars (80). ‘ 3. The loose-tied bales (2CLbfipounds) not only required costly im- ported twine to be used in the tieing mechanism but also were liable to lose a great portion of loose grain and chaff, while being stacked or hauled. The use of a forage harvester and subsequent separation of straw from the grain by a threshing machine has been tried by a group of dairy farmers in'Wisconsin (75). To adapt the forage harvester to the job, all but one knife of the cutting head are removed and a counter balance is placed opposite the remaining knife. This gives the four-inch cut ‘which many farmers prefer for bedding. The cutter knife can also be set slightly away from the cutter bar to provide a beating rather than a cutting action. This keeps the number of kernels damaged a) less than one-quarter of one percent (75). This method seemed to be adaptable to the Persian conditions ex- cept for the following facts: I l. The method required at least two motor-powered wagons or trucks in addition to the forage harvester, threshing machine,_and a blower. This amount of machinery at the beginning of mechanization was beyond the financial capacity of an average owner of a Class II farm unless they were financed and operated under a c00perative method. 2. If the crop was left in piles in the field until threshing, it was liable to be blown away by wind. Therefore, the harvested crop had to be taken directly to the threshing machine as soon as it was harvested. This required an additional tractor for the threshing machine 129 (although a threshing machine with an auxiliary engine could be obtained) plus another skilled operator and supervisor. 3. The forage harvester required an operator seat for the control of the machine in crossing the irrigation border dikes. This had to be . provided on the machine before this method could be tried out. After eliminating six of the nine methods of harvesting described 'above, VI, VII, and VIII were selected and were believed to be the most practical methods of harvesting for the Class IIb or medium size farm in Iran 0 Combine and buncher. In the selection of a combine for the har- vest of grains in the Class II farms of Iran, the following features Were considered essential and °heraf re recom ended: 1. Size of combine — The roughness of the field due to irrigation structures and irregularities of small fields obviously prohibits the use of large size combines. A maximum of eight-foot cut was proposed for the Class II farms. This size machine have proved to be easier to handle . 2. Operator platform — The selected combine must have a platform for an operator to control the height of cut in passing over the irriga- tion border dikes. 3. Bagging equipment - In as much as grain elevator facilities do not exist in Iran, grain is handledin bags and bagging attachment should be provided. In Class III farms where most of the grain is trans- ported in trucks directly to freight cars, the standard grain tank can -be substituted for bagging equipment. The types of buncher recommended for saving straw are illustrated in Figures 33 and 311 . The buncher in Figure 33 is made of a light wooden frame and canvas sides. A tilting floor dumps the straw on the ground. 130 . is? W at - ' " . ,7: 373.":z.‘ Mention ur‘ tum a ._~ thgbunches :70, Um ygg' i?“ ingline {or_eesy I.‘ ‘ '. -"g'. 2.. ~' .3...‘ . Fig. 33. Straw carrier or buncher. Fig. 3h. Trailer-type straw buncher. 131 With this buncher, the dumps will vary in size from a few forks full to 75 pounds in weight, depending upon the size of the buncher. These dumps can be either loaded into the native straw nets and taken to the market on the back of animals or baled on the spot if the conditions discussed on page 125 exist. The buncher shown in Figure 3b is of "trailer—type" which will hold from 200 to 800 pounds of straw. The approximate density for loose straw and chaff was taken as two pounds per cubic foot, at 10 to 12 percent mois— ture content (25). The factor which limits the size is the weight of stack which can be pulled by the tractor without making the handling of the combine and trailer any more difficult. An additional piece of equipment is required with the trailer-type bun— cher in the form of an extension elevator to convey the straw from the com- bine. This elevator mav be attached to the combine and driven from the straw spreader pulley, or attached to the buncher and ground driven from the trailer wheels. A great deal of jolting and jarring of equipment can be avoided by the use of larger diameter wheels. These bunchers can be made to be dumped out by the combine operator, grain baggers on the combine, or a rider on the straw trailer. When the buncher becomes full, the operator steps on the level A which releases catch B and the floor dross under the weight of the straw. The catch B can also be released by the workers on the combine by simply pulling a rcpe when the buncher is full. The rear door opens due to the linkage CD allowing the stack to slide out. The door and sides can be made of wire and sacking on a wooden frame. The door, although light in weight, returns the floor to the horizontal position and the trip mechanism engages. The floor is best to be covered by;sheet metal to help the stack to slide out. The small wheels in front aid in stabilizing the bundher and forcing it to follow the combine very closely on corners. 132 This type of buncher is preferred to the one shown in Figure 33 due to the fact that a larger quantity of straw can be deposited in one snot. Straw left on the ground can be handled as in the case of small size bunchers. Another idea of handling straw is the direct loading of straw into the native straw nets. A light trailer can be made and hitched behind the combine. A man can ride in the trailer and load the nets directly from the straw discharge end of the combine. To protect the man on the trailer from the dust and chaff of the straw, the flow of straw should be directed from the discharge end of the combine through a channel made of canvas into the net setting on the floor of the trailer. "hen a net. is filled up, it is tied up and thrown out of the trailer to the ground. The native straw nets can hold approximately 125 pounds of straw. Two of these nets are carried by a camel as seen in Figure 32 . This method appears to be most practical but it requires a great number of nets, which cost about one dollar a piece. If arrangements are made for gather- ing of straw nets and unloading them in the barn or a temporary storage so the nets can be released and returned to the combine, this method probably would prove to be most satisfactory. This arrangement can be made if the loaded nets are kept on the trailer until the combine stOps for unloading the grain tank. At this time,the straw nets are trans- ferred from the combine trailer into a straw-hauling trailer which trans- ports them to a temporary or permanent storage, dumps the straw out, and returns the nets back to the combine. Grain binder and threshinggmachine. Realizing the difficulties of handling the larger size machines on the irrigated fields of Class II farms, it was recommended that the cutter bar of agzrain binder se- lected for these farms not exceed eight feet in length. 133 As soon as the harvested wheat is cured, sheaves are pitched into ox Carts and hauled to the prOper Spots on the fields for:stacking and threshing. The utilization of available oxen and man power in this method is an important factor in relieving the problem of the diSplace— ment of farm labor and farm animal in mechanization. If hauling and stacking is started early enough, there will be no need for additional animal power when threshinn starts. The stacks are made high in two rows. The threshing machine is drawn between the two rows where it can be fed from both sides. The threshed grain is bagged or piled on the ground while the straw is blown into another pile. The straw is then loaded into the native straw nets or made into wire-tied bales if the conditions discussed on page 125 exist.The main difficulty in using a grain binder is the high cost of twine. The twine to be used in these hinders must be imported from the United States or Europe. The other alternative for harvesting is the use of a self—rake reaper This machine has already been used in Iran and has proved to be practical. The harvested wheat, which will he swept out of the platform and depos- ited on the ground, can be tied into bundles by hand and then handled as in the case of the binder. Cost Analysis of Combine and Binder and Thresher For this study, a farm was considered where 200 hectares or.SOO acres of land went under whmat every year. To make the farm a typical one of the Class IIb farms, the following assumptions were made: 1. The farm was owned by a landlord who was utilizing the labor of 50 families, forming the village, and LO pairs of oxen owned by the villagers and himself. 2. The landlord decided to mechanize his wheat farming to a degree where he can still use most of the existing labor and animal power. 13b 3. Due to the rough condition of the roads from the farm to the market, it was decided that the straw should be loaded into nets and carried to the barn or market on the back of animals. The equipment selected.for a comparison of the two methods of har- vesting in this fwrm were as follows: Machine frice f.o.b. (d0) krice in Iran Tractor: McCormick Deering W—9 steel wheel, h—lh" 318u1.50 33h00.00 Combine: MasSeybHarris No. 15, B-ft with operator's platform 2252.00 h160.00 Straw trailer 100.00 0x wagons 50.00 Grain binder: Masseyzharris Thresher: International Harvester steel wheel, 22 x 33 1727.00 " 3200.00 Perhaps the best choice of tractor for this farm‘was a track-laying tractor. In these tractors, the long tracks distribute the tractor weight over a large number of flat track shoes, thus providing good traction and comparatively small pressure on the soil. Also, irrigation ditches and border dikes can be crossed easier with a track laying tractor than with a wheel tractor. Nevertheless, a standard four wheel tractor with steel 'wheeIS'was selected for this farm because of the great difference in cost and the better adaptation of this tractor to heavy beltawork than a track laying type . The $128 of the tractor was determined from Charts ( 2) and ( 3) by the method described on page 208 and on the basis of the following as- sumptions: 135 A': 500 acres crop per year- H.: 10 hours per day S 2 3 miles per hour D.: h0 days allowed for plowing P.: 30 percent time loss d 7 inches deep furrow R.: 8 — 1h psi or average of 11 psi of furrow section Under these assumptions, the minimum width of the plow to plow the 500 acres in to days from Chart (2) was about 59 inches. The nearest standard size of plow to cut 59-inch furrow was a four lh—inch plow. This required a tractor with 3h.5 rated drawbar horsepower as found from Chart ( 3 I. The McCormick-Deering W49 with steel wheel and kerosene fuel system (provided for export) was selected because this tractor was already in operation in some of the Class II farms of Iran. To compen- sate for the lower rated drawbar horse-power of the selected tractor .(33.hh compared to 3h.5 required) and the three inches narrower width of cut of the four lh-inch plow, it was found from equation (h) and (1) page 207, that the number of days plowing must be increased to hh days. The 8-foot combine was selected by the use of equation shown on Chart(2),page 211b and on the basis of the following assumption: A‘: 500 acres 5': 1 - 3 miles per hour, average 2 miles per hour H‘: 10 hours her day D‘: h3 days (harvesting season) P': hO percent In selection of the binder it was decided that an 8-foot size bind— er will probably be the largest size that could be used under the field conditions. For the following assumptions: 136 :p I 500 acres S - 2 - L miles per hour, average 3 miles per hour H 10 hours P _-_-_ 35 percent, the operating hours per year according to equation (i) page 207 came out: 825 x 500 AA, - 26h hours. 3’x 8 x I0 (I00 - 35} '— The 22 x 38 size thresher which was selected seemed to be the most_ economical size for this size of farm. The annual use of the thresher was obtained bv the following assumptions: Average thresher capacity :_90 bushels per hour. loss of time due to interruptions :_32 percent. Average yield : 1.5 tons of grain and 3 tons of straw per hectare or 22 bushels of grain and 1.32 tons of straw per acre. Therefore, threshing hours per year 2 22 x 500 90 (100 - 32) Z 180 hours. In addition to plowing and harvesting, the tractor was assumed to be used for disking, harrowing, and border dike construction. Disking and harrowing was assumed to be performed with a lO-foot disk followed by three sections of Spike-tooth barrow. If the tractor were to trav- el at an average speed of 3 miles per hour with 30 percent time loss, it required 200 hours of tractor operation to disk and harrow the 500 acres. If this operation were performed twice in a year (in Spring to remove weeds and in fall just before planting), hOO hours of tractor time was Spent in disking and harrowing. 137 The irrigation border dikes were assumed to be constructed at 20 feet on center at four miles per hour and 30 percent time loss. This operation required 80 hours of tractor operation. The following table shows the estimated annual use of the tractor for the two methods of harvesting: TABLE XVI Operation Annual Use of Tractor (hours) Combine Binder and Thresher Plowing th . bhO - Disking and harrowing bOO bOO Border dike construction 80 80 Harvesting with combine h30 Harvesting with binder 26h Threshing . 180 Total 1350 136h Under the present method of harvesting, due to the lack of grain elevators and immediate transportation facilities, grain and straw are left in piles on the threshing floor until they are taken out to the storage bins or to the market.' This same practice was assumed in the comparison of harvesting methods. The 500 acres was divided into 10 lots of 50 acres each. Under the binder-thresher method, the sheaves left by the binder in each 50 acres were carried to the center of the 50 acre lot in the ox wagons and stacked in 10 stacks forming two rows. The threshing machine was then taken to each lot and placed between the two rows for threshing. The straw and grain were stacked in piles right around the threshing floor. 138 TABLE XVII ESTIMATED OPERATING COST OF THE MCCORMICK DEERING W49 TRACTOR Operation 1 Hauling , Operating Hauling Costs (dollars per hour) Combine Threshing Grain Machine Binder Fixed costs: Depreciation @ 7500 hrs service life o,h08 O.h08 0.h08 Interest @ 8% and operating hrs per yr 0.111 0.110 0.110 Repair @ 35% of new cost for service life 0,159 0.159 0.159 Tax and insurance @ 2% 0.028 0.027 0.027 Housing @ 6¢ per sq ft per year 0.007 0.007 0.007 Total fixed costs 0.713 0.711 0.711 Operating costs: Fuel ( kerosene @ 21¢ per gal ) 2 Combine: 2h bhp, 3.12 gal per hr 3 0.652 Thresher: 25 bhp, 3.16 gal per hr b 0.665 Grain binder: 15 bhp, 2.71 gal per hr . 0.570 Oil @ 10% of fuel cost 0.065 0.066 0.057 Operator 0 31¢ per hr 0.310 0.310 0.310 Total operating costs 1.027 1.0h1 0.937 Total cost (dollars per hour) 1.7h0 1.752 1.6h8 1 Costs were estimated according to the method described on pages to in Appendix A. 2 Assumed 3 bhp per ft of cutterbar according to Table A—IV, Appendix A. . 3 Horsepower requirement was given by the manufacturer as 20 — 30 bhp. Draft requirement was taken as 150 lbs per ft of cutterbar ( Table A—IV’in Apendix A)..At 3 miles per hr, dho - 9.9 and bhp - 10.6. Con- sidering the field obstructions, 15 bhp was-assumed as the average power requirement. TABLE XVIII 139 ESTIMATED OPERATING COST OF THE COMBINE, GRAIN BINDER, AND THRESHER C Combine Grain Threshing osts (dollar per hour) Binder Machine Service life (hours) 2000 1000 2500 Operating hours per year h30 26h 180 Average operating performance (acres per hr) 1.16 1,95 2,78 Repair cost in percent of new cost h0 h5 25 Fixed costs: Depreciation @ hours service life 1.917 0.855 1.150 Interest @ 8% of operating hrs per yr 0.b35 0.159 0.780 Rapair @ 5 of new cost for service life 0.852 0.h26 0.320 Housing @ 6¢ per Sq ft per yr 0.035 0.033 0.083 Tax and insurance @ 2 0.109 0.0h0 0.195 Total fixed costs 3.3h8 1.513 2.528 Operating costs: 1 Fuel and oil cost of combine engine 0.97h Tractor co§t from Table XVII 1.7h0 1.6h8 1.752 Labor cost 0.h60 ‘ 0.220 1.060 Twine for binder- 2 lbs per acre @ h6¢ per lb 3 1.7b0 a a Tbtal operating costs 3.17h i 3.608 2.312 ! Total cost (dollar per hour) 6.522 g 5.121 5.3b0 1 Continental engine h - 3 7/16"x b 3/8", fuel consumption 1.88 gal per hr gasoline @ h7¢ per gal from Test E, Nebraska Test No. h00 ( pages 37?, 36b, and 216 The Tractor Field Book). 2 Labor requirements were assumed as follows: for combine, one skilled operator and one unskilled laborgfor grain binder, one semi-skilled operator; and for thresher, one skilled operator and five unskilled labor. ( See Table A-II, Appendix A.) 1&0 A two wheel wagon, one-half ton capacity, pulled by two oxen was assumed for hauling. The number of ox wagons required for hauling sheaves was found by the following analysis: Operation Selected time Loading the cart: cart driver and a field pitcher 10 minutes Driving to the threshing floor: average radius of a 50-acre lot or 833 feet 0 1-1/3 miles per hour 6 minutes Unloading and stacking: cart driver alone 7 minutes Driving back to the field: 833 feet distance @ 2 miles per hour 5 minutes Total assumed selected time for one round trip 23 minutes Assuming a 100 percent rating factor and a total of 20 percent allowances for delay, fatigue, and personal allowances, the standard time for one round trip was found as follows: Standard time selected time - selected time x percent allowances 234+ 28 x 0.20 33.6 minutes Therefore: Number of round trips in lC-hour day 3 17.9 or about 19 trips 1one of sheaves stacked per day per wagon Z 13 x 1/2 :,9 tons per day It was assumed that the sheaves will remain in the field for one week and in the stack for 10 days before they are threshed. Then: Number of days available for hauling _._ (26.1: + 1:3) - (10 + 7) : 28 days Number of wagons required ; (2200)(1-5 + 3)(SOO) ; 3-9 or b wagons (2000)(2.r)(9)(23) lhl Under the combine method of harvesting, it was assumed that straw was loaded into the native straw nets and kept on the trailer until they were hauled to the storage ground. If the average yield were assumed 22 bushels of wheat and 1.32 tons of straw per acre, the combine, which had a "rain bin capacity of 25 bushels, could gather about 1,536 pounds of wheat and 3,072 pounds of straw per acre. Since the capacity of ox carts, due to the field surface condition, was limited to one-half ton, half of the grain and straw could be loaded in one grain cart and two straw carts every 30 minutes. An analysis similiar to that for the bind- er-thresher method, as shown in the followinp, proved that 30 minutes time was more than sufficient for loading the grain and straw in wawons, carrying them to a storage ground about 833 feet away, unloading them in miles, and returning back to the combine. Operation Selected time Loading the carts: one grain cart and two straw carts 5 minutes Driving to storage ground: 833 feet 3 1—1/3 miles per hour 6 minutes Unloading the carts: 2 minutes Driving back to the combine: 833 feet @ 2 miles per hour 5 minutes Total assumed selected time for one round trip 18 minutes Therefore: Standard time 18 — 18 x 0.20 21.6 minutes As indicated in Table XX, the use of grain binder and threshing ma- chine proved to be the most economical method of harvesting wheat. It was noticed from Table XVIII that a great portion of harvesting cost by TABLE XIX COST OF HAULING WITH THE OX-CARTS Combine Binder- Cost (dollar per hour) Method Thresher Method Cost of wagon or cart: Fixed costs (dollar per hr per cart): Depreciation @ 500 hrs per yr for ten years service life 0.0090 0.0090 Interest @ 8% and Operating hrs per yr 0.00hh 0.00hh “Repair 0 10% original cost per yr 0.0100 0.0100 Tbtal fixed cost per cart 0.023h 0.023h Number of cart needed 3 b Total fixed cost of carts 0.0700 0.02h0 1 Cost of animal power: Fixed cost in $ per hr per ox (Table 1-111) 0,1u10 0.1u10 Feed cost while working (Table A-III) 0.0620 0.0620 Total animal cost per unit 0.2030 0.2030 Number of oxen needed 6 8 Total cost of animal power 1.2180 1.62h0 Cost of labor: 2 Number of men needed h 8 Labor @ 15¢ per hr Total cost of labor 0.6000 1.2000 Total cost of hauling 1.8880 2.9180 l Oxen were assumed to be used 500 hours per year for hauling at harvest season and other jobs. ‘ 2 In addition to the drivers of the carts, one more man was assumed in the combine method to help-on the storage ground, and four more men in the binder-thresher method to help in pitching and stacking. lh3 the binder was due to the high cost of twine. The cost of twine alone constituted about 18 percent of the harvesting cost in dollars per acre. This finding indicated that if binder twine could be produced in the country, the cost of harvesting could be reduced still further. 0 TABLE XX COMPARISON OF m: we hE‘I'HODS OF HARVESTING FOR A SOC-ACRE CLASS II Fawn Method ofliarvesting Costs ( in dollars ) ‘ Combine Binder— Hand Method Thresher Method Harvesting costs: Machine cost 5.22 2.59 Labor cost (not including tractor driver) 0.39 0.12 6.001 Total harvesting cost 5.61 2.71 6.00 Hauling and stacking costs 1.62 i 1.6L Threshing costs: 3 ' machine cost 1.55 2 Animal cost 1 11.28 Labor cost ( not including tractor driver) 0.38 6.00 Total threshing costs 1.93 17.28 Total cost - 7.23 6.28 23.28 1 Based on LO hours of man labor per acre. 20nly fixed cost was taken into consideration ( see Note on page 21h). Therefore, it was concluded that the method of binder—thresher was the cheapest method of harvesting wheat in Class II farms. In addition to better economy, the following advantages of this method over the com- bine method were to be considered: 1. Crop can be harvested about a week earlier, which extends the length of harvesting season. 2. Better quality of straw due to stacking. 3. Better adaptability of machines to the field conditions. 1th h. More use of displaced labor and animal power. 5. In wet weather,better possible to thresh (and thresiing can be started sooner after rain). 6. Permits early fall plowing. 7. Thresher can be used for custom work and thereby the cost per acre of threshing reduced considerably. In adaptation of threshing machine, or even combine for that matter,‘ to Persian agriculture, one major problem should be considered. This problem is the condition of straw left by the machine. This straw will not be as chOpped and as crushed as that obtained by the native method, and therefore will be less satisfactory for feeding to animals or using in construction. To handle this problem some manufacturers have a Special attachment, resembling a feed chopper, to their threshing machines by which the straw is chopped and bruised as it comes out of the thresher. If such attach- ment is not available from the manufacturer, any feedchopner or ensilage cutter can be used for chOpping the straw. th IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE PRESENT AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND INTRODUCTION OF NEW LOW#COST EQUIPMENT Justification of the Present Methods of Cultivation Despite all their backwardness, many of the cultivation practices used in Iran are extremely suitable to the peculiar geographic and econ- omic condition of the country. Draft animals are physically unable to draw much heavier plows. The introduction of modern animal-drawn equipment ‘would first require the improvement of the breeds of draft animals and of the feeding practices. The shallow V-shape furrows made by the na- tive plows in the treeless plains of Iran prevent wind erosion. More efficient plowing without proner soil protection would probably result in decreased rather than increased yields. Harvester-threshers are not adapted to many of the irrigated farms because of the field obstructions and the loss of straw which is so essential in the economics of the coun- try. Threshing machines will probably prove impractical in many areas because they leave the straw in a coarse condition which provide a less satisfactory feed than that which has been finely shredded under the feet of the patiently walking animals. The point is that technological changes must be fitted into the so— cial and economic pattern of the country. Methods and machines that seem eminently practical to Americans for instance, are often for one reason or another, completely'unsatisfactory when tranSplanted, without adapta- tion, to other countries. The use of the combine harvester and the sav- ing of straw is one example Which was discussed in the preceding section. Iran, as elsewhere in the Orient, has been recognized as a land of contrasts and contradictions. This contrasting feature of the country, 1h6 ‘which can be observed in her geographic, economic, and social conditions can probably be extended to the arplication of farm machinery also. There are many farming areas in Iran where the faithful Persian ox may be used as a source of power for the years to come.' Yet on the flat lands of the great plains, the largest crawler tractors operate with results that make social and economic sense. Such is the varied situation found by the ag- ricultural engineer who attempts to assist with mechanization problems of Iranian agriculture. Mechanization of agriculture for Iran does not at present mean the introduction of complex and high-priced machines or implements. Tractors, combines, grain binders and threshing machines, hay and straw balers, and many other high-priced machines of this type can certainly be used in many situations as will be recommended in the next section. However, mechaniza- tion for the peasant with small holdings means the gradual improvement of present day implements and methods and the giving of increased efficiency and better performances to the simplest farming tool and equipment found in a Persian village. Taking into consideration the number of such imple— ments used in the country, the cumulative result would probably be great. This line of thought and action should be of greater importance than think“ and acting in terms and applications which are at present time far beyond the financial and mental limits of the majority of peasants. The peasant who scarcely makes a living out of his meager farming cannot Speculate on the efficiency of the machine to take care of his field work. It is life and death for him whether his field is planted or not, and such delays due to frequent breakdowns, lack of parts, lack of fuel, as happen in such underdeveloped countries, are too risky. 1L7 There are many ways in which improved tools, along with better seeds, fertilizers, and cultural methods can work together to reduce the backu breaking labour of the peasant. From the stand point of an aar cultural engineer, the followinr suggestions and ideas are believed to he worthy of a fair trial. Draft Animals Oxen have been considered the primary draft animals on the Persian farms from time immemorial. The breed of these animals has in most re- gions degenerated. The improvement and breeding of oxen as well as other farm animals is an essential step toward the improvement of the lot of Persian peasantry. The native oxen from Sistan, the province of eastern Iran, have been considered as excellent draft animals for the Persian agriculture. The use of cows for work, though it is not verv common in Iran, has been a common practice in Egypt and recently is becoming pop- ular in India. As it is claimed by Egyptian farmers, working of the cows neither has any ill—effrct on the milk yield of unlm‘"3 nor on their health. In Egypt, not only the animals in milk work, but even dry anim- als up to +wo months before calving have been used in carrying out field oserations (120). To answer the controversial question whether Persian cows can be used for field works or not is beyond the scope of this writing. However, if Persian cows can he used as draft animals, deSpite the pains of their training period and the additional feeding costs, it obviously will he cheaper than maintaining a separate animal for work only. So far, no dynamometer test has been carried out to determine the draft ability of these animals. The old method of yoking oxen for field work restrains side movement, overloads and injures the neck of the an— lh8 imal, and results in inefficient and tiring Operation. Research and experiments should be carried out to secure information on the effect that body conformation has on the draft ability of oxen. This inform- ation, eSpecially if a positive correlation were found, should provide a basis for selecting breeding animals. If r adily measured or reCOgnized body measurements can be determined which are consistently associated with high draft ability, they should be a valuable guide to the animal breeder in selecting breeding stock. The results of such a study, even if nega- tive, would be of value. It would show that some basis of selection other than body measurements and proportions is necessary. Also, information is desirable or necessary for maximum draft ability would help to settle the controversy over whether it is nossible to have a double purpose breed or not. Flows The:most basic and importaat improvement which can be made in the old Persian plow is the addition of a moldboard so that it can turn the soil over instead of merely scratching the surface. A plow with such a feature, made of one-piece cast iron with wooden beam and handle, was first introduced by an Iranian engineer in l9b6. The writer has observed the performance of this plow while it was pulled by a yoke of Persian oXen in an eXperimental field of the Karaj Agricultural College. The oxen seemed to have no difficulty in pulling this plow despite the add- itional draft due to the presence of a moldboard. This plow did not re- ceive much encouragement from the Persian farmers because of the two following drawbacks: l. The cost of this plow, about 250 rials or eight dollars, was nearly five times as high as the iron casing of the Persian plow made by the village blacksmith (Figure 39 ). 1L9 Fig. Allahabad plow Fig. " A moldboard plow for Indian bullocks 150 2. Construction or even repair of this one—piece cast iron plow was not easily possible by the farmer or his local blacksmith. Another plow has been developed by the Allahabad Agricultural In- stitute in India which is very similiar to the Persian moldboard plow mentioned above with the essentiows of lighter weight due to its steel construction. This nlxw, as shown in Figure 35 , consists of three separate steel pieces joined together by welding and a land side steel plate riveted to it for enforcement. The share is joined by welding with a small plate for the extension of a landside plate. The handle and draw beam are made of wood. This olow has been tried in light Indian soils of various moisture content and has been found satisfactory under such conditions. It plows 0.7h acres per day of eight working hours With an average pair of bullocks with three to four inches deep and even to eight inches wide furrow (83). It weights El pounds and requires a draft of 168 to 290 pounds (88). If such a plow can be made for the Persian oxen the increased width of a furrow alone will contribute some 80 percent imnrovement over the present rate of plowing which at its best does not exceed one-half acre in a 10 hour day. Figure 36 shows another type of Indian plow made for bullocks. This rlow weighs about Do pounds and requires 160 to 200 pounds of null with a furrow six inches wide and four to six inches deep. In this plow, moldboard is connected to the beam by a piece of steel\dhich resembles the frog of a modern steel plow. Also, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute has recently de— veloped a two bottom plow which is simple in construction and consists of the bottoms of two so-called Desi plows, suitably coupled by means of angle iron frame work and pulled by a sinFle central beam as shown 151 Fig. 37. Plowing with a two-bottbn wooden plow. Fig. 38. A two-bottom wooden plow. 152 in Figures 37 and 38 . Although this plow does not have any moldboard for turning the soil, the fact that it accomplishes twice as much work as a single plow is in itself quite an improvement. The weight of this plow is approximately 50 percent heavier than the single plow of the same design. Trials at the Institute showed that the draft did not exceed 260 pounds, plowing four to five inches deep as against the normal draft of 155 pounds of the sirgle plow (lb). The additional draft of the new plow is not likely to be heavy for bullocks as exnerience has shown that so far as plowing is concerned bullocks are usually underloaded. Tests carried out at the Institute show that an ordinary pair of bullocks can Operate this double plow without undue extra effort. Plowmen who have used the new nlow are enthusiastic about it and state that it is easier and less tiresome to operate due to its stableness when in work. The three examples of improved plows for India mentioned above are the types of improvement that Persian peasant needs for his plow. Flows of such simple design can be constructed by the local blacksmith by us- ing a few pieces of angle iron, plates and pieces of scrap iron which he may get hold of in the nearest town. The only part of these plows which requires special attention and skill is the point or the plow share. For the construction of this part, pieces of automobile springs provide an excellent material. Steels used in the leaf springs of American cars are usually high carbon steels of S.A.E. 1085, 1090, or 1095 which are quite susceptable to heat treatment and hardening (h9). A piece of car spring which has been brought into the desired shape by forging can be quenched when dull red in the old engine oil for hardening (118). This method of. hardening does not even require a subsequent tempering, because on dip- ping in oil, only the surface of the plow share is hardened while the heat in the core, which has remained soft, is sufficient to carry on the Fig. 39. The share of iron point of the Persian plan. g. . W Fig. ho. An iron-disk threshing sled. 153 15h tempering of the surface. Besides a plowshare, this method is also useful for repairing and hardening wf hoe and cultivator blades and other farm- ing tools which have to endure wear, as well as severe impact, torsion, and bending. Harrows After the land is plowed once or twice, the crushing of the clods and pulverizing of the soil is usually done with a wooden or stone roller or very commonly with a plank of wood. If the cost of a regular Spike tooth barrow is too high for the small farmer, a much better seedvbed can be pre- pared by the use of the wooden harrows shown in Figures hl and L2 . These harrows which can be used before or after seeding, can be made by the farmer himself or the village carpenter. They consist of a wooden beam and frame with wooden or steel spikes. The width of these harrows can vary from five to eight feet, but even then, it is a light load for a pair of oxen. Seeding Machines No other method of seeding the land is known to the Persian peasant of the small farm but hand broadcastine which has been practiced generation after generation for centuries. As the seed is covered by the old plow, much of the seed is covered too deep, some is left on top of the ground 'with the net result that approximately twice the amount of seed is used as is necessary when using a grain drill. Therefore if a simple grain drill which can be pulled by a pair of oxen would be available, the saving on seed alone would be enough to pay the rental on the machine. A small seed box mounted on a Persian plow and operated in such a way that the seeds can fall automatically into the furrow, which is Opened by the plow, would save the labor of another man which otherwise is re- ‘ quired to broadcast the seed in front of the plow and therefore would be 155 Fig. hl. A low cost spike-tooth harrow with wooden spikes. Fig. h2. A low cost spike-tooth harrow with iron spikes. 156 a definite improvement over the present system. The roller or plate which releases the seed from the seed box can derive its motion from a small land wheel which rolls on the ground as the oxen haul the plow. A small grain drill of modern design similiar to the one shown in Figure h3 can be easily made in the country and distributed to the farmers cooperatives or even the present village grocery stores for renting out to the farmers. The machine is a five row seeder with 10 inches space be- tween seeding tubes or Spuds. Seeding through any of the tubes can be eliminated with pieces of tin sheets placed on the feed cup opening in- side the feed hooper. The body of the machine, wheels, and the seed box can be made either of steel and sheet metal or of wood. The addition of a forecarriage with two Small wheels will keep the weight of the drill from the draft animal's neck and also will aid in steering. The seed distributing mechanism can be made of a pinion shape roller working in a cast iron socket. The drive for the mechanism.can be taken from the main axle through a chain and a clutch. Lateral movement of the seeding roller through a lever can allow the adjustment for the rate of seeding. The furrow openers,which can be raised and lowered by a leven,are made of cast iron tubes with steel shares attacned thereto. The addition of pause wheels although will increaSe the cost will fay: the definite adva tape hf controlling the depth of seed. The weight of the machine can he adjusted so that a {air of oxen can pull a plank of wood or the Spike tooth barrow of Figure hl behind the seedinC machine. At an average Speed of two miles per hour and 50 per- cent time loss this hO inch rrrain drill can seed about four acres of land in a 10 hour day. Fig. b3. 15? A simple low cost grain drill which can be manu- factured in Iran. Fig. bh. Pedal-Operated Japanese threshing machine. 158 This method of seeding will be eight tines as fast as hand broad- casting and subsequent coverinn with a slow. Thus, the arrlication of such a simple machine would bring the peasant a rreat Savin? in seed and labor in addition to a hetter rermination and uniform rineninp of his crop. Harvesting and Threshing The short inefficient sickle has continued to remain the solitary hand imrlement of the Persian peasant for the reaping of his grain crops. The scythe and the cradle which have been used in Lurope and America some- how have never become pooular in the East. Besides their greater output, the scythe and cradle can reap the crOp while the worker is in a standing and walking posture which is faI more comfortable than the squatting or bending position required for the use of Persian sickle; A mowing machine can be used for harvesting wheat if it can be owned cooperatively. A machine with a four to fi‘e feet cutter tar can be easily pulled by a pair of oxen. Exnerience in India has shown that raising the tongue of a mowing machine to the height required for hitching it to bul- locks throws the machine out of level, which results in increased craft nd lower efficiency (87). This nroblem has been solved by placing a ED trinnnular block between the tonpue and the frame to raise it to the re- quired height restoring mowinr efficieicy and reducing draft to the point where windrow attachment could be added. Self—rake reaper, which was used in the United States before the appearance of binders and combines, is considered a suitable machine for the peasants of larger farms if they could be owned and onrrated cooper- atively. Also, the draft of this machine is more than it can be handled by’a.sinnle pair of oxen, Therefore, for satisfactory operation, it re- 159 quires either a small tractor'or two pairs of oxen. Although the old nrocess oftrampling out the grain by driving cat- tle, sheep, or asses over a floor of harvested sheaves still exist in many narts of Iran, most of the threshing is done by means of threshing sleds such as the one shown in .Fieures 23 and b0 . The thresher wheel of Figure ’40 is quite an improvement over that of Figure 23 and some other threshers which consist merely of a plank of wood with iron projections such as old horseshoes, etc., fastened to the bottom. This imnroved thresher wheel which resembles a disk-barrow does the threshing in about two days, comoared to about 16 days which is required for the same job if threshing were done by walking out the animals around the threshing floor. After a decent plow and a grain drill, the most needed labor and time saving equipment for a Persian peasant is a Winnower for separating grain from straw. Under the nresentmethod of pitchforking the threshed sheaves into a strong wind, a pile of threshed grain may stay out in the field for days, waiti”r for a strong wind. A simple wooden box with a fan, which can also be made of wood, operated by hand or animal power would certainly be a definite improvement. The most logical method of thresh- ing wheat, of course, is the cooperative ownership and Operation of a threshing machine which has already been discussed in detail. Threshing problem of rice is easier than that of wheat because the rice farmers of the Casnian region like to save the rice straw unbroken for the making of straw baskets and mats. Many of the naddy threshers of the Far East can be used directly in Iran. The threshers shown in Figure Id, is one type which seems to be most suitable for the small rice farmers in Iran. This machine is a two—man Japanese pedal Operated paddy thresher which is simple in construction, light in weight, easy to manufacture, and convenient to operate. There are no delicate parts to get damaged or fine adjustments to make. Although they can be made in one-man or two—man models which can be operated by pedaling with one leg like the working of a sewing machine. As the drum starts rotating the eterator holds the bundle of crop over the rotating drum. The threshed grains drop on the floor and are collected later. The threshed ears and the straw are thrown bv the operator to his right for later collection. The correct speed for Operation is about 350 to 370 revolutions per minute of drum, which is obtained by treading the pedal about 100 times in a minute (88). The average output of the one-man tread machine is about 26 pounds of threshed paddy per hour. Simple threshing machines, together with improved plows, cultiva- tors, harrows, and grain drills can be manufactured in the country and made available to the peasants throuph farmers cooperatives. If no co- operative has been established yet in the village, the village general store can act as the agency of the manufacturer for renting the machine to the peasants. Border Dikers The present tool for the construction of dikes in Iran consist of a spade-like implement called in Persian coldar. Figure uS shows how this tool is used bv two Afghan farmers to make hills for potatoes. The construction of dikes for grain and other crops;which are irrigated by border method of irrigationiis similiar to this, only dikes are spaced some 20 to 50 feet apart, depending on the soil condition and the topo- graphy of the land. The dikes are usually made after plowing and before sowing. But when wheat is planted by the first rain in fall and no irrigation is necessaryivefore the spring, the dikes are made in the spring just be- 161 fore the first irrigation. In any case, when making these dikes, one man digs the Spade in the dirt while another man pulls the rcpe and piles the dirt to one side. This process continues until the end of the field is reached. The operation is then repeated in the Opposite dir- ection to form the other side of the dike. Two men doing their best can make about 600 feet of dike in one hour. The border diker shown in Figure 30, page 120 , is a suitable im- plement for the construction of dikes in large irrigated farms. For the small peasant who does not have access to a tractor power, an animal- drawn diker similiar to the Indian bund former shown in Figure hé would be a definite improvement over his present coldar. The Indian diker con- sists of two collecting moldboards that are so fitted as to Father the soil and throw it towards the center to form bunds according to the open- ing between them at the rear. The height and width of the dike can be regulated by adjusting the collecting boards for Which croner adjusting holes are provided on the back of the frame. A medium size Indian diker with three feet and six inches collect- ing boards when worked in a plowed field with sandy loam soil containing one and one—half percent moisture can efficiently construct a seven-inch hieh bund at the rate of 6000 feet per hour (88). This is 10 times as efficient as the Persian method of diking. The diker is simple and can be made by the village carpenter or the farmer himself. An average pair of oxen can pull this diker easily because it weighs only 23 pounds and the pull has found to be about 200 pounds (38). 162 Fig. hS. Tho Afghan farmers using a Persian colder in con- structing bills for potatoes. Fig. L6. Animal—drawn border diker. 163 V. SELECTION OF MCDSRN FARM MACHINERY FOR VARIOUS FARMING SITUATIONS Under the present.economic conditions of Iran, mechanization of agriculture to the extent practiced in the United States is obviously impractical because of the high cost of imported agricultural machines and the cheap and abundant farm labor. However, some agricultural and industrial developments have already started and it will not be long before some significant results and improvements will be obtained. At the present time, only about one—third of the total arable land in Iran is under cultivation (see Table VI). This scant one-third of Iran has engaged about 78 percent of the Iranian population as farm laborer and peasant. While the agricultural deve10pments will bring water for the other two-thirds of arid lands and thereby will increase the cultivated area, the industrial deve10pments will manufacture some types of the imported machinery and will draw the required labour from the villages and farms. This increase of cultivated land, lower cost of home-made machinery, and the scarcity of farm labor will be encourag- inn factors which will justify a full mechanization of farms in a near future. In this section, a method for selectins tractors and farm machinery for the various farming situations in Iran is introduced. It is believed that the use of tractors and implements indicated in the following pages can be applied to a Persian village situation, either for the entire series or parts thereof, at the present time or in a near future. The operation and ownership of these machines can be managed either by individual own- ership aid doing custom work for others or by a co-operative method lot which was illustrated in section III. Procedure for Selection of Farm Machinery In selectinr the most desirable agricultural machines for the var- ious farming situations in Iran, the followina procedure was followed: 1. An analysis of the farm enterprise. Such an analysis consisted of listing creps produced and acreages involved for eight farming situa- tions (Table XXI) with the following characteristics: Situation I - Vegetable farm near a city. Situation II - A family farm in the mountain area. Situation III - A family farm along the CaSpian Sea with rice being the only irrigated crOp. Situation IV — A family farm in the plateau, near a sugar beet fac-i tory. Situation V — A Class (Ila) farm in the plateau. Situation VI - A Class (IIa) farm by the CaSpian Sea. Situation VII - A Class (IIb) farm in the plateau producing sugar beets as the major crOp, wheat and alfalfa as minor crOps. Situation VIII -.A typical commercial Class III farm in the Plain of Gorgan. 2. ‘freparation of a time table for various farming Operations. Farmine is a timely Operation. In some areas of the world, climate in- fluences agricultural nroduction more than any other factor. In irriga- ted areas, the Weather interferes but little with field work, nevertheless, an estimate of the number of days suitable for working in the fields, which may be obtained from the past experience or weather reports, is essential information in the selection of farm machinery for a farming enterprise. Table XXII was prepared for the farminn situation V as an example. Sim- iliar charts or time tables can re made for Other farming situations. TABLE III ANALYSIS OF EIGHT FARMING SITUATIONS FOR THE SELECTION OF FARM MACHINERY 105 4 Farm classification Class I Class 111 Class IIb Class III Farming situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII Wheat and barley 'W 15 10 50 25 125 1000 Rice S S 15 20 Potatoes 5 10 5 10 Beans, peas, lentils 5 5 Vegetables and W' 10 ‘ vine crops S 20 S 5 5 10 Alfalfa and clover 10 15 30 125 Sugar beets 5 10 125 Cotton 10 10 Orchard 5 Fallow or green manure 15 10 50 LS 125 lOOO Size farm (acres) 25 b5 hS 50 160 115 500 2000 Total acres crop 35 hS 30 no 105 70 375 1000 TABLE XXIII ASSUMED PERCENT TIME LOSS FOR VhRIOUS FARMING OPERATIONS Tractor in Class Operation: I Ila IIb III Tilling and cultivating ho 35 30 25 Planting and drilling 50 us 35 30 Grain binder 55 us 35 30 Combine 60 50 b0 35 flower 50 ho 35 25 Potato digger 70 65 60 SS Beet lifter 50 us no 35 Dump rake b0 35 30 20 Threshing machine 30 30 30 30 Pulverizer 35 30 25 20 TABLE XIII 166 ‘ TIME AVAILABLE and TIME REQUIRED forFLRI OPERATIONS in SITUATION V N Available tn. :1: Required tine — 167 From these time tables, the number of days available for the accomplish— ment of each operation can be estimated and the machinery with the nec— essary capacity can be selected. 3. Selection of tractor and necessary equipment. In the selection of tractor and farm machinery for any farming enterprise, the following principles, cuoted from "A Report on Agriculture and Agricultural Engin- eering in China" (hO) should be kept in mind: a. The tractor must be of a size and type adapted to the siae of an enterprise. If the tractor is too small, certain Operations cannot be performed at the right time, and if too large, it will be idle part of the time and uneconomical because of its extra cost. b. Implements must be available for all of the necessary op— erations to be carried out with machinery. ' c. Machines should furnish a full load for the tractor to secure economical Operation. d. The machinery should be used as much as practicable in con- ducting an organized production program. 3. The machinery should have the necessary attachments for per- forming various operations under all conditions, i.e., cultivators often require different types of soil tillage tools for different CI‘ODS o f. The tractor and implements must be pronerly cared for and kept in repair to maintain onerating efficiency. Tables XXIV to XXVII together with machinery lists No. l to h were prepared primarily for illustrating how the machinery will fit into the production of crops under the various farming situations existing in Iran. By the methods illustrated, it is nossihle to analyse any desired farming program for the selection of proper and adequate power and im- plements to perform satisfactorily the production and handling of creps. In making a list of machinery for an individual farmer or farm or village situation, the method of selection would be similiar, but only the machinery required for that particular enterprise would be shown. Great attention should be given to the soil, crop, and farming conditions in selecting machinery for a particular area. Draft of plows may vary 168 from eight psi to 7b psi in various parts of the country. A tractor pulling a three-bottom plow in most lands of the United States would probably pull only one bottom of the same size in some of the hard ir- rigated soils of Iran. The rates ofnerformance of machines indicated in Tables XXIV to XXVII were found by equation (h), Appendix A, at three miles per hour in most cases, and the estimated percert time losses shown in Table XXIII. As seen in this table, the time loss for various Operations were taken much higher than those common in the United States. The reason for this higher estimation of time loss was obviously the lack of experience of operators, the great distance between villages and farm machinery dealers, and the lack of transportation facilities. In Tables XXIV to XXVII, the omission of any annual hours of use indicates that the particular implement was not selected for that farm— ing situation. i As seen in Tables XXIV and XXV, pumping for irrigation required a large percentage of annual hours of use of the tractor. This pumping job is one of the most difficult jobs to schedule for the farm tractor because pumping usually has to be done in the same period that the trac- tor is needed greatly for field work. In such cases, the tractor can be utilized at night when field work such as harvesting and cultivating is difficult. Selection of the irrigation pump-is based on water requirement of the crop, horsepower available, and the total head for pumping. Water requirement of the crop is determined by eXperience and eXperiment; a- vailable power is given bv the rated belt horsepower of the tractor; and the total head, including losses, is found from tables or Darcy's for- mula ( F 2 _££XE~ ) if dimentions of the pipes, elbows, valves, etc. are QgD knOlm o 169 The amount of water delivered by a pump and the time required to irrigate certain acreage with this water can be found by the following equations: Required pump capacity in cubic feet per second‘: rated belt horsepower x 3300 x pump efficiency x evaporation efficiency were total heafx 6211 x60 Hours to irrigate - area in acres x depth of water in inches — available water in cubicIfeetVDer second The annual hours of irrigation shown in Tables XXIV, XXV, and XXVI found on the basis of the following assumptions: Pump efficiency : 75 percent Evaporation loss 2 50 percent Available irrigation water in inches per season for: ‘Wheat and barley - 16 inches for situations IV, V, VII, and 12 inches for situation II. Alfalfa - two to three inches per cut. Assumed four cuts in situations IV, V, VII, and three cuts in situation II. Sugar beets - 18 inches- Beans, vine crops, and cotton - 15 inches. Potatoes - 10 inches. Rice - 30 inches. 170 TABLE XXIV ANNUAL HOURS OF USE OF TRACTORS AND EQUIPMENT IN CLASS I FARMS ‘ Ca acit Annual Hours U Operation Equipment Used agre y Situationse for __ r hr I 1; III Primary till— Ffioaway moldboard plow De 'QLZ“ age l-fur, l2-in 0.22 159 159 136 159 Secondary Tandem disk barrow h-ft 0.88 DO hO 3h 28 tillage Spike-tooth barrow . 2 Section lO-ft 2.2' 16 16 16 16 Special till-' Disk plow l—fur. age and land lO-in 0.18 83 preparation Spring-tooth har- row h ft 6 in 1.0 10 Pulverizer 7-ft 1.65 18 27 18 Leveling and grading blade or float leveler 1.0 15 Border diker 2.0 10 17 10 15 Ditcher 30 35 30 30 Mulcher lO-ft 2.2 37 S 16 11 Planting Vegetable planter h-row h-ft 0.75 b0 Grain drill 12x6 1.1 18 1h 9 Cotton planter 1-raw 0.6 17 Pbtato planting (plow) 0.2 25 50 25 Cultivating Vegetable cultivator h-row b-ft 0.88 102 17 17 Potato hiller (disk type) 0.66 16 30 16 Cotton cultivator l-row 0.66 60 Bean and beet cultivator 2orow 0.87 11 23 Harvesting Grain binder 6-ft 1.0 20 15 10 Mower ' 0.75 no 80 Bean harvester 0.50 10 . Beat lifter l—row 0.35 1h Potato digger 0.11 hS 91 b5 Dump rake 8-ft 2.0 15 30 Threshing machine 25 bu per hr 18 18 9 Seed cleaner 33 33 22 Rice huller and polisher 110 Flour mill h0 h0 Feed grinder ‘ 30 15 30 Miscellaneous Duster and Sprayer * 2.0 10 15 15 2o Manure spreader 100 35 50 50 Hauling 80 hO 30 60 Irrigation pump 2.8 cfs . @ 18 ft head 115 172 160 199 TOTAL HOURS 8h3 959 898 981 TABLE XXV ANNUAL HOURS OF USE OF TRACTOR AND EQUIPMENT IN CLASS II: FARMS 171 Capacity Annual Hours Use Operation Equipment Used acre for Situation per hr V 11 Primary ‘Moldboard plow 2—fur, , tillage lh-in 0.56 1b3 125 Secondary Tandem disk narrow tillage 8-ft 1.75 hé ho Spike-tooth barrow 3 sections, 12-ft 2.65 h2 3h Special Disk plow, 2-fur, l7-in 0.31 65 tillage Soil pulverizer or and land roller, 7-ft 2.90 hO 1h prepara- eling and grading tion blade or float leveler 1.25 Border Diker 2.00 30 20 Ditcher 50 30 Planting Grain drill 12 x 6 1.2 h2 38 Cotton planter, 2-row 1.1 9 Beet and bean planter 2-I'OW 0073 20 2O Cultivt- Planting potatoes 0.5 20 ting Cotton cultivator 2-row 1.3 33 Beat and bean cultiva- tor, b-row l 1.75 h3 h0 Middle buster billing potato, l-row ' 1.0 10 Weeder-mulcher, lO-ft 2.5 12 20 Harvestind Grain binder, 6-ft 1.0 So 50 Mower 6vft 1.1 109 Dump rake 210 60 Bean harvester 0.5 10 Beet lifter 2—row 0.70 1h neet loader l—row 20 Potato digger l-row 0.12 83 Processin Threshing machine hb hb and Mis- Seed cleaner 10 10 cellaneouSUFeed grinder 6O 20 Duster and sprayer 65 us Manure Spreader 100 90 Hauling 120 80 Irrigation pump b09 1&3 h.2 cfs @ 15 ft head TOTAL HOURS 1632 980 TABLE XXVI 172 ANNUAL HOURS OF USE OF TRACTORS AND EQUIPMENT IN CLASS IIb FARMS . , Capacity Annual Hours of Trac- Operation Equ1pment USCG acre tor Use for Situation per hr VII Crawler General Ipiimary Thoaway moldboard DlCSCI Purposel tillage plow, 2-fur l6-in: ‘ plowing for sugar beet 0.80 156 plowing for wheat 1.00 125 Secondary Offset disk and tillage Spike-tooth harrow lO—ft 3,ho 7h Special til— Field cultivator lage and land 1h-ft b.75 preparation Summer fallow three oultivations b.75 79 Spring tillage for sugar beet b.75 27 Float leveler and spike tooth barrow 150 Border diker 60 Ditcher 50 Roller 12—ft h.h 67 Planting Grain drill 16x6 2.2 57 Beet planter 6—row and corrugator 2.75 U6 Cultivating Beet cultivator with and other irrigation shovel at- cares tachment 10-row eight cultivation 5.0 200 Field cultivator with alfalfa renovator shovel 5.0 25 Harvesting Hay baler hauled be- hind combine 1.50 8h Mower 6 ft, four cuts 1.80 2.80 Side delivery rake 8-ft 2.50 200 Pick up baler 1&118 1.50 333 Sugar beet harvester 0.h0 310 Processing Seed cleaner 20 and Miscel— Duster and sprayer laneous 20-ft 200 Manure spreader 200 Irrigation pump 7.6 cfs @ 20 ft bead 395 200 TOTAL_HOURS 167k 1héh TABLE XXVII 177 ANNUAL HOURS OF USE OF TRACTOR AND EQUIPMENT IN CLASS III FARMS Capacity Annual Hours Use Operation Equipment Used acre for Situation per hr VIII Primary Moldboard plow tillage 6—fur, lh—in 1.9 525 Secondary tillage Tandem disk, spike- tooth harrow, and land packer, 20-ft h.8 210 Planting Grain drill, hB-rt 6.6 152 Harvesting Harvester-thresher 20-ft and tandem disk ZO-ft 3.5 285 Summer Field cultivator fallow 36-ft (two cultivations) 7.h 270 TOTAL HOURS lth 178 list No. l Tractor, Implement and Attachments Required for Crop Production in Situations I, II, III, and IV Tractor Tractor with 12-16 rated drawbar horsepower, engine adaptable to kerosene if possible, adjustable frontaxle, front and rear wheel weights, drawbar and swinging drawbar, universal mounting frame, belt pulley, pow- er take-Off, muffler, Spark arrester, choice of manual or hydraulic power control. Basic Implements Moldboard plow, one-furrow, oneaway or one-furrow, two way, 12, lb, or 16 inch (depending on soil condition) with combination rolling coulter and jointer, or stationary jointer for dry and hard soil, set of extra shares. Disk barrow, four-foot, tandem, 16 inch disk with scrapers. Spike-tooth barrow, open end, two sections with drawbar. Special Tillage and Land Preparation Equipment Disk plow (for plowing hard and dry or wet and sticky soi131,rear mounted, one 2h—inch or 26-inch disk with scraper. Spring-tooth harrow, one section with drawbar. Border drag and float leveler (home—made). Leveling and grading blade. Mulcheraweeder. Soil pulverizer or roller, double gang, V—type. Ditch plow or middlebuster, one-row. 179 Row Crop Equipment Planter, vegetable, one—row or four—row with shoe type marker, Planter, beet and been, hand pushed, one-row. Planter, cotton, one-row, attachment for plantine on beds, disk cov- ering and fertilizer attachments. Cultivator with tool bar attachment for cotton, beet, bean, vegetable, regular sweep, disk hiller, rear sweeps to remove tractor tracks, corruga— toer or irrigation shovels. Grain drill, 12 by 6, simple disk, double—run tvpe of feed, marker, tractor hitch, power lift, coverinv chains, fertilizer attachment, attach— ment for alfalfa broadcast between rows or; End-gate seeder. Harvesting Equipment Grain binder, six-foot cut, tractor hitch, equipned for rice and wheat. Mower, power drive, side mounted. Dump rake with tractor hitch. Potato digger, one-row. Beet lifter, one-row. Processing and Miscellaneous Machinery Threshing machine, 20 x 30, equipped for wheat, barley, rice, beans, and peas (Messineer No. 30 or others). Combination roughage mill and feed grinder. Seed cleaner or fanning mill with assorted screens. Rice huller and polisher. All-purpose farm truck, tractor hitch, wood or steel box, with auto type‘Wheel and tires. Row crop duster and sprayer, tractor mounted, Operated by rower take off, 180 with orchard Spray equipment. Manure spreader. Power loader with cover. Irrigation pump for 2.8 cfs @ 18 feet head. 181 List No. 2 Tractor, Implement, and Attachments Required for Crop Production in Situations V and VI. Tractor Tractor with 10-20 or 20—30 rated drawbar horsepower (depending on soil condition), fuel system adaptable to kerosene, standard four wheel type or tricycle type with adjustable front axle, Spark arrester, and muffler, drawbar and swinging drawbar, belt pulley, power take off, and hydraulic power control. Basic Implements Moldboard plow, two-furrow lh-inch or lé-inch with combination rolling coulter and jointer and set of extra shares; or moldboard plow, one—furrow, two-way lh-inch or lé-inch with combination rolling coulter and jointer and set of extra shares. Disk harrow, tandem lB—inch disk with scrapers. Spike-tooth harrow, closed end,three or four sections with draw bar. Special Tillage and Land Preparation Disk plow (for plowing hard and dry or heavy and sticky soil), two 26-inch with scrapers. Border drag (home-made). Leveling and prading blade or float leveler (homemade). Mulcher-weeder. Soil pulverizer (same as in List No. l). Middlebuster, two-furrow, lh—inch or one—furrow lé-inch to be used as a ditcher. 182 Row Cron Implements Planter, beet and bean, two-row, variable row spacing, double disk furrow opener, Shoe type marker fertilizer attachment, set of plates and blanks. Planter, cotton, two—row, attachment for planting on beds, disk covering attachment, fertilizer attachment. Grain drill (same as List No. l). Cultivator two or four-row with attachments same as in List No. l. Harvesting Equipment Grain binder, as in List No. l. Mower, six-foot, power drive. Dump rake with tractor hitch. Potato digger, one-row. Beet lifter, one-row or two-row. Beet loader, one-row. Cultivator with bean harvester attachment. Processing and Miscellaneous Machinery See List No. l. 183 list No. 3 Tractor, Implement, and Attachments Required for Crop Production in Situation VII Tractors Track type BO—hO rated drawbar horsepower with belt pulley and hy— draulic power control; also a row croo tractor, 16—20 rated drawbar horse- power as for Class 11a farm. Basic Implements Moldboard plow, two-furrow, tw04way 16 inch, combination rolling coulter and jointer, stationary jointer, set of extra shares. Disk harrow, offset, lO-foot, 20—inch disk with scraper. Spike-tooth harrow, closed end three :ections, 15-foot with drawbnr. Special Tillage and Land Preparation Equipment Leveling and "rading blade or home-made float leveler B-font. Border drar or diker and ditchor. Field cultivator lL—foot with swamp: and shovels for summer fallow- iflg and precarinr seedbeds on fall-plowed land for sunar Feet. Also al- falfa renovmtor shovel attachment. Soil Lulverizer or roller, double rang V—type. Row Crop Implements Planter, beet, six—row, double disk furrow orener, shoe type marker, fertilizer attachment. Grain drill, same as in List No. l excent 16 x 6 size. Cultivator, beet, two sections hitched together, lO-row with irriga- tion shovel and ooerator sent. Corrugator six-row. Harvesting Equipment Combine, self-propelled, B-foot, barging attachment. Mower, six—foot, equio ed with tractor bitch and operator seat. Side delivery rake. , Pick no baler, hand wire tie, lb X 1d. Sugar beet harvester, tractor mounted. Processing sod Miscellaneous kachines Seed cleaner. Row croo duster and row crop Sprayer. Manure snreader W7th rower loader. Irrigation oump for 7.6 cfs @ 20 feet head. 185 List No. b Tractor, Implement, and Attachments Required for Crop Production in Situation VIII Tractor Track type, diesel, 50-60 rated drawbar horsepower, hydraulic power control. Tillage Implements Moldboard plow, six-furrow, lh—inch, combination rolling colter and jointer, set of extra shares. Disk harrow, two double action tractor disk harrow, lB-inch disk. Spike—tooth narrow, four sections, open end, 35 teeth. Roller or land packer, with lug-type wheel. Field cultivator, three lZ-foot duck foot cultivator. Planting Equipment Grain drill, six 1? x 8 deer or semi-dean furrow drill. Harvestinp Equipment Combine, pull-type, ZO—foot cutter bar, with platform for operator and bagging equipment. 186 Use of Machines In Series Combination Farming situation VIII was piven as an example of large scale mech- anized farming which is believed can be carried on satisfactorily in the flat nlains of Iran, especially the Plains of Gorgan where sufficient amount of rainfall permits dry farming practices. In regard to the use of machines in series combination, it is im— portant to note that as field operations become more completely mechan- ized and the number of machine units involved is increased, the relia- bility of the indiVidual machine becomes increasingly important. This may be exnlained in part by the fact that the degree of reliability which seems rather satisfactory for a machine when used alone, becomes impractical when a number of machines are used toyether in a series com- bination, where the Operation of all units is denendent upon the operation of each unit. The over-all performance of a number of machines in series combination shows a serious loss from the uninterrupted capacity. This situation may be analysed mathematically by the following equation based on the well established laws of probability: Y:(-1%5- )n (f) where Y.: the eXpected effective operating time in percent for a series combination of machines where the ooeration of the Series depends on the Operation of each machine, X.: the expected effective operating time in nrrcent for each of the individual machines of the series, and n‘: number of machines in the series. If the expected effective operating time x is different for each machine, the equation above takes the following form: x X x _ _ —Xn 123 (g) Y - loon 187 For example, in farming situation VIII where a combination of disk harrow, spike-tooth barrow, and land hacker is used with eXpected effective Operatine times of 80, 85, and 90 percent ressectively, the probable performance of the series would be: Y - (80) (852 (90) a : 61 percent (100)3 Therefore, whenever field conditions and the size of a farm permits the operation of large scale machines or combination of a few smaller machines, before such combination is recommended the following principles should be kept in mind: 1. As the capacity of field machines is increased, the penalty for adverse field conditions, inferior construction, careless operation, and maintenance also increases. 2. The overall effectiveness of machines used in a series combin- ation is dependent upon the reliability of the individual machine in the combination. 3. Good management is the best method for offsetting the increased loss of operating time which generally accompanies the use of machines in a series.combination. VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The greater part of the 628,000 Square miles area of Iran is a vast plateau varying in elevation from 3000 to 8000 feet above sea level. The high mountain ranges which cross this plateau form a barrier before the moisture-bearing currents of the Mediterranean Sea and allow little or none of the moisture to precipitate in the central plateau. Beside being responsible for the lack of rainfall in the country, the mountain ranges present some of the world's most difficult problems of road and railroad construction. This has resulted in the lack of tranSportation facilities which has been a contributing factor to the economic backwardness of Iran. The landscape and climate of Iran,except for the subtrOpical climatic regime of the Caspian provinces, offer general resemblance to those of the American Southwest with the exception of beinn more arid, more desolate, and having greater eXpanses of deserts. The distribution of rainfall, which is closely related to topography, regulates the agricultural productivity and growth of forests and wild vegetation. Strong winds of the plateau which are at the present time causing soil blowing, destruction of crOps, and intolerable climate, can be used to advantage by utilizing their power in windmills of modern design and operating deep-well irrigation pumps. The soils of Iran, for most parts of the country, can be classified as sierozen and desert soils. Under irrigation, these soils are highly productive of a wide variety of creps. 139 Studies of the soil characteristics such as texture, depth, color, fertility, erodibility, crop adaptability, salinity and suitability for irrigation, and resistance to tillage implements are among the research projects to be carried out in the future. Soil erosion in Iran is most violent and it is a serious matter for the agricultural economy of the country. The use of power and machinery in the mechanization of Iranian agriculture should be linked together with soil conservation practices if any positive result is to be expected. Hater is the most scarce and therefore the most valuable asset for a Persian farmer in Iran. Of the total average annual intake of water, about three-fourths are lost bv surface flow-off and evaporation (11). Although a good deal of dry farming is carried on in parts of Iran, the agricultural productivity depends upon the availability of water and methods of irrigation. Water for irrigation is obtained through the ancient method of ghanat system, deep wells, and free-flowing open chan— nels. Irrigation experts who have studied the water problem of Iran, be- lieve that the water supply should be increased by the storage of spring run-offs in farm ponds and an extension of the traditional system of ghanats rather than attempt the eXpensive process of storing water in great reservoirs. Field surveys have indicated that it is possible to take advantage of the natural conditions and build irrigation structures that would be prohibitive in cost if designs were confined to standard engineering fractices. The application of dry stone and hydraulic fill method of dam structure is one example for which many sites can be located by careful field surveys. 190 The thick forests of the CaSpian region, the mineral deposits, the coal, and most important of all, the world's largest oil reserves of Iran together with its soil and water resources, are among the economic factors that make the Iranians be Optomistic toward the future agricul- tural and industrial developments of their country. The presence of iron ore deposits and some of the required alloying elements for steel manufacturing, together with the available coal and lime deposits, indicate possibilites of steel industry in Iran, and the manufacture of the many simple and yet heavy farm implements which at present time are imported from Europe or the United States. The presence of oil reserves in Iran provides a cheap source of fuel for tractors and farm engines. In addition, it is the most import- ant source of capital for the economic development of the country, in- cluding the mechanization of agriculture. Farming has existed in Iran for a period of more than 8,000 years. Today, about 78 percent of the Iranian population is engaged in agricul— ture or related activities. At the present time, only about 10 percent of the total area of Iran is under cultivation, of which more than seven percent is laid idle each year as fallow land (Table VI). This fallowing practice is the principle method of restoring fertility to the soil. The farming of the land is done in the same manner as in other countries of the Middle East and by methods in use for thousands of years. It takes hO hours per acre to plow with the ancient Persian plow and a pair of oxen. The rates of harvesting with a short sickle and threshing with the native threshing sled, each requires roughly the same amount of time (Table IX). 191 No accurate account has ever been made to Show the percentage of illiteracy among the peasant class of Iran. However, as it might be expected, Peasants and laborers consist the great bulk of the illiterates. It has been reported that in one district of 800 villages, there were not over 30 schools (h). From the standpoint of farm mechanization and the selection and use of farm machinery, the farm lands of Iran can be divided into three major classes: 1. The small mountain farms. Improvements should begin first by providing roads, better work animals and native implements, and then by mechanization through cooperatives and custom work. 2. The small and large farms of the central plateau. Careful planning of the fields and irrigation ditches in these irrigated farms is necessary before tractors and farm machinery can be operated efficiently. 3. The farms of the great plains. Climatic conditions, fertility of soil, possibilities for dry farming or irrigation water, topography of land, and the scarcity of labor are the encouraging factors for large scale mechanized farming in this class of farms. Agricultural mechanization in Iran, like any other economic devel- 0pments, is faced with a number of SOCial, economic, and technical prob- lems. The first requirement for the success of any project for agricultur- al mechanization of an underdeveloped country such as Iran is the support of a stable, strong, and well-financed government. The lranian Seven-Year Plan, the latest and the most comprehensive plan for reconstruction and economic deve10pment of Iran, has not succeeded rapidly because of the lack of funds and the evils of unstable, weak, and corrupt governments. Revenues from the oil industry in Iran, as it was allocated for the Seven-Year Plan, is still the most dependable source of funds for execution of the proposed projects for agricultural mechanization of the country. The fact that tillage is generally concentrated in sparsely located villages, requiring a common supply of water from ghanat system, has fostered a concentration of land ownership. This is apparently a fav- orable factor for mechanization because of less land fragmentation. But from the stand point of social and economic problems of absentee land- lordism and share crOpning, this land ownership problem has been one of the reasons of economic backwardness of Iran. Lack of education, managerial ability, and capital of the peasant who is to become owner of the land and assume reSponsibilities of owner- ship from on hand, and the Opposition of landowners from the other hand are among the many problems which may develop as the result of a drastic land reform in Iran. The solution to the land ownership problem in Iran, from the stand— point of agricultural mechanization, can be approached by the following suggestions: 1. DevelOpment of the many of irrigation projects in the Class III farms will open up new lands which can be sold to the landless peasants ' under long terms and low rates of interest. 2. Land owners should be paid the price of their lands and other properties in the form of government bonds which carries a low rate of interest. The total sum of land price, interest, and a charge to cover administrative costs can be arranged to be paid by the peasant in 30 to 50 annual installments. 193 3. In order to prevent further fragmentation of the eXprOpriated lands and thereby facilitate the mechanical Operations on the farms, the law should require that the buyers of the land must pool their lands and organize.farmers' cooneratives. The COOperatives should be directed by the government until the members have gained enough eXperience, training, and capital to take over the Operation and control of their own cooperatives. The functions of the farmers' cooperatives should include such services as administrating the landxexpropriation law, obtaining ag- ricultural loans, improved seeds and livestock, and farm machinery and pest control services from the state machine-tractor stations, repair and extension of irrigation ghanat systems, in addition to marketing and purchasing and other agricultural and social services. b. Paralleling the land eXprOpriation and cooperative organization should be the formation of state or independent farm machinery organiza- tions to rent machinery or do custom work for farmers' cooperatives. Low income of farmers and the high cost of imported machinery is another problem faced by the agricultural engineer for the mechanization of agriculture in Iran. The total investment of a Persian farmer in his farm equipment does not usually exceed 10 to 15 dollars. The cost of one dollar worth American made machine delivered in Iran, according to the Iranian exchange rate for 1951, will amount to 1.85 dollars (page 81 )0 According to the new rate of exchange (85 rials for one American dollar), a 1,300 dollars tractor costs a Persian farmer his annual in- come for a period Of twenty years. Despite this high cost Of modern machinery, the following methods can be suggested for the ownership and management of farm machinery so that both the large landlord and the small peasant can be given the bene- fits of mechanical equipment: 1. Individual ownership where the farm enterprise is large enough to make he ownership economically sound. 2. Suoplementina private owned equipment with certain machines owned cooperatively. 3. COO erative associations for the purchase and use Of farm mach- inery. h. Custom work by Specialivedorganizations or individual owners for farmers or farmers' cooperatives who do not own machinery. I Under the individual ownership, since the landlord is not usually present at his farm, the question Of a capable manager is one Of utmost importance. When a threshing machine is owned and Operated cooperatively, the differences which may occur in the amount of labor received by some mem— bers compared with the amount or labor furnished can be settled by the three methods Of bushel basis, acre basis, and time basis. The example of a Six-member threshing ring proved that the acre basis is easy on the man with high.crop yields but hard on the man with low yields. It was concluded that either the bushel or the time basis can be used with more satisfactory results. The COOperative movement for mechanization of agriculture in Iran should be started and backed up by the government. Especially selected employees of the Ministry Of Agriculture should be trained in Tehran and then sent out to the farms for the organization 195 of local co-Ops for the purchase and use of farm machinery. Several of such local cooperatives can get tovether to organize a district co- op renair station. Finally, a regional cooperative can be organized for the supply of fuel and parts. A method and formula was presented for capitalization of farm machinery cooperatives in Iran so that practically all of the capital required from the farmer with the smallest acreage will be loaned by the government, whilethe large farmer or big landlord will benefit little or none from such government aid. The government loan preposed for farm machinery cooperativeS'will require no payment of principal or interest for the first year, but should be paid off in the six nroceeding years in equal installment plus, four percent interest. The government also orovideb an eXperienced machine Operator to be stationed in the village for a period of one year to show the farmer- members the operation and maintenance of the co-Op tractor and machinery. At least one young farmer of the village should receive enough training during this period so that he Can be employed by the co-op as the tractor driver for the coming years. In the example of farm machinery cooperative, a farmer—member who owned only 10 acres of land was expected to pay about 136 dollars every year for the operating eXpenses of a tractor, a moldboard plow, disk, and narrows, a self-rake reaper, and a threshing machine (Table IX). In return, the farmer saved about 1,1hO hours. The number of hours the farmer had to work and pay off the eXpenses of the machinery was reduced from 870 hours to 180 hours per year as he kept receiving more and more patronage dividend (Table X). His net sav- ing in hours increased from 271 to 961 hours per year in the period of seven years assumed for the depreciation of the machinery. The question of who should be served first can best be handled by a careful olanning of the route to be taken by the tractor in each 0p- eration every year. The farming practices for various crops and the sup orting attitude of the member should be considered in giving priority to each member for using the co-Op machinery. The difficulty oftravelling from one small field to another can be reduced by a careful planning of the tractor route by encouraging the members to join their lands together, and by making an additional charge for travelling time. Custom work of farming operations is a Specialized type of farming enterprise in itself. If it is to be done on a sound economic basis, it calls for careful analysis of demand for the service, supply of the ser- vice, and costs and pricing of the service. The use of farm machinery in Iran for custom work can be arranged either as a sideline or as a business enterprise. The owner of a trac- tor or a farm machine who decides to do custom work as a sideline may want to provide enough volume of work so that the total of off farm 'work plus work at home will equal an amount sufficient to justify the ownership of the equipment in question; may want to perform a sufficient volume of work to cover all the fixed ownership cost of the machine; or may want to do a large amount of custom work enough to add to net farm income. The "break-even" point for each of the above situations can be obtained from simple formulas given on pages 105 and 106. The limited supply of tractor and farm machinery in an underdevel- oped country such as Iran can be used most efficiently through the state controlled or independent contracting organizations. Such organizatio.s, 197 in addition to having the financial ability to own and Operate a complete line of machinery for various conditions of soils and crOps, will be sup- plied with work shops, staff of nechanics, agronomists, machine operators, and other facilities which are bevond the financial ability of the indiv- idual farmer. To encourage the consolidation of farm lands,_one of the require- ments for custom operations should be the pooling of the small scattered holdings into large fields suitable for tractor operation. The charge for custom service as a business enterprise can be found from the formula given on page 109 . Shortage of trained nersonnel is another problem of agricultural mechanization in Iran. It would be the reaponsibility of the government, machinery distrib- utors and Iranian manufactureres U) see to it that every piece of mach- inery which is sold to a landlord, a state farm, or a farmers' cooperative, have the services of trained men available for its operation, maintenance, and repair so that the machine will function satisfactorily over a long period. Although courses in farm machinery, irrigation,farm structures, and rural industries are offered at the Karaj Agricultural College, the ield of agricultural engineering, as a distinct branch of engineering, has re- mained unknown. The task of training technicians, farm mechanics, and farm machine operators, as Well as engineers and research men in the field of farm_ machinery should be assigned to the departments of agriculturd. engin- eering to be established in the Ministry of Agriculture and the Univer- sity of Tehran. 198 Due to the lack of farm machinery manufacturers in Iran, the act- ivities of the agricultural engineers interested in power and machinery will be limited to teaching and research. For this reason, the Iranian agricultural engineering students hould have training in the develop- ment and organization of rural industries, rural sanitation, organiza- tion and management of farm machinery COOperatives, construction of farm- to—market roads, improving farm hauling and transportation equipment and methods, management and organization of machine-tractor stations or cus- tom service organizatiOws, in addition to the basic apricultural engin- eering courses. To supplement the agricultural engineering training of the University of Tehran, every year a group of selected graduates of the School of Engin- eering should be sent to the United States for further academic training as well as practical training on farms and factories. DiSplacement of farm labor, which has been given Special emphasis as a problem of agricultural mechanization in many other countries, is believed to be a problem of minor importance in Iran because it still has two-thirds of its total cultivable land to be developed and come under cultivation. Until the new lands have been developed and settled by the farm labor surplus, a develonment of rural industries appears to be the ans- wer to the question of farm labor diSplacement. The preposed rural industries not only will absorb any farm labor. surplus which may result from the mechanization ofalgriculture but also provide employment for the remaining farmers in slack seasons. The progress of farm machinery cooperatives and the opportunity of the Persian peasant for using any labor-saving farm equipment depends entirely upon the progress of rural industries and the employment oppor- l 199 tunities for the peasants to utilize profitably the time they save. A purely technical problem of agricultural mechanization in Iran is the mechanized harvesting of wheat and barley — the most important stable crop of the country. The harvest of wheat and barley in Iran is faced with two problems: (1) irrigation ditches, dikes, and borders on the way of the harvesting machine; (2) the problem of saving straw. Dikes or levees, constructed by means of the native tool, prevent the lowering of the combine's cutterbar and cutting the straw close to the ground. The use of the home-made border drag shown in Figure 30 not only re— sults in a great saving of time but also facilitates the operation of a mechanical harvester. If a combine harvester is to be selected for the large irrigated farms, to assure a continuous and efficient harvesting Operation, either a self-propelled or a tractor—drawn combine which has an operator plat- form was recommended. Straw is used in Iran not only for feeding and bedding of work stock but also as a bond in a Special plaster for covering interior walls, ceilings, and floors of all types of buildings. The most economical and efficient method of harvesting and saving straw in Iran is one which demands the least number of imported mechanical equiument and Which involves the least amount of handling, thus preserving loose grains and chaffs in the straw. Nine methods of harvesting frain and saving straw were discussed and the three following methods were selected for the Class IIb farms in Iran. 1. Harvesting with a combine and collecting the straw into a straw 2C0 buncher. The bunches left on the ground can be reclaimed by loading them into the native straw nets. 2. Harvesting with a combine and loading the straw directly into the native straw nets by a man riding in a small trailer hitched behind the combine. 3, Harvesting with a grain binder or a self-rate reaper and thresh— ing with a threshing machine. To select between the combine method and the binder-thresher methods of harvesting, SOD-acre farm of the Class IIb was considered in which the two methods of mechanized harvesting were compired with the present tand method of harvesting. Realizing the difficulties of handling a large size machine on rough irrigated fields of the Class II farms, it was recommended that the cut- terbar of a grain hinder or a combine harvester not to exceed eight feet in length. A pull-type numbine was selected in this study so that the tractor will be available for other farming operations. If the size of a farm or custom services for the neighbors justifies the ownership of a small self- prOpelled combine, this type of combine has proved to be the easiest type of harvesting machine to handle on the rough irrigated farms of Iran. The nomographs shown on pages 211a, 2llb, and 211C of the Appendix were develo:ed for the selection of tractor and harvesting machine for the farm in question. Such nomowraph can be of great assistance to the farm machinery dealers and the Ministry of Agriculture field workers in ad- vising the landlords and the farmers' CQOperatives for selection of the proper size of machines for their farms. To make the comnarison of combine, binder—thresher, and hand methods of tarvesting on the same basis, the SOC-acre farm was divided into 10 201 lots of 50 acres each. The bundles left by the hinder or manual har- vesting and the grain and straw harvested by the combine were hauled in ox wagons to the center of each of the 50—acre lots, where they were stacked in l0 piles. Under the present method of harvesting, such thresh- ing floors serve as the storage ground until the grain and the straw are taken to the storage bins or to the market. The result of the comparison of the three methods of harvesting of wheat is shown in Table XX, page lh3 . As indicated in this table, the method of binder—thresher proved to be the cheapest method of harvesting. It is noficed from Table XVIII that the Cost of twine alone consti- tuted about 18 percent of the harvestinr cost in the binder-thresher method. This findinc indicated that if binder twine could be produced in the count y, the cost of harvest by this method could be reduced still further. It was interesting to note that the cost of hand method of harvest- ing, desnite the cheap labor and the hirh cost of imported machinery, was about 3.7 times as ex ensive as the binder-thresher method. Threshing machines and combine harvesters leave the straw in a coarse condition which provide a less satisfactory feed than that which has been finely shredded by the native method of thresninn. For this reason, in adeptinn a threshinp machine or a combine to the Iranian ag- riculture, the nachine should be furnished with a straw cutter by which the straw is chopped and bruised as it comes out of the machine. DeSpite all their backwardness, many of the cultivation oractices used in Iran are extremely suitable to the peculiar geographic and econ- omic condition of the country. In introducing the modern machinery and imnrovement of the rresent 202 native implements, the point to bear in mind is that technological changes must be fitted into the social and economic pattern of the coun- try. Mechanization of agriculture for Iran does not, at present, mean the introduction of complex and high—priced machines or implements. Mechanization for the Iranian peasant means the gradual improvement of the present implements and methods found in a Persian village. The followinn improvements, along with hetter seeds, fertilizers, and cultural methods can work together to reduce the backtireaking lab- or of the peasant. 1. There are many farminv areas in Iran where the faithful Per- sian ox may he used as a source of rower for the years to come. The improvement and breedinn of oxen is an essential step toward the improvement of the lot of Persian neasantry. The native ox of Sistan provides an excellent breed for crossing with other draft animals. 2. Research and eXperiments should be carried out for a better method of yoking oxen to replace the old method, which restrains side movement, overloads and injures the neck of the animal, and results in inefficient and tirinh operation. 3. The tnree examples of improved plows for India are the types of improvement that Persian peasant needs for his plow. b. Simple heat treatments of some of the native tools, such as shown on page 153, Will increase the life of the implement and bring a ereat saving to the farmer. 5. The spike—tooth harrows shown on page 155 can he made by the farmer himself or the village carpenter. 6. The small Prain drill shown on page 157can be easily made in r. 203 Iran and distributed to the farmers' c00peratives. Even the present village grocery stores can serve as the manufacturer's dealer and rent out the machine to the farmers. If such a machine, which can be pulled by a pair of oxen, would be available to the farmer, the saving on seed alone would be enough to pay the rental on the machine. In addition, the rate of seeding with this machine would be eight times as fast as the present method of hand broadcasting. 7. A mowinn machine of four to five feet cutter bar can be pulled by a pair of oxen. This machine can be used for harvesting if owned cooperatively. 8. After a decent plow and a grain drill, the most needed labor and time saving equipment for a Persian peasant is a winJOWer for sep- arating arain from the straw. The most logiCal method of threshing wheat, however, is by a thresning machine owned cooneratively. 9. For the small farmer who does not have access to tractor pow— er, an animal-drawn diker similiar to the Indian hund farmer (page 162) would be a definite improvement over the present back-breaking tool for dike construction. The Indian diker is ten times as efficient as the old Persian diker. As some deve10pments in agriculture and industry have already started in Iran, increase of cultivated land, the lower cost of home-made machin— ery, and the scarcity of farm labor will be the encouraging factors which will perhaps justify a full mechanization of some of the Iranian farms in a near future. For such farms, a method for selecting tractors and the necessary machinerv and equipment was pronosed. This method in luded the analysis of the farm enterprise, preparation of a time table forvarious farming operations, and finally, selection of tractor and the necessary equip- 20b ment. It is believed that the use of tractors and implements indicated in the machinery lists can be applied to a Persian village situation, where the Operation and ownership can be managed either individually or COOperatively. In farming situations where machines can be used in series comb- bination, the extent to which several machines can be combined and still have an overall performance which justifies the economic of such com- bination was found a problem which requires further study. 205 APPENDIX A ESTIMATING SIZE OF MACHINES AND OPERATING COSTS 206 APPENDIX -A ESTIMATING SIZE OF MACHINES AND OPERATING COSTS In estimating the size of a machine and the cost of machine operation, the following factors and assumptions were considered: Useful Life of a Machine and Repair Costs Effective capacity of field machines in area per unit of time was considered a function of the following factors: I. Width as affected by: a. b. Measured width of the machine. Percentage of width actually used. Operating speed as affected by: a. b. C. e. Draft of the machine. Traction and power of the power source. Topography of the land and variation in grade and rolling re— sistance. Operating limitation on speed; such as irrigation ditches and border dikes. Condition of crop; heavy crOp, lodged crOp,crop infested with weeds, etc. Interruptions as affected by: a. Breakdowns and adjustments. Idle travel such as traveling to the field, turning at the ends, etc. Lubrication, refueling, etc. Adding seed or fertilizer. Clogging. 207 Operating Days per Year and Daily Capacity The following equations were derived.for determination of effective daily capacity and annual use of a machine: 528o‘(§2 (w) Sh) (1000p) h3560 (100) (S) (W) (H) (100 - P) 8.25 (100) (h) Where a — effective daily capacity in acres 5 - speed in miles per hour w — width of implement in feet 5280 h3560 H - the length of working day in hours equivalent of one mile in feet equivalent of one acre in square feet V P — percent of time lost by interruptions. From equation (H) the operating days per year was derived as shown in the following equation: D _ 825 (a) " (s) (w) (H) (100 - P) (i) Percent Time Loss The percent of time lost, P, was assumed to be composed of two losses: 1. time loss due to interruptions,such as those shown above. 2. time loss caused by idle travel at ends of small fields. The first part was assumed to be estimated by eXperience and factors re— lated to the location of the farm. Such factors as skill and the know— how of the operator and the owner of the farm, distance from the nearest mechanic or dealer, and method and efficiency of tranSportins fuel and oil were considered in estimating this part of percent loss P. 208 The second part of losses in P, which has to do with the size of land, was found by using the following analvsis: If, N — width of field in feet w — width of machine in feet L‘: length of field in feet p Z idle travel as a percent of total travel n — the number of trips across the field then, idle travel equals the sum of (W-nw)dn or: W'w ( W — nw )dn 0 2 idle’travel effective travel :’ll/w 2 total travel 2 0.5 W/w + LW/w 2 0.5 W/W x 100 2 0.5 W/w + LW/w Therefore, p 100 w (j) .+ Selection of Machinery and Tractors The series of nomographs shown on pages 211a, 211b, and 211C, were de- veloped for the use by farm machinery dealers or coonerative advisers in recommending the size of a machine and the required tracnor power. It was assumed that a landlord or a farm machinery cooperative furnishes the information about the total acreage, Operating days per year, working hours per day, conditions of the land and the crOp for estimating speed, and location of the farm and size of the fields. By knowing the apnroximate length and width of the fields, the dealer 209 can refer to Chart-l and find an average p for all the fields. Then by consideration of the factors indicated on nave 206, the total loss P is estimated. The loss P plus all the other information are taken to Chart- 2 to find the size of the machine. Inasmuch as plowing is usually the heaviest type of operation re- quired from a tractor, Chart-3 was developed on that basis and according to the following equation (for units see Chart-3 on page 2110): Drawbar horsepower — (W) (d) (R) (52 _ 31.257 knowing width of the plow from Chart‘2, draft requirement of soil from soil maps (to he deve10ped by the government), and the required depth of furrow the dealer can recommend the size of tractor by referring to Chart' 3. Fixed Costs 1. Depreciation - The straight-line method of estimating deprecia- tion was used as given by the followirg formula (8); D_C-S -"T“ Where D depreciation dollars per hour 0‘: original purchase price - taken fronlthe National Tractor and Farm * Implement Blue Book (1951). S 2 salvage or trade-in value taken as 10 percent of C L.: service life of machine in hours,taken fronl Table A-V, page 216. * The list price of the Blue Book was multiplied by 1.83 to find the delivered price in Tehran. 210 2. Interest on Investment - The following formula, which gives a constant and equal charge every year throughout the machine's life (8), was used in estimating the interest on investment: I:9__'f_§._i (m) 2 N Where 1.: interest charge - dollars per hour N operating hours per year i rate of interest - assumed 8 percent for the year l9§l II C and S as in equation (1) 3. Repair cost was taken as percent of new cost for the total ser- vice life of the machine ( Table A-V, page 216 ). h. Taxes and insurance costs were taken as 2 percent of the average investment per year. 5. housing cost was estimated at 5 cents per square foot per year. This estimation was based on the assumption that a farm machinery shed, 60 feet by 20 feet, was constructed from adobe bricks which, including re- pairs, cost h0,000 rials. Assuming the useful life of the structure qual to $0 years and 8 percent interest on the investment, the 6 cents per square foot per year was obtained. Operating Costs 1. Fuel. The tractors imported to Iran are usually equipped with a cylinder head of low compression for the use of kerosene. First the tractor is started on wasoline. Then, when the engine is warmed up, the fuel is switched over from gasoline to kerosene. The reason for using kerosene instead of gasoline is the lower cost of kerosene. Kerosene is produced for the use in oil lamps and costs almost half as much as gaso- line. (See Table A - II.) A comparison of the physical prOperities of kerosene with other 211 tractor fuels indicated that distillate, as shown in Table A — I, is the nearest tractor fuel to kerosene. Since there was no test data available for the use of kerosene in the selected tractors, test data for distil- late were used in estimation of fuel costs. TABLE A—l COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF KEROSENE AM) DISTILLATE (8) API Weight Heating Value Average Desirable Fuel Gravity lb btu per btu per Octane Comparison deg per gal 1b gal No. Ratio Kerosene L3 6.76 19,830 13h,1OO 10 b - 1 Distillate to 6.88 19,750 135,800 30 b - 1 2. Fuel cost, based on the horsepower de”eloped at the drawbar, was estimated by the following nrocedure: a. Drawbar horsepower required to pull the machine was found from TableAA—IV, page 215. b. Belt horsepower was found by adding to drawbar horsepower 10 percent of its value. 0. Knowing belt horsepower, gallons per hour of fuel was found bv interpolation from Test E, Nebraska Tractor Tests Data (115). 3. Oil cost was estimated as 10 percent 01 the fuel cost. This estimation was made by considering the changes of oil in crank case, oil filter, transmission, differential, and greasing as recommended by the manufacturer. h. Labor cost — Three types of labor were considered as follows: a. Skilled labor such as tractor driver. b. Semi-skilled labor such as tractor driver help. c. Un-skilled labor such as feeding a threshing machine. L — Length of field in 100 feet [— IDLE TRAVEL 4 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 CHART-1 IN PERCEET OF TOTAL TRAVEL 100 9; 2L ._ W Y - Width of field in feet TVITIVTTIIITIVIFWIrT’{[1[TITIT 2118 r~—500 TrIlF[fr1 .p. O O U! O O 200 100 t; 1 Tx 1 r1 1 1‘1 131 1D1 101 f) 1 1 H - Hours per day I o ' b ' 11> (n 1T114111111111111v I r111111111111113111.111111111111111 w - Width of machine iln feet 01 N 1-' 11111 E 1111111131111111113 H N ()3 +4 o: +4 H 0'! O O 0 <9 c> c: 01 C) c> c3 c> C) o 0 o H O O O 8 L 1 111" l 1 11111111011 m11111111 1111111111 11.1.1.1.1111I A - Acres crOp per year ./ S “13' g} 11 :3 ~ / . a £3 // 1. £3 53:1 8 1 14] ca +4 21 F 171/ ::(D‘ <5 b1 :1 ' CHM 75’ 1§ ~2<fi t? 63 5% 1 \ '4 S: 53 a m c> *3 F1 15 13 E: :1 35 :1 a re 0 ‘ \ :11 I" Y ; N ‘ U! 0F ‘01 03 \‘J 03 (O 11111111111l1111L111111111111111L11111111 L1 11111111 . - Speed in miles per hour +4 1» c: a. (n 14 . on 1 1 1 11 1111111111111131111111111’ 11 1’1111111 D- Operating days per year Loor L“ OI 2110 1 I 1 I I I | I l I l l T I 1 '1 T I III] III IIlIIIIIIIlITTTTWTII F” F‘ *4 K3 t6 no CR (n e m~ cn ow ~c a1 0 Q N 11> 03 0 IP- (D N o: O 03 o» 11> [\3 o o c; - Width of furrow in inches x. 93‘ ‘\M II /\ E to o v *3 is) £11 a we to r? i as sees a \ its 3? Lara r-3 sq rd 0 H I re m CD ”~ 23 D: I/ 3 7, Ijl1‘firlLlliTll’Tll‘1]llljr1V—IIII'FFITTITITjIII] L L J; L m d - Depth of furrow in inches I I I IIIII|TIII1111TFIHII][Iljfiflrlllli'l‘lllrllq III] L |-' N U} H N N up ' O O O O O O U‘ HP - Required tractor drawbar horsepowSr ‘9 O ’ I I I I I l r I I '1 I IILITI—I IIIT I: 1 L I, 1, 1.1. 1.1.11. 1 I C) r4 to .p 01 0» <3 R - Resistance of 30110 or draft in psi l I 4T l I I I 7' I I I I [ II I-I‘ IITIIII lllTTIIITIIIIIHlIIH' rs fl In 03 #5 (fl Cr3 (n 3- Speed in miles per hour it} A 212 TABLE A—II FUEL AND LABOR COSTS USED IN ESTIMATING OPERATING COSTS Cost (in dollar) Fuel and oil (per gallon): Gasoline 0.h7 Kerosene 0.21 Diesel fuel oil 0.15 Engine oil 1.08 Grease (per pound) 0.2 Labor (per hour): Skilled 0.31 Semi-skilled 0.22 Un-skilled ' 0.15 Estimating Costs of Draft Animals The general policy in farm mechanization for Iran should be one which is quite conservative. Farm labor and work animals should go a— long with machines for a few years before any positive result can be obtained. It was recommended that the existing work animals should be kept as a stand-by in case of failure of the tractor, for miscellaneous light duties such as harrowing, which are sometimes performed less econ- omically by tractor power, for construction of irrigation border dikes, and for haulinp purnoses. In estimating the cost of draft animals the following factors were taken into consideration. These factors apply wrimarily to oxen, which perform aprroximately 95 percent of draft duties on Persian farms: 1. Feeding - In northern parts of the country, eSpecially along the CaSpian Sea, it is not customary to feed work animals. There are green pastures all through the year and animals are left out in'hhe pasture for grazing. But in most other parts of the country, a veneral practice of six months grazing and six months feeding prevails. It was assumed that oxen are fed at the rate of 10 kilograms straw and b kilograms alfalfa per 213 animal per day when not working. flhen working, h kilograms of cotton- seed is added to the regular diet. Three hectares or 7.9 acres of pas- ture was assumed per ox oer year. 2. Bedding- For the six months period that oxen are kept indoors, three kilograms of straw per ox per day was assumed for bedding. 3. Man labor or chore, which includes feeding and taking manure out of the barn, was assumed 10 minutes per ox per day or 30 hours for the six months per year. h. Housing — A floor space of four by eight square feet was as- sumed per ox at the cost of 10 cents per square foot. 5. Depreciation — The most efficient working age of oxen in Iran is between two to ten years of age (6). 0xen who are ten years of age or older are usually sold out. For estimating depreciation, the cost of a pair of two-year old oxen minus the value at the age of ten was assumed to be depreciated in eight years (Straight line method). The method of calculating costs of draft animals was summarized and shown in Table A—III. 21b TABLE A—III METHOD OF CALCULATING COSTS OF DRAFT ANIMALS Annual Costs Hials Dollars Fixed costd Feed costs: Alfalfa, 720 kg.@ 1 rial (Iranian currency) 720 22.20 Straw, 1800 kg @ 0.3 rial 5b0 16.60 Pasture, 3 hectares @ 150 rials LSO 13.90 Bedding, 5&0 kg straw @ 0.3 rials 162 b.98 Depreciation: g @000 + 1000 ) rials / 8 years 500 15.h0 Interest: ( 5000 + 1000 ) rials / 2 x 8% 2h0 7.37 Housing: 3.5 rials per sq ft floor—space 10h 3.20 Tax: 1% on one-half valuation 25 0.77 Man labor 30 hours @ 5 rials 150 b.62 Total fixed cost per year 2891' 88.8b Credit: Manure, 6 tons a 100 rials boo 18.Lh Net fixed cos per ox per year 2291 70.h0 Note 1. In this table,the cost of feeding and bedding for the six months that oxen were kept indoor, were listed under the fixed costs. This was justified because of the fact that these coste had to be undertaken whether or not oxen were used for farming Operations. Note 2. The cost per day while the oxen were used for farming operations, or the operating cost, was figured on the basis of the cost of'five kilograms cotton seed at five rials per kilogram and the cost of an operator at 50 rials per day. 215 TABLE A-IV DRAFT AND POWER REQUIREMENTS OF CROP MACHINES (95) , * Machine Normal Range of Draft Tillage: Flow 5-12 psi of furrow section Lister boo-750 lb per row Oneeway disk 150-350 lb per ft width Single-disk harrow h0-130 lb per ft width Tandem-disk harrow 80-160 lb per ft width Tandem-disk harrow 170-225 lb per ft width, or 22-in diameter, 9—in spacing 90 per cent of weight Spike-tooth barrow 30.60 lb per ft width Spring-tooth harrow 75-150 lb per ft width Duck-foot field cultivator 90—160 lb per ft width Roller 30—60 lb per ft width Planting: Grain drill 30—80 lb per ft width Corn planter 80-120 lb per row Cultivating: Rotary hoe 30—60 lb per ft width Corn cultivator 22-95 lb per shovel Spring-tooth weeder 25-35 lb per ft width Rod weeder 80—110 lb oer ft width Harvesting: Mower 4 60-100 lb per ft width Grain binder 65—150 lb per ft width Thresher 0.8-1.2 hp er in cylinder width Combine, S and 6-ft 2 - h% (pto hp per ft of cutter bar Combine, 8-12ft Engine with 2 — 3 net hp per ft of { cutter bar Corn picker, 2—row 2 - 5 (ptO) hp per row Stationary silage cutter 0.761 - 1.60 hp - hr per ton Husker-shredder i 0.25—0.35 hp - hr per bu *- In certain Southern and Far Western soils, draft figures ranging up to a maximum of approximately double the above have been recorded. TABLE A—V ESTIMATED LIFE AND REPAIR COST OF FARM MACHINERY (95) Years Total re- until Hours pair cost hachine obso— of in % of late life wast... Tillage: . Nalking plow 25 3000 200 Riding plow 20 2500 80 Tractor ploW‘ 15 2000 80 Disk harrow £horse) 20 2500 30 Disk narrow tractor) 15 2000 30 Springtooth barrow 20 2000 hO Spiketooth harrow 20 2500 30 Roller 25 1500 10 Soil pulverizer 20 2000 15 Planting: Endgate seeder 20 800 30 Grain drill 20 1200 25 Corn planter 20 1200 30 Cultivating: Rotary hoe 15 1500 20 Riding cultivator 20 3000 60 Tractor cultivator 12 2500 hO Hay Harvesting: Mower (horse) 20 2000 75 Mower tractor) 12 2000 75 Dump rake 25 1500 25 Side-delivery rake 20 1200 25 Tractor buck rake 12 1500 25 Hay loader 20 1800 25 Stationary baler 20 hooo 30 Pickup baler 15 3000 LG Grain Harvesting: Grain binder 20 1000 15 rThresher 20 2500. 25 Combine 10 2000 hO Corn Harvesting: Corn binder 20 1000 hO Stationary silage cutter 15 1200 30 Corn picker 10 1500 30 Portable elevator 20 1500 15 Husker-shredder 15 2500 25 Miscellaneous: Manure spreader 15 hOCO 25 Wagon gear and box 25 15000 50 Hay rack 25 8000 20 Tractor 115 7500 35 .-ll ili‘ I'll— 217 APPENDIX B Page Summary of the Iranian Seven-Year Plan Irrigation Projects . . . 218 Map of the Primary Groups of Soils of the‘lbrld . . . . . . 2183 Relief lap of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Rainfall and Forestry lap of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Map of Iatershed Areas, Rivers, and Irrigation Projects in Iran . 221 Map of the Mineral Deposits in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Map of Oil Fields and Coal Mines in Iran . -. . . . . . . . 223 TABLE B—I 218 SUMMARY OF IRE IRANIAN SEVEN-YEAR PLAN IRRIGATION PROJECTS (8h) No[ Location Water Details of Projects Land Cost Period Shed will be in for Area irrigated $1,000 comple~ (map) (acres) tion 1 Jahrom-area 17A 70 wells in the area with generating plant, pumps, and distribution system 1190 1,015 2 years 2 Shahp0or-River 15 Diversion weir, bridge, ca- (Kazeroon area) nal, distribution system 2,750 37; 1 year 3 Golpayghan area 7A Dam, canal, distribution . system 2,500 1,800 2 years b Jajrood River 7B Dam, canal, distribution system 25,000 8,000 3 years 5 Shushtal Island 10 Divc-sien weir, tunnel, distribution system 65,000 7,200 6 years 6 Zayandeh—Rood 12 Dam, canal, wells drainage 15,000 b,275 h years 7 Shadeghan 1h Diversion weir, headworK ca- nals, distribution system b,000 500 1 year 8 Karkhe-River 8 Dam, canal, distribution system 28,000 5,550 3 years 9 Hirmand River 23 Topographic survey, land purchase, diversion dam, irrigation ditches, drain- age, roads 30,000 2,530 6 years 10 Ghom River 7C Dam and reservoir 12,000 3,250 2 years 11 Kor River 13 Dam, canal, diversion weir, distribution system [125,000 18,000 6 years 12 Kerman 28 Deep wells and distribution h,000 b,l20 3 years 13 Miandoab h Dam, storage, drainage, dis- tribution system, canal 16,000 12,000 6 years In Meghan Plain 1 Canal, distribution 60,000 h,880 3 years 15 Saveh 7D Dam and distribution system 10,000 1,850 1 year 16 Bampoor-area 21 Dam and diversion weir 1,500 17 Sheshner-Spring l7B Dam and distribution 10,000 1,500 1 year 18 Gorgan-Rud 6 Storage dam, diversion dam, canal, distribution systeml 15,000 3,500 3 years 19 Hendyan River 1h Project is under considera- tion and data not yet avail- able 20 Taleghan River 3 21 Abadan Island AHZ Tidal irrigation, purchase of land,cana1, ditches 12,000 9,000 22 Bahmanshir Island AHZ 2183. and.“ 3.03.30» 3m: 5,mmodnou .333 05 no 3:3,? 830.5 E On. 00 0. On O O ~ - _ a a \ \ .2330 45>34< no Eamon-<1. 4<.¢uh<2 4.0m l4 / $345.39 m>u44<> 2.4530! g . .m...0m ziomo mm ..... 3m .Sunozcuzo ouo<¢ouo 024 mz.<._.zaoz u...» no 3.0m 62¢ Szrwuro H. .............. .9 621 3.0% was... an 34.8 33,5» 9:. our on. .923 8.. .482. 3.5.. u. auteur... 3.8 2:52.. .95 .35...» hmuco... zkoco $4.0m OSONOOQ 2393 $46 1 338.. g .5323 s\\\\\\\n II .wSuNozcur—o . On On .\\v~\x.\..\:. i, - 3. a? 219 >_. ”was: . ' O O . V _ o W 220 NUJS/NHHQJU e oeotenm ‘ -\\\ O\l.« I .z, ‘r‘ . // ./ ,x, ./ _ . J to}: .\ J no x/ . (I i‘ II'IO! :. .. u... .IAIP f $lflv 1.7 abs/1.4!. ..I.Hr./ .( o‘ f.‘, I a Tuflkfr / R H N Ml n WSHE '0 HIM/’5 u/ IVA/0r ,fig/ 1!. ‘10 I '1'. 221 6"" Of omfiw 'll/" ' I’"/ I'M/fl l .N ’ I "l'LOIO/l/Iv/rfi " - u—n' kit-”'MJ kakiy r.) \ / t L 223 I -— 5:47, 'Cj - -I s 1‘” 4'3” 8- IL‘I—;..‘ . .o " raw“ 2. 3. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. 15. 22b BIBLIOGRAPHY Acock, A. M. Progress and economic problems in farm mechanization. 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Agricultural Engin— eering. 23 (December l9h2), p. 377—378. \J . :MF 1"." M 1: {MY 8'} \,_..“ J :k . w' L. “I .x- 98 ~ A A7.“ H‘ q ‘ ' ‘ ' 1:, :01 ,ru ‘ ‘1 '5 . r 1!; .2 . . . I e. '9.“ :1 [ 1‘3 ‘ “l f ‘3 H“ 1": ' ' ‘V ' . L ‘i . "1 -._ .__ : NW 4 ’57 L . I [May 20 '57. M 15 '57 Aug 13 '52 [I W‘Yflam a? g 411' ' "7 1:32;. A 3"‘f:‘{ IL“ I "V