FOUR MEASURES OF TEMPORAL
EXPEREENCE IN DEPRESSIVES,
SCHIZQE’HRENICS‘ AND NORMALS

Thesis {or fianeqi-ae of M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSITY
C-aroie Diiiing
1964

RY

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Michigan State -
University

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inve

ABSTRACT

FOUR MEASURES OF TEMPORAL EXPERIENCE
IN DEPRESSIVES, SCHIZOPHRENICS, AND NORMALS

by Carole Dilling

The present study was undertaken for the purpose of
investigating possible differences in the temporal experience
of schizoPhrenics, depressives, and normals. Attention was
focused on three aspects of temporal experience-—future time
perspective ("extension" and "coherence"), time perception,
and time orientation.

The experimental groups included a sample of 20
hospitalized patients with an official diagnosis of depression
and a sample of 20 hospitalized patients diagnosed as schizo-
phrenic. The normal control group was composed of 20 hospi—
talized patients from the medical service of a general hospi-
tal. Controls for age, educational level, and verbal IQ
level were employed. A series of four tasks were individually
administered to all the subjects by the author. The first
task involved the subject's estimating his possible age at
the occurrence of ten events. This task was employed as a
measure of the "extension" of future time perspective. Later

in the session each subject was asked to arrange these ten

 

 

Carole Dilling

events in their appropriate temporal sequence. A rank corre-
lation coefficient between the ordering of events based on
the ages associated with them and the forced ordering of the
events yielded a measure of the "coherence" of future time
perspective. The second task involved four story—completion
items. A measure of "extension" of future time perspective
was derived from the subject's estimation of the duration
time of action in each story. In the third task the subject
was asked to estimate two intervals of time with the median
duration of 14 minutes and 31 minutes in order to obtain an
accuracy measure of time perception. In the final task re-
sponses to four TAT cards--2, 4, 6BM, and 7BM were obtained
from each subject and rated by two judges according to empha-
sis on past, present, or future orientation. An interjudge
reliability of .77 was obtained.

The data were analyzed by use of two non-parametric
techniques (Kruskal-Wallis test and the chi-square test).
The results indicated that:

(l) The depressive group, the schizophrenic group, and
the normal control group differed significantly in
"extension" and "coherence" of future time perspective.

(2) The depressive group and the schizophrenic group made
significantly less accurate estimates of the passage
of time than the normal group.

(3) The depressive group and the schizophrenic group were
significantly less future—oriented than the normal

group.

Carole Dilling

It was concluded that the schizophrenic process and
the depressive reaction affect future time perspective, time
perception, and time orientation. Concepts of temporality,
therefore, appear to be pertinent to formulations of theories
of personality functioning. However, further research with
other nosological groups is needed before definitive theo-

retical propositions can be stated.

Approved 4222/,

Committee'Chairman

 

 

Date 2 2} /¢é:7

FOUR MEASURES OF TEMPORAL EXPERIENCE

IN DEPRESSIVES, SCHIZOPHRENICS, AND NORMALS

BY

Carole Dilling

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1964

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express her thanks to Dr. Albert
I. Rabin for his guidance and encouragement during the course
of this investigation. His advice throughout the author's
program of studies has also been appreciated.

A special debt of gratitude is due the other members
of the author's committee, Dr. John Hurley and Dr. William
Stellwagon, for their interest in this study. In addition,
the advice of Dr. William Stellwagon concerning the statisti-
cal analysis of the data has been greatly appreciated.

The cooperation of the staff of the Detroit Receiving
Hospital is gratefully acknowledged. The many courtesies ex—
tended by Dr. Marvin Hyman, Chief Psychologist of the Psychi-
atric Service, have been deeply appreciated.

The writer is also indebted to Dr. Donald Colburn,
Professor of Psychology at Manchester College, for his en-
couragement and support throughout the course of her under-
graduate program.

Special thanks are extended to the author's husband.
His patience and encouragement have been very important for

the completion of this research.

ii

This work
is dedicated
to

my parents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
General Consideration of Psychological Time 3

Its Nature '3
DevelOpmental Aspects 5

Summary 10

Temporal Experience and Psychopathology 11
General Disturbances 11

Temporal Disturbances in Neurosis 13

Temporal Disturbances in Schizophrenia 15

Temporal Disturbances in Depressive States 18

Summary 20

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

PROCEDURE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I O O O O O 24

The Samples 24
The Depressive Group 24
The SchiZOphrenic Group 25
The Normal Group 26
The Instruments Used 27
Task I 27
Task II 29
Task III 31
Task IV 32
Method of Analysis 33

iv

RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results on Future Time Perspective
Results on Time Perception
Results on Time Orientation

DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0
Future Time Perspective
Time Perception
Time Orientation
Implications for Future Research

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPIH O O O O O O O O O O O O O

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page
35
35

4O
42

46
46
49
50
51
53
56

6O

Table

1.

LIST OF TABLES

A comparison of 20 depressives, 20 schizo-
phrenics, and 20 normals on three
criteria of selection . . . . . . . . . .

A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
extension scores on two experimental
tasks for the depressive group, the
schizophrenic group, and the normal
group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
coherence scores on an experimental task
for the depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal group . . .

Categories of estimation of two time intervals
by the depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal group . . .

Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group and the normal group
in stories to TAT cards . . . . . . . . .

Categories of time orientation given by the
schizophrenic group and the normal group
in stories to TAT cards . . . . . . . . .

A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
extension scores on two experimental tasks
for the 14 psychoneurOtic depressives and
the 6 psychotic depressives . . . . . . .

A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
coherence scores on an experimental task
for the 14 psychoneurotic depressives
and the 6 psychotic depressives . . . . .

Categories of estimation of two time intervals

by the 14 psychoneurotic depressives and
the 6 psychotic depressives . . . . . . .

vi

Page

27

37

39

41

44

44

61

61

62

Table Page

10. Categories of time orientation given by the
14 psychoneurotic depressives and the
6 psychotic depressives to the four TAT
Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

11. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic
group, and the normal group in stories
to card 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

12. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic
group, and the normal group in stories _
to card 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

13. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic
group, and the normal group in stories
to card 6 BM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

14. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic group,
and the normal group in stories to
card 7 BM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

vii

INTRODUCTION

The phenomena of temporal experience have stimu—
lated an increasing amount of psychological research in
recent years. The clinician's present interest in this area
has developed because of its relevance to personality de-
velopment and functioning, both normal and abnormal. Studies
concerned with this relationship between the experience of
time and psychological functioning have dealt with the
following three aspects of temporal experience: (1) the
concept of time perception has been utilized in the study of
the human capacity to estimate, reproduce, or produce spe-
cific units of time; (2) the concept of time perspective
finds its basis in the notion proposed by Lewin of "the
timing and ordering of personalized events." While the
theoretical interest here has concerned the projection of
the self in temporal dimension-—past, present, and future,
the empirical data obtainedlunnamainly considered the tempo-
ral dimension of the future; furthermore, the investigators
studying this aspect of temporal experience have generally
utilized measures of "extension," which refers to the amount
of future time an individual can conceptualize, and "co-

herence," which refers to the logical order imposed on

elements of the time span by the individual; (3) time orien-
tation and time perspective have often been used inter-
changeably, but for purposes of this study a slight distinc-
tion needs to be made. In this discussion time orientation
is defined as the direction or orientation of the person's
temporal experience, i.e., whether he is present, past, or
future oriented.

While many studies have related the above aspects of
temporal experience to abnormal psychological functioning,
the process of depression has received little attention in
these investigations; furthermore, the few accounts that are
available are mainly speculative and descriptive in nature.
Since the investigation of temporal experience in various
nosological groups may provide valuable information for the
develOpment of theories of personality and diagnostic tech—
niques, the present research has attempted to systematically
study the future time perspective, time perception, and time
orientation in patients exhibiting depressive states. Infor—
mation was also obtained from another experimental group
which consisted of schizophrenics and also from a normal
control group. It was felt that the process of depression
would have an observable effect on temporal experience that
is different from the effect observed in schizophrenia and

also different from the normal experience of time.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The concept of time has been considered in the
literature from the philosophical (Bergson, 1910), the bio-
logical (DuNuoy, 1937), the physiological (Hoagland, 1933),
the physical (Eddington, 1928), or the psychological
(Fraisse, 1963) vieWpoints. It is the psychological or sub-
jective aspect of time that is of prime interest in the
present research; therefore, reference to this aspect of
temporal experience, especially in regard to the notions of
time perception, time orientation, and future time perspec—
tive, will be considered in the following subsections.

These references include discussions involving the nature of
the psychological aspect of time, the relationships of tempo-
ral factors and personality development, and the consequent

importance of these factors in psychopathology.
General Considerations of Psychological Time

Its Nature

Many authors have considered the general nature of
the psychological aspect of time. Schilder (1936), for ex-
ample. suggested the following description of temporal

experience:

4

Time is inside as well as outside of ourselves.
Time is a perception. It is a part of the out—
side world, but it also is a sensation of ex—
periences in ourselves. We organize and
crystallize the perception of time into the
connotation of a continuous flowing time, which
we measure by clocks, and we try to apply the
same measure to the time experience in our-
selves, to what we may call the time sensation
(p. 530).

Further suggestion of an inner or psychological
aspect of time was made by Van Der Horst (1948). He
referred to this aspect of time as "immanent" time (the
duration of experience), and contrasted it with "transient"
time (the arrangement of events by means of quantities
expressable in secondS). While transient time was regarded
as measurable, immanent time was hypothesized to be a quality
of one's own existence and a product of experience.

Psychoanalytic writers have also recognized facets
of psychological time. Their discussions have usually
centered around the relationship of the time sense to the
fundamental facility of the ego in its interaction with the
external world of reality. Schneider (1948) maintained that
it was, in fact, the rigorous demands of external timing
that enforced the development of the reality principle, and
thus as the ego grows the primitive processes become sub—
servient to the perception of chronological time. Dooley
(1941) likewise suggested that subjective time is a means of

establishing a relation between ourselves and the world of

objects. She, furthermore, assumed that since it is one of

the effective ways in which the ego maintained its contact
'with the outer environment, the perception of time plays an
important part in the "synthetic function of the ego." A
general acceptance of the above views is found in the
discussion by Bonaparte (1940), where the sense of reality
and the sense of time are seen as arriving simultaneously in
the psychodynamic functioning of the individual.

It has been further suggested by some authors (Freud,
1950 and Schneider, 1948) that this notion of time is com-
municated to the ego by the Perceptual—Conscious System; for
Freud, moreover, the discontinuities in the passage of im-
pulses between the external world and the "unconscious
memory systems" through the Perceptual—Conscious was, in

fact, the source of the idea of psychological time.

.Qevelgpmental Aspects

Consideration of the nature of psychological time
has led to several accounts concerned primarily with the
developmental aspects of temporal experience. These ac-‘
counts, in general, have emanated either from theoretical
orientations or extensive empirical investigations. The
theoretical formulations are usually found in psycho-
analytical sources which have emphasized phases of psycho-
sexual development. Yates (1938), for example, stressed
the importance of the oral period in the development of the

concept of time; Dooley (1941) pointed to the anal period

with its toilet training program; Oberndorf (1941) maintained
that a later phase of development-—the origin of the super-
ego and ideals and conscience--is the important one. The
empirical studies, on the other hand, have generally con-
cluded that temporal experience is a gradually developing
human characteristic which comes into use in a relatively
uniform sequence from child to child. The investigations
relating directly to the notions of time perception, future
time perspective, or time orientation will be considered in
some detail below; however, for a more comprehensive review
of the empirical accounts, it is suggested that the reader
refer to wallace and Rabin (1960).

Smythe and Goldstone (1957) in a study regarding the
normative development of time perception found that esti-
mates of one second are extremely variable among younger
children but that this variability decreases gradually until
the age of 14 when the estimates obtained are similar to
those of adults. Moreover, six— and seven—year-olds did not
appear to learn from specific time information, whereas the
judgment of one second by older children, eight to 14 years
of age, did improve following knowledge of such information.

Lovell and Slater's (1960) findings also suggested
that the ability to estimate "interior time" (duration of
action in which the person is involved) increases with age.
Furthermore, in this study both "empty" time intervals (the

subject sits unoccupied) and "filled" time intervals (the

subject looks at a picture book) were employed, and it was
‘found that the youngest children tended to think that the
empty intervals were longer than the filled intervals.

Other authors have been primarily concerned with the
developmental aspect of time orientation and time perspec—
tive. An analysis of data from direct observations and
questionnaires led Ames (1946) to suggest that the child
lives predominantly in the present between the age of 18 to
24 months; then by the age of three the child begins to
utilize the concepts of past and future, placing greater
emphasis on the future than on the past. Bromberg (1938). on
the other hand, maintained that such a developmental sequence
occurred late in childhood and stressed that the child needs
only the present; however, he also suggested a predominance
of future over the past . . . "There is no obvious need for
a past when there is a present. The immediate future can be
understood as standing in a dim relationship to the present,
being a possible repetition of it, but the past is finished
and nothing can be expected of it“ (p. 143).

A somewhat different set of results was reported in
a study by Friedman (1943—1944). Having asked 697 children
to decide whether each of twelve events occurred a long time
ago, a short time ago, a short time to come, and a long time

to come, he concluded:

There is not so much logic in the child's thinking
concerning the future as in his thinking concern-
ing the past. The child lives in the present and
his experiences have occurred in the past. Build-
ing up a perspective about the future requires
more development (p. 340).

In an investigation concerning the time perspectives
of eight-year-old children, Eson (1951) also concluded that
the child is primarily concerned with the present. This
author further maintained that the child's consideration of
the past is limited to experiences he has had and whose
consequences are still pending and that the child's consider—
ation of the future is found only when anticipation of
certain events has been stimulated. In another investi-
gation Eson utilized seven groups of subjects between the
age of 10 to 65 in order to test the hypothesis that time
perspective increases in the direction of both past and
future fairly equally with advance in age. An analysis of
the data showed, however, that each of the groups place more
emphasis on the future than on the past.

Several investigators have also considered the in-
fluences of factors, such as intelligence and socio—economic
status on the development of temporal experience. While
some authors have found intelligence to have no effect
(Bromberg, 1938; Smythe and Goldstone, 1957), its importance
has usually been evidenced. Ames (1946) suggested that the

individual differences found in the sample in regard to

their readiness to acquire time concepts were probably

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partially due to intelligence factors. Lovell and Slater
(1960) found that generally children below average intelli-
gence develop time concepts several years later but there is
a similar sequence of understanding. Gothberg (1949) in.a
fairly detailed study of the mentally defective child's
understanding of time found that the concept of time is
closely related to mental age; accordingly the mentally de-
fective child has little concept of sequence, historical
time, and duration.

The relationship between social—economic class and
the development of time concepts, particularly time perspec-
tive, is suggested by Frank (1938—1939):

Whole social classes may be described by the time
perspectives that dominate their lives as revealed
in the range of their planning, their prudential
calculations, their forethought, their abstinence
and so on (p. 297).

Kinsey (1948) also discussed the different temporal
perspectives of social class groups; specifically, he pointed
out that the lower classes are less likely to postpone
present gratification in favor of future gains. The parental
training programs of the social classes were suggested as
the important factor in the deve10pment of the different
temporal experiences, i.e., the children in middle-class
families probably receive more training in postponement of
need gratification than do children in lower socio-economic

groups. Empirical support for the above formulation was

found in an investigation by LeShan (1952), where the

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middlemclass children presented responses involving longer
time spans on story completion tasks than the lower-class

children.

Summary

While time has been viewed and discussed from many
vantage points, the subjective or "immanent" (as Van Der
Horst calls it) aspect is the one of most concern to psy—
chologists. Psychoanalytic writers have usually considered
this human experience of time in regard to the function of
the ego in relating to reality; moreover, the functioning of
the Perceptual-Conscious System has been suggested by some
writers as the important medium in the derivation of this
psychological notion of time. Such theoretical formulations
suggest a possible relationship between the dynamics of the
functioning personality of the individual and his temporal
experience.

On the basis of the results from the empirical
studies regarding the developmental aspects of this phe-
nomenon. it appears that an individual's ability to estimate
time becomes more precise with age. There is also evidence
that time perspective and orientation are related to age:
the present time appears to be of the most concern to the
child until the age of eight; the concepts of future time
and past time, on the other hand, continue to develop through

the age of 13 or 14. Such evidence gives precedence to the

ll

role of the early formative years in the acquisition of
temporal notions. Since these years have also been regarded
as important in the development of personality, there is
further suggestion of a relationship between the acquisition
of time concepts and the growth of personality functioning.
The results of these studies also imply that factors, such
as intelligence and social—economic status, may influence

the deve10pment of temporal notions.

Temporal Experience and PsychOpathology

The suggestion in the previous section that a
relation exists between the evolution of the notion of time
and personality development gives rise to the hypothesis
that there is a consequent relationship between temporal dis-
tortion and psychopathology. Such a hypothesis is basic to
the present research and will be considered in the following
discussion, particularly in regard to the psychopathological

conditions of neurosis, schizophrenia and depressive states.

General Distrubances

For many authors, temporal distortions are basic
factors in the consideration of mental illness. Minkowski
(1958) contended that time is a useful barometer of our
mental states. Tamarin (1960) further suggested that dis-
orientation in time is less frequent than disorientation in

space and implies severe pathology. for "personal memories

12

are the bridge to the individual's past, the time continuity
guaranteeing the ego." Oberndorf (1941) maintained that i
when reality appreciation is disturbed, a person's attitude
toward time is distorted. For him, disturbance of reality
appreciation involved mainly the depersonalization phenomenon
found in cases of mental illness where the person's body or
any part of it seems unreal and the derealization phenomenon
found in cases where the outer world or people in it seem
unreal.

Many psychoanalytic writers have attempted to answer
queries concerning the forces that bring about the time dis-
tortions noted in the pathological conditions. Most of the
answers point to an understanding of disturbances that may
take place in the psychodynamism of the deve10ping sense of
time. Dubois (1954), for example, postulated that the indi-
vidual achieves a sound sense of duration if the "frustra-
tions and limitations of the basic desires and urges of the
infant are sympathetically directed by time in the guise of
authority" (p. 49). He further pointed out, however, that
if the parents are arbitrary, interfering, and critical or
fail to cooperate with the growing child's needs in a sympa—
thetic way an unwholesome and handicapping time sense results
which sets the stage for later neurosis to develop; ac-
cordingly, rebellion against authority symbolized in time
occurs and gives rise to neurotic and psychotic manifesta-

tions of unconsciously motivated escapism and regression.

 

 

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13

Yates (1938), on the other hand, suggested that the
frustration of infantile needs, especially at the oral
period, may lead to acute anxiety. In order to prevent the
reoccurrence of this anxiety, the child may place himself
outside of the sense of time which consequently causes him
to lose both a sense of reality and the passage of time.

Dooley (1941) pointed to the over-concern with time
in anal—erotic conflicts. As an explanation, she suggested
that "since concession to time is forced upon the child by
his habit training in food-taking and the control of ex—
cretion, he develops a strangely ambivalent attitude toward
it which is expressed later in an exact observance of time
as well as in his mishandling of it" p. 21). Schilder (1956)
and Arieti (1955) also suggested fixation at the anal stage

as leading to temporal disturbances.

Temporal Disturbances in Neurosis

Theoretical Views. Several theoretical consider-
ations of neurotic conditions in regard to specific temporal
distortions are found in the literature. Meerloo (1948,
1949), for example, maintained that neurotics have manifold
difficulties in the dynamic experience of time. Such diffi-
culty is expressed in a constant conflict with the here and
now, thus forcing the neurotic to live either in the past
("I wish I had not done such a thing!") or the future. On

the one hand, the neurotic may choose to live in the past,

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for "the past is happiness, the womb while the future is
dangerous, the anxiety of the unknown." This unconscious
yearning for the past invests earlier events with tremendous
importance, producing a phenomenon referred to by Meerloo as
"traumatization of the past." On the other hand, the neu-
rotic may live in the future and imagine and experience the
traumatic episode before the traumatic event is provoked.
Thus plans for the future are laid in the forms of defensive
maneuvers which may lead to increased neurotic suffering.
This phenomenon the author called "preparation neurosis."

Arieti (1947), however, suggested that the role of
the anticipation of the future is diminished in neurotic
conditions and that the patient thinks mainly about the past.
His explanation is as follows:

Probably this is an escape mechanism. It is too
painful for the patient to think of the uncertain
future and he prefers to withdraw into the past
which also may have been unhappy, but whose diffi—
culties are somehow overcome. By resorting to

the thought of the past, the patient withdraws in
his conscious life to a lower level of integration
(p. 477).

Lewis (1931-1932) in an account dealing with temporal
experience in mental disorders agreed that the anticipation
of the future is diminished for the neurotic, particularly
the obsessional patient . . . "In the obsessional patient

it is not concern about the future that hinders action; for

him, the future is barred" (p. 617).

 

 

 

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h

15

1 Empirical findings. While the writers above have
been primarily concerned with the disturbance of time
perspective and orientation in neurosis, there have been no
empirical studies which have investigated this aspect of
temporal experience in a neurotic group. Two investigations,
however, have included a neurotic group in studies concerned
with the perception of time. Dobson (1954), using a neurotic
group of subjects in his study of time perception, failed to
find any significant differences in their mean estimates of
17, 38, and 72 seconds and the estimates of a normal group
and a schizophrenic group. Assuming that the neurotic group
has anxiety as a common component, he concluded that the
hypothesis that the greater the anxiety the longer a given
time will be judged does not hold. Orme (1962), on the
other hand, used longer time intervals (20 and 30 minutes)
and found that a neurotic group which exhibited symptoms of

hysteria gave longer estimates than controls.

Temporal Disturbances inm§chizophrenia

 

Theggetical views. Disorientation for time and a

defect in the time sense has long been part of the descrip—
tion of the schizophrenia syndrome. Lewis (1931-1932) sug-
gested that a "feeling of interruption in time" and a
"feeling'of previous death and rebirth" are typical temporal

disorders in the schizophrenic patient. Fischer (1940) main—

tained that there was no schizophrenic symptom which was not

16

a space—time disorder. Bonaparte (1940) also suggested that
the sense of time is affected in schizophrenia; moreover,
she proposed that this defect in the time sense is due to
the fact that the collapse of the barriers which maintain
the unconscious in a state of repression are of a far reach—
ing nature in psychotics.
Arieti (1947) referred specifically to the time
orientation and perspective of the schizophrenic patient.
In his discussion of expectation and anticipation he said
the following:
In schizophrenia we have a restriction of the
psychotemporal field. The patient withdraws more
or less to a narcisstic level and his temporal
orientation becomes more related to the present
time. . . . He clings desperately and without
awareness to the present. . . . In early paranoid
forms, anticipation is preserved. Some delusions
may involve future but in later stages of paranoiac

forms these delusions become related to the present
not future (p. 478).

Empirical figdings. In a recent experimental in—

vestigation by De La Garza and worchel (1956), schizophrenics
were compared with fifty matched normal controls on 72 items
which dealt with space and time orientation. Thirty-nine of
these items differentiated significantly between the two
groups and 21 of the 30 items concerned with temporal orien—
tation were more difficult for the schizophrenics. The
authors suggested that the reason for these difficulties was
a "loss in conceptualization and lowered attention span in-

volving complex relationships."

 

I Elultlli. I;

 

17

In another study, Dahl (1958) investigated the
observation that some patients will give the year of their
birth and current year correctly but are unable to give
their correct age. The author interviewed 500 female
patients and concluded that this singular distortion of
temporal orientation occurs only in regressed schizophrenics
and might be used as a diagnostic and prognostic aid.

Other investigators have studied the schizophrenic's
ability to estimate time. Johnston (1939) reported that
schizophrenics differed from normals in their estimates of
5—, 10-, 90—, and loo-second intervals. Dobson's (1954) at—
tempt (reported in the previous subsection), however, pro-
duced negative results, but there was found a greater
variability in the schizophrenic estimates. Rabin (1957) in
an investigation of long time intervals (up to one and one—
half hours) found that schizophrenics overestimated or under-
estimated excessively when compared with a group of non-
psychotics. He related this inaccuracy in estimation to the
general impaired judgmental process of schizoPhrenia.

Time perspective in schiZOphrenia has also been the
subject of two investigations. Israeli (1936), on the basis
of data obtained from questionnaires and interview material,
concluded that the outlook on the future of psychotics may
be described as "constructive, catastrophic, uncertain.
limited, confused, or delusional." He, furthermore, sug—

gested that there is a possibility that such data could be

18

used to differentiate melancholics and paranoid schizo-
phrenics. Wallace (1956) used a series of projective tech-
niques and other especially designed devices to study future
time perspective. He found that the "extension" of future
time perspective is foreshortened in schizophrenics when
compared with normals. Moveover, he also found that the
ordering or "coherence" of future events is more confused

in schizophrenia.

Temporal Disturbances in Depressive States

Theoretical views. Several authors have considered
disorders of personal or psychological time in depressive
states. Eissler (1952) maintained that a severely depressed
patient may be correctly informed on all data by which we
objectively ascertain the present, such as the hour, day,
month, and year; nevertheless, a disturbance of his ex-
perience of time has its bearing on the patient's capacity
to make a decision or to act on his emotions, his outlook on
life and the feeling of closeness to reality.

Supporting the above contention, Strauss (1947) noted
particularly the disorders in the subjective representation
of the future in the depressed person. While the healthy
person directs his thinking and acting toward the future,
the depressed patient does not experience the future as a
field of potential activity for his road into the future has

become blocked. The future thus loses its meaning as a

l9

harbinger of prospective solutions and the past acquires
dominance over the patient. Moreover, the depressed person
no longer experiences the present as a bridge between the
past and future, and he is thus compelled to brood and
ruminate and to see the future as if it were a shapless
gap.

In regard to time perception, Schneider (1948)
contended that in depression in which the ego is overwhelmed
by the hostile superego, chronological time passes with
"excruciating slowness and is to be interpreted as the time
necessary to kill the world and assault the self" (p. 239).
For Schneider, it is the pleasure principle rather than the
reality principle that is holding sway in such a case. On
the other hand, Lewis (1931-1932) suggested that in depres—
sives there is probably an unimpaired time judgment for
short intervals but a slight impairment for long intervals

Since Other factors come in here.

Empirical findings. Only a few experimental studies
have considered the temporal disturbances in the depressive
states. Escalona (1940) in a study where she was mainly
concerned with the effect of success and failure upon the
level of aspiration and behavior in manic-depressive psy—
choses, described one of her experimental subjects in regard
to one aspect of his temporal experience:

The painful character of his life situation at
large has caused the field guiding his momentary

20
actions to shrink, particularly in regard to
time perspective. (p. 289).

Other investigators have been particularly
interested in the effect of depressive illness on time
perception. Mezey and Cohen (1961) investigated this phe—
nomenon in 21 patients by utilizing tasks that involved the
production, reproduction, and verbal estimation of time
intervals ranging from one second to thirty minutes. The
control group was composed of the same patients after their
recovery. It was found that time production and time repro-
duction tended to be more accurate after recovery. Moreover,
the variability of the results obtained on the tasks tended
to decrease after the depression had lifted. A statistical
comparison, however, of the results obtained during the
depressive illness and after recovery did not reach the .05
level of significance. Introspective statements were also
obtained from the patients. A slowing down and even an
apparent arrest of time in the depressed state was indicated:
"Every hour seems a year to me";"It is terribly slowe-in—

terminable"; "Time? It is standing still."

Summary

Views have been presented which suggest that dis-
turbances in the ability to adequately utilize the temporal
concepts of time perception, time perspective, and time

orientation are found in psychopathological conditions.

S
lI .
Jug-q v. 5-. cl_ "ag5¢W".YmU‘t—-J

 

Disturbancef
tention in E
evidence has
estimate tir
is foreshor1
pressive ill
these aspec
the total n1
relatively .
need for a

Clusions ca.
between the,

in tempo ra 1

21

Disturbances in schizophrenia have received the most at—
tention in empirical accounts and, for the most part, the
evidence has indicated that the schiZOphrenic's ability to
estimate time is disrupted and his future time perspective
is foreshortened. In regard to neurotic conditions and de-
pressive illness, there has also been some evidence that
these aspects of temporal experience are disturbed; however,
the total number of investigations in this area has been
relatively small, and there consequently appears to be a
need for a considerable amount of further study before con-
clusions can be drawn concerning the possible relationship
between these psychopathological conditions and distortions

in temporal experience.

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES

From the preceding review of literature regarding
psychopathology and temporal experience, it is suggested
that distortion in temporal experience is an important
factor in the consideration of mental illness. Therefore,
the following question is basic to the present research:

Do the psychopathological conditions of schizo—
phrenia and depression significantly affect the
psychological experience of time?

Arieti (1959) in his discussion of the manifest
symptomatology of schizophrenia noted particularly the dis-
turbances in thought and judgment processes. His discussion
of depressive reactions, on the other hand, pointed to af-
fective disturbances manifested in a pervading mood of
melancholia accompanied by feelings of guilt, the dread of
impending disaster and motor retardation. Therefore, while
the thought processes in attacks of depression may be re-
tarded and exhibit gloomy and morbid content, the severity
of the disturbance does not appear as pronounced as in
schizophrenia. These differentiating aspects of the mani—
fest symptomatology of schizophrenia and depressive illness

suggest a further question for consideration in the present

research:

22

C. . C n C flu L t
E .0“ win ul. F.
«u m.-. a: a D!

mightlilflugfi 11.1%»: ,q.rJ

23

Does the psychopathological process of depression
have a different effect on temporal experience
than does the process of schizophrenia?

As mentioned previously three aspects of temporal
experience were investigated in the present research. When
these three aspects are measured in terms of the tasks
described below, four specific hypotheses are proposed.
These hypotheses emerged from the theoretical views and
empirical investigations discussed in the previous section

along with the clinical observations of these two psycho—

pathological conditions.

Future Time Perspective:

Hypothesis_I. The depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal control group
differ significantly in regard to "extension" of
future time perspective.

Hypothesis II. The depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal control group
differ significantly in regard to "coherence" of
future time perspective.

Time Perception:

Hypothesis III. The depressive group and the
schizophrenic group make less accurate esti—

mates of the passage of time than the normal

group.

Time Orientation:
Hypothesis IV. lThe depressive group and the

schizophrenic group are less future-oriented
than the normal group.

PROCEDURE

The Samples

Three groups of subjects were used to test the
hypotheses outlined previously. The criteria which were

used in the selection of these groups are described below.

The Depressive Group

This experimental group consisted of 20 patients at
the Detroit Receiving Hospital. The following criteria were

utilized in their selection:

Sex. In order to control for possible sex dif—
ferences an equal proportion of males and females were used

in the group.

Age. Between 20 and 50. The mean age for this

group was 35.4 with a standard deviation of 5.95.

Educational level. Between 8 and 13 years of formal
schooling. The mean educational level for this sample group

was 10.6 with a standard deviation of 1.67.

Wechsler Vocabulary level. Between 30 and 60. For
the subjects tested, the mean vocabulary level was 36.55

with a standard deviation of 7.12.

24

25

Diagnosis. Each subject was required to have an

 

official diagnosis* of depressive state. Of the 20 subjects
in this group 14 had received the diagnosis of a psycho—
neurotic depression while the other six had received a
diagnosis of a psychotic depression. None of the subjects

exhibited a severe depressive stupor.

The Schizophrenic Group

This second experimental group consisted of 20
patients at the Detroit Receiving Hospital who had received
the diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizophrenic reaction.
The remaining criteria used in the selection of this group

are listed below:
Sex. Same as described for the depressive group.

Age. Same as described for the depressive group.
The mean age for this sample group was 33.9 with a standard

deviation of 9.07.

Educational level. Same as described for the de-
pressive group. For the subjects tested, the mean edu-

cational level was 10.95 with a standard deviation of 1.50.

Wechsler Vocabulary level. Same as described for
the depressive group. The mean vocabulary level for this
schizophrenic sample was 36.5 with a standard deviation of

6.38.

 

*The diagnoses were generally made by residents in
the psychiatric service of the Detroit Receiving Hospital.

26

The Normal Group

This control group consisted of 20 patients from the
medical service of the Detroit Receiving Hospital. The
subjects presented a wide range of medical problems, but
none had received surgical treatment. By interviewing the
patient and consulting with the medical staff, it was ascer-
tained that there was no evidence of any psychopathological
condition accompanying the subject's illness. Other criteria

used in the selection of this sample are described below:
Sex. Same as described for the depressive group.

Age. Same as described for the depressive group.
The mean age for this sample group was 32.4 with a standard

deviation of 9.52.

Educational level. Same as described for the de—
pressive group. The mean educational level for this control

group was 11.0 with a standard deviation of .97.

Wechsler Vocabulary level. Same as described for
the depressive group. The mean vocabulary level for this

sample group was 34.85 with a standard deviation of 7.29.

A comparison of the two experimental groups and the
control group on the three variables upon which the subjects
were matched is presented in Table 1. There were no signifi-
cant differences found among the three groups in regard to

these variables.

27

Table l. A comparison of 20 schizophrenics, 20 depressives,
and 20 normals on three criteria of selection.

 

 

Depressives Schizophrenics Normals

Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. F p

 

Age 35.40 5.95 33.90 9.07 32.4 9.52 .002 --

wechsler
Vocabulary 36.55 7.12 36.50 6.38 34.85 7.29 .01 -—

Educational
Level 10.6 1.67 10.95 1.50 11.0 .97 .002 --

 

The Instruments Used

The four experimental tasks that were utilized in
the present study will be described in the following section.

The method of scoring for each task will also be given.

Task I

The first task was composed of ten statements
describing common life events that are likely to occur in
the lifetime of an American male or female. This technique
represents a modification of one utilized by Wallace (1956).
In the present research this technique will serve as a
measure of the "extension" and the "coherence" of future

time perspective.

Procedure. This task was administered in two parts

 

as described below:

"EEC—EELHRDIR:ZA£W 51. iii. nu. sauna/J
f.

28

Part 1

The following instructions were given to each subject:
"I am going to read to you a series of events that
might happen to a lot of people. I want you to

tell me how old you might be when the event might
happen to you."

The following items were then read to the subject

and his response was recorded:

1. Your first grandchild is born.
2. You die.
3. You can say you have most of the things you want.
4. Your youngest child marries.
5. You retire.
6. Your father dies.
7. Your wife (husband) dies.
8. You are too old to be physically active.
9. You feel you have reached old age.
10. You can no longer have children.
Part 2

After Task IV was completed, the subject was then
presented with ten cards upon each of which one of the above
items was typed. The following instructions were then given
to the subject:

"Here is a group of cards;upon which the events I

previously asked you about are typed. Arrange these

cards in the order that they might happen in your

life. Place the event that might happen first,

‘first; the event that might happen second, second;

etc."

The order in which the cards were arranged was re—

corded by the examiner.

Scoring. From the data obtained on Task I, a measure

of "extension" and a measure of "coherence" were derived:

29

(l) The measure of "extension" was obtained by finding
the range of years included between the subject's age and
the most distant future event given by him.

(2) The measure of "coherence" was obtained by finding
the correlation between the ordinal ranking of the events in
regard to the age of occurrence in Part 1 and the order of

events arranged in Part 2.

geek II

The second task consisted of a story-completion
technique which was originally develOped by Barndt (1953);
a modified version was later utilized by Wallace (1956). In
the present study this technique was used to obtain a measure

of the "extension" of the subject's future time perspective.

Procedure.

Story 1

Each subject was given the following instructions:

"I want to see what kind of a story you can tell.
I'll start one for you and then let you finish it
any way you wish. Here's the beginning of the first
story. 'At 3 o'clock one bright sunny afternoon in
May two men (women) were out walking near the edge
of town' . . . Now you start there and finish the
story for me."

The story given by the subject was recorded. Then the sub-
ject was asked: "How long a time is involved in the action
described in your story?" The response to this question was

recorded.

30

Story 2
Each subject was given the following instructions:

"That was fine. NOW I'll begin another story, which. as
before, you may finish any way you want to. Here it is:

'Ten o'clock one morning Al (Sue) met his (her) friend

Jerry (Jane) near the center of town' . . . Now you
finish it for me."

The duration time of the action in the story was

again obtained from the subject.

Story 3

Each subject was given the following instructions:

"Now here is that start of another story which you may
again finish in any way you wish. 'Joe (Donna) is
having a cup of coffee in a restaurant. He's (she's)

thinking of the time to come when'

. . . Now you
finish it."

The duration time of the action in the story was

again obtained from the subject.

Story 4

Each subject was given the following instructions:

"Here is the last story I'll give you. 'After awaken—
ing Bill (Betty) began to think about his (her) future.
In general, his (her) plans involved'

. . . Now you
finish it for me."

The duration time of the action in the story was

obtained from the subject.

Scoring. A.measure of "extension" was obtained from

each story presented in Task II. This measure was the
length of time given by the subject in describing the du-

ration time of the action in his story.

 

31

Task III

The third task attempted to measure the ability of
the subject to estimate the passage of time. The procedure

employed was based on a technique utilized by Rabin (1957).

Procedure. The administration of this task con-

sisted of two parts.

Part 1
Following the completion of the second task, each
subject was asked the following question:

"How much time has passed since we started talking?
Make the best guess you can."

Part 2
At the close of the session the subjects were again

asked the above question.

Scoring. Accuracy of the estimation of the periods
of time was based on the ratio of the estimated time to the
actual time recorded by the experimenter. This ratio was
then expressed in percentages, such that a score of 100%
represented an exact estimation, a higher percentage repre-
sented an overestimation, and an estimate lower than 100%
represented an underestimation. The estimates were then
;placed in three categories: (1) Overestimation—-120% and
above; (2) Uhderestimation——80% and below; (3) Close esti—

xnation—-between 81% and 119%.

32

Task IV

In order to determine whether the time orientation
of the subjects was mainly present, future, or past a task
employing four TAT cards was used. This methodology stemmed

from the work of Fink (1953).

Procedure. The subjects were presented the follows
‘ing four TAT cards: Card 2, Card 4, Card 6BM, Card 7BM.
All of the cards represented interpersonal situations. In-
stead of using the usual instructions for the administration
of the Thematic Apperception Test, the subjects were simply

asked:

"Tell a story about this picture."

Scoring. The experimenter rated each story as
either past-oriented, present-oriented, or future-oriented,
and the following score values were correspondingly assigned
to each story: past—oriented (scoring value of one);
present-oriented (scoring value of two); future-oriented
(scoring value of three). By summing the score values for
the four stories for each subject, a measure of time orien-
tation was obtained. Another judge also rated each story,
and using the product moment coefficient of correlation an

interjudge reliability of .77 was obtained.

33
Method of Analysis

Consideration of the nature of the distribution of
scores obtained from the experimental tasks suggested that
the assumption of normality was questionable. Therefore,
non-parametric techniques are employed in the statistical
tests of significance.

The Kruskal-Wallis test is the most appropriate
technique for the statistical analysis of the scores obtained
in Task I and Task II. This technique appears to be the
most powerful of the non—parametric tests for k independent
samples and, therefore, provides a useful alternative for
the parametric analysis of variance. The computation of the
Kruskal—Wallis test of significance involves the ranking of
all observations for the k groups in.a single series, as-
signing ranks from 1 to N. The sum of the ranks for each of
the k groups is then determined, and the H—statistic is de-

rived from the following formula.

where k number of samples

n. = number of cases in jph sample
N = nj, the number of cases in all samples combined

R. = sum of ranks in jph_samp1e

34

The critical values of the H—statistic for one-tailed and
two-tailed test can be found in appropriate tables. For a
more complete description of this technique, see Siegel
(1956).

Since the Kruskal-Wallis test calls for ordinal
measurement, it cannot be used for the statistical analysis
of the scores obtained in Task III and Task IV. The non-
parametric technique that appeared the most appropriate for
these tasks was the chi-square test for independent samples.
This technique is especially suitable for analysis of these
tasks since the data consist of frequencies in.discrete

categories.

RESULTS

In previous chapters, a presentation was made of the
particular hypotheses and experimental procedure that com—
prise the research design for the present investigation. A
brief description of the Kruskal-Wallis test and the chi-
square test, which were utilized for the statistical analysis
of the data, was also given. In the subsequent pages the
results obtained from the statistical analysis of the data

are presented.

Results on Future Time Perspective

Measures of the "extension" of future time perspec-
tive which refers to the amount of future time an individual
can conceptualize, were obtained in the present research from
Task.I and Task II. On Task I the extension score is de—
rived by subtracting the subject's age from the most distant
age given to the ten items presented. On Task II the ex—
tension score was the length of time given by the subject as
'Ehe duration time of action in each of the story completion
tasks.

An over-all analysis of the differences between the

tflrree groups in regard to the scores derived from Task I

35

36

produced a significant H—score of 15.35, p value less than
.001. The data, therefore, is consistent with the prediction
that the three groups will differ significantly in regard to
"extension" of future time perspective. Furthermore, in-
spection of Table 2 indicates that while the median extension
score is substantially less for the schizophrenic subjects
than for the normal subjects, the median score for the de—
pressive group is less than those for either of the other
two groups. Significant differences between the three
groups in regard to extension scores are also found for
stories 3 and 4 of Task II. Again inspection of the data
presented in Table 2 indicate that the median extension score
for the depressive group is less than those for the other two
groups; furthermore, the schizophrenic group's median score
is less than the one of the normal group. The extension
scores derived from stories 1 and 2, however, did not differ-
entiate between the three groups at the five percent level
of confidence. Nevertheless the general trend indicated
above is still evident in story 2.

Another theoretical hypothesis of interest concerned
'the concept of "coherence," which refers to the logical
<order imposed on elements of the time span by the individual.
1x coherence score was obtained by finding the rank corre-
.lation coefficient between the chronological ordering of a

sueries of events based on the ages associated with the events

37

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coHuom may mo wEHu Goflumnsp oz» mm Doonnnw man an Gm>flm oEHu mo spaced onu mum mmuoom
coflmcmuxm may HH Moms :0 .Umucomoum mEmuH sou may on co>flm 0mm ucmumflo umOE ms» Eoum

mmm m.uomhbsm on“ mcfluomnunsm ma Uw>wump ma mnoom coflmcouxo may H xmwa GOe

 

 

 

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so. v m.m was meme «\Hue m.mflo .mus e m.sms .cns me m shone
I- em.m m.eos mu: m smm .nr N m.amm .nn H m suoum
.. e.m m.mms .mns m m.asm .us «\H-H omm .mns m H macaw
HH
Hoe. v mm.mH m.mmw .mus me m.sao .mns mm o.oam .mus pm H
m m mxcmu mo How so: mxcmu mo 85m CUE mxcmn mo Eom CUE MmMB
mHmEnoz moHcmHSQONH£om mo>flmmoumon

 

 

.msonm HwEHoc on“
one .msoum oscmnnmouflnom mnu .msonm o>flmmmnmop one How mxmmu HmucoEHuomxo
oBu co hsmenoom coflmcopxo mo mxcmu mo 55m pom mamaoofi mo COmHHmmEoo d .m wanna

38

presented in part 1 of Task I and the forced chronological
ordering of events in part 2 of Task I.

The coherence scores for the depressive group. the
schizophrenic group. and the normal control group were
analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test. The H—score of 15.49
was significant. p value less than .001. It can thus be
concluded that there are significant differencesibetween the
"coherence" of future time perspective for the threegroups.
Inspection of the data presented in Table 3 provides informa-
tion concerning the direction of these differences. A median
rank correlation coefficient of .49 indicated that the schizo-
phrenic group presented the least "coherent" future time
perspective. The depressive group. on the other hand. was
somewhat more "coherent" with a median rank correlation of
.63, while the normal control group gave the highest rank
correlation coefficient of .83.

Two additional findings. for which no hypotheses
'were offered. may also be noted. A comparison of the
"extension" measures obtained from the psychoneurotic de-
pressives and the psychotic depressives revealed no statisti-
cally significant intra-group differences. It. therefore.
Inay be suggested that the total group of depressive subjects
represent a homogeneous sample with regard to this variable.
.A.comparison of the "coherence" scores obtained from these
suthsamples, however, revealed statistically significant

:intra—group differences. p value less than .05. This finding

.H gene m0 m used

CH wucw>o on» mo mcflnoouo HMUHUOHOGOHQU omonom may one H Mums mo H when so owucomoum
muco>o on» QDHB pmumHUOmmm moms on“ so comma muco>w mo weapon m mo mcfluoouo HMUHmOH
loconno on» cwmzumb ucoflofimmooo coaumamnnoo xcmu may we onoom mocmnonoo one;

 

 

q, Hoo. v me.ma m.mem mm. mme me. m.mmm mm.
3
m m mxcmn mo 55m GUS mxcmn mo Edm so: mxcmn mo Esm no:
mamsnoz moflcoHQQONHbom mm>wawume

 

 

.msonm HmEno:

obu ocm msoum UHCmH£QONH£om was .msoum w>Hmmmnmwp on» now xmmu HmucoE

Iflnmmxo cm co ammuoom mocwnonoo mo wxcmn mo Eon Ucm mamaoofi mo COmHnmmEoo e .m wanna

40

suggests that the total group of depressive subjects does
not represent a homogeneous sample with regard to the
”coherence" of future time perspective. Furthermore, the
data (see Appendix I) indicate that the psychotic depressive
group is less "coherent" than the psychoneurotic depressive

group.

Results on Time Perception

A measure of the subject's ability to estimate the
passage of time was based on the ratio of the subject's
estimation of two time intervals to the actual clock time
for each of these intervals. The ratio-scores were further
categorized as an overestimation (over 120%), an under-
estimation (under 80%), and close estimation (81% to 119%),
and chi—square was employed for the statistical analysis.

No significant differences were found between the
three groups of subjects in ability to estimate time inter-
vals when the median duration was 14 minutes. The data pre—
sented in Table 4, nevertheless, indicate that the normal
control group was somewhat more accurate in their estimation
than the two experimental groups. A chi-square of 11.11 was
obtained from the subject's estimation of the second time
interval. The median duration in this case was 31 minutes.
This chi-square was significant, p less than .025. There-
fore, it would appear as though depressive subjects, schizo—

phrenic subjects, and normal subjects differ in ability to

41

 

 

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HH.HH mo.m A.m.e so
mumsvmlHno
NH v v m m e coHumEHumm mmoHo
v m HH m OH OH :oHumEHumem>O
e m m m m o coHumEHumwanCD
mHmEHoz mUHcoHAQONHnom mo>HmmwumoQ mHmEHoz mUHcmH£m0NH£Um mm>Hmmoumon muomoumu
A.CHE Hm u GUZV A.GHE eH H CUSV

HM>HOHCH UCOO 0m

 

Hm>uoucH umHHm

 

 

was

.mnonm HOHDCOU HMEHOG was one
.mnoum o>HmmonmoU one an mHm>umucH oEHu 03H mo COHumeHumo mo moHHommumo

.mzoum UchHSQONHnom

.v wHQMB

42

estimate the passage of time, but only when longer time
intervals are considered. Furthermore, the data presented
in Table 4 suggest that the normal group was the most accu-
rate in their estimates. The majority of the schizophrenic
subjects and depressive subjects, on the other hand, made
poor judgments with respect to the amount of time passed.

A supplementary, non-hypothesized finding was ob-
tained in a comparison of psychoneurotic depressive subjects
and psychotic depressive subjects in regard to estimation of
the two time intervals. No significant intra—group dif-
ferences were found. Therefore, the total depressive group
appears to represent a homogeneous sample in regard to this

aspect of temporal experience.

Results on Time Orientation

The direction or orientation of the subject's
temporal experience was derived by categorizing the sum-
mation of score values assigned to the subject's four TAT
stories as follows: past orientation (score value of four
to six), present orientation (score value of seven to nine),
future orientation (score value of ten to twelve).

An over-all chi-square comparison between the three
groups of subjects with regard to these categories is not
appropriate since the expected values in six of the cells
were less than five. While the logic of the theoretical

interest would permit the combining of the past and present

43

categories, the expectations in some of the cells are still
small. Therefore, instead of an over-all analysis between
the three groups, two individual comparisons* appear to be
the most appropriate tests of the hypothesis. In a compari—
son between the depressive group and the normal group of chi-
square of 9.18 was obtained, p value less than .005. A
second comparison indicated that the schiZOphrenic group and
the normal group differed in time orientation. In this case
the level of significance was beyond the .02 level. The
Yates correction was used in both comparisons. Inspection
of Tables 5 and 6 indicates that the normal group was more
futureeoriented than the two experimental groups. Therefore,
the data are generally consistent with the hypothesis stated
previously. An individual analysis of each TAT card, hows
ever, suggests that only three cards (Card 2, Card 4, and
Card 7BM) account for the differences found between the ex—
perimental and normal control groups. (For data, see
Appendix II.)

An additional finding, for which no hypothesis was
offered, is again noted. A comparison of the time orienta-
tion measure obtained from the psychoneurotic depressives

and the psychotic depressives revealed no statistically

 

*The careful reader will note that these comparisons
are not orthogonal. An appropriate adjustment, therefore,
should.be made in the alpha level, but no such adjustment is
available at the nominal level of statistical inference.

44

Table 5. Categories of time orientation given by the de-
pressive group and the normal group on stories to

 

 

 

TAT cards.

Category Depressives Normals
Past* 3 0
Present* 17 11
Future 0 9
Chi—square

(1 d.f.) 9.18

p < .005

 

Table 6. Categories of time orientation given by the
schizophrenic group and the normal group in
stories to TAT cards.

 

 

 

Category Schizophrenics Normals
Past* 2 0
Present* 17 11
Future 1 9

Chi—square
(1 d.f.) 6.53

p <.02

*The past and present categories were combined for
the analysis.

45

significant intra—group differences. Again the total group
of depressive subjects appears to represent a homogeneous

sample.

DISCUSSION

The findings presented above generally support the
hypothesis that temporal experience is significantly
affected by psychopathological disturbance. Furthermore,
the results seem to indicate that the psychopathological
process of depression has in many cases a different effect
on temporal experience than schizophrenia. In the following
paragraphs the specific findings in regard to each of the
three aspects of temporal experience studied in this re-

search will be discussed.

Future Time Perspective

The data concerning the "extension" of future time
perspective indicated that the schizophrenic group, the
depressive group, and the normal group can be differentiated
from each other in regard to the length of the time interval
utilized in conceptualizing future events. The curtailing
of this time span in schizophrenic subjects is in agreement
with the findings presented by Wallace (1956). In regard to
the depressive group there was evidenced an even more
severely limited future time span, which supports the con—
tention that the "road into the future has become blocked in

depressive states" (Strauss, 1947).

46

 

It

 

.E. IIAA kiln»;

47

Stories 1 and 2 of Task II, however, did not dif-
ferentiate between the three groups. Again the data obtained
in this study are in agreement with the results presented by
Wallace (1956). It is noted that the context of these two
stories limits the possible future courses of action; there—
fore, the task becomes somewhat structured and concrete.
Clinical observations have suggested that when a schizo-
phrenic patient is exposed to a concrete, structured environ-
ment, his experience of anxiety is decreased and he is able
to function at a higher level of integration. In stories 3
and 4, where the future courses of action are almost un-
limited, the schizophrenic subject probably becomes confused
and disorganized to such a degree that his conceptualization
of the future is curtailed.

In clinical observations the depressed subject, on
the other hand, appears to be specifically threatened by any
conceptualization of the future, since as Strauss (1947) con-
tended "the future is seen as a shapeless gap giving no.
possibility for potential activity." It is probably the
specific nature of this threat for the depressed subject
that curtails and blocks his outlook on the future even more
severely than is evidenced in the schizophrenic subject. In
stories 1 and 2, where the possible courses of action are
limited, the threat concerning the conceptualization of the

future is apparently reduced. Therefore, in these two

1» ii??? at £5.12qflhviwl .l. AWEHJ

48

stories the depressed subjects' "extension" of future time
perspective is not significantly affected.

A measure of "coherence," the second aspect of
future time perspective studied in this research, also dif-
ferentiated significantly between the three groups of sub-
jects. The difficulty exhibited by schizophrenic subjects
in organizing future events in a meaningful and logical
manner is compatible with the clinical observation that dis-
turbances in secondary process thinking are an important as-
pect of the symptomatology of schizophrenia. While sluggish-
ness and retardation in the thought processes have often
been noted in the depressive states, secondary process
thinking is seldom disturbed to the extent noted in schizo—
phrenia. This noted difference between the manifest symptom-
atology of these two psychopathological conditions in regard
to the thought processes accounts for the depressive group's
Inore "coherent" future time perspective. However, an intra-
group comparison revealed that the psychotic depressives are
significantly less "coherent" than the psychoneurotic de-
‘pressives. This finding may likewise be interpreted in
:regard to the degree of the thought disturbance generally
:fiound in these two depressive states; for while delusional
.ideation is sometimes found in psychotic depressions, it is

sneldom noted in psychoneurotic depressions.

49

Time Perception

The results obtained in Task III indicate that the
psychopathological conditions of schizophrenia and depres-
sion affect the individual's ability to accurately assess
the passage of long intervals of time. The schizophrenic
subject's inaccurate estimations tended to fall in both
directions, overestimation and underestimation. The in—
accuracy of their estimates appear to be most appropriately
related to the impaired judgmental process in schiZOphrenia.
In general, these results are in agreement with those ob—
tained by Rabin (1958).

The depressed subjects frequently overestimated the
passage of time. Such an observation is compatible with the
introspective statements given by the depressed patients in
Mezey and Cohen's study (1961): "Everyhour seems a year to
me"; "It (time) is terribly slowe—interminable." This over-
estimation of the passage of time seems to be most appropri-
ately related to the pervading feeling of melancholia evident
in depressive states.

No significant results were found, however, when a
shorter time interval was employed. Previous studies have
noted that relatively short estimates of time intervals--l7,
38, and 72 seconds——failed to differentiate between a
schiZOphrenic group and a normal group (Dobson, 1954) while

estimates of longer time intervals--one hour to one and

50

one—half hours-—differentiated between these.two groups
(Rabin, 1957). These findings along with the data obtained
in this research suggest that psychopathological disturbances
have a greater effect on the estimation of longer time
intervals than on short intervals. The perception of short
intervals may involve mainly a direct, immediate mental
process while in the perception of longer time intervals the
judgmental process may become increasingly important. Thus
as Woodrow (1951) has contended "time is a concept . . . that
attaches to perceptions only through a judgmental process."
On the basis of this theoretical description of time percep—
tion, it can be further suggested that it is the mediating
judgmental process that becomes disturbed in psychopa-
thological conditions with a consequent effect on the esti—
mation of long time intervals. The question arises: How
long does a time interval need to be before psychopathological

disturbances affect the estimated duration?

Time Orientation

The results obtained from Task IV support the
hypothesis that the depressive group and the schizoPhrenic
group will be less frequently future oriented than the
normal control group. Arieti (1947) suggested that this re-
striction of the psychotemporal field occurs in schizo—
phrenia . . . "The patient withdraws more or less to a

narcisstic level and his temporal orientation becomes more

51

related to the present time" (p. 478). In the case of the
depressed patient, Strauss (1947) has suggested that the
future loses its meaning as a harbinger of prospective solu—
tions and the past acquires dominance over the patient. Our
results, however, indicated that the depressed subject is
dominated by the present rather than the past. It is, there-
fore, suggested that the subject has found it too painful to
look at the past, which tortures him and reminds him of his
impardonable guilt, his unworthiness, and his inability to
accomplish; since the future has been blocked for him, the
only remaining choice is to abide in the present with its

pronouncement of irreparable ruin.

Implications for Future Research

The results of this study suggest the potential
usefulness of quantitative measures of temporality in making
differential diagnosis between various nosological categories.
Such a possibility points to the need for future research
concerned with the compilation of data for nosological groups
other than schizophrenia and depressive illness. Empirical
investigations using experimental groups of subjects who
give evidence of psychoneurotic conditions or organic con—
ditions appear to be especially pertinent. The data also
suggest that aspects of temporal experience may be useful in
delineating the types and/or severity of emotional dis-

turbance involved in a single diagnostic classification.

52

Questions for the psychophysicist also emerge from
the results obtained in this study. The results from the
time perception task suggest that judgment of long intervals
involves factors which are affected by psychopathological
disturbance, while judgment of shorter intervals are not as
dependent on these factors. Even though a theoretical View
was offered in the preceding discussion of these results,
further empirical studies are needed before this View can be
considered a satisfactory explanation. Furthermore, an
interesting endeavor might involve attempts to determine the
critical duration point at which these additional factors

become important in time perception.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study was concerned with an investigation of
three aspects of temporal experience—-future time perspective
("extension" and "coherence"), time perception, and time
orientation in the psychopathological conditions of schizo-
phrenia and depression.

The experimental groups included a sample of 20
hospitalized patients with an official diagnosis of depres—
sion and a sample of 20 hospitalized patients diagnosed as
schizophrenic. The normal control group was composed of 20
hospitalized patients from the medical service of a general
hospital. Controls for sex, age, educational level and
verbal IQ were employed. The subjects were given four tasks
which involved: (1) estimates of the age of occurrence of
10 future events, presented by the examiner, and the subse-
quent forced ordering of these events (Task I); (2) com-
pletion of four stories and the estimation of the duration
time of action in each story (Task II); (3) estimates of
duration of two long intervals (Task III); and (4) stories
given in response to four TAT cards (Task IV). The first
two tasks were employed to provide measures of the "extension"

and "coherence" of future time perspective; the third task

53

54

provided a measure of time perception; the fourth task was
used to obtain a measure of time orientation.

The Specific hypotheses that were examined in this
research are the following:

Hypothesis I: The depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal control group differ signifi-
cantly in regard to "extension" of future time perspective.

Hypothesis II: The depressive group, the schizo-
phrenic group, and the normal control group differ signifi—
cantly in "coherence" of future time perspective.

Hypothesis III: The depressive group and the schizo-
phrenic group make less accurate estimates of the passage of
time than the normal group.

Hypothesis IV: The depressive group and the schizo-
phrenic group are less future-oriented than the normal group.

The results obtained on the basis of a comparison of
the three groups by use of non-parametric techniques generally
confirmed these predictions. In two instances, however, the
statistical analysis did not yield significant findings:

(1) stories 1 and 2 of Task II; (2) the estimation of the
first time interval in Task III. The lack of significant
findings in connection with stories 1 and 2 of Task II was
interpreted on the basis of the fact that these two stories
xvere more highly structured than stories 3 and 4. The
failure to differentiate between the experimental groups and

'the control group in the estimation of the shorter time

55

interval suggests that psychopathological conditions do not
significantly affect the estimation of relatively short
intervals.

In general, it may be concluded that the schizo-
phrenic process and the depressive reaction significantly
affect the three aspects of temporal experience studied in
this research. Concepts of temporality, therefore, appear
to be pertinent to formulations of theories of personality
functioning. However, further research with other noso-
logical groups is needed before definitive theoretical

propositions can be stated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Arieti, S. The processes of expectation and anticipation.
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Arieti, S. Interpretation of schiZOphrenia. New York:
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Arieti, S. Manic-Depressive Psychosis. In S. Arieti (Ed.),
American handbook ofgpsychiatry. New York: Basic
Books, 1959. pp. 419-454.

Arieti, S. SchiZOphrenia: The manifest symptomatology,
the psychodynamic and formal mechanisms. In S.
Arieti (Ed.), American handbook of psychiatry.
New York: Basic Books, 1959. pp. 455—484.

Brandt, R. J., and Johnson, D. M. Time orientation in
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343-345.

Bergson, H. Time and free will. New York:. The Macmillan
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Bonaparte, M. Time and the unconscious. Int. J. Psycho—

 

Anal., 1940, 2_1_, 427-468.

Bromberg, W. The meaning of time for children. Amer. J.
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Dahl, M. A singular distortion of temporal orientation.
Amer. J. Psychiat., 1958, 115, 146-149.

De La Garza, C. O., and WOrchel, P. Time and space
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Dobson, W. R. .An investigation of various factors involved
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57

Dooley, Lucille. The concept of time in defence of ego
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Dubois, F. S. The sense of time and its relation to
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111, 46-51.

DuNouy, P. L. Biological time. New York: Macmillan Co.,
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Eddington, A. S. Nature of the physical world. New York:.
The Macmillan Co., 1928.

Eissler, K. R. Time experience and the mechanism of isola—
tion. Psychoanal. Rev., 1952, 32, 1—22.

Escalona, Sibylle K. The effect of success and behavior
upon level of aspiration and behavior in manic-
depressive psychosis. Univer. Ia._§§ud. Chilg
Welf.. 1940.12, 197—302.

Fraisse, P. The psychology of time. New York: Harper and
Row, 1963. '

Frank, L. K. Time perspectives. J. Soc. Phi1., 1939,.4,
293-312.

jFreud, 8. Beyond the pleasure principle. New York:
Liverwright, 1950.

LFriedman, K. C. Time concepts of elementary school children.
Elem. Sch. J. 1943—1944,.44, 337-352.

(Rathberg, Laura C. The mentally defective child's under-
standing of time. Amer. J. ment. Defic., 1949, 53,

441-455.

(hitheil, E. A. Reactive depressions. In S. Arieti (Ed.),
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Books, 1959. pp. 345-352.

Ihoagland, J. The physiological control of judgments of
duration: Evidence for a chemical clock. J. qenet.

Psychol., 1933, 2, 267-287.

Jxaraeli, N. Measurement of the outlook on the future.
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Jxrraeli, N. Abnormalgpersonality and time. New York:
Science Press, 1936.

58

Johnston, Harriet M. A comparison of time estimation of
schizophrenic patients with that of normal indi-‘
viduals. Unpublished masters dissertation, Brown
Univer., 1939. Cited by M. Wallace and A. I. Rabin,
Temporal experience. Psychol. Bull., l960,_§1,
213-236.

Kinsey, A. C. Sexual behavior in the human male. Phila-
delphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1948.

LeShan, L. L. Time orientation and social class. J. abnorm.
soc. Psychol., 1952, glj 589-592.

Lovell, K., and Slater, A. The growth of the concept of
time: A comparative study. J. child Psychol.
Psychiat., 1960, 1, 179-190.

Lewis. A. The experience of time in mental disorder.
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Meerloo, A. M. Father time. Psychiat._Qpart. l948,_22,
587-608. -

Meerloo, A. M. Father time II. Psychiat. Quart., 1950. 24,
657-671.

Mezey, A., and Cohen, S.. The effect of depressive illness
on time judgment and time experience. J. Neurol.
Neurosurg. Psychiat., l961,_24, 269-270.

.Minkowski, E. Le temps en psychopathologie, (Timein
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(Psychol. Abstr., 34:1396).

Oberndorf, C. P. Time--its relation to reality and purpose.
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Orme, J. E. Time estimation and personality. J. ment. Sci.,
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IRabin, A. I. Time estimation of schizophrenics and non—
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.Schilder, P. Psychopathology of time. J. nerv. ment. Dis.,
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59

Smythe, Elizabeth J., and Goldstone, S. The time sense: A
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Strauss, E. W. Disorders of personal time in depressive
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341—354.

APPENDIX A

Intra-group Comparisons between the 14 Psychoneurotic
Depressives and the 6 Psychotic Depressives on the
Four Measures of Temporal Experience

61

Table 7. A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
extension scores on two experimental tasks for
the 14 psychoneurotic depressives and the 6
psychotic depressives.

 

 

 

Psychoneurotic Psychotic
depressives depressives
Sum of Sum of
Task Mdn ranks Mdn ranks H p
I 27 yrs. 154.5 24 yrs. 55.5 .38 --
II

Story 1 2 hrs. 158.0 32.5 min. 52.0 .82 --
Story 2 1.5 hrs. 156.5 30 min. 53.5 .61 --
Story 3 25 min. 131.5 11 hrs. 78.5 1.63 -—
Story 4 5 days 158.5 1 day 51.5 .90 --

 

Table 8. A comparison of medians and sum of ranks of
coherence scores on an experimental task for
the 14 psychoneurotic depressives and the 6
psychotic depressives.

 

 

Psychoneurotic Psychotic
depressives depressives
Mdn Sum of Ranks Mdn Sum of Ranks H p

.720 175 .273 35 5.33 < .05

 

62

Table 9. Categories of estimation of two time intervals
by the 14 psychoneurotic depressives and the 6
psychotic depressives.

 

 

First interval Second interval
. (Mdn = 14 min.) (Mdn = 31 min.)
Bsycho- Psycho-
Category neurotic Psychotic neurotic Psychotic

depressives depressives depressives depressives

 

Under-

estimation 4 2 4 1
Over-

estimation , 7 3 8 3
Close

estimation 3 l 2 2

Chi square
(2 d.f.) .07 1.04

p _— _—

Table 10. Categories of time orientation given by the
14 psychoneurotic depressives and the 6
psychotic depressives to the four TAT cards.

 

 

 

Cate or Psychoneurotic Psychotic
g y depressives depressives
Past 0 1
Present 14 5
Future* 0 0
Chi square
(1 d.f.) .01

P __

*The future category was dropped from the analysis
and the Yates correction was used.

 

APPENDIX B

Comparison of Categories of Time Orientation given by the
Depressive Group, the Schizophrenic Group, and the
Nermal Control Group in Stories to each TAT Card

64

Table 11. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic group,
and the normal group in stories to card 2.

 

 

 

Category Depressives SchiZOphrenics Normals
Past* 3 1 0
Present* 16 15 8
Future 1 4 12
Chi Square

(4 d.f.) 15.91

P < .001

 

*The past and present categories were combined in
the analysis.

Table 12. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic group,
and the normal group in stories to card 4.

 

 

 

Category Depressives Schizophrenics Normals
Past* 2 2 0
Present* 17 16 12
Future 1 2 8
Chi Square

(4 d.f.) 9.57

P <(.01

 

*The past and present categories were combined in
the analysis.

 

65

 

 

 

Table 13. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schizophrenic group,
and the normal group in stories to card 6 BM.
Category Depressives Schizophrenics Normals
past* 4 5 4
Present* 10 12 8
Future 6 3 8
Chi Square
(4 d.f.) 3.13
p _—

 

*The past and present categories were combined for
the analysis.

 

 

 

Table 14. Categories of time orientation given by the
depressive group, the schiZOphrenic group,
and the normal group in stories to card 7 EM.
Category Depressives Schizophrenics Normals
Past* 4 3 1
Present* l4 l4 8
Future 2 3 11
Chi Square
(4 d.f.) 14.69
p < .001

 

*The past and present categories were combined for
the analysis.

 

APPENDIX C

Data Collection Forms

67

INFORMATION SHEET

 

 

 

Group: Depressive
Schizophrenic
Control

Name

 

Subject number

Hospital

Age Race

Last year of school finished:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12
Grammer School High School

13 14 15 16
College

Verbal IQ

 

68

Starting Time: page 2

 

TASK I...FUTURE TIME EXTENSION AND COHERENCE TEST (a)

Instructions:

I am going to read to you a series of events that might
happen to a lot of peOple. I want you to tell me how
old you might be when the event might happen to you. P1

1. Your first grandchild is born.

 

2. You die.

 

 

3. You can say you have most of the things you
want.

 

4. Your youngest child marries.

 

5. You retire.

 

6. Your father dies.

 

(husband)
7. Your wife dies.

 

8. You are too old to be physically active.

9. You feel you have reached old age.

 

10. You can no longer have children.

 

Extension score

 

 

69

TASK II...STORY COMPLETION page 3

STORY 1

I want to see what kind of a story you can tell. I'll
start one for you and then let you finish it any way
you wish. I'll start it now. "At 3 o'clock one bright
sunny afternoon in May two men were out walking near

the edge of town"... Now you start there and finish the
story for me.

Duration time of action in the story:

 

rv—c

 

7O

TASK II (continued) page 4

STORY 2

That was fine. Now I'll begin another story whiCh, as
before, you may finish any way you want to. Here it is:
"Ten o'clock one morning Al met his friend Jerry near
the center of town"... NOW you finish it for me.

Duration time of action in the story:

 

71

TASK II (continued) page 5
STORY 3

Now here is the start of another story which you may
again finish in any way you wish. "Joe is having a cup
of coffee in a restaurant. He's thinking of the time
to come when..." Now you finish it.

Duration time of action in the story:

 

72

TASK II (continued) page 6

STORY 4

Here is the last story I'll give you. "After awakening,
Bill began to think about his future. In general, his
plans involved..." Now you finish it for me.

E

H ‘X‘ZT-I—"O ! ’I‘

 

Duration time of action in the story:

 

73

TASK III...TIME ESTIMATION (a) page 7

Instructions:
How much time has passed since you entered the room and
started talking to me? Make the best guess you can.

Clock time

Estimated time

 

Accuracy of estimate:

Ratio of estimated time to actual time

 

Category of estimation:

Underestimation
Close estimation
Overestimation

 

74

TASK IV...TAT PICTURES page 8

Instructions:

I am going to show you some pictures. I want you to
tell a story about each of these pictures.

Present the pictures in the following order:

Card 2.

Response:

75

TASK IV (continued) page 9

Card 4.

Response:

76

TASK IV (continued) page 10

Card 6 BM.

Response:

 

77'

TASK IV (continued) page 11

Card 7 BM

Response:

78

TASK I....FUTURE TIME EXTENSION AND
COHERENCE TEST (b) page 12

Instructions:

Here is a group of cards upon which the events I pre-
viously asked you about are typed. Arrange these cards
in the order that they might happen in your life. Place
the event that might happen first, first; the event that
might happen second, second; etc.

The order given in Task I The order given in Task V

Rho-Correlation

KOCDNGW-bWNi—J

Hraha
toeao

13.

H
p

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

79

VOCABULARY SUBTEST—-WAIS

Bed
Ship
Penny
Winter
Repair
Breakfast
Fabric
Slice
Assemble
Conceal
Enormous
Hasten
Sentence
Regulate
Commence
Ponder
Cavern
Designate
Domestic
Consume
Terminate
Obstruct
Remorse
Sanctuary
Matchless
Reluctant
Calamity
Fortitude
Tranquil
Edifice
Compassion
Tangible
Perimeter
Audacious
Ominous
Tirade
Encumber
Plagiarize
Impale
Travesty

Score

page 13

80

TASK III...TIME ESTIMATION (b) page 14

Instructions:
How much timehas passed since you entered the room and
started talking to me? Make the best guess you can.

Clock time

Estimated time

 

Accuracy of estimate:

Ratio of estimated time to actual time

Category of estimation:

Underestimation
Close estimation
Overestimation

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