SOCiOLCGICAL ANALYSIS or FACTORS
RELATED To THE ABOPTEON as
RECOMMENDED FARM PRACTICES AMONG
WCHIGAN APPLE eaawsns

Thesls for ”to Degree of M. A.
MICKEGAN STETE UNE‘E’ERSEW
Salah M. Yacoub
1963

I 1y um; 1mm" 1mg» g! M ”MIL 11g m I! “

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

m
E @S
if}
i;
it F:- 1 film

 

ABSTRACT
SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FACTORS RELATED TO THE
ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED FARM PRACTICES
AMONG MICHIGAN APPLE GROWERS

by Salah M. Yacoub

This study is focused on the adOption of technological
information among apple producers in the western part of
the state of Michigan. It is the concern of this study
to investigate factors related to the ad0ption of twenty-
one recommended practices in the apple growing industry.
More specifically, the focus of this study is to examine
the relationship between the adOption of certain farm
practices and such concepts as "Opening" and "closing"
culturally defined goals, "progressive" and "traditional"
value orientations, and "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orienta-
tions of the apple growers.

The following hypotheses were the central focus of
the study:

1. Apple growers who see their culturally defined
goals as "open or opening" tend to ad0pt recom-
mended practices more readily than apple growers
who see their goals as "closed or closing".

2. "Progressive" apple growers tend to be high
adopters while "traditional" apple growers tend

to be low adopters.

Abstract - 2 - Salah M. Yacoub

3. On the whole, ad0ption of the farm practices
tends to be higher for apple growers with "cosmo-
politan" orientation than for those with "local"
orientation.

Research hypothesis 1 was tested by using five
different variables. These variables were: (1) achieve-
ment orientation of the apple grower, (2) the grower's
attitudes toward his apple business as an occupation,

(3) facilitation of the social and business situation of
the apple growers, (u) past and future changes in the farm
enterprise, and (5) the time in which anticipated changes
regarding the farm enterprise were planned.

Research hypothesis 2 was tested by using four differ-
ent variables. These were: (1) the grower's attitudes
toward change generally, (2) the grower's self-rating of
his ad0ption behavior, (3) the grower's attitudes toward
credit and loans, and (H) the values which the grower
places on science and education.

Research hypothesis 3 was tested by using only two
variables, namely: (1) the grower's participation in state
and national organizations, and (2) his attendance at
organizational meetings held outside the county.

Data for the study were obtained by personal inter-
views with a sample of 100 respondents selected at random

from 2,900 apple growers within a nine county area.

Abstract - 3 - Salah M. Yacoub

The chi-square test of significance was used to test
the significance of the relationships. A 0.05 probability
level was chosen to test the significance of relationship
between the dependent variable (adOption) and the indepen-
dent variables under investigation. This means that when-
ever a X2 value is found which proves to have 0.05 or more
probabilities of being obtained simply by chance, the null
hypothesis which states that no relationship exists between
the independent and the dependent variables will be
accepted. The investigation of the variables yielded the
following findings:

Hypothesis 1. Achievement orientation of the apple
growers and the type of changes in the farm enterprise,
which were used as variables to test "Opening" and
"closing" culturally defined goals of the growers were
significantly associated with adOption of the recommended
practices at the 0.05 probability level. Variables 2 and
3, namely the grower's attitudes toward the apple business
as an occuption and facilitation of his social or business
situation were not significantly associated with adOption.
Variable 5, time of changes planned, does not totally
support the research hypothesis. Time in which the anti-
cipated expansion and related changes are to take place
was significantly associated with ad0ption; while the time
in which reduction and related changes are to take place

was not significantly associated with adoption. The above

Abstract - H - Salah M. Yacoub

findings thus suggest that there is no strong relationship
between those who see their culturally defined goals as
"Open or Opening" or "closed or closing" and adOption of
recommended farm practices.

Hypothesis 2. All four variables which were used to
test "progressive" and "traditional" value orientations
were significantly related to adoption at the 0.05 level.
This supports the research hypothesis that "progressive"
apple growers tend to be high adopters while "traditional"
apple growers tend to be low ad0pters.

Hypothesis 3. Two variables, participation in state
and national organizations, and attendance of meetings
held outside the community, which were used to test
"cosm0politan" and "local" orientations were associated
significantly with adOption. The findings support the
research hypothesis that adOption of the farm practices
tends to be higher for apple growers with "cosmOpolitan"

orientation than for those with "local" orientation.

SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FACTORS RELATED TO THE
ADOPTION OF RECOMMENDED FARM PRACTICES
AMONG MICHIGAN APPLE GROWERS

By

Salah M. Yacoub

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Sociology and AnthrOpology

1963

Approved " a. t;

N Na

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to extend his warmest thanks to the
hundred apple growers who participated in this study and
whose kindness made interviewing such a delightful exper-
ience. Without their COOperation, this research would
have been impossible.

Words can hardly suffice to thank this writer's major
professors Drs. Edward O. Moe and Sheldon G. Lowry for
their time, able guidance, counsel and encouragement, and
their constructive criticisms all through the develoPment
of this study. All the help given by them is deeply
appreciated.

Sincere thanks are expressed to Dr. Paul Larsen,
Extension Specialist in Horticulture, for his deep
interest in the study and for his help in constructing
that part of the schedule which deals with the recommended
practices.

Thanks are due to Drs. Del Dyer, State u-H Club
Office, Archibald O. Haller, and Charles R. Hoffer who
took the time to read and criticize the prOposal; to Drs.
Jay W. Artis and Carl Couch for their supervision and
assistance in their roles as members of the advisory
committee.

Thanks to Dr. Donald Olmsted and to my fellow
students Eugenio Fonseca, Saghir Ahmed, and Carole Wolff

for their help on the statistical analysis.

ii

Deep appreciation is extended to Miss Marie Smith
for typing the original manuscript.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge a real debt to
my parents, my father-in-law, and my wife for their
support and encouragement throughout the educational

process.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION

The Purpose

Significance of the Study

Method of Study
1. Selection of Sample
2. Directions for Computing Adoption Score
3. Statistical Analysis

Organization of the Study

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Culture and its Influence on AdOption

Values and Their Influence on AdOption

Goals and Motivations and Their Influence on
Adoption

Reference Groups and Their Influence on
Adeption

Other Factors and Their Influence on AdOption

III. "OPENING" AND "CLOSING" CULTURALLY DEFINED
GOALS AND ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis
Measurements and Findings
1. Achievement Orientation
2. Attitudes Toward the Apple Business
as an Occupation
3. Facilitation of the Social or Business
Situation
H. Changes in the Farm Enterprise
5. Time of Changes Planned
Summary and Conclusion

IV. "PROGRESSIVE" AND "TRADITIONAL" VALUE ORIENTA-
TIONS AND ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis
Measurements and Findings
1. Favorable and Unfavorable Attitudes
Toward Change
2. Individual's Self-rating of his
Adoption Behavior
3. Attitudes Toward Credit and Loans
u. Values Placed on Science and Education
Summary and Conclusion

iv

Page

OCDCDOJCDNH

13
1H

15
17

23
30
30

35

ul
an
51
53

56
61

Bl

67
71
76
87

TABLE OF CONTENTS--CONTINUED

CHAPTER

v. "LOCAL" AND "COSMOPOLITAN" ORIENTATION AND
ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis
Measurements and Findings
1. Organizational Participation
2. Attendance of Organizational Meetings
Held Outside the County
Summary and Conclusion

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

"Opening" and "Closing" Culturally Defined
Goals‘and Adoption of Practices
"Progressive" and "Traditional" Value
Orientations and Adoption of Practices
"Local" and "CosmOpolitan" Orientation
and AdOption of Practices
Limitations of the Study
Suggestions for Further Research

Page

88
93
93

97
98

101
106
111

113
11“

TABLE

1.

10.
11.
12.
13.
1M.
15.
16.

17.

LIST OF TABLES

Total achievement orientation score by
adoption

Total attitude score toward apple business
as an occupation by adOption

Attitudes toward the apple business as an
occupation items by adOption

Fac111tation of the social and business
situation by adoption

Total score for "changes in the farm
enterprise” variable by adOption

Changes in the farm enterprise items by
adoption

Nature of change and time planned by adoption

Total score for attitudes toward change by
adOption

Total score for individual's self-rating
of his adoption behavior by adOption

Individual's self-rating of his adoption
behavior items by adOption

Total score for attitudes toward credit and
loans by adOption

Attitudes toward credit and loans items by
adOption

Total score for values placed on science
and education by adoption

Values placed on science and education items
by adoption

Participation in all types of organizations
by adoption

Participation in state and national organiza-
tions by adoption

Attendance at meetings out of county by
adoption

vi

Page

3“

37

39

us

46

47

51

6Q

67

68

7M

75

81

82

95

96

98

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX I—oThe recommended practices and the numerical

value given to each

APPENDIX II--TABLES

1.

Achievement orientation items by adOption
Attitudes toward change items by adOption

Contacts with certain county Extension
personnel or programs

"Local" and "cosmOpolitan" organizations

vii

Page

122

128

130

132

133

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Purpose

 

In the past two decades, the vast body of research
dealing with the diffusion of agricultural technology has
contributed to our understanding of the problems in the
human communication process in relation to the adOption
of farm ideas and practices. Such research has provided
a wealth of information from which conclusions and
generalizations about the communication process may be
drawn. Previous research has demonstrated that farmers,
generally, do not tend to adOpt a farm practice or idea as
soon as they hear about it, in spite of the fact that the
practice has been tested by agriculture research experts
.and the results clearly indicate its usefulness. Research
has also shown that there is a variation in the rate at
which different farmers adOpt a farm practice. The
responses of farmers have been correlated with a variety
of social, psychological, and economic factors such as
income, education, size of farm, age, participation in
organizations and others.

It has become increasingly clear that it is necessary
to probe in greater depth the factors related to the

adoption of recommended practices. A series of diffusion

studies over time in the major type of farming areas of
Michigan has been initiated. These studies will probe in
depth into a single type of farming at a time. This parti-
cular study in the series analyzes certain sociological
factors related to the adOption of twenty-one recommended
farm practices among apple producers in the western part
of the state.1

Apple growing was selected for this study, because it
is considered as one of the leading fruit enterprises
found in Michigan. In 1959, Michigan's apple production
reached the third place in the United States. The total
commercial apple production during that year in Michigan
reached 12,800,000 bushels, with a total value of $18,9Mu,000.
This production is compared with the United States total
commercial production of 118,227,000 bushels.2 This type
of enterprise, especially in the western part of the state,
is becoming highly commercialized, and is constantly
undergoing change, as is the case with many other segments

of farming enterprises.

Significance of the Study

 

This series of studies of the diffusion of the

 

iSee Appendix I for a list of these practices.

2George S. McIntyre, et a1., Michigan Agricultural
Statistics, Lansing: MicEigan Department of Agriculture and
United States Department of Agriculture cooperating, July
1960, pp. H-S.

 

selected recommended practices, which is being launched
with the study of the acceptance of technology among apple
growers, will provide information which will build upon

the findings of previous diffusion studies. The study will
examine the relationship between the adOption of certain
farm practices and such theoretical concepts as "Open-

ing" and "closing" goals,3 "progressive" and "traditional"
value orientations, and "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orienta-
tions. Further investigation of these concepts will add

to the body of knowledge concerning motivation theory, the
level of aspiration theory, reference group theory, and
communication theory. This study will also add to the
growing understanding of research methods as applied to
adoption studies.

From an applied research point of view, findings of
diffusion studies continue to be highly useful in devel-
oping greater understanding of educational and change
processes, a more efficient allocation of resources, and
in providing a sound basis for the evaluation of educational
programs. Such research studies have helped commercial
firms, extension workers, and other adult educators to
upgrade the quality of their educational programs and

services for the farmers. Furthermore, these research

 

3The notion of "Opening" and "closing" culturally de-
fined goals came originally from Dr. Edward O. Moe during
the early stages of this study.

findings, through their contributions to educational
programs, have helped to cut the time lag in acceptance
of new ideas. This time reduction, in turn, has helped

to make agriculture a more efficient enterprise.

Method of Study

 

I. Selection of Sample:

 

Data for the study were obtained by personal inter-
views with a sample of one hundred apple growers. This
study was limited to one commercial farming enterprise,
namely apples. A selection of apple growing counties
was made. The major apple growing counties in the state
have been identified by Horticultural Specialists in the
COOperative Extension Service. From nearly 2900 apple
growers located in these counties a random sample of 100
apple growers was selected for detailed study. The prOpor-
tion of interviews from each county was based on an
estimate of the prOportion of trees in the county to the
total trees for all of the counties. On this basis, the

prOportion of the sample from each county was as follows:

 

County Percent of the Sample
Berrien 25
Kent - Ottawa 25
Van Buren 20

Oceana - Mason 15

-5-

 

County Percent of the Sample
Allegan 10
Ionia - Montcalm 5

In Kent and Ottawa, Oceana and Mason, and Ionia and
Montcalm counties, the list of growers is maintained on
a bi-county basis. Since these orchards are similar in
their characteristics and types no bias is likely to
result from combining these counties in the selection of
the sample.

The sample was selected on a random basis from the
list of apple growers in the county agent's office. The
selection of the sample was governed by the following
criteria. These criteria were arrived at in cooPeration
with M. S. U. Extension Specialists in horticulture. The
_basic notion was to eliminate all farmers who grew apples
only as a minor sideline. In order for the apple grower
to be included in the study, he must meet criterion
number 1 plus number 2 92 number 3 below.

(1) The grower must have at least 10 acres or more
of apples.

(2) If he grows only apples, 50 percent or more of
his total gross farm income must come from apples in order
to be included. If it is less than 50 percent he will
not be included in the sample.

(3) If the grower has other fruits in addition to

-6-

apples, he must receive 75 percent of his gross farm in-
come from the sale of fruit, and 25 percent of his fruit
income must come from the sale of apples.

Apple growers from each county were selected according
to the following procedure:

(1) The growers on the county agent's mailing list
were numbered consecutively.

(2) A number to begin with was pre-selected from a
table of random numbers for each particular county.

(3) Every Nth grower was taken. This figure is
determined by dividing the total number of growers by the
number of interviews to be obtained in that county. For
example: Suppose there are 233 apple growers on Allegan
County's mailing list, 233/10 = 23. The first grower will
be selected with a table of random numbers. Thereafter,

every 23rd grower on the list will be taken.

‘1

2. Directions for Computing AdOption Score:

 

Twenty-one practices which were applicable to every
apple grower were chosen from the total practices which
appeared in the schedule. Since certain items are more
highly recommended than others (it is not always recommended
versus not recommended) individual practices were given a
numerical value by a Horticultural Extension Specialist.

The item which was most highly recommended was given the

highest score, with a maximum of 10 points. Items not

-7-

recommended were given a zero. Others were scored in
between. If two or more of the items in a question were
checked by the apple grower, an average score was com-
puted for that particular practice. This score was
arrived at by adding the given numerical values for each
item checked and dividing the total by the number of items
checked. For example, for the following question, "Which
rootstocks did you use in your most recent planting?", the
apple grower might check both standard and dwarf. In this
case the numerical value given to the items checked, 8 for
standard and 10 for dwarf, were added and the total, 18,
was divided by 2 to give a score of 9, which is considered
as the adOption score for the rootstocks practice. The
scores for all 21 practices were then added together to
give an adOption score for each individual apple grower.
This method of determining the adoption score is somewhat
different from the method used by most of the diffusion
studies. Other studies have tended to take into account
the two extremes only, i.e., whether the farmer has
accepted or rejected a certain recommended practice. When
scoring each practice, a score is usually given to those
who accepted it, while zero is given to those who did not
accept it. Other practices inbetween the two extremes

are usually neglected and are not given a score. Obviously
there are some practices which are more highly recommended

than others. There are some practices which are regarded

as the best method available. Other practices are valuable
but less desirable, while others are not recommended at all.
The practices and the numerical values assigned to
them are listed in Appendix I.
During the coding process, the total adoption scores

were grouped into five categories. These were:

1. 60-99

2. 100-119
3. 120-139
u. 1H0-159
5. 160-179

3. Statistical Analysis:

 

Throughout the study, only one dependent variable was
dealt with, namely adOption score. For the purpose of
statistical analysis, the total adOption scores were
grouped into three main categories, instead of the original
five, ranging from low to high adoption. These three cate-
gories were as follows:

Category 1: AdOption scores ranging from 60-119.
This category is considered to be low.

Category 2: AdOption scores ranging from 120 to 139.
This category is considered to be medium.

Category 3: AdOption scores ranging from lu0-179.
This category is considered to be high.

The three adoption categories were then related to
eleven independent variables. The independent variables
were measured by the use of thirty-two different items.

Weights were arbitrarily assigned for responses under each

 

 

individual item. A total score for each independent vari-
able, which has more than one item, was then computed by
adding up the weights of the responses checked for all
items under that particular variable. Scores were then
dichotomized or trichotomized into "low" and "high," or
into "low," "medium," and "high" respectively. A chi-
square test of association was then made on these frequency
tables to determine if an association existed between

each of the independent and the dependent variables.” A
0.05 probability level was chosen to test the significance
of relationship between the dependent variable and the
independent variables investigated. If the observed value
falls within the rejection region for n degrees of freedom,5
then the null hypothesis of no relationship is rejected.

A contingency coefficient was then computed to measure the

degree of association between the two variables.6

 

I'The formula used for calculating the chi-square tests is:
r k
x2 = Z Z (Oij .. Eij)2
i=1 j=l ..
E13

Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral

Sciences, New York: McGraw-Hill 806k Company, Inc., 1956,

5When computing the degree§_of freedom, the following
formula was used: df = (r-l) (k-l), where r = the number
of rows and k = the number of columns in the contingency
table. Ibid., p. 105.

6The formula which was used for computing the contingency
coefficien

  

Ibid., p. 197.

-10-

In order to find out whether or not individual items,
which measure a particular variable, were significantly
related to adOption, a chi-square test was computed for
each item separately followed by the computation of a con-

tingency coefficient.

Organization of the Study

 

Following the review of literature, the study is com-
posed of three major sections. Each section deals with a
different set of theoretical concepts; therefore, each
section is treated as a separate unit. These three sections
are:

1. "Opening" and "closing" culturally defined goals

and adOption of practices.

2. "Progressive" and "traditional" value orienta-

tions and adoption of practices.

3. "Local" and "cosmOpolitan" orientations and

adOption of practices.

An over-all summary and conclusions will be presented

following the major sections of the study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Research on the adOption of technological change in
agriculture up to 1961 was summarized and synthesized in
a recent bulletin published by the Subcommittee for the
Study of Diffusion of Farm Practices, which is a part of
the North Central Rural Sociology Committee.1 This
bulletin emphasized the characteristics and communication
behavior of the adOpters of the new farm practices which
should be considered carefully by Extension program
planners and other change agents who are concerned with
the promotion of technical agriculture and with educational
programming as well.

Research on diffusion, as a whole, has revealed
important information about the way change takes place
and the influences that operate in relation thereto. It
has dealt, among other factors, with personal, social,
psychological, cultural, and farm business characteristics,
as well as goals and motivations that condition the rate
at which change takes place. Some of the major research

findings which are of particular interest to the present

 

1Adopters of New Farm Ideas, Characteristics and
CommufiIcation_BehavIor, Subcommitteefifor the Study of
Diffusion of Farm Practices, North Central Regional Exten-
sion Publication No. 13, East Lansing: Michigan State
University (Farm Foundation and Federal Extension Service
co-0perating), October, 1961.

 

- 11 -

-12..

study are reviewed below.

Culture and its Influence on AdOption2

 

The effect of cultural differences and national back-
ground on the adoption of the recommended farm practices
were treated in depth by two different studies. Pedersen3
found, in his comparative analysis of the adjustment of
a Danish and a Polish ethnic group to the American culture
in a dairy farming area in Central Wisconsin, that "the
Danish and Polish ethnic groups are two different uni-
verses from the standpoint of behavior and reaction to
recommended dairy farming practices." The evidence of the
study indicates that "the cultural adjustments of Danish
group facilitate the introduction of new ideas, whereas
the adjustments of the Polish group tend to perpetuate
status quo". Hoffer,” in his study of the celery growers

of Dutch descent, found that the influence of the Circular

Bulletin 165 was affected by the cultural heritage of the

 

ZResearch findings on culture and its influence on
adoption is reviewed because it was originally intended to
take into account the effect of ethnic origins of the
apple growers on their adOption behavior. Since all, but
one, of the respondents were American born, further investi-
gation of this factor became impossible.

3Harold A. Pedersen, "Cultural Difference in the Accept-
ance of Recommended Practices," Rural Sociology, 16, March,
1951, pp. 37-H9.

”Charles R. Hoffer, Acceptance of Approved Farminngrac-
tices Among Farmers of Dutch Descent,_East Lansing: Michigan
Agriculture EXperiment Station, Special Bulletin 316, June,
19H2, pp. 27-31.

-13-

people. Both of these studies suggest that attitudes of
the farmer, as they are develOped by cultural heritage
and exPerience, appear to be a chief influence in deter-

mining the immediate acceptance of a recommended practice.
Values and their Influence on AdOption

The relationship of personal values to the adOption
of farm and home practices was explored by Kimball's
study5 on fifty-three farm couples in Eaton county, Mich-
igan. He found that certain personal values held by the
"innovationist farmers" are positively related to the
adOption of farm practices. These values were: family
life, security, influence, new experience, wealth and
freedom. At the same time, he found that there are certain
personal values which the "conservatist" held that are
negatively related to the adOption of farm practices. These
values were: desire for recognition, religion, orderliness,
helpfulness, friendship and workmanship.

6 found that emphasis on owning a farm free

Wilkening
of debt has been negatively associated with the adOption

of improved farm practices.

 

—-—

5William J. Kimball, "The Relationship Between Personal
Values and the Adoption of Recommended Farm and Home Prac-
tices," Chicago: The University of Chicago, Unpublished
Ph.D. Dissertation, 1960.

6E. A. Wilkening, Adoption of Improved Farm Practices
as Related to Family Factors, Madison: Wisconsin Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 183,
December, 1953, pp. 3H-35.

- 1n -

However, Ramsey and associates7 found in their study
of values related to the adOption of improved dairy practices
and to knowledge, critical evaluation, and use of agricul-
tural lime, associations between adOption rates and twelve
values scaled according to the Guttman technique were very
small. They have shown that adOption was negatively but
significantly associated with high emphasis on security
and traditionalism. Three value orientations were found
to be positively related to knowledge, critical evaluation,
and use of lime practices. These were emphasis on material
achievement, science, and material comfort; while a desire
for security and emphasis upon traditionalism was negatively

related to adoptiOn. All correlations were low.

Goals and Motivations and their Influence on Adoption

 

8 recent study of goals in decision-making

Wilkening's
on Wisconsin dairy farmers has revealed the fact that
"salience of 'profit' in decision-making is positively
associated with exposure to information which emphasizes

the consideration of 'profit' as Opposed to other consider-

ations in decision-making on the farm."

 

7C. E. Ramsey, R. A. Polson and G. E. Spencer, "Values
and the Adoption of Practices," Rural Sociology, 2%, March,
1959, pp. 35—u7.

 

8E. A. Wilkening and C. E. Johnson, Goals in Farm
Decision-Making as Related to Practice Adpption, Madison:
Wisconsin Agriculture Experiment Station, Research Bulletin
225, February, 1961, p. 22.

 

 

715’

This finding suggests that the economic orientation
Of the farmers and their attitudes towards increasing
their net farm income affect their decision on whether to
accept or not to accept recommended practices.

Ploch9 has dealt with the attractive forces which
motivated the contract broiler grower to enter the con-
tract broiler business. He found that "the prospect of
financial reward and the growing pOpularity of broiler
raising were two Of the reasons which the Operators gave V

for their becoming contract operators".
Reference Groups and their Influence on Adpption

Lionberger10 defines the reference group as being
"a group to which an individual refers when forming an
Opinion, making a judgment, or deciding to act". Refer-
ence groups play an important part in influencing actions
of individuals and the way they behave. The influence
that reference groups have on behavior is dependent upon
the importance a person attaches to the group, the norms
Of the group as he perceives them, and his expectations

regarding the group.

 

9Louis A. Ploch, Social and Family Characteristics of
Maine Contract Broiler Growers,_0rono: Maine Agriculture
Experiment Station, Bulletin 596, August, 1960, p. 22.

 

 

10H. F. Lionberger, Adpption of New Ideas and Practices,
Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 196i: p. 8.

 

-]_6-

Individuals can also serve as referents. Rogers and
Beal11 have indicated that both individuals and groups
serve as significant referents in the behavior of indivi-
dual farmers. These authors were able to show, by the use
of projective techniques, that neighborhoods constituted
one of the most important reference groups in farm practice
adoption behavior, and that they were more important for
late than for early adOpters.

12 showed that there were mixed feelings

The same study
among farmers regarding the scientist as a referent. As
may be expected, those with the highest adOption scores
expressed the most favorable reactions.

13 in their Missouri study,

Lionberger and Coughenour,
found that persons sought for advice in matters related to
farming were more likely to have been exposed to formal
group influence than those who sought their advice. A
significant positive correlation was found between partici-

pation in formal sOcial groups and the adOption of new

farm practices.

 

11E. M. Rogers and G. M. Beal, Reference Group Influence
in the Adoption of Agricultural Technology, Ames: Iowa
State University, I958.

 

12Ibid.

13H. F. Lionberger and C. M. Coughenour, Social Structure
and Diffusion of Farm Information, Columbia: Missouri Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 631, April,
1957, p. H8.

-17-

Other Factors and their Influences on AdOption

 

The findings of previous studies on the effect of
attitudes, values, abilities, group memberships, social
status, and farm business characteristics on adoption have
been analyzed in the bulletin published by the Sub-committee
for the Study of Diffusion of Farm Practiceslg as related
to the five adopters' categories namely, innovators, early
adOpters, early majority, late majority, and late adopters.
It was found that innovators have the following personal
and farm business characteristics: favorable attitudes
toward science, place a high value on the role Of science
in agriculture and on "the security that comes from being
debtifree", willing to borrow money and to take risks in
order to realize a profit, read farm magazines and Exten-
sion bulletins, active in formal organizations, tend to
be cosmopolitan in their participation patterns, have a
higher income, larger farms, more wealth, and have more

15 In other

Specialized enterprises than other farmers.
words, it could be said that the above variables, in
addition to some others not mentioned here, were found

to be positively related to the adoption of the recommended

practices.

 

lI'AdOpters of New Farm Ideas, p. 5.

 

151bid., pp. 5-7.

- 13 -

fi©pp16 found in his study of Kansas cattlemen that
certain personality characteristics of farm Operators, such
as the flexibility Of their mental approach to problems in
farming, were significantly associated with the adOption
and non-adOption Of the recommended practices.

Hoffer17 suggested that farm practice adOption was
associated with certain social and psychological charac-
teristics of the farm Operators, and he emphasized the
importance of those factors and their relationship to
the adOption of the recommended practices. He found that
"if a farmer was efficient, had initiative, and was pro-
gressive, he was likely to adOpt approved practices. On
the other hand if he tended to be conservative and valued
security highly, he would postpone the adOption of a
practice or possibly never adOpt it."

The literature reviewed above is only a part Of the
vast body of research on diffusion which has relevant
findings to the present study. Many studies have been

done in this field. A recent bibliography18 lists 100

 

16James H. Copp, Personal and Social Factors Associated
with the Adoption Of—RecommendedIFarm Practices Among
Cattlemen, Manhattan: Kansas Agriculture Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 83, September, 1956, p. 2.

 

 

 

17Charles R. Hoffer and D. Stangland, "Farmers' Attitudes
and Values in Relation to Adoption Of Approved Practices in
Corn Growing," Rural Sociology, 23, June, 1958, p. 112.

 

l8Herbert F. Lionberger, AdOption of New Ideas and Prac-
tices, Ames: The Iowa State UniVersity Press, 1961, pp. Il9-HM.

 

- 19 -‘

studies of the diffusion of new ideas which have appeared
in scientific journals, theses, and research bulletins.

19 of farm and home practice diffusion

Another compilation
studies listed 228 projects. Rogers,20 in his recent
book, reviews more than five hundred publications on the
diffusion of innovations and synthesizes their findings
and theories. A more detailed review of literature on
diffusion of innovations, can be Obtained from the above
three sources.

A cursory review of such a great variety of research
which has been conducted on the adoption process of new
farm practices might suggest that with all that has been
done there is scarcely need for further study on the sub-
ject. But further analysis reveals that abundant informa-
tion is available on the relationship of some factors to
the adoption Of these recommended practices, while others
are comparatively unexplored. For example, the influence
Of frames Of reference on aspirations and goals, motivations,
and personal values of the farmer on what he absorbs and

how he applies it needs further investigation. The review

of literature on the acceptance Of the recommended

 

19"Research and Writing on Diffusion of Farm and Home
Practices," A Bibliography compiled by National Project
in Agriculture, East Lansing: Michigan State University,
(Mimeographed), March, 1959.

20E. M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, New York:
The Free Press Of Glencoe, 1962.

 

-20-

practices reveals consistent positive relationships be-
tween such situational factors as education, income, size
Of farm, social participation, contact with Extension,
and rural practice adoption. It is clear, at the same
time, that little work has been done on the relationship
between aspirations, goals, personal values, beliefs, and
attitudes and the adOption of such practices. For this
reason it is felt that more investigation is needed to
pinpoint the influences of such relatively unexplored
factors and their relationship to the adoption practices.
The review of literature reveals the need for a
synthesis of the wealth of findings available in terms
of more general theoretical concepts than have been
used in most past studies. In addition there is a need
for greater uniformity in procedure, design, and use of

concepts.

CHAPTER III

"OPENING" AND "CLOSING" CULTURALLY DEFINED

GOALS AND ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis: Apple growers who see their culturally

 

defined goals as "Open or Opening" tend to adOpt
recommended practices more readily than apple

growers who see their goals as "closed or closing".

Understanding of farmers' motivation with respect to
the acceptance of recommended practices requires a more
intensive study of the process of decision making in terms
Of the goals of action. When reviewing preVIOus research,
the Subcommittee on the Diffusion and AdOption Of Farm
Practices reported that the problem of motivation in the
acceptance of farm practices has only been touched upon.
The report further states, that there are few data on
the manner in which the acceptance Of farm practices is
rationalized in terms of the farmer's goals, both economic
and non-economic, and the means available for Obtaining

those goals.1

 

1"Sociological Research Of the Diffusion and AdOption
of New Farm Practices," Report of the Subcommittee on
the Diffusion and Adoption Of Farm Practices, The Rural
Sociological Society, Lexington: Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station, (Mimeographed), June, 1952.

- 21 -

 

 

-22-

This chapter will deal with two relatively new con-
cepts, namely "Open or Opening" and "closed or closing"
goals and their effect on adOption of farm practices.
These concepts are related to the general level of aspira-
tion theory and to a number of key theoretical concepts in
social psychology and sociology such as motivation,
aspirations, frames of reference, and attitudes. An
apple grower is said to have "Open or Opening" goals, if
he believes that his goals, as he sees them, are attain-
able Or becoming attainable, that is, if he sees apple
growing as an appropriate and adequate means for accom-
plishing his ends. On the other hand, he is said to have
"closed or closing" goals, if he believes that his goals
are not attainable or are becoming less attainable. In
other words, he sees apple growing as being or becoming
inapprOpriate or inadequate for accomplishing his ends.

The discussion of the concepts of "Open or Opening"
and "closed or closing" goals which follows shows how
these concepts are linked to the level Of aspiration theory
and to the other social psychological and sociological
concepts stated above.

Hilgard2 defined level Of aspiration as being "a goal

that the individual sets as something he expects to achieve

 

2Ernest R. Hilgard, Introduction to Psychology, 2nd Ed.,
New York: Harcourt, Brace and’COmpany, 1957, p. 583.

 

-23-

or strives to achieve". Level Of aspiration and motiva-
tion are interrelated. Sherifa defined motivation as
being "goal directed behavior".
According to Edmund des Brunner and associates,Ll
"Research in social psychology has approached the problem
of motivation largely by means of the concept of 'level
Of aspiration'". He further states that "the major
premise for "level Of aspiration" concept is that an
individual raises or lowers his goals within certain
frames Of reference which are relevant to these goals."

The present study suggests that one not only raises
or lowers his goals, depending upon his frame of refer-
ence, but also he is influenced in the selection of the
means he uses in achiving his goals.

Sherif has demonstrated the importance of the influence
Of one's frame of reference in determining one's percep-
tions Of the universe about him and in his subsequent

5 In fact, he has shown that "...When an

adjustment to it.
Objective frame of reference is lacking--when the field
Of stimulation is unstable, vague, and not well structured--

the individual perceives the situation as shaped by his

 

3Muzafer Sherif, An Outline of Social Psychology, New
York: Harper, 19u8, p. 11.

”Edmond des Brunner and associates, An Overview of
Adult Education Research, Chicago: Adult Education
Association, 1959: p. 32.

 

5Sherif, Op. cit., p. 167.

 

- 2D -

own internally evolved frame of reference."6

7 have indicated that the frame

Chapman and Volkmann
Of reference influences the level Of aspiration and that
there are important features which come from the "social
environment and these features will also influence the
aspirational levels Of the individuals". Culturally
emphasized goals are considered part of the social environ-
ment and they, therefore, influence the individual's level

8 profit, money making,

of aSpiration. According to Merton,
and increasing one's net income are goals which are em-
phasized by the American culture. Considerable emphasis
is placed by the culture upon achieving "success" in a
monetary way. Merton further indicates that in the
American culture "the cultural manifesto is clear: one
must not quit, must not cease striving, must not lessen
his goals, for 'not failure, but low aim, is crime'. Thus
the culture enjoins the acceptance of three cultural
axioms: First, all should strive for the same lofty

goals since these are Open to all; second, present

seeming failure is but a way-station to ultimate success;

 

61bid., p. 157.

7D. W. Chapman and J. Volkmann, "A Social Determinant
Of the Level of Aspiration," Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 1939, pp. 225-227.

 

 

8Robert Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure,
Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957, pp. 166-167.

 

 

-25-

and third, genuine failure consists only in the lessening
or withdrawal of ambition."9

On the basis Of the above, the growing Of apples is
considered, in the present study, to be a means toward the
achieving of one's culturally defined goals, whether they
are strictly monetary or otherwise. It is assumed that
one's decisions regarding his apple growing business will
depend, in large measure, on the extent to which he sees
apple growing as an apprOpriate means of reaching his goals.
It is probably apprOpriate at this point to indicate that
apple growing can be viewed both as a means and as a
secondary goal. Therefore, as a secondary goal one can
examine the means which are used in achieving this secondary
goal.

In the present study, if one's frame of reference
with regard to growing apples tends to be positive, that
is, if he sees apple growing as a means of reaching his
goals, the individual is said to have a "positive frame of
reference". If, on the other hand, he does not see apple
growing as a means of reaching his goals, the individual
would be said to have a "negative frame Of reference".

It can readily be seen that positive and negative
frames of reference are a matter of degree, and there are

all shades and degrees from one extreme to the other.

 

91bid., p. 139.

 

-26-

Furthermore, an individual may be becoming more positive
or more negative. If an individual has a positive frame
Of reference or one which is becoming positive he can be
said to have goals which are Open or Opening. This, in
effect, is a way of saying that his goals, as he sees them,
are attainable or becoming attainable. Conversely, if an
individual has a negative frame Of reference or one which
is becoming negative, he can be said to have goals which
are closed or closing.

It seems apparent that the individual who sees his
goals as Open or Opening, who sees apple growing as an
appropriate and adequate means for accomplishing his ends,
would tend to be more confident in trying out new ideas
in his business and more willing to take a risk.10 0n the
other hand, one who sees his goals as closed or closing,
who sees apple growing as an inapprOpriate or inadequate
means for accomplishing his goals, would tend to be less
confident in trying out new ideas in his business and less

willing to take a risk.11

 

10It is anticipated that the individual who sees his
goals as Open or Opening is likely to exhibit behavior
similar to that described by Merton as the innovation
adaptation. In this instance, high emphasis upon the
success-goal is maintained, and individuals tend to
abandon institutional means of achieving their goals.
(Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, pp. lul-lu9).

11In some ways the behavior of an individual who sees
his goals as closed or closing can be linked to the ritual-
istic type Of adaptation discussed by Merton. Merton says
that the implicit life-philosophy of the social ritualist

-2']-

The above line of reasoning led to the develOpment of
the above stated hypothesis which is designed to test
the relationship between the adoption of recommended
practices and one's seeing his goals with regard to apple
growing as being "Open or Opening" or "closed or closing".
The concepts, "Open or Opening" and "closed or clos-
ing" goals, as discussed above, are logically a special
instance Of the more general level of aspiration theory.
The treatment of the concepts here, as they relate to
the apple growing occupation, is in part similar to Haller's
treatment of "level of Occupational Aspiration" (LOA)

12 Haller considered LOA as being a special

concept.
instance of the concept of level of asPiration.13 When
develOping an instrument to measure the LOA concept,

Haller based it on seven variables which are related to
the level of aspiration concept. These variables were:

Object-behavior, means-behavior, group success-orienta-

tions, facilitation of personal orientations, willingness

 

finds expression in a series of cultural cliches: "I'm
not sticking my neck out," "I'm playing safe," "I'm
satisfied with what I've got," "Don't aim high and you
won't be disappointed.” Merton says that such an adapta-
tion is one which tends to abandon major cultural goals
and to cling "all the more closely to the safe routines
and the institutional norms." (Merton, Social Theory and
Social Structure, pp. 150-151).

12Archibald O. Haller and lrwin W. Miller, The Occupa-
tional Aspiration Scale: Theory, Structure and Correlates,
East Lansing: Miéhigan Agricultural Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 288, 1963, p. 9.

13Ibid., p. 10.

to act independently, and finally self-conceptions.

-28-

1h

The present study considers the concepts of "open or

Opening" and "closed or closing" goals,as they relate

to the apple growing occupation, as being based on five

variables which are used to test the two concepts. Indi-

viduals with either "Open or Opening" or "closed or

closing" goals were characterized in the following ways:

(1)

(2)

(3)

Those whose achievement orientation toward their
apple business is high, are more likely to have
"Open or Opening" goals. 0n the other hand,
those whose achievement orientation toward their
apple business is low are more likely to have
"closed or closing" goals.

Those whose attitudes toward apple growing as

an occupation is favorable tend to see their
goals "Open or Opening", while those whose
attitudes toward apple growing as an occupa-
tion is unfavorable tend to see their goals
"closed or closing".

Those whose social and business situation, as
expressed by the presence of Obstacles, does

not facilitate making progress tend to see

their goal as "closed or closing", while those

whose social or business situation does

 

1“Ibid., pp.‘28-33.

(A)

(5)

-29-

facilitate making progress, as expressed by

lack of Obstacles, tend to see their goal as
"Open or Opening".

Those whose past and anticipated future changes
involve expansion of the enterprise (for example,
increased acreage, additional storage facili-
ties, Or adding new apple varieties) are regarded
as having goals which are Open or Opening.

Those whose past and.anticipated future changes
involve reduction Of the enterprise (for example,
reducing acreage, going out of business, etc.)
are regarded as having goals which are closed

or closing.

Those apple growers who anticipate changes within
the near future are regarded as having goals
which are "Open" if such changes involve expan-
sion Of the enterprise or other indications that
the farmer has a tendency to stay with the apple
business. Farmers are regarded as having goals
which are "Opening" if such changes are antici-

pated in the more distant future.

Those apple growers who anticipate changes within
the near future are regarded as having goals
which are "closed" if such changes involve a re-

duction in the enterprise. Apple growers are

- 3o -
regarded as having goals which are "closing" if
such changes are anticipated in the more distant

future.

Measurements and Findings:

The following discussion is an attempt to state the
concepts "Open or Opening" and "closed or closing" goals
operationally in order to permit their use as a tool for
analysis in this particular study.

(1) Achievement Orientation. This variable was used
by Haller, among three others, to measure personality

15 He states that experimental

orientations of youth.
research shows that success results in raising level of
aspiration and failure results in the reverse. He also
indicates that if personal orientations are such that an
individual frequently experiences success in areas be-
lieved to be related to occupational achievement, he would
be expected to raise his levels of occupational aspiration.
Conversely, if his orientations are such that he fre-
quently exPeriences failure in these areas, he would be
expected to lower his level of occupational aspiration.16
The same reasoning could be applied also to apple

growers. It is believed here, that if an apple grower's

orientations are such that he frequently experiences

 

151bid., p. as.
15Ibid,, p. 31.

-31-

success in areas related to his apple business, he is
expected to have a high achievement orientation and,
therefore, would tend to see his goals as "Open or Opening".
On the other hand, if his orientations are such that he
frequently experiences failure in areas related to his
business, he is expected to have a low achievement orien-
tation and, therefore, would tend to see his goals as
"closed or closing".

While Haller used two scales to test the achievement
orientation of high school students,17 this study concerns
itself with six attitudinal items. These six items were
used to test achievement orientations which the apple
growers have in regard to their apple growing business.

It should be indicated that more items would provide a
more accurate measure of this variable.

In order to justify combining these six items into
one total achievement score, for the purpose of analysis,
an item analysis was made to see to what extent each con-
tributes to the total score of all items. It was found
that all six have relatively high correlation scores, which
justifies combining them into a single total achievement

orientation score.18

 

17Ibid., p. us.

18The correlation scores for the six items were as
follows: Item 1 = .71, item 2 = .M5, item 3 = .81, item
u = .59, item 5 = .63, and item 6 = .us.

-32-

These six items and their corresponding type of

responses are presented below:

 

Ty e of’Response
Attitudinal Statements avorable Uncertain Unfavorable

 

 

3. Sometimes I feel that farm-
ing is a "dead end" opera-
tion without a future. Disagree Uncertain Agree

2. Sometimes I really don't
know what apple growers
like me are trying to
accomplish. Disagree Uncertain Agree

3. Many times apple growing
gets so confusing and de-
manding that I wonder
where I am at. Disagree Uncertain Agree

u. Practically everything I
try to do turns out well
for me. Agree Uncertain Disagree

5. I usually fail when I try
something important. Disagree Uncertain Agree

6. The future looks very
dismal. Disagree Uncertain Agree

 

 

 

 

 

 

The above items were borrowed, with some modification,

from three unpublished questionnaires used by Franz,19

21

Haller,20 and Dean in their different studies.

 

l9Item 1 corresponds to item #3, item 2 corresponds to item
M7, and item 3 corresponds to item 5H. V. R. Franz and A. O.
Haller, "Big and Little Co-Ops: Attitudes of People in Locally-
Owned COOperatives Toward Mergers With Large COOperatives,"
Unpublished Final Report, East Lansing: Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, February, 1962, Original schedule, p. 11.

20Item u corre3ponds to item 57, and item 5 corresponds
to item 58, Haller and Miller, Op. cit., p. 119.

2J'Item 6 corresponds to item 23 in the unpublished Dean's
Alienation Scale , used by Dwight G. Dean in his study of
"Alienation: Its Meaning and Measurement," American Sociolo-
gical Review, October, 1961, pp. 753-758.

 

- 33 -
An achievement orientation score (AOS) was assigned

to each apple grower by giving: zero to each unfavorable

re5ponse, 1 to each uncertain response, and 2 to each

favorable response.22

These weights were arbitrarily
chosen for the purpose of this analysis. Scores of
responses for all these items were combined for each

apple grower to give his A08. The minimum possible score
for achievement orientation is zero, while the maximum
possible score is 12 (Table 1). If the score is high, the
grower is more likely to have a high achievement orientation
toward his apple business, and, therefore, he is more
likely to see his goals as "Open or Opening". If the score
is low the reverse is expected, and the grower is likely

to see his goals as "closed or closing".

A chi-square test of association was applied to deter-
mine whether or not an association existed between
achievement orientation and adOption scores. The detailed
score categories presented in Table 1 were collapsed for
the purpose of statistical analysis into "low" (0-u),
"medium" (5-8), and "high" (9-12). The chi-square test

of association revealed the existence of a significant

association, at the 0.05 probability level, between

 

- 22The weights given to each of these responses were
arbitrarily chosen, but there are some indications that
these weights are not too important if the factors are
clearly intercorrelated. See H. R. Cottam, "Housing
Scales for Rural Pennsylvania," Journal of the American
Statistical Society, 38, 19H3, pp. #06-u16.

 

- 36 -

Table 1. Total achievement orientation score by adOption

(N=100)

 

Achievement orientation Percent Mean adOption score

 

score
"Low"
3-u 16.0 111.4
"Medium"
5-6 17.0 118.9
"High"
9-10 23.0 13H.3
11-12 22.0 1H7.7

 

x2=21.8u; u d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.u2

 

achievement orientation score and adOption score (Table l).
The degree Of association between the two variables was
moderate (C=0.u2). The direction of the association was,
as expected, apple growers with "high" achievement orienta-
tion scores were more prone to adopt recommended practices
than those with "medium" or "low" achievement orientation
scores.

The items used to test achievement orientation score
and their respective responses are presented in more
detail in Appendix II, Table 1. It is noted that all six
items were found to be associated with adOption. The
correlations, expressed by the contingency coefficient,
for the first four items were almost identical, 0.30,

0.30, 0.32, and 0.32 respectively. The fifth item had

-35-

a contingency coefficient of 0.H6, while the sixth item
had a contingency coefficient of 0.25. The chi-square
test Of association for all six items showed that a
significant relationship existed at the 0.05 level.

Since achievement orientation is used in this parti-
cular study as a variable which measures "Open" and "closed"
goals, as it was indicated earlier, the above findings
support the research hypothesis that apple growers who
see their culturally defined goals as "open or Opening"
tend to adOpt recommended practices more readily than
apple growers who see their goals as "closed or closing".

(2) Attitudes Toward the Apple Business as an

Occupation. Attitudes toward the apple business occupation

 

are related to the object-behavior variable which was used
by Haller as one measure of the LOA.23 For the purpose of
this study, object refers to apple growing as an occupation.
The attitude toward such object will, no doubt, influence
the type of behavior or action directed toward the Object.
Coppzu also investigated attitudes toward future in
farming in his study Of Kansas cattlemen. He found a

definite relationship between a favorable attitude toward

 

23Haller and Miller, Op. cit., p. 30.

2“James H. Copp, Personal and Social Factors Associated
with the AdOption ofRecommended_Practices Among Cattlemen,
Manhattan: Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 83, September, 1956, p. 30.

-36-

farming and adOption. In testing attitudes toward future
in farming, Copp used two types of questions, the first
one is an Open-ended question concerning the kind of
advice they would give a farm youth who was considering
farming as a career, and the second one was in terms of
a rationalization for farming, irrespective of whether the
future was favorable or not.

In the present study, three questions were used to
reveal the growers' attitudes toward the apple business
as an occupation. These questions and the scores arbi-
trarily assigned to their responses for statistical
analysis purposes are as follows:

1. DO you think that apple growing is more desirable

or less desirable as an occupation now than it

used to be?

Score given

 

2 points More desirable
1 point The same as before
0 pOInt Less desirable

2. Knowing what you know now, and if you could

start over again, would you be an apple grower
or would you choose some other occupation?

Score given

1 point Apple growing
0 point Some other occupation

3. Have you actually considered giving up apple
growing and going into some other occupation?

Score given

 

1 point NO
0 point Yes

-37-

A total attitude score toward apple occupation was
computed for each apple grower by adding up the correspond-
ing scores of his responses for the above three questions.
Total attitude scores were dichotomized in terms Of "low"
and "high". A chi-square test was applied to see whether
or not a total attitude score toward apple occupation was
associated with adOption scores. The result shows no
significant association, at the 5 percent probability
level, exists between attitude score toward apple business
as an occupation and adoption score Of the recommended
practices (Table 2). The relationship between the two
variables investigated is in the exPected direction stated
in the research hypothesis. Since the chi-square at the

Table 2. Total attitude score toward apple business as
an occupation by adOption (N=100)

 

 

Attitude score toward Percent Mean adOption score
apple business as an
occupation
“Low"
0-2 57.0 123.5
"High"
3-H 43.0 135.1

 

x2=3.95; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=o.2u

 

0.05 level was not significant, there is no basis to infer
that the degree of association in the sample is also

present in the p0pulation.

-38-

A detailed analysis Of the three individual items
which were used to test attitudes toward apple business
as an occupation also revealed the fact that these three
items were not significantly associated with adoption
score. As part 1 of Table 3 shows, #3 percent of the
apple growers in the sample felt that apple growing is
more desirable as an occupation now than it usedto be,

7 percent feel that it is "the same as before", while 50
percent feel that apple growing is "less desirable" as

an occupation now than it used to be. The first group
Of_growers are considered to have a more favorable atti-
tude toward their occupation than the two latter groups.25

The chi-square test Of association shows no signi-
ficant relationship between adoption score and the
expressed desirability of apple growing as an occupation.
The association between the two variables was found to
be in the expected direction.

It is assumed that those who would still choose
apple growing rather than other occupations are considered
as having more favorable attitudes toward the apple busi-
ness than those who preferred to choose some other

occupation. The first group apparently considers apple

 

25These two groups were combined when computing the
chi-square because the expected frequencies in "the
same as before" category were less than 5, the minimum
required number. See Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics
for the Behavioral Sciences, pp. h6-M7.

 

-39-

growing as being an apprOpriate and adequate means for

accomplishing their ends, while the second sees apple

growing as being an inapprOpriate and inadequate means

for accomplishing their ends. For this reason, the

Table 3. Attitudes toward the apple business as an

occupation items by adOption (N=100)

 

Attitudes Percent Mean adOp-

1.

tion score

Do you think that apple
growing is more desirable
or less desirable as an
occupation now than it
used to be?

More desirable .43.0 138.3
The same as before* 7.0 124.2
Less desirable 50.0 124.5

 

x2=3.95; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=0.2o

 

2.

Knowing what you know now,
and if you could start over
again, would you be an
apple grower or would you
choose some other occupa-

tion?
Apple growing 71.0 134.0
Some other occupation 29.0 122.9

 

x2=3.su; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; 0:0.17

 

3.

Have you actually consid-
ered giving up apple grow-
ing and going into some
other occupation?

NO 79.0 131.5
Yes 21.0 128.1

 

x2=o.65; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=o.oo

 

*This category was collapsed with the last one

to facilitate the chi-square test.

- no -

growers in the latter group would choose some other
occupations if they could start over again. Part 2 of
Table 3 reports that 71 percent would choose apple growing
and 29 percent would choose some other occupation. The
chi-square results show no significant difference between
the adOption score of those who would choose apple growing
and those who would choose some other occupation.

Apple growers who actually considered giving up
apple growing and going into some other occupation are
regarded as having a negative attitude toward their
business. They are also regarded as seeing their goals as
"closed or closing". On the other hand, those who have not
considered giving up apple growing are considered as
seeing their goals "Open or Opening". Part 3 of Table 3
shows that 21 percent of the total sample have actually
considered giving up apple growing. The association,
exPressed by chi-square, between growers' consideration
to give up or not to give up apple growing and their
'ad0ption score was not significant.

As indicated earlier, attitudes toward the apple
business as an occupation were used as a variable which
tests "Open" and "closed" goals. The above analysis
shows that the total attitude score toward the apple
occupation was not significantly associated with adoption
scores. In addition, it was found that none of the three

items which measure the independent variable was significantly

- 41 -

related to adoption score. All the chi-square results
obtained support the null hypothesis of no relationship
and reject the research hypothesis that those who see
their culturally defined goals as "Open or Opening" tend
to adapt recommended practices more readily than apple
growers who see their goals as "closed or closing".

(3) Facilitation Of the Social and Business Situation.

 

The treatment of this variable is similar to Haller's
treatment of another LOA variable, namely, facilitation

of the social situation. Haller indicates that "persons
in situations which frustrate the desire to be a success
are quite aware of it." He further states that "if the
goal of high occupational achievement is learned by all

or most youth in the society, and if those in situations
which frustrate the attempt to be successful are aware

of the factors blocking their achievement, then they would
be expected to lower their levels of occupational aspira-

tion."26

The above reasoning can be applied to apple
growers. If the grower is in a social and business
situation which frustrates his desire to become a success-
ful apple grower, and if such a grower is aware of the
factors blocking his achievement, then he would tend to

see his goals as being "closed or closing". 0n the other

hand, if the grower believes there are no such blocking

 

26Haller and Miller, Op. cit., p. 31.

- 42 -

factors, then he tends to see his goals as being "open
or Opening".

Four variables were used by Haller to test facilita-
tion of the social situation; these were: Social class
status, race, parents' willingness to provide financial
assistance to the youth, and post-educational work
experiences.27

In this study only one question was asked to find
out whether or not apple growers were actually facing,
or aware of, some factors which are blocking their
achievement. The question states:

Have there been any Obstacles or things that

have stood in the way of your making as much

progress as you would have liked in farming or

home and family life during the past few years?

The presence Of obstacles in farming or home and
family life are considered here as blockings which might
hinder of delay progress. Therefore, apple growers who
are experiencing some of these obstacles are expected
to see their goals as "closed or closing", while those who
are not experiencing any of these obstacles are expected
to see their goals as "Open or Opening".

The responses for the question presented above were

dichotomized into "Yes" and "NO" answers. According to

Table 4, 56 percent of the apple growers in the sample

 

27Ibid., pp. u1-uu.

-l+3-

have experienced or are experiencing some Obstacles, such
as "weather obstacles," "low returns and high Operating
costs," "depressed markets," "Old age," and others, while
44 percent indicated that they had not experienced any
such obstacles. The chi-square test showed that no signi-
ficant association existed, at the 0.05 level, between

Table 4. Facilitation Of the social and business situation
by adoption (N=100)

 

Question Percent Mean adOption
score

 

Have there been any Obstacles

or things that have stood in

the way of your making as much
progress as you would have liked
in farming or home and family
life during the past few years?

NO 44.0 132.9
Yes 56.0 128.6

 

x2=0.95; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=0.oo

 

facilitation of the social and business occupation, as
measured by the presence of Obstacles, and adOption score
(Table 4).

The data presented in Table 4 supports the null hypothe-
‘sis of no relationship and rejects the research hypothesis
that those who see their goals as "Open or Opening" tend
to have a higher adoption score than those who see their

oals as "closed or closing".
g .

- 44 -

(4) Changes in the Farm Enterprise. As indicated

 

above, changes in the farm enterprise refer to changes or
actions which took place or will be taking place regarding
the apple business. This variable is related to Haller's
means-behavior variable which he used to measure the LOA
concept. Haller28 considered means-behavior as being

the means necessary to carrying one's attitude into be-
havior. It is believed here that if an apple grower has

a certain attitude toward apple occupation, he tends to
make what he believes as being necessary changes to
carrying his attitudes into actual behavior. Changes in
the farm enterprise can be classified in this study as
being appropriate or inapprOpriate to the apple business
situation, but at any rate, they are considered by the
actor as being necessary for the achievement of his success
goals.

Two questions were used to reveal the type of changes
which took place or would be taking place in the apple
business. These questions and the scores arbitrarily
assigned to their responses for computing a total score
for"changes in the farm enterprise" variable are as

follows:

1. What has happened to your apple business over

the last five years as measured by the number
of trees?

 

281bid., p. 30.

- 45 -

Total NO. 5 yrs. ago Total NO. in 1962
(about 1958)

 

 

Non-bearing trees

 

Total

 

Score given

 

2 points If the total number of apple trees over
the last 5 years has increased.

1 point If the number has remained the same.
0 point If the number has decreased.

2. What type of major changes, if any, do you plan
in your apple business in the next few years?

The changes planned were classified into three
categories. These categories and the scores given to them
are as follows:

Score given
2 points If the changes planned were expansion,

i.e., increase acreage, building a C.A.
storage, or planting new apple varieties.
1 point If there was no change planned.
0 point If the changes planned were reduction,
or getting rid of apples.

A total score for "changes in the farm enterprise"
variable was computed for each apple grower by adding up
the scores he obtained in both questions. These total
scores were dichotomized in terms of "low" and "high" for
the purpose Of the chi-square test. Tabulation was made

to determine whether or not the total score for "change in

the farm enterprise" variable was related to the degree

- 46 -

of adoption. This variable is used in this study as a
further test for "Opening" and "closing" goals. It is
assumed that if an apple grower sees apple growing as an
apprOpriate and adequate means for accomplishing his
ends, he is more likely to expand and increase the size
of his operation. On the other hand, if he sees apple
_growing as being or becoming an inapprOpriate or inade-
quate means for accomplishing his ends, he is more likely
to decrease the size of his Operation.

Table 5 shows that the chi-square test of association
revealed the existence of a significant relationship
between nature of "changes in the farm enterprise" and
adOption variables. The degree of association between
the two variables, as measured by the contingency coeffi-
cient, was found to be equal to 0.37. The direction Of

Table 5. Total score for "changes in the farm enterprise"
variable by adOption (N=100)

 

 

Total score for "change Percent Mean adoption
in the farm enterprise" score
"Low" >

0-2 36.0 113.9
"High"

3-4 64.0 136.7

 

X2=16.02; 2 d.f.; P<0.05, c=o.37

 

the association was as expected: apple growers with "high"

total scores for "change in the business enterprise" tend

- 47 -

to have higher adOption scores than those with "low"

scores for "changes in the business enterprise."

The question used to reveal the type of changes which

took place or would be taking place in the apple business

and the findings relatdd to them are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Changes in the farm enterprise items by adOption

(N=100)

 

1.

Question Percent Mean adOp-
tion score

What has happened to
your apple business over
the last five years as
measured by the number
of trees?

Total apple trees

 

Increased 59.0 137.3
Remained the same 34.0 120.4
Decreased* 7.0 122.4

 

x2=10.3o; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.3o

 

What type of major chan-
ges, if any, do you plan
in your apple business in
the next few years?

Type of change

 

Expansion, i.e., in-

crease apple acreage,

better varieties, build-

ing C.A. storage, etc. 45.0 141.3

No changes are planned 40.0 122.2
Reduction Of apple

acreage or getting
rid Of apples 15.0 117.7

 

X2=16.63; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.37

 

*This category was collapsed with "Remained the
same" group because the expected frequencies
were so small.

- 48 -

It can be seen from part 1 Of Table 6 that 59 percent
of the apple growers in the sample have increased their
apple business in the last five years, 34 percent
indicated that the number of apple trees on their farms
has remained the same, and 7 percent have decreased it.
As indicated above, those whose apple business has
increased are regarded as having goals which are "Open or
Opening", while those whose apple business has decreased
are regarded as having goals which are "closed or closing".29
Those whose apple business has remained the same are con-
sidered as having goals which are neither "Open" nor
"closed". When examining the mean adoption scores for
the three groups, it is evident that those who have in-
creased their business have a higher adoption score than
those who have decreased it or those whose business has
remained the same. The association between an increase in
the total number of apple trees over the last five years
and adOption, as expressed by the chi-square test, is
significant at the 0.05 level Of probability. A correlation
of C=0.30 was found between the two variables.

Part 2 of Table 6 shows the relationship between the
type of major changes which the grower is planning to make

in his apple business and the adOption score. Expansion,

 

29Because the expected frequencies for this group was
small, it was combined with "remained the same" group when
chi-square was computed.

- 49 -

such as increasing the apple acreage, planting better
varieties, and building cold atmosphere storage, was
planned by 45 percent of the apple growers interviewed.
Those who planned to exPand are considered as having their
culturally defined goals "Opening". On the other hand,
reduction of apple acreage or getting rid of apples was
planned by 15 percent of the growers in the sample.30
Those who planned to reduce their apple acreage are con-
sidered as having their culturally defined goals "closing".
Forty percent of the growers planned no change in their
apple business. As was expected, those who planned to
expand their Operations tend to have a higher adoption
score than those who planned to reduce them or those who
planned no change. A significant association exists be-
tween the type of changes planned and adOption. The
relationship, as measured by the contingency coefficient,
is C=0.37.

It could be concluded, then, that all findings pre-
sented above reject the null hypothesis of no relationship
and support the research hypothesis that apple growers

with "Open or Opening" goals tend to have a higher adOption

than those with "closed or closing" goals.

 

30Since this group has only 15 cases, it was combined with
"no change is planned" group because the expected frequencies
in the cells were less than 5, the required number for
calculating chi-square.

- 50 -

(5) Time Of Changes Planned. As indicated above,

 

this study regards anticipated expansion and related
changes in the farm enterprise as an indication that the
farmer sees his goals as "open" or "Opening". If he sees
his goals as "Open" it is assumed here that changes are
Ilikely to take place fairly soon. An arbitrary limit of
four years was selected for purposes of this study. If he
sees his goals as "Opening" it seems likely that antici-
pated changes will take place over a longer period Of time,
that is, beyond four years.

Anticipated reduction and related changes in the farm
enterprise are regarded as an indication that the farmer
sees his goals as "closed" or "closing". If he sees his
goals as "closed" it is assumed here that changes are
likely to take place fairly soon, that is, within four
years. On the other hand, if he sees his goals as "closing"
it seems likely that anticipated changes will take place
over a longer period of time, that is, beyond four years.

The information for this aspect of the study was
Obtained by simply asking the following Open-ended question:
"When is this change planned?" As a further clarifica-
tion, if the hypothesis holds the following relationships
will exist: The shorter the period Of time in which an
expansion of the enterprise is anticipated, the more
Open the goals, therefore, the higher the adoption score.
On the other hand, the shorter the period of time in which

a reduction of the enterprise is anticipated, the more

- 51 -

closed the goals, therefore, the lower the adOption score.
Those apple growers who anticipate no change are likely
to have adOption scores in between.

The time in which expansion and reduction changes
were planned were dichotomized into "within 4 years" and
"beyond 4 years" categories. A chi-square test was
computed for each type of change separately to see whether
or not an association exists between the time of that
type of change and adoption score.

Table 7 shows that the time in which expansion and
related changes are tO take place was found to be related
to adoption scores. The association expressed by the
chi-square test was significant at the 0.05 probability

level. The degree of association between the time of

Table 7. Nature of change and time planned by adOption

 

 

(N-100)

Nature of change Number Percent Mean adOption
and time planned score
Expansion and related
changes

Within 4 years* 23 51.1 145.1

Beyond 4 years* 22 48.9 139.5
No change planned 40 40.0 122.0
Reduction and related
changes

Within 4 years** 3 20.0 136.2

Beyond 4 years** 12 80.0 112.0

 

‘_‘1x2=1t..39; 2 d3... P<0.05; c=rnl+9
M>~22= 5.38; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=o.51

 

-52-

expansion and adoption score was moderate (C=0.49).

The direction Of association between the two variables
was as expected. On the other hand, the time in which
reduction and related changes are to take place was not
found to be significantly related to adoption scores.
The degree of correlation, expressed by the contingency
coefficient, between the time of reduction changes and
adoption score is C=0.51. The relationship was in the
expected direction stated in the hypothesis, but since the
chi-square result was not significant at the 0.05 level,
we have no basis to conclude that the degree of associa-
tion present in the sample is also found in the poPula-
tion. It could be possible that the X2 result Obtained
for the time of reduction was influenced by the small
number Of apple growers in the sample whose anticipated
changes were classified under "reduction and related
changes". Only 15 cases were found in this particular
group.

It is concluded on the basis of the above findings
that the relationship found between time in which an
exPansion of the enterprise is anticipated and adOption
scores does confirm the research hypothesis that apple
growers who see their goals as "Open or opening" tend to
adopt recommended practices more readily than apple
growers who see their goals as "closed or closing".

Time of anticipated reduction and related changes, on

- 53 -

the other hand, was not significantly related to adOption
score. The chi-square result obtained does not confirm

the research hypothesis.

Summary and Conclusion:

The discussion on "Open" and "closed" culturally
defined goals as they relate to the adOption of the
recommended farm practices can be summarized as follows:

1. There was a significant association, at the 0.05
level, between achievement orientation scores of the apple
growers interviewed and their adOption scores. The
degree Of association between those two variables is
C=0.42. All six items which were used to measure achieve-
ment orientation score were found to be significantly
related to adOption score. The association between each
item and adOption was found to be in the expected direction
stated in the hypothesis.

2. The growers' attitudes toward the apple business
as an occupation were not significantly associated, at
the 0.05 probability level, with adOption scores.

None of the three items which were used to measure atti-
tudes toward the apple business occupation was found to
be significantly related to adoption score. The associa-
tion between the first two items and adOption score was
in the expected direction, while no correlation was found

between the third item (considering giving up apple

-51),-

growing) and adOption score.

3. No significant association was found, at the
0.05 level, between facilitation Of the social and business
situation, as expressed by presence or non-presence of
obstacles, and adoption score.

4. The chi-square test of association revealed the
existence of a significant association, at the 0.05
level, between changes in the farm enterprise and adOption
score. The degree of relationship between total score
for changes in the farm enterprise and adoption was
C=0.37. The two items which were used to measure changes
in the farm enterprise were found to be significantly
associated with adoption score. The association
between each item and adOption score was in the eXpected
direction.

5. Time in which the anticipated expansion and
related changes are to take place was found to be signi-
ficantly associated with adOption score at the 0.05
probability level.’ The correlation, as measured by the
contingency coefficient, was moderate (C=0.49). On the
other hand, time in which the anticipated reduction and
related changes are to take place was found to be signi-
ficantly related to adOption score at the 0.05 level.
Although the degree of association between the two

variables was found to be moderate (C=0.51), we have no

-55-

basis to say that such degree of association is present
in the pOpulation Since the chi-square, at the 0.05
level, was not significant. More cases are believed to
be needed if a significant association is to be found.
The above findings indicate that the null hypothesis
Of no relationship between apple growers who see their
culturally defined goals as "Open" or "closed" and
adoption was not totally rejected. The null hypothesis
was supported by two variables out of five, namely "atti-
tudes toward the apple business as an occupation," and
"facilitation of the soc1al or business situation".
Another variable, "time of change planned", was partially
found to support the null hypothesis. In other words,
the data does not strongly support the research hypothesis
that apple growers who see their culturally defined goals
as "Open or Opening" tend to adOpt recommended practices
more readily than apple growers who see their goals as

"closed or closing".

CHAPTER IV

"PROGRESSIVE" AND "TRADITIONAL" VALUE
ORIENTATIONS AND ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis:

 

"Progressive" apple growers tend to be high adOpters
while "traditional? apple growers tend to be low
adOpters.

The concepts "progressive" and "traditional" are
value orientations which are ideal types. They were de-
rived mainly from certain theoretical concepts such as
values and attitudes, and they are related to such concepts
as rigidity and flexibility which are in current use in
the literature.

Values and attitudes are key factors in influencing
the behavior Of the individual. For example, Lionbergerl
states that "values may be regarded as importance ratings
which peOple attach to things, conditions, and circum-
stances". Newcomb2 regards values as goal Objects to
which peOple orient their thinking, actions, and feelings.

As such, values become important organizing themes in

the behavior of individuals. Attitudes are also important

 

1Herbert F. Lionberger, Adoption of New Ideas and
Practices, Ames: The Iowa State—University Press,_1961,
p. 92.

 

 

2Theodore M. Newcomb, Social Psychology, New York: The
Dryden Press, 1950, p. 119.

 

-56-

CE

in m
7.3 .

«\xl.
u .x.‘

- 57 -

factors which affect behavior. Newcomb3 states that
attitudes are predispOSItions to act, perceive, think,
and feel in relation to something. Thus, the ways which
the individual behaves are influenced to a great extent
by his value and attitude systems. Therefore, it can be
stated that values and attitudes held by an individual
are influential in determining whether one's personality
tends to be "rigid" or "flexible".

Personality rigidity has been defined by Cattell and
Tineru as: "the difficulty with which old established
habits may be changed in the presence of new demands".

5 on the other hand, defined rigidity

Meresko and others,
as "a person's resistance, or lack of readiness, to be
influenced by motivationally relevant situation in such
a way as to adjust to his environment as effectively as
his behavior repertory permits". It can be logically
assumed that the "flexible" personality has characteris-

tics which are the Opposite of those of the "rigid"

personality.

 

3Ibid;, p. 119.

4Raymond B. Cattell and L. Ghose Tiner, "The Variates
Of Structural Rigidity," Journal of Personalipy, XVII:
3, June, 1949, pp. 321-341.

5Robert Meresko et al., "Rigidity of Attitudes Re-
garding Personal HaEits and its Ideological Correlates,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49:1, Jan-
uary, 1954, pp. 89-93.

-58-

COpp uses the concepts "rigidity" and "fleXibility"
as being closely related to Weber's concepts of completely

5 based his analysis of

rational and traditional. Copp
"rigidity" and "flexibility" upon a scale which was based
on three dichotomous items, namely, orientation toward
farming, attitudes toward future in farming, and atti-
tudes toward credit. Farmers at the "rigid" extreme of
the continuum seemed to regard farm Operation in terms of
a set of formulas, they tended to glorify hard work, keep-
ing on the job, and avoiding the use of credit. Those
at the "flexible" extreme of the continuum tended to
regard farming as a problem-solving situation and varied
their farm Operations to changing conditions.7 Copp
further stated that "flexible" farmers seemed to exhibit
a progressive mentality in their farming, while "rigid"
farmers appeared to exhibit a more traditional mentality.8
The concepts of "Progressive" and "traditional"
orientations, as used in this study, are related to the
concepts of rigidity and flexibility discussed above. In

general, the concept "progressive" is related to the

concept "flexible", and the concept "traditional" is

 

6James H. C0pp, Personal and Social Factors Associated
with the AdOption Of’Recommended Practices Among Cattlemen,
Manhattan: Kansas Agrictulral Experiemtn Station,
Technical Bulletin 83, September, 1956, p. 24.

7Ibid., p. 24.
3Ibid., p. 2n.

-59-

related to the concept "rigid".
"Progressive" and "traditional" orientations are also

9 has called efficiency,

related to the values which Hoffer
self-reliance, and progress on the one hand and security
and conservatism on the other hand. Efficiency, self-
reliance, and progress are characteristics which indicate
progress; while security and conservatism are character-
istics which indicate traditionalism. Hofferbased his
study upon hypothetical characterizations and asked each
informant to indicate in what ways he considered himself
like or unlike the hypothetical case. If the farmers
identified themselves with the farmer whose behavior indi-
cated efficiency, self-reliance and progress then such
farmers were considered efficient, self-reliant and pro-
gressive. On the other hand, if they identified them-
selves with the farmer whose behavior indicated security
and conservatism then such farmers were considered to
be security oriented and conservative.

Progress and traditionalism which were treated in a

10

study by Ramsey and others are also related to "progress-

ive" and "traditional" concepts used in the present study.

 

9Charles R. Hoffer and Dale Stangland, Farmers'
Reaction to New Practices, East Lansing: Michigan
AgricfilturaI‘Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 264,
February, 1958, p. 19.

10Polson Ramsey and Spencer, "Values and the Adoption
Of Practices," Rural Sociology, 24, March, 1959, p. 351

 

- 50 -

Ramsey analyzed progress and traditionalism in terms of
certain characteristics which the farm Operator might
exhibit. A farmer who placed a high value on progress,
as discussed by Ramsey, tends to solve problems by
organizing the farm on a business basis, tends to move
toward the big commercial farm and solicit support from
the government, and tends to be Optimistic about his
ability to help himself. The tradition oriented farmer,
on the other hand, whengetting ideas, tends to look to
Older farmers and to "tried and true" methods that he and
his father had used. In addition, traditional farmers
would not usually look to "scientific exPerts" for help.

In the present study, the analysis of "progressive"

and "traditional" was also based on certain personal
characteristics which can be treated as a continuum.
Apple growers at the "progressive" and the "traditional"
ends of the continuum were characterized in the following
way:

(1) Progressive have favorable attitudes toward change
generally, while traditional have unfavorable
attitudes toward change generally.

(2) Progressive view themselves as being among the
first to adopt new ways of doing things. Tradi-
tional view themselves as being among the last to

adOpt new ways of doing things. (NOTE: This is

-61-

an attitude about himself and it may or it may
not coincide with his behavior).

(3) Progressive have favorable attitudes toward
credit and loans, while traditional have unfavor-
able attitudes toward credit and loans.

(4) Progressive place a high value on science and
education. Traditional, on the other hand, place

a low value on science and education.

Measurements and Findings:

 

(1) Favorable and Unfavorable Attitudes Toward Change.
This aspect of progressive and traditional orientations
was measured by the use Of six attitudinal statements.
These statements were chosen on the basis of an item
analysis from seven statements used by Haller to measure
attitudes toward change among high school students.11 The
seven attitudinal statements were also utilized to test

12

attitudes toward change by two other studies. After

 

11Archibald O. Haller and Irwin W. Miller, The Occupa-
tional Aspiration Scale: Theory, Structure and Correlates,
East Lansing: Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 288, 1963, p. 119.

12Henry J. Watts, "Methodological Problems in the
Measurement of Values," East Lansing: Michigan State
University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, 1962, pp. 117-127;
and Benjamin.Hodgkins, "Religion, SociO-Economic Status,
and Work Value Orientations of Lenawee County Adolescent
Males," East Lansing: Michigan State University, Unpub-
lished Master Thesis, 1961, p. 31.

- 52 _

running an item analysis on these seven items to see to
what extent each contributed to the total score of all
items, it was found that one of these items had a
correlation of only .21. Since the item does not contri-
bute much to the total score of all items, it was omitted;
and only six of these items were retained.13

The six items and the corresponding type of responses

called for are presented below:

 

Type of Response

 

 

ttitudinal Statements Favorable Uncertain Unfavorable
1. I like to try new things. Agree Uncertain Disagree
2. The Old ways of doing Disagree Uncertain Agree

things are the best.

3. Life would be boring Agree Uncertain Disagree
without new experience.

4. I like peOple who are Agree Uncertain Disagree
willing to change.

5. Most changes make things Disagree Uncertain Agree
worse.
6. The happiest peOple are Disagree Uncertain Agree

those who do things the
way their parents did.

 

 

 

 

 

An attitude toward change score was assigned to each

apple grower by giving 0 to each unfavorable response,

 

13The correlation scores for the six items used were as
fOllows: Item 1 3 .93, item 2 = .52, item 3 = .65, item 4 =
.83, item 5 = .85, and item 6 = .62.

 

-63-

1 to each uncertain response, and 2 to each favorable
response. The scores of each respondent for all the six
items were combined to give his attitude toward change
scores. The minimum possible score for attitude toward‘
change is 0, while the maximum possible score is 12 (Table
8). If the score is high the grower will be more likely to
have favorable attitudestoward change and, thus, tend to
be more progressive. 0n the other hand, if the score is
low the grower will be more likely to have unfavorable
attitudes toward change and, therefore, tend to be more
traditional.

A chi-square test was used to determine whether or
not a relationship existed between attitudes toward change
score and adOption score. Although Table 8 presents data
in more detail, the scores were collapsed for the purpose
of the chi-square test into "low" (0-8), and "high” (9-12).
The data presented in Table 8 show that none of the apple
growers in the sample were in the first category ranging
from 0 to 2. Only one grower was in the second category,
3-4; and two under the third category, 5-6. Since 92
percent Of the cases tend to cluster in the last two
categories, namely 9-10, and 11-12, the attitudes toward
change score intervals distinguishing the two dichotomies
"low" and “high" were not equal. The interval given to

"low" was larger than that given to “high" in order

- 5n -

to allow for enough cases to be classified under "low"
for the purpose of chi-square analysis. Because of the
nature of the data presented in the table, and since
attitudes toward change score were dichotomized into
"low" and “high", it was felt that dichotomizing adOption
scores into "low" ranging from 60 to 119, and "high"
ranging from 120 to 179 seemed more meaningful instead

of having it trichotomized as usual into "low" ranging
from 60 to 119, "medium" ranging from 120 to 139, and
"high" ranging from 140 to 179.

Table 8. Total score for attitudes toward change by
adOption (N=100)

 

Attitudes toward Percent Mean adoption score
'change score

 

"Low" '
0-2 0.0 00.0
3-4 1.0 129.5
5-6 2.0 94.5
7-8 5.0 115.5
"High"
9-10 22.0 ‘ 121.8
11-12 70.0 135.4

 

x2=u.03; 1 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.2o

 

The inconsistency of the adoption scores for categories
3-4 and 5-6 undoubtedly is due to the lack of cases in

these categories. More cases are needed in order to

-55-

determine more accurately the relationship between
attitudes toward change, which is used to test "progress-
ive" and "traditional", and adOption. This relationship
appears to be more consistent when analyzing the results
for categories 7-8, 9-10, and 11-12 where there are more
cases. It is clear that the adoption score increases as
the attitudes toward change score increases.

The chi-square test of association revealed the
existence of a significant relationship between adOption
and attitudes toward change score (Table 8). The associa-
tion between the two variables was in the expected direction.
The degree Of relationship, as measured by the contingency
coefficient, was not high (C=0.20). Since attitudes
toward change is used as a variable which tests "pro-
gressive" and "traditional" value orientations Of the apple
growers, the findings, in-Table 8, tend to support the
research hypothesis that "progressive" apple growers tend
to be high adopters while "traditional" apple growers tend
to be low adOpters.

The six items used to measure attitudes toward change
and their respective responses are presented in more
detail in Appendix II, Table 2. It should be pointed out
that, while all 6 items are in the expected direction,
only 2 of the 6 items are significantly associated with

adoption when tested separately. These were items 1 and 5.

- 55 -

The degree of relationship between all items and adOption
was low. Items 1 and 5 show a correlation of 0.37 and
0.27 respectively. Items 2, 3, 4, and 6 have a correla-
tion Of 0.22, 0.18, 0.10, and 0.18 respectively. However,
the association, expressed by chi-square, between these
four items and adOption was not significant.

Since the relationships between all these items
and adoption were in the expected direction, additional
investigation in this area is needed.

(2) Individual's Self-rating of his Adoption

14

Behavior. Rogers measured the individual's self-rating

 

by asking the respondents to indicate whether they were:
behind the average, average, ahead of the average, or
far ahead of the average in adopting new farm practices.
A similar method was used in the present study to measure
one's self-rating of his adoption behavior. The following
questions were asked:
"If we let the line on this card represent the time
between the first adOption of a new way of doing
things in the apple growing business and when most

apple growers accept the idea, about where would
you place yourself?

0 10 20 30 40 50 60’ 70 80 90 100

Why would you put yourself at this point on the scale?"

 

l"Everett M. Rogers, "Personality Correlates Of the
Adoption of Technological Practices," Rural Sociology, 22,
1957, p. 267.

-67-

TO facilitate chi-square analysis, responses of the

two questions were given an arbitrary score as follows:

Score given

3 points
2 oints
I Oint
0 pOint

2 points -
rL—«EEZIE‘:

for
for
for
for

for
for
for

being among the first 1-39 percent
being among 40-59 percent
being among 60-79 percent
being among 80-100 percent

giving progressive reasons

giving qualified reasons

giving conservative or traditional
reasons

A total score to measure one's self-rating of his

adOption behavior was computed for each apple grower by

adding up the scores assigned to his two responses. The

scores were classified as "low" ranging from 0 to 1,

"medium" ranging from 2 to 3, and "high" ranging from 4

to 5. If the score is high the grower is more likely to

have "progressive" value orientation.

On the other hand,

if the score is low, the grower is more likely to have a

"traditionaT'value orientation.

Table 9 indicates that

Table 9. Total score for individual's self-rating of his
adoption behavior by adoption (N=100)

 

 

Total individual's Percent Mean adOption score
self-rating score
"Low"
0-1 50.0 115.1
"Medium“
2-3 23.0 135.1
"High"
4-5 27.0 147.6

 

X2=25.65; 4 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.us

 

-68-

there is a significant association between one's self-
rating score of his adOption behavior and his actual
adOption score. The degree of this association was moder-
ate (C=0.45). The direction of the association between
the two variables was as expected.

The two questions used to test the growers' self-
rating of their adoption behavior were found to be
significantly associated with adOption. Those who rated
themselves as being among the first apple growers to adOpt
new ideas are considered as being "progressive"; while
those who rated themselves as being among the last apple
growers to adOpt new ideas are considered as being "tradi-
tional". Table 10 compares the growers' rating of adoption
behavior with their actual adOption scores. The grower's

Table 10. Individual's self-rating of his adoption be-
havior items by adOption (N=100)

 

'Question Percent Mean adOption
score

 

1. If we let the line on this
card represent the time be-
tween the first adOption of a
new way of doing things in the
apple growing business and when
most apple growers acdept the
idea, about where would you
place yourself?

Among the first 39 percent 24.0 149.9
Among 40-59 percent 25.0 134.7
Among 60-79 percent 28.0 124.1
Among 80-100 percent 23.0 114.7

 

X2=31.81; 6 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.I+9

 

_ 59 -

Table 10 (cont.)

Question Percent Mean adoption
score

 

2. Why would you put yourself
at this point on the scale?

Gave progressive

reasons 20.0 151.5
Qualified reasons 25.0 136.3
Gave conservative or

traditional reasons 55.0 120.8

 

X2=24.77; 4 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.45

 

self-rating of his adOption behavior is found to be signifi-
cantly associated with adOption. As part 1 of Table 10 shows,
the degree of relationship between these two variables is
moderate (€20.49).

The reasons which each apple grower gave for rating
himself as he did were analyzed in terms of whether they
tended to be progressive or traditional in nature. Part
2 of Table 10 shows that 20 percent of the respondents
gave progressive reasons for rating themselves as they
did on the adOption scale. Examples of their responses
were: "1 am willing to try new things," "1 am receptive
to new ways of doing things," and "I always like to try
new things." Such responses are considered as being pro-
gressive in nature. On the other hand, 55 percent of the
respondents gave conservative or traditional reasons for

rating themselves as they did on the adOption scale.

-70-

Examples of their responses were: "1 am cautious when

it comes to trying new things," "1 wouldn't consider
myself among the first ones to accept new ideas, 1

like to wait and be sure about the results before accept-
ing them," and "1 am conservative." Such responses are
conSidered as being traditional in nature. After comparing
the adoption scores of the two groups, it can be clearly
stated that the adoption score of the group which gave
progressive reasons is somewhat higher than the adOption
score of the group which gave traditional reasons. The
adoption scores are 151.5 and 120.8 respectively. The
mean adoption score (136.3) for the 25 respondents who
gave qualified reasons which cannot be classified as
being either strictly progressive or traditional is located
between the two extremes. Examples of such reasons were:
"I don't like to be among the first or among the last to
accept new practices," "it depends on the source of
practice," and "recommended practices are usually well
tried and proven to be successful and I see no harm in
accepting them." The chi-square test Of association
revealed a significant association between the reasons
which an apple grower gave for rating himself as he did
and his adOption score. The degree of such association,
expressed by the contingency coefficient, was moderate

(C=0.45). It is quite likely that those who gave

- 71 -

progressive reasons were those who rated themselves among
the first to adOpt new practices, while those who gave
traditional reasons rated themselves among the last.
This is a matter which requires further explanation.

The findings presented above support the research
hypothesis that "progressive" apple growers tend to be
high adopters while "traditional" apple growers tend to
be low adOpters.

(3) Attitudes Toward Credit and Loans. Attitudes
toward credit was used by Copp as one measure for the
rigidity-flexibility dimensions which he develOped in

15 He measured this atti-

his study of Kansas cattlemen.
tude by using a hypothetical question to indicate the
Operator's willingness to borrow $500 for one year and
$2000 for five years in order to adOpt desirable farm
practices. When constructing his rigidity-flexibility
scale, COpp considered those who said that they would
borrow at least $500, with or without qualification as
being "flexible," and those who said that they would not
borrow as being "rigid." Hoffer, in his study of Michigan
corn growers,16 used attitudes toward mortgage to measure

the value placed on security. Those who did not believe

in mortgages were considered as having a high value

 

15James H. COpp, loc. cit., pp. 24-26.

 

16Hoffer and Stangland, loc. cit., p. 19.

 

- 72 -

placed on security. Attitudes toward credit (borrowing
money from the bank), on the other hand, was used in the
same study to measure conservatism. Those who did not

believe in borrowing money were considered conservative.

The present study used attitudes toward credit and

loans as one measure to distinguish between the "progress-
ive" and the "traditional" apple growers. As used here,

a favorable attitude was regarded as progressive, while

an unfavorable attitude was regarded traditional. Four
fixed answer questions were asked in order to find out
whether or not apple growers had favorable attitudes
toward credit and loans. These questions and the scores
arbitrarily assigned to their respective responses for

the purpose Of chi-square analysis are as follows:

1. _If you believed the farm unit you had was too
small, would you prefer to take on a mortgage
so as to buy more land or would you prefer to
wait until you had saved enough to pay cash
for it?

Score given

 

1 point Prefer to take on a mortgage
0 point Prefer to wait

2. If you needed more fertilizer or spray materials,
would you prefer to:

Score given

 

1 point Borrow in order to get all the
___ferti1izer or spray materials you
thought you needed
0 point Buy only as much as your present
-_—finances would permit

-73-

3. If you needed more planting stock, would you
prefer to:

Score given

 

1 point Borrow in order to buy soon
0 point Prefer to wait until you have saved
enough to pay cash

4. If you needed more farm machinery, would you
prefer to:

Scoreggiven

 

1 point ___Borrow or buy on installment plan,
in order to buy soon
0 point ___Wait until you have saved enough to
pay cash

A total attitude score toward credit and loans for
each apple grower was calculated by adding up the scores
given to his responses on the four questions. When
computing the chi-square test, the total attitude scores
toward credit and loans were trichotomized into "low,"
"medium," and "high." Those with a "high" score are con-
sidered to be "progressive," while those with a "low"
score are considered to be "traditional."

It appears that those who have favorable attitudes
toward credit and loans, expressed by their willingness
to borrow in order to buy the things which they need, have
a higher mean adoption score than those who have unfavorable
attitudes toward credit and loans, exPressed by their
unwillingness to borrow in order to buy such things (Table 11).
As indicated earlier, favorableness is an indication of
"progressive", and unfavorableness is an indication of

"traditional" value orientations.

anc
am
in

0rd

- 74 -

Table 11 indicates that a significant association
existed, at the 0.05 level, between attitude score toward
credit and loans and adoption scores. The degree of
correlation, measured by the contingency coefficient, was
equal to 0.37.

Table 11. Total score for attitudes toward credit and loans
by adOption (N=100)

 

Total attitude toward Percent Mean adoption score
credit score

 

"Low"

0-1 25.0 115.9
"Medium"

2-3 25.0 122.3
"High"

4 50.0 141.9

 

x2=15.au; u. d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.37

 

Since "attitude toward credit and loans" variable is
used in this study to test "progressive" and "traditional"
value orientations Of the apple growers, it could be
concluded that the above findings support the research
hypothesis that "progressive" apple growers tend to be
higher adOpters than the "traditional" apple growers.

The questions which measured attitude toward credit
and loans and their results are presented in Table 12.
Willingness to buy land on mortgage, willingness to borrow
in order to buy planting stock, and willingness to borrow in

order to buy the needed farm machinery were found to be

- 75 _

significantly associated with adOption. Willingness to
borrow in order to buy fertilizer or spray materials
was not significantly associated with adoption.

Table 12. Attitudes toward credit and loans items by
adoption (N=100)

 

Attitudes Percent Mean adoption score

1. If you believed the farm
unit you had was too
small, would you prefer
to take on a mortgage so
as to buy more land or
would you prefer to wait
until you had saved
enough to pay cash for

it?
Prefer to take on a 59.0 139.5
mortgage
Prefer to wait 41.0 118.3

 

X2=l4.97; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.36

 

2. If you needed more ferti-
lizer or spray materials,
would you prefer to:

Borrow in order to

buy 86.0 132.2
Buy only as much as
finances permit 14.0 122.4

 

x2=1.14; 2.d.f.; P>0.05; C=0.10

 

3. If you needed more
planting stock, would
you prefer to:

Borrow in order to

buy 61.0 138.8
Wait until money is
saved 39.0 118.2

 

x2=10.00; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.30

 

-75-

Table 12 (cont.)

 

4. If you needed more farm
machinery, would you
prefer to:

Borrow in order to

buy 70.0 135.4
Wait until money is
saved 30.0 120.2

 

X2=8.35; 2 d.f.; P< 0.05; C=0.28

 

The degree of relationship expressed by the contingency
coefficient between the type of respOnses for each question
and adOption score differs somewhat depending on the reason
for which the grower would borrow. Willingness to take
on a mortgage in order to buy more land and willingness to
borrow in order to buy planting stock, for example, were
found to have a higher correlation with adOption than the
other two items, namely, willingness to borrow in order to
buy more fertilizer and willingness to borrow in order to
buy farm machinery (Table 12). The former two items have
a relationship of C=0.36 and C=0.30 respectively, which
are not too different, while the latter ones have a
relationship of C=0.10 and C=0.28 respectively. The rela-
tionship between all four items and adoption was in the
hypothesized direction.

(4) Values Placed on Science and Education. For the
purpose of this study, those who have favorable attitudes
toward science and education are regarded as being pro-

gressive, while those who have unfavorable attitudes toward

-'/7-

science and education are regarded as being traditional.

17 measured belief in science by using a scale

Ramsey
analysis in which the respondents were asked to indicate
what they believed were the best ways to meet the problems
in farming, and whether or not they considered keeping up
with new farming methods and education in agricultural
colleges as important for meeting such problems.

The present study looks at value placed on science
from another point of view. It is anticipated that value
placed on science is reflected in the apple grower's
attitude toward farm practices recommended by Michigan
State University and in the confidence he places in the
county agent as a source of scientific information. If
the grower is generally in favor of farm practices recom-
mended by Michigan State University and if he has confi-
dence in the county agent as a source Of scientific informa-
tion he is considered as having a favorable attitude toward
science and thus tends to exhibit progressive characteristics.
0n the other hand, if he exhibits the reverse of the above
characteristics, he is considered to be traditional.

It is assumed in this study that if an apple grower
takes an active part in extension programs he is more
likely to have a favorable attitude toward extension
personnel and programs, and he is more likely to have

confidence in the county agent as a source of scientific

information. Therefore, he tends to be "progressive".

 

17Ramsey, et a1., Op. cit., p. 39.

- 73 -

On the basis of the above, the following questions
were asked to measure values placed on science. Responses
for each question were given an arbitrary score for the
purpose Of statistical analysis.

(1) What do you think about the farm practices
recommended by Michigan State University?

Score given

 

2 points for giving a favorable type Of response
to the Open-ended questions

1 point for giving unfavorable type of response

0 point for giving unclassified type of response

(2) Suppose you have heard about a new insecticide
recommended by the county agent, but you have
heard of no one who is trying it out, would you:

Score given

 

2 points Try it out yourself

1 point Don't know

0 point Wait until someone else had tried

it out
Rogers and Capener18 have develOped an Extension

Contact Scale to measure the farmer's overall contact with
the County Extension Agent by giving one point for each
type of contact that a farmer had with the County Exten-
sion Agent in a one year period preceding the interview.
The present study used a similar method to measure parti-
cipation in COOperative Extension Programs. The growers

were asked to indicate the number of times they came into

contact with certain county Extension personnel or programs

 

18E. M. Rogers and H. R. Capener, The County Extension
Agent and his Constituents, Wooster: Ohio Agricultural
Experiment Station Research Bulletin 858, June, 1960, pp. 13-14.

- 7g -

(see list in Appendix II, Table 3) during the year pre-
ceding the interview. One point was given for each time
the grower came into contact with any of these Extension
programs or activities. A participation score in COOpera-
tive Extension prOgrams was then computed for each apple
grower by adding all of the points he received. Extension
'participation-scores were grouped into five categories.
These categories were given an arbitrary score for purposes

of statistical analysis as follows:

 

 

. Score given Contacts with Extension
0 point for 0-10
1 point for 11-20
2 points for 21-30
3 points for 31-40
4 points for 41-50
5 points for 51 and over

Farmers with a higher score are regarded as more
"progressive" than those with a lower score.

For the purposes of this study it was felt that the
value placed on education would be reflected in the degree
of education the farmer feels is needed to make a success
in the apple business. The higher the education which
he feels is needed, the more progressive he is considered
to be. Conversely, the lower the education which he feels
is needed, the more traditional he is considered to be.

The question asked in order to determine the grower's
attitude toward the need for education and the scores

assigned to its responses are as follows:

-80-

(1) How much education do you think an apple grower
needs to make a success of the apple growing
business these days?

Score given

 

3 pOints College
2 points High school
1 point Grade school or less

0 point Other

As discussed above, values placed on science and
education were used, in this study, as variables which
test "progressive" and "traditional" value orientations of
the apple growers. In order to calculate the chi-square
test of association between this variable and adoption,
it would be necessary to have, for each apple grower, a
total score for his "values placed on science and educa-
tion" variable. For this reason, the arbitrarily assigned
scores corresponding to his responses on the four items
presented above were added up to give his total score for
"values placed on science and education" variable. The
actual lowest total score was found to be 2 points, while
the highest was found to be 12 points. In calculating the
chi-square test, the scores were trichotomized into "low,"
ranging from 2 to 5, "medium," ranging from 6 to 8, and
"high," ranging from 9 to 12 points (Table 13).

The chi-square test of association revealed the
existence of a significant association between value
placed on SCience and education by apple growers and their
adoption scores (Table 13). The amount of association

between the two variables was (C=0.36). The direction

-8]_-

Of the association was as expected, apple growers with

"progressive" value orientations, as expressed by their

Table 13. Total score for values placed on science and
education by adOption (N=100)

 

Total score for values placed Percent Mean adoption

 

on science and education score
I. Low"

2-5 33.0 114.0
"Medium"

6-8 45.0 132.6
"High"

9-12 22.0 141.8

 

28:15.49; 4 d.f.; P<0.05, C=0.36

 

high "values placed on science and education" score, were
more prone to adopt recommended farm practices than those
with a "traditional" value orientation, as measured by

their low "values placed on science and education" score.

In order to find out the association between each
individual item used in measuring values placed on science
and education variable and adoption score, the following
analysis was made.

Part 1 of Table 14 shows that 65 percent Of the sample
responded favorably to the Open-ended question regarding
the farm practices recommended by Michigan State University,
while 24 percent were unfavorable to them. Eleven percent

of the growers qualified their replies. Responses such as:

-82-

"they are conservative and not progressive," "they reach

us late," "they are little behind," "they are too much

for us, we can't use them," and "they are not practical"
were given by the respondents and are classified as

being not favorable to the practices recommended by the
University. On the other hand, resPonses such as: "very
good," "pretty good," "good," "fine," "generally accepted,"
and "basically sound" were given by the respondents and

are classified as being favorable to the practices
recommended by Michigan State University. "I do not know
much about them," and "I weigh them and use my own judgment
before I accept them," are examples of the qualified answers.

Table 14. Values placed on science and education items
by adoption (N=100) ’

 

Question Percent Mean adOption
score

 

1. What do you think about the
farm practices recommended
by Michigan State University?

 

Gave favorable response 65.0 129.3
Qualified response 11.0 122.2
Gave unfavorable response 24.0 137.5
x2=1.99; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=o.12

 

2. Suppose you have heard about
a new insecticide recommended
by the county agent, but you
have heard of no one who is
trying it out, would you:

-83-

Table 14 (cont.)

 

 

 

 

Try it out yourself 63.0 137.3
Wait until someone else
had tried it out 36.0 118.9
Don't know 1.0 149.5
x2=11.55; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.33
3. Extension participation score*
"Low"
ll-20 » 37.0 124.9
"Medium"
21-30 19.0 142.1
"High"
4l-50 9.0 140.6
51 and over 11.0 140.4
x2=22.39; u d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.43
4. How much education do you
think an apple grower needs
to make a success Of the
apple growing business
these days?**
College 29.0 142.6
High school 58.0 128.8
Grade school or less 4.0 107.0
Other 9.0 116.2

 

x2=13.us; u d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.33

 

*Because the expected frequencies in the cells were
less than 5, the minimum requirement for calculating chi-
square, categories shown under this item were collapsed
into "low" (0-20), "medium" (21-40), and "high" (41 and
over) to facilitate statistical analysis.

**When calculating chi-square, the amount of education
needed was dichotomized into "College" and "High school
or less" since the expected frequencies in some of the
cells were so small.

- an -

The adOption score (137.5) for those who responded
unfavorably to the question was more than the score (129.3) for
those who responded favorably to it. The findings show
that there is no significant relationship between attitudes
toward the farm practices recommended by Michigan State
University and adOption of practices. This finding was
quite contrary to what was expected. The relationship
was in the hypothesized direction.

Confidence in the county agent as a source of scien-
tific information was also considered, as stated above, as
being an indication of having favorable attitudes toward
science. Part 2 of Table 14 shows that those who were
willing to try out a new insecticide recommended by the
county agent for the first time had higher adOption
scores than those who preferred to wait until someone else
had tried it out. The chi-square test of association
revealed a significant relationship between the two variables.

It is possible that the respondent is reacting as
much (or more) to the agent himself than to acceptance of
scientific information.

Part 3 of Table 14 reports the association between
participation in Extension and adOption. As the table
shows, there tends to be a significant relationship, at
the 0.05 level, between the two variables. The major

relationship is between participation scores of 0-10,

-85-

11-20, and 21 and over. The mean adoption scores for

the four categories above 20 were virtually equal. The
degree of relationship, expressed by the contingency
coefficient, between participation in Extension and adop-
tion was moderate (C=0.43).

Part 4 of Table 14 indicates that there is a positive
relationship between the education thought to be needed
in order to make a success in the apple business and
adOption score. This relationship is significant at the
5 percent probability level.

Findings of three out of four items presented above,
which were used to test values placed on science and
education, confirm the research hypothesis that "progressive"
apple growers tend to be high adopters while the "tradi-

tional" apple growers tend to be low adopters.

Summary and Conclusion:

 

The preceeding chapter on "progressive" and "tradi-
tionaf'value orientations as they relate to the adOption
of the recommended practices can be summarized as follows:

1. The grower's attitudes toward change score was
found to be significantly associated, at the 0.05 level,
with adOption of farm practices. The degree of associa-
tion was not high (C=0.20). The relationship between
the two variables was in the hypotheiszed direction; the

more favorable attitudes the grower exhibits toward

-86-

change, the higher his adoption score tends to be. Only
two of the six items used to measure attitudes toward
change were significantly associated with adOption when
tested separately. The association between all these six
items and adoption was in the hypothesized direction.
Therefore, additional investigation is needed in these
areas.

2. The grower's total score for self-rating Of his
adOption behavior was significantly associated with adOp-
tion. The degree of relationship was moderate (C=0.45).
Both items used to measure this variable were significantly
associated with adoption of recommended practices.

3. The grower's total attitude score toward credit
and loans was significantly related to his adoption score.
The higher his attitude score toward credit and loans, the
higher his adoption, and the lower his attitude score, the
lower his adOption appears to be. The degree of associa-
tion, expressed by the contingency coefficient, between
the two variables was C=0.39. Three of the four items
used to measure attitudes toward credit and loans were
associated significantly with adoption at the 0.05 level.
The association between adoption and the fourth item,
willingness to borrow in order to buy the needed ferti—
lizer or spray materials, was in the expected direction,

but it was not significant.

-8']-

4. Values which the grower places on seience and
education were found to be significantly related to adoption.
The higher the values' score which the grower places on
sicnece and education, the higher his adOption score, and
the lower his values' score, the lower his adOption tends
to be. One of the four items, attitudes toward the farm
practices recommended by Michigan State University, which
were used to measure this variable was not significantly
related to adoption score, while the other three were
significantly assoc1ated With it.

The findings presented above show that all four vari-
ables included in the hypothesis were significantly associated
with adOption of recommended practices. These findings
support the research hypothesis that "progressive" apple
growers tend to be high adOpters, while "traditional" apple
growers tend to be low adOpters.

Six out of the total sixteen items used to measure the

four variables were not significantly related to adoption.

CHAPTER V

"LOCAL? AND "COSMOPOLITAN" ORIENTATION
AND ADOPTION OF PRACTICES

Hypothesis: On the whole, adOption of the farm
practices tends to be higher for apple growers with
"cosmOpOlitan" orientation than for those with "local"
orientation.

 

The concepts "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orientations
are based mainly on Merton's discussion of reference group
theory and patterns of influence. Merton indicates that
groups are composed of individuals who share a body of
social norms and interact with each other according to
established patterns.l Man usually orients himself to
groups and to particular individuals in shaping his behavior
and evaluations. Merton called such groups and individuals
reference groups.2

Merton uses the terms "local" and "cosmOpolitan" to
distinguish between two types of influentials, namely
local influentials and cosmopolitan influentials. Differ-
ences between the local and cosmOpOlitan influentials,
says Merton, seem to stem from their differences in basic

orientations toward the local community: orientations

 

lRobert Merton, Social Theory_and Social Structure,
Glencoe: The Free Press, 1957, p. 285, and p. 290.

 

' 21bid., p. 283.

-88-

- 89 -

ranging from virtually exclusive concern with the local
area to central concern with the great world outside.3
According to Merton's discussion, the localite interests
tend to be confined to the community in which he lives, he
tends to be devoted to localism, he does not wish to move
from his town, and he tends to belong to those organiza-
tions which are largely designed for "making contacts" and
for establishing personal ties such as Masons, Elks, and
other local service clubs such as the Rotary, Lions, and
the Kiwanis.ui The cosmopolitan, on the other hand, tends
to be oriented to the world outside his community, and
regards himself as an integral part of that world, he
tends to be more mobile, and he tends to belong to those
organizations and professional societies in which he
can exercise his special skills and knowledge.5
Merton, as it has been shown above, distinguished
between local and cosmopolitan influentials largely on
the basis of their attachment to the local community, their
orientation to groups inside or outside their communities,
and their participation in certain types of voluntary

organizations.

While Merton dealt with influentials, the present

 

3Robert Merton, Op. cit., p. 392.
"Ibid., pp. 394-398.
5Ibid., pp. 393-399.

- go -

study proceeds on the assumption that the concepts "local"
and "cosmOpolitan" are applicable not only to influentials,
but that they can be applied to non-influentials as well.
Therefore, farmers could be defined as being local or
cosmOpOlitan depending on the degree of their attachment

to their local communities, on their orientation to groups
inside or outside their communities, and on their organiza-
tional behavior. For the purposes Of this study, if an
apple grower's orientation is toward his local community
more than the world outside, he is said to be "local",
while if his orientation is toward the world outside more
than his local community, he is said to be "cosmOpoli-
tan." It is further assumed that local and cosmopolitan
types of orientations tend to influence apple growers'
behavior in regard to change. Lionberger, for example,
states that "farmers exposed to many sources of information
and having many contacts outside the immediate locality

are more likely to be receptive to change than those who

"6 The evidence presented

are restricted in the contacts.
by Lionberger indicates that "increasing receptivity
frequently follows increased contact with pe0ple and
ideas from beyond the community boundaries, practically

when these contacts are directly related to the changes

 

6Herbert F. Lionberger, Adoption of New Ideas and
Practices, Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 1961,
p. 16.

 

 

-91-

being advocated.7
COpp, although he did not explicitly use the terms,

has dealt with other aspects of local and cosmopolitan, such
as identification with local groups, formal social partici—
pation, membership in farm organizations, and membership in

a cattle association. The evidence from his study indicates
that high local-group identification is negatively associated
with adoption.8 In addition, it indicates that formal social
participation, as measured by the number of formal organiza-
tion memberships and the degree of activity in organizations,

was highly associated with adoption.g

Also, it has been
found that membership in farm organizations was significantly
associated with adoption, while membership in a cattle
association was somewhat more highly associated.lo
Wilkening,ll found that participation in farm organiza-
tions and in vocational agricultural courses was significantly

associated with the acceptance of improved practices.

 

71bid.

8James H. COpp, Personal and Social Factors Associated
with the Adoption OfIRecommenaed PractiCes Among Cattlemen,
Mafihattan: Kansas AgriculturaI‘Experiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 832, September, 1956, pp. 22-23.

 

91bid., p. 14.
lOIbid., p. 15.

11Eugene A. Wilkening, Acceptance of Improved Farm Prac-
tices in Three Coastal Plain Counties, Raleigh: North
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical
Bulletin 98, May, 1952, pp. 46-47.

 

-92-

Hoffer12 also found that farmers who were members in
one or more community organizations such as, the parent-
teacher association, co-operative organization, farm bureau
and similar organizations, in addition to the church, tend
to follow recommended practices more than those who were
members in the church alone.

While the studies presented above tap various aspects
of local and cosmOpOlitan, this particular study will con-
cern itself with only two aspects of local and cosmOpOlitan
orientations. These two aspects are: (1) the type of farm
organizations in which the growers participate, and (2)
the growers' orientation to the world outside their local
communities. Therefore, the present study regards apple
growers with "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orientations as
having the following characteristics:

(1) An apple grower with a "cosmopolitan" orienta-

tion tends to have higher participation in

state and national organizations, while an

apple grower with a "local" orientation tends

to have lower participation in state and national
organizations and higher participation in local
organizations. (See list of these organiza-
tions in Appendix II, Table 4).

(2) An apple grower with "cosmOpolitan" orientation
tends to have high attendance at organizational
meetings held outside his county; while an apple
grower with a "local" orientation tends to have

low attendance at organizational meetings held
outside his county.

 

l'2Char1es R. Hoffer, Acceptance of Approved Farming
Practices AmongyFarmers of Dutch Descent, East Lansing:
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Special Bulletin
316, June, 1942, p. 28.

 

-93-

Measurements and Findings:

 

(1) Organizational Partiolpation. Each apple grower

 

in the sample was asked to do the following:
1. Indicate the local, state, and national organiza-
tions or associations which he belonged to or
took part in during the year of 1961.

2. Indicate the number of times he had attended
their meetings during 1961.

3. Indicate whether or not he had paid dues during
l96l.

4. Indicate whether or not he had been a member of
any committee during the past two years.

5. Indicate whether or not he had served as a board
member or as an officer during the past two years.

Following Merton's reasoning, as discussed above, the
organizations which appear in Appendix II, Table 4 (A),
were claSSified in the present study as being cosmOpOlitan.
On the other hand, the organizations which appear in
Appendix II, Table 4 (B), are regarded as being local.

A participation score for all organizations was then
computed for each apple grower on the basis of his responses
to the above five questions. The score was arrived at
by giving:

0 Oint If not a member, does not contribute, etc.
I o

p int for member
Oints for member who attends any meetings

3 Oints for contributions or dues

4 Oints for committee member past two years

5 pOints for Board member or Officer

Apple growers who have a high participation score

in state and national organizations in comparison with local

organizations are regarded as more "cosmOpolitan" in their

-914-

orientation than those who have a low participation score
in such state and national organizations.

Although the Farm Bureau and similar farm organiza-
tions are nation-wide organizations, they are classified
as local, because the activities of the members are generally
confined to their communities, their meetings are more
likely to be held on a local basis, and their interests
tend to be more general than the more specialized, profession-
al organizations which are regarded as cosmOpOlitan. On
the other hand, members in the latter organizations tend
to have their meetings outside the local communities, and
they tend to be more specialized in nature. In their
meetings, members are more likely to become exposed to
new ideas expressed by professional fruit growers and
other technical specialists who are usually attending such
meetings.

Although Table 15 presents the data in more detail,
organizational particpation scores generally were tri-
chotomized, for purposes of statistical analysis, into
"low" (0-20), "medium" (21-40), and "high" (4l-Over).

Participation in farm organizations generally has
been found to be positively associated with adOption in
almost all the adOption studies which dealt with this
factor. The present study tends to confirm this finding.
Table 15 shows that participation in all types of organiza-

tions is significantly associated with adoption. The mean

- 95 -

adoption score increases as the grower's total partici-
pation score increases. The degree of relationship

between organizational participation and adoption was
moderate (C=0.46). The increase in the adOption scores

is distinct for the first five total particpation score
categories. The adOption scores for the last two categories
(41-50 and 51 and over) are the same.

Table 15. Participation in all types of organizations
by adoption (N=100)

 

Total participation Percent Mean adOption score
score
8! LOW"
0-10 17.0 107.7
11-20 15.0 117.5
"Medium"
21-30 14.0 125.9
31-40 10.0 133.5
"High :1
41-50 16.0 144.5
51 and over 28.0 144.5

 

x2=27.32; u d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.46

 

It was hoped that this study would be able to compare
adoption with participation in two types or organizations,
namely the organizations which are classified in this study
as being cosmOpOlitan and those which are regarded as being
local. However, it was found that organizational parti-
cipation could be differentiated only on the basis of

state and national organizations. Most of the participation

-96-

of the apple growers tended to be in the nonlocal, more
specialized, and professional organizations, except for
the Farm Bureau in which most of the apple growers parti-
cipated. Since a comparison could not be made between
local and nonlocal organizations, the comparison was made
in terms of the degree of participation. Those who have
a high participation score in state and national organi-
zations are regarded as more "cosmopolitan" in their
orientation than those who have a low participatiOn score
in such state and national organizations. When comparing
the adOption scores of the two groups of growers, it is
found that as the partiCipation score increases the adop-
tion score increases accordingly. See Table 16. The

Table 16. Participation in state and national organizations
by adoption (N=100)

 

 

Total participation Percent Mean adOption score
score

0-10 41.0 116.0

11-20 18.0 128.9

21-30 23.0 ~ 139.9

31 and over 18.0 152.8

 

x2=33.39; 6 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.50

 

association between participation score in state and
national organizations and adoption was significant at

the 0.05 level. The degree Of association (C=0.50)

- 97 -

between the two variables was found to be moderate.

The results presented supports the research hypothesis
that adoption of the farm practices tends to be higher for
apple growers with "cosmopolitan" orientation than for
those with "local" orientations.

(2) Attendance Of Organized Meetings Held Outside

 

the County. Number of meetings attended outside the county

 

during 1961, either in fruit or non-fruit organizations,
was also used to test "local" and "cosmopolitan" orienta-
tions of apple growers. Each apple grower in the sample
was asked to indicate whether or not he had attended any
meetings which were held outside his county in 1961. The
number of these meetings was added to find out whether
the apple grower had a "local" or "cosmopolitan" type of
orientation. If the apple grower's attendance outside
of the community is high he is more likely to have a
"cosmOpOlitan" orientation, while if such attendance is
low he is more likely to have a "local" orientation.

It was found that 33 percent of the apple growers
in the sample had not attended any organizational meetings
held out of their counties during the past year, while 12
percent have attended 4 or more meetings held outside of
their counties. See Table 17. The former group of apple
growers has an adoption score of 114.9, while the latter

group has an adoption score of 151.2. As was expected,

- 98 -

Table 17. Attendance at meetings out of county by
adoption (N=100)

 

 

Number of meetings attended Percent Mean adOption
out Of county score

None 33.0 114.9

1 32.0 132.6

2* 16.0 139.5

3* 7.0 138.1

4 or more* 12.0 151.2

 

X2=16.35; 4 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.38

 

* Because the expected frequencies were so small, these
categories were combined into one group, 2 meetings
and over, when chi-square was computed.
the higher the number of organizational meetings attended
outside of the county by the grower, the higher was his
adoption score. On the other hand, the lower the number
of meetings attended outside Of the county, the lower was
the adoption score. The relationship between the two
variables was significant.

The findings support the research hypothesis that

adoption of the farm practices tends to be higher for

"cosmOpolitan" than for "local" apple growers.

Summary and Conclusion:

 

Findings which are related to "local" and "cosmo-
politan" value orientations can be summarized as follows:

1. It was found that the degree of participation

- 99 -

in state and national fruit organizations is signifi-
cantly associated with adoption. The higher the organiza-
tional participation score maintained by the grower, the
higher the adoption score was found to be. The relation-
ship, expressed by chi-square test, was significant at the
0.05 prODability level.

2. Attendance at organizational meetings held
outSide the grower's county was also related to adOption
of the recommended farm practices. It was found that as
the number of organizational meetings attended outside
the county increased, the adOption score increased. The
relationship was significant at the 0.05 level.

Since the above two variables were used to test
"local" and "cosmOpolitan" value orientations of the apple
growers in this particular study, it is concluded that
the above findings support the research hypothesis that
on the whole, ado ption of the farm practices tends to be
higher for apple growers with "cosmOpolitan" orientation

than for those with "local" orientation.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to analyze certain
sociological factors related to the adoption of twenty-
One recommended farm practices among Michigan apple
growers. The study was limited to one commercial enter-
prise, namely apple growing. A sample Of 100 apple growers
were interviewed. They were selected randomly from nearly
2,900 apple growers located in nine major apple growing
counties in the western part of the state of Michigan.
These counties were selected by Horticultural Specialists
in the Michigan Cooperative Extension Service as repre-
senting the major apple growing counties in the State.

The prOportion of interviews from each county was based

on an estimate of the proportion of trees in the county to
the total trees for all of the counties. On this basis,

the proportion of the sample from each county was as
follows: Berrien 25 percent, Kent-Ottawa 25 percent, Van
Buren 20 percent, Oceana-Mason 15 percent, Allegan 10
percent, and Ionia-Montcalm 5 percent. In several instances
the sample was drawn from 2 counties tOgether, because the
list of growers was maintained on a bi-county basis.

In the selection of the sample, in order to eliminate

farmers who grew apples only as a minor sideline, the sample

- 100 -

- 101 -

included only those apple growers who met criterion num-
ber 1 plus number 2 or number 3 below.

1. The grower must have at least 10 acres or more
of apples.

2. 1f he grows only apples, 50 percent or more of
his total gross farm income must come from apples
in order to be included. If it is less than 50
percent he will not be included in the sample.

3. If the grower has other fruits in addition to
apples, he must receive 75 percent of his gross
farm income from the sale of fruit, and 25 percent
Of his fruit income must come from the sale of
apples.

The study dealt with the relationship between the
adOption of recommended practices and three theoretical
concepts, namely, (1) "opening" and "closing" culturally
defined goals, (2) "progressive" and "traditional" value
orientations, and (3) "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orienta-
tions. Each of these phases of the study was treated as
a separate unit. The following discussion summarizes the
findings pertaining to each of these three major aspects
of the study.

A. "Opening" and "Closing" Culturally Defined Goals
and AHOption of Practices

 

The research hypothesis for this phase of the study

states:

- 102 -

Apple growers who see their culturally defined goals

as "Open or Opening" tend to adopt recommended

practices more readily than apple growers who see

their culturally defined goals as "closed or closing".

Five variables were used to test the concept of
"Opening" and "closing" goals. The variables used to test
the hypothesis and a summary of results are presented

below.

1. Achievement Orientation. It was assumed in

 

this study that growers with a high achievement orientation
score would tend to see their goals as "Open or Opening",
whereas those with a low achievement orientation score
would be expected to see their goals as "closed or closing".

Six attitudinal items were used to measure achievement
orientations which the apple growers have in regard to
their apple growing business. An achievement orientation
score for each apple grower was computed. This score was
then compared with the adOption score. It was found that
there was a significant relationship between achievement
orientation scores and adOption scores. The relationship
was in the expected direction. Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no relationship between the independent and
the dependent variables was rejected.

2. Attitudes Toward the Apple Business as an

Occupation. It was believed that the grower whose attitudes

 

toward apple growing as a whole were favorable would tend

to have a more favorable attitude toward his own occupation

- 103 -

than one whose attitudes toward apple growing as a whole
were unfavorable. The former was regarded as seeing his
culturally defined goals as "open or Opening", while the
latter was thought to see them as "closed or closing".

It was found in this particular study that attitudes
toward the apple business occupation were not significantly
associated with adoption.

Attitudes toward the apple business occupation were
measured by the use of three items. The relationship of
these items to adOption is summarized below.

The desirability of apple growing as an occupation
was not significantly related to adoption of practices.

The association between the two variables was in the expected
direction. The null hypothesis, therefore, is supported
by this item.

The adOption behavior of those who would still choose
apple growing if they were to start over again tended
not to differ from the adOption behavior of those growers
who would prefer to choose some other occupation. The
chi-square test of association revealed no significant
difference between the apple groweris choice and adoption
score. Therefore, this item tends to support the null
hypothesis. I

There was no significant relationship between consider-

ing or not considering giving up apple growing and going

- 104 -

into some other occupation and adOption scores. This
finding supports the null hypothesis of no relationship.

The above findings indicate that all three items
which measure attitudes toward apple business occupation
variable were not significantly associated with adoption.
This data failed to confirm the research hypothesis.

3. Facilitation Of the Social or Business Situation.

 

It is.believed that if the grower is in a social and
business situation which frustrates his desire to become
a successful apple grower, he would tend to see his goals
as being "closed or closing". On the other hand, if the
_grower believed there were no such blocking factors, then
he would tend to see his goals aS'being "Open or Opening".
There was no significant relationship between facili-
tation of the social or business situation, as measured by
the presence of obstacles, and adOption. This supports
the null hypothesis of no relationship.

4. Changes in the Farm Enterprise. It was assumed

 

that if the grower's past and future changes on the farm
were apprOpriate to the apple business situation, then his
culturally defined goals would more likely be "Open or
Opening", while if such changes were inapprOpriate to the
apple business situation, then his goals would tend to
be "closed or closing".

Changes in the farm enterprise variable was signifi-

cantly associated with adoption scores. The chi-square

- 1U5 -

test of assoc1ation for items used to measure this variable
showed the following results:

Increasing the number of apple trees over the last
five years was related significantly to adoption. There-
fore, this finding does not support the null hypothesis.

Type of future changes planned in the apple business
was related significantly to adOption. The adoption
scores were higher for those who anticipated expansion
or related changes than for those who anticipated reduction
or related changes. For this reason the null hypothesis
was rejected.

The above findings indicate that changes in the farm
enterprise were significantly associated with adoption.
This finding does not support the null hypothesis.

5. Time of Changes Planned. It is assumed here that

 

the shorter the period of time in which an expansion of
the enterprise is anticipated, the more Open the goals.

On the other hand, the shorter the period of time in which
a reduction of the enterprise is anticipated, the more
closed the goals.

The future time in which expansion and related changes
are to take place was significantly related to adOption
scores. The relationship was in the expected direction.

Time of reduction and related changes was not signifi-
cantly associated with adOption scores. The degree of

relationship between the two variables was moderate (C=0.51).

- 106 -

The association was in the hypothesized direction. Since
the chi-square result was not significant, the null
hypothesis. could not be rejected. It should be noticed
that only 15 cases were found in the reduction and related
changes group. More cases are needed to reveal the ex-
pected results.

The two findings presented above indicate that "time
of changes planned" variable only partially supports the
null hypothesis.

The five variables discussed above are used in this
study to test "Open" and "closing" goals. The findings
show that some variables confirm the research hypothesis
while others do not. On the basis of these findings, one
could conclude that there is no definite relationship
between "Open or Opening" and "closed and closing" goals,
as tested in this study, and adoption. The hypothesized
direction was not strongly confirmed. Therefore, more
investigation is needed in these areas.

B. "Progressive" and "Traditional" Value Orientations
and Adoption of Practices

 

 

The research hypothesis related to the second aspect
of this study stated:

"Progressive" apple growers tend to be high adOpters

while "traditional" apple growers tend to be low

adopters.

Four variables were used to test "progressive" and

"traditional" value orientations of the apple growers.

- 107 -

The variables and the items used to measure them are
presented below with the findings pertaining to each.

1. Attitudes Toward Change. It was assumed that

 

if the grower had a favorable attitude toward change, he
would tend to be more progressive. On the other hand, if
he had an unfavorable attitude toward change, he would
tend to be more traditional.

Six attitudinal items were used to measure the growers'
attitudes toward change. An attitudes twoard change score
for each apple grower was computed. The chi-square test
of association was calculated to find out the association
between total score for attitudes toward change and adop-
tion. The test revealed the existence of a significant
relationship between the two variables. Such a finding
does not support the null hypothesis Of no relationship.
Only two of the items used to measure this variable were
associated significantly with adOption, while four were
not significantly associated with it.

2. Individual's Self-rating of his AdOption

 

Behavior. As indicated earlier, apple growers who rated
themselves as being among the first to adOpt new ideas
were considered to be "progressive". Those who rated
themselves as being among the last apple growers to adOpt
new ideas were considered to be "traditional".

Growers' self-rating score of their adoption behavior

was found to be significantly related to their actual

- 108 -

adOption scores. The two items which were used to measure
this variable were also related significantly to adOption.
Those who rated themselves on the scale as being among
the first to adOpt new practices tended to be high adopters,
while those who rated themselves as being among the last
to adOpt new practices tended to be low adOpters. The
relationship was significant at the 0.05 probability level.
The null hypothesis, therefore, is not supported by this
item.

The reasons which each apple grower gave for rating
himself as he did on the adoption scale were analyzed
in terms of whether they tended to be progressive or
traditional in nature. Those who gave reasons which were
"progressive" in nature were found to have higher adoption
scores than those who gave reasons which were traditional
in nature. The relationship was significant at the 0.05
level.

The findings presented above tend to reject the null
hypothesis of no relationship and support the research
hypothesis.

3. Attitudes Toward Credit and Loans. It was

 

assumed in this study that a favorable attitude toward
credit and loans was progressive, while an unfavorable
attitude was traditional. The total attitudes score

toward credit and loans was significantly related to adoption

- 109 -

score. The items used to measure this variable and their
findings are presented below.

Willingness to take on a mortgage in order to buy
more land was significantly related to adOption. This item,
therefore, does not support the null hypothesis of no
relationship.

Borrowing in order to buy more planting stock was
related significantly to adOption at the 0.05 probability
level. The item, therefore, does not support the null
hypothesis of no relationship.

Borrowing money in order to buy more farm machinery
was significantly related to adoption. This item does not
support the null hypothesis of no relationship.

The above findings indicate that the "attitudes toward
credit and loans" variable which tests "progressive" and
“traditional" value orientations of the apple growers was
significantly related to adOption. The null hypothesis Of
no relationship was, therefore, rejected.

4. Values Placed on Science and Education. Apple

 

growers who have favorable attitudes toward science and
education are regarded as being progressive, while those
who have unfavorable attitudes toward science and education
are regarded as being traditional. A score for "values
placed on science and education" variable was computed for
each apple grower. Such scores were significantly related
to adoption. The items used to measure this variable

are presented below.

- 110 -

The way the growers felt about the farm practices
recommended by Michigan State University had no significant
association with their adOption scores. The null hypothesis
of no relationship is supported by such finding.

Willingness to try out a new insecticide recommended
by the county agent before someone else had tried it out
was significantly related to adoption scores at the 0.05
level. This relationship tends to reject the null hypothesis
of no relationship.

Participation in Extension activities and programs
was found to be significantly associated with adOption
scores. The higher the participation score in Extension
programs and activities, the higher the adOption score
appeared to be. The null hypothesis of no relationship is
rejected.

The degree of education the grower felt was needed to
make a success in the apple business was significantly
related to adoption. The higher the education which he
felt was needed, the higher his adOption score was found
to be. Conversely, the lower the education which he felt
was needed, the lower his adOption score was found to be.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no relationship is
rejected.

Since the score for the "values placed on science
and education" variable was significantly related to adOp-
tion, and since three out of four items presented above

were found to be significantly associated with adOption,

- 111 -

there is a tendency to reject the null hypothesis of no
relationship.

The four variables discussed above were used to test
"progressive" and "traditional" value orientations of the
apple growers. The findings show that all four variables
were significantly related to adoption of recommended prac-
tices and thus tended to confirm the research hypothesis.
Ten Of the sixteen items used to measure the four variables
were significantly related to adOption, while the remaining
six items were not significantly related to it. This might
suggest that, even though the hypothesis was supported by
the four variables investigated, more adequate measures
need to be develOped to tap the variables more accurately.

C. "Local" and "CosmOpolitan" Orientation and
Adoption of Practices.

 

 

The research hypothesis for this section of the study
states:

On the whole, adOption Of the farm practices tends

to be higher for apple growers with "cosmOpOlitan"

orientation than for those with "local" orientation.

Two variables were used to test "local" and "cosmo-

politan" orientations of the apple growers.

1. Participation in State and National Organizations.

 

Apple growers with a high participation score in state and
national organizations (as contrasted with local organi-
zations) are regarded as more "cosmOpolitan" in their

orientation than those with a low participation score in

- 112 -

such organizations. While the total particpation score

in all types of organizations was significantly related to
adoption score, participation score in state and national
organizations was also significantly related to adOption
scores. This relationship rejects the null hypothesis of
no relationship.

2. Attendance at Meetings out of County. It was

 

assumed that apple growers who had a high attendance at
organizational meetings outside of their communities were
more likely to have a "cosmOpolitan" orientation, while
those who had a low attendancd at these meetings were more
likely to have a "local" orientation. The number of
meetings attended outside the county was significantly
related to adoption. The null hypothesis, therefore, is
rejected.

The two variables discussed above tend to confirm the
research hypothesis. The relationship between the variables
and adOption of recommended practices was significant at
the 0.05 probability level.

On the basis Of the above findings we tend to reject
the null hypothesis and accept the research hypothesis
that, on the whole, adoption of the farm practices tends
to be higher for apple growers with "cosmOpolitan" orienta-

tions than for those with "local" orientations.

- 113 -

D. Limitations of the Study

 

Some of the major limitations of the study are dis-
cussed below.

It was found, from an economical point of view, that
certain types of practices, which were treated in the
original schedule, could not be applied to some orchards
and the adOption of such practices by the grower seemed
infeasable. For these reasons, only 21 practices were
selected because of their applicability to every apple
grower.

A second shortcoming is that the schedule which was
used fOr the interview was long, being 37 pages. The
interview could have been reduced in length with a more~
careful refinement and elimination of some extraneous
materials.

Another shortcoming is concerned with categorizing the
responses for certain types of questions. For example, the
responses to the question which deals with attitudes toward
the practices recommended by Michigan State University were
categorized into "favorable," "unfavorable," and "qualified"
responses. The difficulty stems from deciding whether or
not, for example, one should consider responses such as
"they reach us late" or "they are too much for us" as
being "unfavorable responses." Also classifying a reSponse

such as "I weigh2 them and use my own judgment before

- 114 -

accepting them" under "qualified" might be debatable.

One statistical problem deals with combining cate-
gories when chi-squares were computed for some items. This
was a result of the presence of small expected frequencies
in some of the cells which forced us to collapse some
categories.

Another limitation is the small number of attitudinal
items which were used to test achievement orientation of
the apple growers and their attitudes toward change. A
larger number of items is needed in order to give more

accurate results.

E. Suggestions for Further Research

 

Since no definite relationship was found to exist
between "Open" and "closed" goals and adOption of recommended
farm practices, it is suggested that further research
is needed in this area. It is also suggested that more
reliable measures be used in order to bring about better
results.

Another suggestion concerns the possibility Of
analyzing the relationship between the three major sets
of concepts treated in this study, namely, "open" and
"closed" goals, "progressive" and "traditional" value orien-
tations, and "local" and "cosmOpolitan" orientations. It
is believed that these concepts could be inter-related.
Therefore, more research is needed to pinpoint such relation-

ship.

- 115 -

A final suggestion concerns conducting a study in
which comparison could be made between apple growers and,
for example, general farmers, dairy farmers, or vegetable
growers, from the standpoint of their professional orienta-
tions, their conception toward specialization Of their
enterprises, their organizational particpation patterns,
and the effect of handling a large amount of money on their
adoption behavior and joining Of specialized organizations
which have a direct relationship to their type of enter-

prises.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Brunner, Edmond des and associates, An Overview of Adult
Education Research, Chicago: Adult Education Associa-
tiOn, 1959.

 

 

Hilgard, Ernest R., Introduction to Psychology, 2nd Ed.,
New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1957.

 

Lionberger, Herbert F., AdOption of New Ideas and Practices,
Ames: The Iowa State UniVersity Press, 1961.

 

Merton, Robert, Social Theory and Social Structure, Glencoe:
The Free Press, 1957.

 

Newcomb, Theodore M., Social Psychology, New York: The
Dryden Press, 1950.

 

Rogers, E.M. and Beal, G.M., Reference Group Influence in
the AdOption Of Agricultural TechfiOlogy, Ames: Iowa
State University, 1958.

 

 

Rogers, E.m., Diffusion of Innovations, New York: The Free
Press of GIencoe, 1962.

 

Sherif, Muzafer, An Outline of Social Psychology, New York:
Harper, 1948.

 

Siegel, Sidney, Nonparametric Statistics For the Behavioral
Sciences, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1956.

 

ARTICLES AND BULLETINS

Adopters of New Farm Ideas: Characteristics and Communica-
tion Behavior, Subcommittee for the Study of Diffusion
of Farm Practices, North Central Regional Extension
Publication NO. 13, East Lansing: Michigan State
University, (Farm Foundation and Federal Extension
Service Co-0perating), October, 1961.

 

 

Cattell, Raymond B. and Tiner, L. Ghose, "The Variates of
Structural Rigidity," Journal of Personality, XVII:3,
June, 1949.

 

- 116 -

- 117 -

Chapman, D.W. and Volkmann, J., "A Social Determinant
Of the Level of Aspiration," Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 1939.

 

 

Copp, James H., Personal and Social Factors Associated with
the Adoption of Recommended Practices Among Cattlemen,
Manhattan: Kansas Agricultural EXperiment Station,
Technical Bulletin 83, September, 1956.

Cottam, H.R., "Housing Scales for Rural Pennsylvania,"
Journal of the American Statistical Society, 38, 1943.

 

Dean, Dwight G., "Alienation: Its Meaning and Measure-
ment," American Sociological Review, October, 1961.

 

Franz, V.R. and Haller, A.O., "Big and Little CO-Ops:
Attitudes of People in Locally-Owned Cooperatives
Toward Mergers With Large COOperatives," Unpublished
Final Report, East Lansing: Agricultural Experiment
Station, February, 1962.

Haller, Archibald O. and Miller, Irwin W., The Occupational
Aspiration Scale: Theory,yStructure afiH COrrelates,
East Lansing: Michigan Agricultural Experiment
Station, Technical Bulletin 288, 1963.

 

Hoffer, Charles R., Acceptance of Approved Farming Prac-
tices Among Farmers of Dutch Descent, East—Lansing:
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Special
Bulletin 316, June, 1942.

 

Hoffer, Charles R. and Stangland, Dale, Farmers' Reaction
to New Practices, East Lansing: Michigan Agricultural
Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 264, February,
1958.

 

Hoffer, Charles R. and Stangland, D., "Farmers' Attitudes
and Values in Relation to Adoption of Approved Practices
in Corn Growing," Rural Sociology, 23, June, 1958.

 

Lionberger, H.F. and Coughenour, C.M., Social Structure
and Diffusion of Farm Information,_Columbia:
Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research
Bulletin 631, April, 1957.

 

 

McIntyre, George S. et a1., Michigan Agricultural Statis-
tics, Lansing: Micfiigan Department of Agriculture
and United States Department of Agriculture COOper-
ating, July, 1960.

 

- 118 -

Meresko, Robert, et a1., "Rigidity of Attitudes Regard-
ing Personal Habits and its Ideological Correlates,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49:1,
January, 1954.

 

Pedersen, Harald A., "Cultural Difference in the Accept-
ance Of Recommended Practices," Rural Sociology,

 

Ploch, Louis A., Social and Family Characteristics of
Maine Contract Broiler Growers, Orono: Maine Agri-
cuItura Experiment Station, Bulletin 596, August,
1960.

 

 

Ramsey, C.W., Polson, R.A., and Spencer, G.E., "Values
and the AdOption of Practices," Rural Sociology,
24, March, 1959.

 

Rogers, Everett M., "Personality Correlates of the Adoption
of Technological Practices," Rural Sociology, 22,
1957.

 

Rogers, E.M. and Capener, H.R., The County Extension Agent
and his Constituents, Wooster: Ohio Agricultural
Experiment Station,Research Bulletin 858, June,

1960.

 

Wilkening, Eugene A., Acceptance of Improved Farm Prac-
tices in Three Coastal—Plain Counties, Raleigh:
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station
Technical Bulletin 98, May, 1952.

 

 

Wilkening, E.A., AdOption of Improved Farm Practices as
Related to FamilyiFactors, Madison: Wisconsin
Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin
183, December, 1953.

 

Wilkening, E.A. and Johnson, C.E., Goals in Farm Decision-
Making as Related to Practice Adoption, Madison:
Wisconsin Agriculture Experiment Station, Research
Bulletin 225, February, 1961.

 

 

THESES

Hodgkins, Benjamin, "Religion, SOOio-Economic Status,
and Work Value Orientations of Lenawee County
Adolescent Males," East Lansing: Michigan State
UniverSIty, Unpublished Master Thesis, 1961.

- 119 -

Kimball, William J., "The Relationship Between Personal
Values and the Adoption of Recommended Farm and Home
Practices," Chicago: The University of Chicago,
Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, 1960.

Watts, Henry J., "Methodological Problems in the Measure-
ment of Values," East Lansing: Michigan State
University, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, 1962.

MIMEOGRAPHED MATERIALS

"Research and Writing on Diffusion of Farm and Home
Practices," A Bibliography compiled by National
Project in Agriculture, East Lansing: Michigan
State University, (Mimeographed), March, 1959.

"Sociological Research of the Diffusion and Adoption of
New Farm Practices," Report Of the Subcommittee on
the Diffusion and Adoption of Farm Practices, The
Rural Sociological Society, Lexington: Kentucky
Agricultural Experiment Station, (Mimeographed),
June, 1952.

APPENDICES

-120-

APPENDIX I

-121-

The Recommended Practices and the Numerical
Value Given to Each

Numerical
Practice Value Given Page in
NO. to Items Schedule

 

1 Type of ROOTSTOCKS used in the 4
most recent planting. (Q.4)

 

8 1 - Seedling (Standard)
10 2 - Clonal or (dwarf) i.e.,
Malling II or VII
0 3 - Other (Specify)

2 Type of IMPLEMENTS used in the
weed conttOI practice when cul-
tivation method is applied (on
non-bearing or bearing orchards).
(Q.C-la) 6

 

 

l - Tree hoe (mechanical hoe)
2 - Hand hoe
3 - Other implements (Specify)

'01-’01

3 CHEMICALS for weed control (on
non-bearing or bearing orchards
by using: (Q.C-lb) 6

 

 

10 - Simazine

- Simazine and Amitrole'

- Dalapon (dowpon) (10 points
- Diuron for any
Diuron 8 Amitrole chemical)
Other (Specify)

Chemicals are not used

 

nimmcwwi—q

4 EQUIPMENT used in applying chemi-
calsifor weed control (on non-

bearing or bearing orchards).
(ro-lC) 7

 

 

5 l - Hand sprayer
10 2 - Tractor power Sprayer
0 3 - Other (Specify)

5 DETERMINING nutrient needs (On
non-bearing or bearing orchards)
by using: (0.3a) 7

 

- 122 -

Numerical
Practice Value Given
No. to Items

 

10
2
0

10

5 or 2*

10
10

C301

- 123 -

 

Page in
Schedule

1 - Your own judgement

2 - Leaf analysis

3 - Soil test

4 - Other (Specify)

Type of FERTILIZERS USED (on

non-bearihg or bearing or-

chards) (Q. 3b) 8

l - Manures
2 - Straight nitrogen, e.g.,
ammonium nitrate
3 - Complete fertilizer, e.g.,
(12-12-12)
- Foliar sprays
Other (Specify)
(NOTE: In item 5 (Other above),
5 points are given to the ferti-
lizer which has 10 or above
Nitrogen and 2 points to the
fertilizer which has below 10 N.)

35:01-83

APPLICATION Of fertilizer (on
non:bearing or bearing orchards)
by using: (Q.3d) 8

 

- Hand

Orchard spreader

Bulk spreader

Sprays

Other (Specify)

(NOTE: Give 10 points for item
above if any mechanical imple-
ment was used here. i.e., Broad
caster of 8 foot drill.)

alwaitwonap
l

METHODS and EQUIPMENTS used for
controIling insects and diseases.

(on nofi:bearing or bearing

orchards) (Q.4a) 8

 

 

1 - Regular high pressure equip-
ment without air blast.

2 - Air blast equipment by using:
a. Dilute concentration
b. Concentrate sprays

- 124 -

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Numerical
Practice Value Given Page in
NO. to Items Schedule
8 3 - Dusting by using ground
equipment
8 4 - Airplane dusting
9 METHODS and EQUIPMENT used
for mice controI (on non-
bearing or bearing orchards).
(Q.5a) 9
0 l - DO not control for mice
5 ‘ 2 - Hand method of application
10 3 - Mechanical method of
application
3 4 - Spraying
3 5 - Airplane
10 CHEMICALS used for mice con-
trol (on non-bearing or
bearing orchards). (Q.5b) 9
10 l - Baits
5 2 - Sprays
2 3 - Other
0 4 - Not used (no mice control)
11 The use of DORMANT SPRAYS on
apples. (Q.7a) 9
10 l - Yes
0 2 - No
12 The use of DELAYED DORMANT
SPRAYS. (Q.7b) 9
,5 l - Yes
0 2 - NO
13 The use of CHEMICAL THINNING (0.8) 10
10 l - Yes
0 2 - NO
1n The use of STOP-DROP SPRAYS. (0.9) 10
10 l - Yes

- 125 -

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Numerical
Practice Value Given Page in
No. to Items Schedule
15 TYPE OF CONTAINERS used when
Harvesting appIes. (Q. 10a) 10
5 l - Field crates
10 2 - Bulk boxes
0 3 - Other (Specify)
16 PICKING DEVICES used (Q.10b) 10
8 1 - Ladders
10 2 - Automatic lift equipment
0 3 - Other (Specify)
17 MOVING FRUIT from the orchard.
(0.1057 10
8 1 - Orchard trailers
10 2 - Lift trucks
0 3 - Other (Specify)
18 The use Of certain fupgicides
(Captan) for better FRUIT FINISH
on JONATHAN and/or GOLDEN
DELICIOUS. (Q. 5-1) 19
0 l - NO
10 2 - Yes
19 TYPE of FARM RECORDS used. (0.6-1) 22
2 1 - Save slips and receipts
(NOTE: loose sheets and
check book are classified
under this item also)
1 2 - Keep records on a calendar
10 3 - Use a record book, other than
M.S.U. record book
(NOTE: Ledger book is classi-
fied under this item)
10 4 - Use a college record book (M.S.U.
Farm Income Tax Record)
10 5 - Other (Specify)-—(for C.A.P.

System only).

20 Keeping Records for LABOR (Q.6-3) 22

-126-

 

 

Numerical

Practice Value Given Page in
NO. to Items Schedule

10 l - Yes

0 2 - NO

21 Keeping SOCIAL SECURITY RECORDS
for LABOR; (Q.6-4) 22
10 l - Yes

0 2 - No

 

APPENDIX II

-127-

- 128 -

Table l. Achievement orientation items by adoption (N=100)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Attitudinal Statements Percent Mean adOption
score
1. Sometimes I feel that farming is
a "dead end" Operation without a
future.
Disagree 56.0 137.9
Uncertain 3.0 122.8
Agree 41.0 121.0
X2=10.87; 2 d.f.; P< 0.05, C=0.30
2. Sometimes I really don't know what
apple growers like me are trying to
accomplish.
Disagree 10.0 130.5
Uncertain 24.0 137.4
Agree 66.0 125.4
X2=10.28; 2 d.f.; P<0.05, C=0.30
3. Many times apple growing gets so
confusing and demanding that I
wonder where I am at.
Disagree 45.0 140.4
Uncertain 5.0 115.5
Agree 50.0 123.1
X2=10.60; 2 d.f.; P<0.05, C=0.32
4. Practically everything I try to do
turns out well for me.
Agree 38.0 141.1
Uncertain 24.0 132.4
Disagree 38.0 119.5

 

x2=10.54; 2 d.f.; P<.D.05, C=0.32

 

- 129 -

Table 1 (cont.)

Attitudinal Statements Percent Mean adOption
score

 

5. I usually fail when I try something

important.
Disagree 52.0 140.0
Uncertain 28.0 130.2
Agree 20.0 106.0

 

X2=26.37; 2 d.f.; P<0.05, C=0.46

 

_—

6. The future looks very dismal.

Disagree 83.0 133.8
Uncertain 9.0 117.3
Agree 8.0 114.5

 

xii/.04; 2.d.f.; P<0.05, c=o..25

 

-l3U-

Table 2. Attitudes toward change items by adoption (N=100)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Attitudinal statements Percent Mean adoption
score
1. I like to try new things.
Agree 79.0 135.6
Uncertain 12.0 l17.8
Disagree 9.0 l06.2
X2=15.81; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; C=0.37
2. The old ways of doing things
are the best.
Disagree 83.0 131.9
Uncertain 13.0 119.5
Agree 4.0 144.5
X2=4.87; 2 d.f.; P)0.05; c=o.22
3. Life would be boring with-
out new experience.
Agree 91.0 132.9
Uncertain 7.0 118.1
Disagree 2.0 119.5
x2=3.23; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; C=0.18
4. I like pe0p1e who are willing
to change.
Agree 90.0 131.7
Uncertain 7.0 122.4
Disagree 3.0 122.8

 

x2=1.52; 2 d.f.; P>0.05; c=o.1o

 

- 131 -

Table 2 (cont.)

 

Attitudinal statements Percent Mean adOption
score

 

5. Most changes make things

worse.
Disagree 85.0 134.1
Uncertain 12.0 111.2
Agree 3.0 116.2

 

x2=7.71; 2 d.f.; P<0.05; c=o.27

 

6. The happiest pe0p1e are
those who do things the way
their parents did.

Disagree 96.0 131.3
Uncertain 3.0 116.2
Agree 1.0 129.0

 

x2=2.55; 2 d.f.; P)0.05; C=0.18

 

 

- 132 -

Table 3. Contact with certain county Extension personnel

or programs

 

Type of Contact or participation in County

Extension Program during 1961

County Program
No. of times

 

1)

The Agent visited your farm.

 

2)

You attended group meetings called by
the Agent.

 

3)

You read circular letters or cards
from the Agent.

 

4)

You read the Agent's column in news-
paper.

 

5)

You visited the Agent's office.

 

6)

You obtained bulletins from the Agents
(thru the mail at his office, or brought
by agent).

 

7)

You had phone conversations with the
Agent.

 

8)

You visited demonstration plots or
attended other demonstrations.

 

9)

You participated in farm analysis con-
ducted by the Agent for a group of
farmers.

 

10)You made an individual farm analysis

with the Agent.

 

11)You made a trip with the Agent.

 

12)You attended farm tours in the county.

 

13)You attended tours outside the county

with the Agent or at his suggestion.

 

 

 

- 133 -

Table 4. "Local" and "cosmopolitan" organizations

A. Cosmopolitan

 

1. Area Growers' Association

2. Processing Apple Growers' Association

. Michigan State Horticulture Society

. Dwarf Tree Association

. Great Lakes Association

. Michigan Association for Cherry Producers
. American Palmalogical Association

. New York Horticulture Society

. Indiana' Horticulture Society

Farm Organizations:

1) Farm Bureau

2) Grange

3) Farmer's Union
4) Other (Specify)

 

 

5) COop: (Specify)

 

 

Extension: (Specify)

1) 4—H Leader
2) Adult Vo. Ag. Class
3) Other (Specify)

 

 

Church Organizations:

 

 

 

 

Other Organizations:

1) Veteran's organization
2) Civic Clubs

3) Fraternal Orders

4) Patriotic groups

5) Social groups

6)
7)

Public

- 134 -

PTA
Other (Specify)

 

 

 

Offices: Past 2 years

 

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

School board

Township board

ASC Committee

S.C. District

PMA Committee

Township Extension Program
Other: (Specify)

 

 

"‘110mm“