VATTWUDES 0F BLACK AND WHH’E POUCEMEN'
TOWARD THE OPPOSH’E RACE

Thesis for the Degree of PM).
MICHIGAN STATE UNNERSHY .
WlLLlE SAMUEL W‘LUAMS

1970

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thesis entitled

Attitudes of Black and White Policeman Toward the

Opposite Race

presented by
Willie Samuel Williams

  
 

has been accepted towards fulfillment

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Date August 4, 1970

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ABSTRACT

ATTITUDES OF BLACK AND WHITE POLICEMEN
TOWARD THE OPPOSITE RACE

BY

Willie Samuel Williams

Racial attitudes of policemen have been of major con-
cern to local, state, and federal government as well as to
various private citizen groups. A need exists, as stated
in the Task Force Report: The Police, for evaluating the
attitudes of recruits and line officers. This can be done
more effectively when a reliable and valid criterion method
is available. One aspect of this research1 dealt with
validation of the Attitude Behavior Scale: Black/White

WhiteZNegro-Law and Order developed by Jordan and Hamersma.

 

Purpose of Study
The primary purpose of the study was to investigate
the relationship between constructs, such as contact and

attitudinal scores, on the ABS:BW/WN-L. Three classes of

 

1A larger international study of racial-ethnic atti-
tudes is under the direction of John E. Jordan, College of
Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan.

Willie Samuel Williams

variables deemed by Jordan (1968) to be important deter-
minants, correlates, and/or predictors of attitudes were
used in this study. They are: demographic factors, socio-
psychological factors, and contact factors.

This study was also a comparative one using two
Church of God congregations, a predominantly Black one from
Toledo, Ohio, and a predominantly White one from Lansing,
Michigan, to compare with a major midwestern police depart-

ment.

Results of the Study

 

Two of the ABS's six levels were found to be accept-
ably reliable for measuring the attitudes of the following
four research groups: Black Church members, Black police,
White Church members, and White police toward the opposite
race. The two levels with significant Hoyt reliabilities
were level 3, moral evaluation, and level 6, personal
action. Moral evaluation identifies what a person thinks
he "should do" and personal action identifies "what he
does." While the two levels mentioned above were reliable
for all four research groups, significant reliabilities
for the other research groups were obtained at various
levels.

The research hypothesis that Blacks would have more
positive attitudes toward Whites than Whites would toward
Blacks was not confirmed. Although, numerous other re-

searchers have found that Blacks do have more positive

Willie Samuel Williams

attitudes toward Whites than Whites do toward Blacks, most
other researchers studied the Stereotypic and Normative
levels only.

Concurrent factors considered with amount of contact
per se were found to be good predictors of attitudes at
all six levels of the ABS:BW/WN. The concurrent factors

involved with contact are (a) alternative rewarding oppor-

 

tunities (gain), (b) ease of avoidance of contact, (c)

 

enjoyment of the contact, and (d) kind of contact.

 

ATTITUDES OF BLACK AND WHITE POLICEMEN

TOWARD THE OPPOSITE RACE

BY

Willie Samuel Williams

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology
College of Education

1970

PREFACE

This study was part of a larger research project
designed jointly by several investigators. The study is
an example of the project approach to graduate research.

A common use of instrumentation, theoretical material, as
well as technical and analysis procedures were both neces-

sary and desirable.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Contributions to a research effort such as this take
many forms, i.e., use of facilities, psychological, Spiri-
tual, and financial. To acknowledge all persons making
contributions in each or several areas is a most difficult
task. Because both Space and time are limited, only those
persons making the most outstanding contribution will be
acknowledged.

My sincere thanks are offered to Reverend Robert Culp,
pastor of the Church of God in Toledo, Ohio, and to Reverend
Robert J. Hazen, pastor of the Church of God in Lansing,
Michigan, for the use of their facilities and spiritual
assistance.

To Dr. Vytautaus J. Bieliauskas, Project Coordinator
at the Community Relations Training Program for Police
Supervisors, Xavier University, and to Col. Jacob Schott,
Chief of Police, Cincinnati, Ohio, I offer my thanks for
making the study possible.

A doctoral guidance and dissertation committee per-
forms one of the most important functions of a doctoral
program. Dr. John E. Jordan, my committee chairman, con-
tributed time, energy, and other resouces in helping me to

complete my program. I considered Mrs. Jordan a silent

iii

member of my committee. She was a very warm, hospitable
person who gave up many evenings with her husband so that
he could help me and other students.

For the assistance given by other members of my com-
mittee, Dr. Bill Kell, Dr. Walter Johnson, and Dr. Richard
Johnson, I am also grateful.

Dr. Robert Green, Asst. Provost and Director of the
Center for Urban Affairs, and Dr. Joseph McMillan, Director
of the Equal Opportunities Program provided assistance in
many areas which enabled me to complete my doctoral program.

Dr. Thomas Gunnings, a dear friend and an excellent
supervisor for my internship, taught me numerous ways to
work within the system to bring about change.

I am grateful to my wife, Marva, for the numerous ways
she has assisted me in getting the degree. My children,
Kevin, Keith, and Karla made many sacrifiCes during the
last three years. My parents provided physical, spiritual,
psychological, and financial support over the years for
my education. I am deeply indebted to everyone who con-

tributed to my attainment of the Ph.D.

iv

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . .

LIST OF
LIST OF
Chapter

I.

II.

TABLES O O O

FIGURES . .

INTRODUCTION .

TABLE

OF

Need for the Study .
Purpose of the Study

Scales . .
Hypotheses.

Attitudes
Attitudes
Attitudes
Attitudes

CONTENTS

and Demographic Variables

and Values
and Change Proneness
and Group Membership

Simplex Analyses.

SCOpe and Limitations of the Study.
Organization of the Thesis

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Definitions

Attitudes
Prejudice

Opposite Race.

Measurement of Intergroup Attitudes
Measures of Ethnic Prejudice.
Attitudes of Police Toward Ethnic

Minorities.

Review of Preductor Var

Contact Factors

Demographic Factors.

Summary. .

iables

Page
ii
iii

viii

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\10\

11
15

17
19

19
19

21

Chapter Page

III. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE. . . . . . . 22
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . 22
Reliability of ABS:BW/WN-L . . . . 22
Theoretical Basis of Instrumentation . . 23
Design of Study . . . . . . . . . 26
Major Research Hypotheses. . . . . . 31
Attitudes and Demographic Variables . 32
Attitudes and Values . . . . . . 34
Attitudes and Change Proneness . . . 35
Attitudes and Group Membership . . . 35
Simplex Approximation . . . . . . 36
Analyses Procedures. . . . . . . . 37
Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . 37
Correlational Statistics . . . . . 37
Analysis of Variance . . . . . . 38
Simplex Approximation Test . . . . 39
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 40
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . 41
Reliability of the ABS:BW/WN-L . . . . 41
Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . 42
Relating Attitudes and Demographic
Variables . . . . . . . . . 43
Relating Attitudes and Values . . . 44
Relating Attitudes and Change
Proneness . . . . . . . . . 45
Relating Attitudes and Group
MemberShip. O O O O O O O O 49
Simplex Approximation . . . . . . 51
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 52
V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 70
Summary of the Study . . . . . . . 70
Major Purpose. . . . . . . . . 7O
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . 71
Reliability . . . . . . . . . 73
Design and Analysis. . . . . . . 74

vi

Chapter Page
Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . 76

Relating Attitudes and Demographic

Variables . . . . . . . . 76
Relating Attitudes and Values . . . 78
Relating Attitudes and Change

Proneness . . . . . . . . . 80

Relating Attitudes and Group
Membership. . . . . . . . . 80
Simplex Approximation Test . . . . 82
Recommendations for Further Research . . 83
Attitude Change Experiment . . . . 83
Scale Validation. . . . . . . . 83
Replications . . . . . . . . . 84
Implications of the Study. . . . . . 84
REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O 87
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
A.l Attitude Behavior Scale: B/W-L . . . . 97
A.2 Attitude Behavior Scale: W/N-L . . . . 117
B Basic Variables by IBM Card and Column . . 137

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Three facets and their correSponding
elements contained in the semantic
structure of an attitude item. . . . . 25

2. Profile components, and descriptive labels
associated with four types of attitude
items. . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3. Basic facets used to determine joint struc-
tion of an attitude universe . . . . . 27

4. Joint level, profile composition and labels
for six types of attitude struction. . . 28

5. Five-facet six-level system of attitude
verbalizations: levels, facet profiles
and definitional statements for twelve
permutations . . . . . . . . . . 29

6. Hoyt reliability coefficients for the six
levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L and the four
research groups . . . . . . . . . 54

7. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
age for church members and for police
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

8. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
education for church members and for
police groups . . . . . . . . . . 56

9. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
military service for church members and
for police . . . . . . . . . . . .57

10. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
values for church members and for police
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

viii

Table Page

11. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW.WN-L and contact variables for
black police . . . . . . . . . . 59

12. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW/WN-L and contact variables for
white police . . . . . . . . . . 60

13. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW/WN-L and contact variables for
black church . . . . . . . . . . 61

14. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW/WN and contact variables for
white church . . . . . . . . . . 62

15. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW/WN and contact variables for
total police . . . . . . . . . . 63

16. Multiple and partial correlations between
ABS:BW/WN and contact variables for
total church . . . . . . . . . . 64

17. Multiple and partial correlations between
the ABS:BW/WN and contact variables for
total groups . . . . . . . . . . 65

18. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
change orientation for church members and
for police groups. . . . . . . . . 66

19. Correlations and significance levels between
the six ABS:BW/WN-L attitude levels and
conservatism for church members and for
police groups . . . . . . . . . . 67

20. Sample size, means, adjusted means and
significance test results for the
research groups on the ABS:BW/WN-L . . . 68

21. Analysis of simplex correlations of the
ABS:BW/WN for the research groups . . . .69

22. ABS:BW/WN-L: Basic variables by IBM card
and column . . . . . . . . . . . 138

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. A mapping sentence for the facet analysis
of joint and lateral struction of Blacks'
and Whites' attitude toward each other. . 30

2. Hypothesized and obtained directions of
means for the research groups at each
of the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L . . 82

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Field surveys conducted by Black and Reiss (1967)
at the University of Michigan and by Lohman and Misner
(1966) at the University of California at Berkeley, reveal

that attitudes (stereotypes) of police officers differed

from their behavior on the job.1

Black and Reiss (1967) reported this discrepancy,
which is representative of similar studies, as follows:

While the proportion of white police officers who
reveal anti—Negro attitudes is quite striking, it

is emphasized that inferences cannot be drawn from
these verbalizations to the behavior of police of-
ficers when they interact with Negro citizens. A
recurring theme in the observers' report was the
great disparity between the verbalized attitudes

of officers, in the privacy of the patrol car, and
the public conduct of officers in encounters with
Negroes and members of other minority groups. There
is a general paucity of evidence of discriminatory
or prejudiced behavior on the part of police offi-
cers in face-to-face encounters with Negroes (p. 138).

The Civil Rights Commission in 1961 reported, "most

police officers never resort to brutal practices." On

 

1In this thesis, attitudes will be defined as a
"delimited totality of behavior with respect to something"
(Guttman 1950, p. 51). Attitudes so defined include stereo-
types as well as behaviors.

the other hand, the report stated, "police brutality is
still a serious problem throughout the United States."2

The Commission further states that the victims of
brutal practices are those, "whose economic and/or social
status afford little or no protective armor--the poor and
racial minorities."

Although no clear cut distinction existed concerning
whether the victim suffered because of his race or because
of his low economic status, he was almost always both
Black and poor. In the "Report of the National Advisory
Commission on Civil Disorders" (1968), Professor Reiss
concludes from a survey of one major city:

In predominately Negro precincts, over three-fourths
of the white policemen expressed prejudice or highly
prejudiced attitudes toward Negroes. Only one per-
cent of the officers expressed attitudes which could
be regarded as sympathetic towards Negroes. Indeed,
close to one-half of all the police officers in pre-
dominately Negro high crime rate areas showed ex-
treme prejudice against Negroes. What do I mean

by extreme racial prejudice? I mean that they de-
scribe Negroes in terms that are not people terms.
They describe them in terms of the animal kingdom . . .
(p. 306).

Most studies and reports have concentrated on the atti-
tudes of White policemen toward Blacks and Whites. Some
of these studies have also dealt with attitudes of Black
police toward Blacks. While the present study will deal
with the attitudes of White police toward Blacks, it will

also study attitudes of Black police toward Whites, which

 

2Note the emphasis here seems to be on most police
not engaging in brutal practices which behaviorally demon-
strate prejudice.

has been neglected by researchers. Members of the Church
of God will serve as a comparison group with which to com-

pare the attitudes of policemen.

Need for the Study

 

A major problem in attitude studies stems from the
lack of valid scales. Since most attitude studies have
used scales developed specifically for the group being sur-
veyed (Hamersma, 1969) it is difficult to replicate the
studies.

Hamersma and Jordan (1969) develOped a series of
attitude scales which purport to measure racial attitudes
in several areas. The known-group method of scale valida-
tion and Guttman construct validity procedures were used
in validating the scales. A further discussion of valida-
tion processes is found in Chapter III.

Within the present thesis the Attitude Behavior

 

Scale: Black White/White Negro-Law and Order (ABS:BW/WN-L)

 

by Jordan and Hamersma will be used to compare the atti-
tudes of a major midwestern police department with the
attitudes of two Church of God congregations, one Black

and one White.

Purpose of the Study

 

An investigation of the relationship between con—
structs, such as contact and the obtained attitudinal scores

is the major purpose of this study.

In 1968, Jordan noted that four classes of variables
seem to be important determinants, correlates, and/or
predictors of attitudes: demographic factors, socio-
psychological factors, contact factors, and knowledge
factors. In this study the first three will be used.

The second purpose of this study is to compare the
attitudes of groups responsible for maintaining law and
order (the police) and a group committed to observing
"rules and regulations" (members of a strict religious
group).

The third purpose is to replicate the facetized
design used by Hamersma (1969) in a study of racial atti-

tudes.

Scales
The ABS:BW/WN scales were developed by Jordan and
Hamersma. The scales have seven in-depth scales and one

general survey scale. The in-depth scales are:

l. (C) Characteristics-Personal
2. (E) Education
3. (H) Housing

4. (J) Jobs
5. (L) Law and Order
6. ‘(P) Political Activism-Racial

7. (W) War and Military

Two versions of the Attitude Behavior scales exist.
The only difference in the "Black and White" versions con-
sist of the word "Negro" being used to identify the atti-
tude object on the White version (ABS:WN) and the word
"Black" being used to identify the attitude object on the
Black version (ABS:BW). The results of a preliminary sur-
vey and of interviews with people in both the Black and
White communities indicated the need for interchanging
the words Black and Negro. While most Whites were comfort-
able with the word "Negro," Blacks were more comfortable

with the word "Black."

Hypotheses

 

The relationships between the dependent criterion
variables and the three classes of independent predictor
variables were tested by means of substantive hypothesis.
The attitude scores were the dependent variables and the
independent variables were looked at as correlates, deter-
minants, and/or predictors of attitudes of Blacks and

Whites toward each other. The general hypotheses were:

Attitudes and Demographic Variables

 

There will be a relationship (correlation) between
demographic variables (age, education, etc.) and each of

the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Attitudes and Values

 

There will be a relationship (correlation) between

values and each of the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Attitudes and Change Proneness
There will be a relationship (correlation) between
change proneness and each of the six levels of the

ABS :BW/WN-L .

Attitudes and Group Membership

1. There will be a relationship between conservatism
and the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

2. There will be a difference between means of the
four research groups based on race and organizational mem-

bership and each of the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Simplex Analyses

 

There will be a relationship (correlation) between
the six levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L for each of the four
research groups. The correlations will approximate a

Guttman Simplex for each group.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

 

While the present thesis has a limited scope, the
overall study3 is very broad. The limited aspect reported

here concerns one major midwestern police department. A

 

3The overall study, under the direction of John E.
Jordan, is designed to study racial attitudes in several
nations.

random sample of White policemen permits the findings to
generalize to the remainder of the White policemen on the
force. All the policewomen—-six White and two B1ack--and
all the Black policemen (47) received copies of the question—
naire. Therefore the survey can describe the policewomen
and Black policemen and we can make some inference about
the other policemen.

A comparison group of 24 members of a White congre-
gation of the Church of God and of 50 members of a Black
congregation of the Church of God also received the ques—

tionnaire.

Organization of the Thesis

 

Chapter I will include the introduction, need for
the study and a general statement of the hypotheses. In
Chapter II a review of the literature related to attitude
scale development and to substantive findings in police
attitude surveys receives attention.

Chapter III contains the design and methodology of
the study. The theoretical framework and the hypotheses
along with the instrumentation, statistical analysis, and
rationale will receive attention at this point.

The research data will be analyzed in Chapter IV.
Chapter V will include a summary, and conclusions about‘
the data as well as recommendations and implications for

further study.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter contains definitions and a review of
attitude research which relates to: (a) measurement of
intergroup attitudes, (b) attempts to measure ethnic pre-
judice, (c) measurement of attitudes of police toward
ethnic minorities, and (d) research related to the major

variables of the study.

Definitions

 

Some of the following terms have received extensive
attention in social science literature. For the purpose of

this study, the terms are defined operationally.

Attitudes

 

If definitions of attitudes were placed on a continuum,
they would range from psychological abstractions (constructs)
to overt behavior (action). The definitions which include
action, however, contain the psychological constructs also.

Historically, some of the definitions of attitude
found in the literature are:

An attitude is readiness for attention or action of a
definite sort (Baldwin, 1901-1905).

. . . a tendency to act toward or against something
in the environment which becomes thereby a positive
or negative value (Bogardus, 1931).

. . . a mental disposition of the human individual
to act for or against a definite object (Droba, 1933).

Some more recent writers have defined attitudes as follows:
. . . a mental and neural state of readiness orga-
nized through experience, exerting a directive or
dynamic influence upon the individual's response to

all objects and situations with which it is related
(Allport, 1967).

A relatively enduring system of evaluative, affec-
tive reactions based upon and reflecting the evalu-
ative concepts or beliefs which have been learned
about the characteristics of a social object or
class of social objects (Shaw and Wright, 1967).

. . . predisposition to respond overtly to social
objects (Mehrens and Lehmann, 1969).

All of the foregoing definitions deal primarily with
attitudes as a construct. Guttman, however, defines an
attitude as both a construct and as behavior. An attitude
according to Guttman (1950a, p. 17) is ". . . a delimited

totality of behavior with respect to something."

Prejudice

 

In the same vein of most social scientists who
ascribe the evaluative dimension to attitude in order to
define prejudice, Allport (1954, p. 7) defines prejudice

as:

an avertive or hostile attitude toward a person who-
belongs to a group, simply because he belongs to
that group, and is therefore presumed to have the
objectionable qualities ascribed to the group.

10

Harding, Proshansky, Kutner, and Chein (1969, p. 6)
define prejudice as:

a failure of rationality or a failure of justice or
a failure of human-heartedness in an individual's
attitude toward members of another ethnic group.

The affective component of prejudice included in the
above definitions is also included in Guttman's definition
of an attitude. The present study examines prejudice via
the expression of unfavorable and favorable racial atti-
tudes. The unfavorable and the favorable racial attitudes
are operationally defined by scores on the racial scale
(ABS:BW/WN-L) constructed according to the Guttman paradigm
in Tables 4 and 5. Scores of groups with known attitudes

also indicate validity estimates of the scale. The six

ABS's scores are the dependent variables of the study.

Opposite Race

 

In this study Blacks or Negroes shall be referred to
as opposite of Whites or Caucasians and vice versa.

The following instructions were given to Operationalize
the six ABS's attitude levels derived from Jordan's adapta-
tion of Guttman's paradigm. The instructions1 stated by
Hamersma (1969) are:

Societal Stereotype--what other Whites believe about
Whites as compared to what they believe about Negroes.

 

Societal Interactive Norm--other Whites generally
believe the following about interacting with Negroes.

 

 

1The instructions presented here assume that a White
subject is taking the scale and expressing his attitudes
toward Negroes. The words "White" and "Negro" can be inter-
changed to make the scale appropriate for a black subject.
The term "Black" was used for the black subjects.

11

Personal Moral Evaluation--in reSpect to Negroes, do
you yourself believe that it is usually right or
usually wrong.

Personal Hypothetical Behavior--in respect to a Negro
person would you yourself.

Personal Feelings--how do you actually feel toward
Negroes.

 

Actual Personal Action--experiences or contacts (p. 79).

 

Measurement of Intergropp Attitudes

 

Bogardus (1925a, 1925b, 1925c, 1927) was one of the
first to systematically investigate intergroup attitudes.
His method, paper-and-pencil questionnaire technique, is
used extensively by researchers today.

Bogardus' seven alternatives supposedly represented
gradually increasing degrees of social distance ranging from
association through kinship by marriage, to association in
a club as a personal chum, to association as a neighbor on
the same street, to employment in same occupation, to citi-
zenship in country, to visitor in country, and finally to
exclusion from country.

Several approaches to the study of ethnic attitudes
have been tried since the paper-and-pencil questionnaire
of Bogardus. While lively interest existed in the indirect
approach, the bulk of our information about ethnic atti-
tudes has come from the direct approach (Harding, e£_al.,
1969). For more extensive reviews of various approaches
to attitude measurement, the reader should refer to Deri,
e£_al. (1948), Campbell (1950), Seltiz (1964), and Scott

(1969).

12

Cognitive, affective, and conative components of
ethnic group attitudes have been identified by Smith (1947),
Kramer (1949), Chein (1951), and Harding et_al. (1969).
Harding defines these components as follows:

The c0gnitive components are the perceptions, beliefs,
and expectations that the individual holds with re-
gard to various ethnic groups. The beliefs and expec—
tations of an individual with regard to the members

of a particular ethnic group--for example, Catholics
or Negroes-—may vary along a number of dimensions.
Probably the most important of these are the following:
(1) simple (or undifferentiated) versus complex (or
differentiated), (2) central (or salient) in conscious-
ness versus peripheral (or embedded), (3) believed
tentatively versus believed with assurance, (4)
inadequately grounded versus grounded on appropriate
evidence, (5) accurate versus inaccurate, and (6)
tenacious versus readily modified. A belief that

is simple, inadequately grounded, at least partially
inaccurate, and held with considerable assurance by
many people is called a stereotype . . . (1969, p. 4).

 

Harding, et a1. further state:

The affective components of an ethnic attitude include
both a general friendliness or unfriendliness toward
the object of the attitude and the various Specific
feelings that give the attitude its affective coloring.
On the positive side they include such feelings as
admiration, sympathy, and "closeness" or identifica-
tion; on the negative side they include feelings like
contempt, fear, envy, and "distance" or alienation
(1969, p. 4).

These authors define and explain the third dimension
of an ethnic attitude as follows:

The conative components of an ethnic attitude include
beliefs about "what should be done" with regard to
the group in question, and action orientations of

the individual toward specific members of the group.
The former type of component is sometimes called a
"policy orientation" (Smith, 1947) and is typically
investigated by means of "third person" questions in
attitude surveys (for example, "Should Negroes be
allowed to . . .?"). The latter type of component
includes both general action orientations toward

13

"typical" members of an ethnic group (for example,
"How would you feel about working under a Negro
supervisor?") and specific action orientations to-
ward particular members of the group in question
(for example, "How would you feel about working
under Jones?" or "Do you know any Negro well enough
that you might invite him to your home?").

Our usage of the term "conative" is rather unortho-
dox, since "ought" and "should" prOpositions repre-
sent a class of beliefs though not beliefs about
"matters of fact." Similarly an "I would" proposi-
tion is a belief, though a belief that can be veri-
fied only in action. In the traditional meaning of
the term "conative," only desires or impulses toward
representatives of the class of objects of an atti-
tude could be regarded as conative components--for
example, an impulse to break off contact, regardless
of whether the impulse is acted out. We have broad-
ened the traditional meaning of the term for the
sake of having a single convenient label for the
class of attitudinal components that are directly
concerned with action (1969, p. 4).

In comparison to the six level Jordan2 paradigm of
attitudes the cognitive component correSponds to Level 1,
Societal Stereotype, and Level 2, Societal Norm; the
affective component corresponds to Level 3 and Level 5,
Moral Evaluation and Feelings; and the conative component
corresponds to Hypothetical Level 4 and Action Level 6.
Level 4 is clearly stated in the above conative definition,
Level 6 is implied in this part of the above statement;
". . . action orientations of the individual toward speci-
fic members of the group" (Harding, et al., 1969, p. 4).
While Guttman and Jordan attempt to get the respondent to

relate an Operationally defined type of action, Harding,

et al. seem to be referring to some preset pattern that the

 

 

2See Chapter III for Jordan's six levels of an atti-
tude.

14

individual will refer to in future actions. One is con-
cerned with what the person does; the other is concerned
with what the person plans to do.

From the Rokeach (1968) model of beliefs, attitudes
and values, a parallel can be drawn to the Jordan-Guttman
paradigm. Concerning beliefs Rokeach (1968, p. 2) states:

When I use the term belief I am not necessarily
referring to verbal reports taken at face value;
beliefs are inferences made by an observer about
underlying states of expectancy. When a person
says: "This I believe . . .," he may or may not
be representing accurately what he truly believes
because often there are compelling personal and
social reasons, conscious and unconscious, why he
will not or cannot tell us.

Jordan's Levels 1 and 2, Societal Stereotype and Societal
Norm, parallel the belief dimension of Rokeach. Level 3,
Moral Evaluation, relates to Rokeach's yalue dimension
presented below:

I consider a value to be a type of belief, centrally
located within one's total belief system, about how
one ought or ought not to behave, or about some
end-state of existence worth or not worth attaining.
Values are thus abstract ideals, positive or nega-
tive, not tied to any specific attitude object or
situation, representing a person's beliefs about
ideal modes of conduct and ideal terminal goals. . . .
A person's values, like beliefs, may be consciously
conceived or unconsciously held, and must be inferred
from what a person says or does (Rokeach, 1969, p. 124).

The third dimension of Rokeach's model, attitude,
parallels Jordan's Level 4, Moral Evaluative, Level 5,
Feelings, and Level 6, Action. Attitude is defined as

follows:

15

An attitude is a relatively enduring organization
of beliefs around an object or situation predis-
posing one to respond in some preferential manner

(op. cit., p. 112).
Rokeach (1968, p. 113) further states, concerning the inter-

relationship of beliefs and attitudes:
Whether or not the content of a belief is to de-
scribe, evaluate, or exhort, all beliefs are pre-
dispositions to action, and an attitude is thus a
set of interrelated predispositions to action
organized around an object or situation.

Rokeach takes the classical point of View about attitudes,

i.e., "an attitude is a predisposition to action" rather

than the behavioral point of view advocated by Guttman.

Measures of Ethnic Prejudice

 

Ethnic prejudice has received a great deal of atten—
tion ever since early Biblical days. The Jews and Gentiles
who were unable to resoIve their differences thousands of
years ago are still unable to resolve their differences
today. One of the biggest problems besetting the Roman
Empire was a solution to its ethnic problems. Centuries
later most countries of the world still suffer from prob-
lems of ethnic prejudice.

Social scientists today are making a concerted effort
to solve at least some of the problems. In order to effect
a meaningful solution, an understanding of the nature of
prejudice must be obtained. Since the time of Watson's-

monograph, The Measurement of Fair-Mindedness (1925), much

 

has been done in assessing the nature of attitudes.

16

While Watson was at first interested in the level of
an individual's rationality or irrationality about social
issues, he later collaborated with Glaser to try to measure
an individual's capacity for critical thinking, without
regard to the direction of irrational bias (Harding, ep_al.,
1969).

Measures of irrational bias toward Negroes and Jews
were developed by Thistlethwaite (1950) and Prentice (1957).
Because of the complex nature of these measures, they could
only be used effectively for measuring prejudice of college
students. Schuman and Harding (1964) developed a measure
of prejudice in the sense of failure of rationality which
can be used with subjects having no more than six years
of schooling. A scale, used in this study, developed by
Jordan and Hamersma (1969) measures ethnic prejudice by a
Guttman facetized design. Although no specific studies
have been conducted of the educational level of those to
whom the Jordan-Hamersma scale was administered, members of
churches and residents of the inner-city with low reading
levels were administered the scales.

Like Minard (1931), Murphy and Likert (1938), and
Hartley (1946), the research of Hamersma and Jordan
looks upon discrimination as a social problem. Ethnic
attitudes are examined in terms of the extent to which they

embody a failure of justice.

17

Two of the most widely used measures of attitudes are
the Bogardus scale and the California E scale. Because
most attitude scales have been designed and used for speci-
fic research (Hamersma, 1969), problems exist in comparing
the findings. This problem is ameliorated though, because:

Most measures of ethnic attitudes are so strongly
saturated with the general favorability-unfavorability
dimension that their intercorrelations are not greatly
below their split-half reliability. The correlations
between attitude scales designed explicitly as mea-
sures of prejudice according to some conceptual defi-
nitions and other attitude scales thrown together
intuitively are sufficiently high that either type

of scale can be treated for most practical purposes

as a measure of prejudice (Harding, et al., 1969,

p. 13).

A somewhat different view is presented by Mehrens
and Lehman (1969) who report as follows on reliability and
validity of attitude scales:

Reliability. Attitude scales, by and large, have
reliabilities around .75. This is much less than
obtained for cognitive measures and hence the re-

sults obtained from attitude scales should be used
primarily for group guidance and discussion.

 

Validity. In general, attitude measures have less
validity data available than do other noncognitive
measures. This is in part because of the problems
inherent in measuring attitudes and in part because
many of them were constructed primarily for research
purposes.

Attitudes of Police Toward Ethnic Minorities
Evidence of the attitudes and personality of policemen
being distinctly different from other occupational groups

is abundant in the literature (Rokeach, Snyder and Miller,

undated). Several researchers (Westley, 1951; Guthrie, 1963;

18

Watson, 1967; and Bayley & Mendelson, 1969) have shown
policemen to be fairly homogeneous in their attitudes and
beliefs on such tOpics as law enforcement as a worthwhile
occupation, the courts and the law, youth and minorities,
and the public.

Bieliauskas (1969, p. 40) reports that policemen's
attitudes towards Negroes were very low. He states, how-
ever, many policemen feel that "Negroes are capable of
developing values, attitudes, and respect for property and
others."

In a paper presented to the American Academy of
Forensic Science, Mendelsohn (1969) indicated that the
attitudes of both black and white policemen toward Negroes
were the same. Alex (1969) stated that black policemen
showed negative attitudes towards Blacks. Black and Reiss
(1967) reported policemen from Boston, Chicago, and
Washington showed extreme negative attitudes toward Blacks
but did not engage in negative kinds of behaviors. Reiss
(1968) further says in the "Report of the President's
Commission on Civil Disorders" that white policemen working
in riot areas referred to Negroes in non—human terms.
Since police are typically conservative and moralistic
(Guthrie, 1963), they View the actions and attitudes of
Blacks as a result of their upbringing and contacts 7
(Bieliauskas, 1969). It seems that policemen believe
Blacks have inferior upbringing and therefore Blacks are

inferior.

19

Review of Predictor Variables

 

Contact Factors

 

Many studies, emphasizing the importance of contact
in attitude development or change, appear in the literature.
Harding and Hogrefe (1952) and BrOphy (1964) found that
contact on jobs increased positive racial attitudes.

Merton, West, and Jahoda (1949), Deutsch and Collins (1951),
and Wilner, Walkley, and Cook (1952) found slight to moder—
ate decreases in prejudice of persons living in integrated
housing.

Allport and Kramer (1946) and Cook and Seltiz (1955)
reported that the "kind of contact" is important. Carter
and Mitchell (1955-56) found that amount of contact was
significant. The quality of contact was also found to be
an important factor in attitudinal change (Kelly, Person,
and Holtzman, 1958). Jordan (1968) found that amount of
contact per se was not determining of positive attitudes,

but was more directly related to attitude intensity.

Demographic Factors

 

The demographic variables of age, education, and

military service were examined in this study.

Age.--Conf1icting results have appeared in the liter-
ature regarding age. Mussen (1963) and Allport and Kramer
(1946) found that prejudice may increase with age while

Carter and Mitchell (1955-56) found the opposite. Rokeach,

20

Miller, and Snyder (1970) found no difference in value pat—

terns of policemen based on age.

Education.--Lipset (1969) reports:

 

On the whole, the less education people have, the
more likely they are to be intolerant of those who
differ from themselves, whether in Opinions, modes
of culturally and morally relevant behavior, reli-
gion, ethnic background, or race. The police, who
are recruited from the conservative, less educated
groups, reflect the background from which they came
. . . (p. 78).

Socio-Psychological.--Williams (1968) reported that
Negro students expressed greater philosophical endorsement
of integration than emotional acceptance. Allport and

Kramer (1946) also found a disparity in how students per-

ceived themselves in relation to things around them.

Group Membership.--Guthrie (1963) described police

 

as conservative. Skolnick (1966) indicated that California
policemen demonstrated a Goldwater type of conservatism

as their dominant political and emotional persuasion.

Efficacy.--Chwast (1965) found that policemen suffer
from feelings of powerlessness. Wolf (1967) indicated
that there is a relation between a person's efficacy score

and his attitudinal score.

Change.--Jordan (1969) demonstrated that those who
have high "change proneness" scores tend to have more posi-

tive racial attitudes.

21

Summary

Varied types of attitudinal research are reported in
the literature. The most important one deals with atti-
tude change. While the literature related to attitude
change has been dealt with in this chapter, other factors
have also been considered. Such matters as instruments
used to measure attitudes, attempts to measure ethnic pre-
judice, measurement of the attitudes of policemen toward
ethnic minorities, and research related to the major vari—

ables of the present study were considered.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE

The present research analyzes the attitudes of Black
and White policemen and uses members of the Church of God
as a control or comparison group.

The following sections contain a discussion of instru-
mentation, theoretical basis of instrumentation, selection

of sample, and the hypotheses of the study.

Instrumentation

 

The ABS:BW/WN-L is a facetized instrument which mea-
sures six levels of racial attitudes. The six subscales,
representing six levels of attitude strength, were analyzed
in relation to selected independent variables. The inde-
pendent variables are instrumented in the Personal Data
Questionnaire (questions 49-104). The independent variables
are found in Table 22, items 8—46, appearing in Appendix B.
Items 1 to 6 are the dependent variables representing the

six levels1 of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Reliability of ABS:BW/WN-L

 

Hamersma (1969) and Erb (1969) found the Hoyt pro-

cedure for determining reliability yielded the same results

 

lTotal scores are not used but are listed in Table 22

since the computer program was already written.
22

23

as the Kuder-Richardson formula #20 for the ABS:BW/WN. For
a group of college students Hoyt reliability coefficients
were .88 (Education) and .84 (Characteristics). Hamersma
(1969), one of the scale developers, reported:

Care was also exercised in the beginning stages of
construction to ensure content and construct validity
of the items. . . although no numerical estimates
(coefficients) were computed. Considerations of
validity for items included in the final composite
scale were: inter-item correlations, content vali-
dity (lateral struction), and construct validity. . . .
Reliability measures of the items in the final com-
posite scale relied almost entirely on the item-
to-total analysis procedures used although emphasis 2
was also put on joint struction (simplex analysis. . .).

Hoyt's procedures were used in the present study for ascer-
taining reliability estimates for the six attitude levels
of the Law and Order Scale. The results of the Hoyt analysis

are reported in Chapter IV.

Theoretical Basis of Instrumentation

 

The study of attitudes or prejudice occupies a central
position in social psychology. Many definitions of atti—
tudes have found their way into psychological publications.
Although attitudes and their definitions were reviewed in
Chapter II, the reader may refer to Allport (1967) and Shaw
and Wright (1967) for additional lists of attitude defini-
tions. One generalized View, defines an attitude as "pre-

disposition to behavior." Another view--and the one used

 

2The use of the terms joint and lateral struction in
the above quotation were formerly referred to as conjoint
and disjoint.

24

in this study--defines an attitude as a "delimited totality

of behavior with reSpect to something" (Guttman, 1950a, p. 51).
In an analysis of an article by Bastide and van den

Berghe (1957), Guttman (1959) identified three facets in

an attitude reSponse related to intergroup behavior: (a)

subject's behavior (al belief or a overt action, and (b)

2

referent (b1 the subjects group or b the subject himself),

2
and (c) the referent's intergroup behavior (cl comparative

or c interactive). He labeled the first of the two options

2
or elements in parentheses above as the weaker of each facet.
According to this paradigm, an attitude is as strong as the
number of strong (elements with the subscript 2) elements
which appeared.

The Guttman rationale permits the semantic analysis
of attitude items by three facets: an individual item
could have none, one, two, or three strong facets, a total
of four combinations. Guttman presents a logical explana—
tion of four permutations of a weak-strong facet. Correct
ordering of elements within facets and correct ordering
of facets with respect to each other permits a semantic
analysis of attitude items according to n-dichotomous facets
and reveal N + 1 types of attitude items. Guttman refers
to these types as "levels." The levels form a simplex
where each level has one more strong facet than the level

preceding, and one less strong facet than the level imme-

diately following.

25

In Table 1, based on the Guttman paradigm, there are
three facets and their corresponding elements in the seman-
tic structure of an attitude item.

TABLE l.—-Three facets and their corresponding elements in
the semantic structure of an attitude item.

 

 

(A) (B) (C)
Subject's Referent Referent's
Behavior Intergroup

Behavior
al belief bl subject's cl comparative
a overt action b subject c interactive

2 2 0 2
himself

 

Four possible permutations from these facets and
their components are represented in Table 2 along with the
descriptive labels associated with the four types of atti—
tude items.

TABLE 2.--Profile components, and descriptive labels asso—
ciated with four types of attitude items.

 

 

Level Profile Descriptive Label
1 alblcl Stereotype
2 alblc2 Norm
3 albzc2 Hypothetical
Interaction
4 a2b2c2 Personal

Interaction

 

26

The facet approach to attitudes was expanded by
Jordan (1968), and is represented in Tables 3-5. While
only six permutations are presented in Table 4, 32 are pos-
sible from Table 3. Theoretically the number of permuta-
tions possible in an attitude universe equals the product
of the elements in every facet, e.g., the total number of
permutations in facets A, B, C, D, & E of Table 3 is 32.

In Table 5, levels, facet profiles, and definitional
statements are presented for 12 permutations. Six of these
are permutations used in the ABS:BW/WN Scales: (a) Societal
Stereotype, (b) Societal Norm, (c) Personal Moral Evalua—
tion, (d) Personal Hypothetical Behavior, (e) Personal
Feelings, and (f) Personal Action.

A mapping sentence, as represented in Figure 1, allows
a scale developer to state in operational terms the objec-
tives of the scale. He can then proceed to determine
which permutations are apprOpriate for the task which he
wishes to accomplish with his attitude items. With the
present scale the task is to measure the racial attitudes

of Blacks toward Whites and of Whites toward Blacks.

Design of the Study

 

One hundred randomly selected White policemen repre-
senting approximately eleven per cent of the force of a
major midwestern police department and six White police-

women received COpies of the Attitude Behavior Scale: White/

 

Negro—Law and Order. Forty—seven Black policemen and two

 

7
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28

TABLE U.--Jointa level, profile compositionb and labels
for six typesb of attitude struction.

 

 

Type—Level Struction Profileb Descriptive Joint Term

1 al bl cl dl el Societal Stereotype

2 al b1 01 d2 el Societal Norm

3 a b c d e Personal Moral
2 l l 2 1 Evaluation

4 a b c d e Personal Hypothetical
2 l 2 2 1 Behavior

5 a2 b2 c2 d2 el Personal Feelings

6 a2 b2 c2 d2 e2 Personal Action

 

aJoint order: Level 1 < level 6 and al < a2;

bl < b2; 01 < 02; (11 < d2; el < e2.

bBased on facet order of March 7, 1968 (Table 3).

John E. Jordan

Michigan State University
Louis Guttman

Israel Institute for
Applied Social Research
March 7, 1968

253

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31

Black policewomen recieved copies of the Attitude Behavior

 

ScalezBW/WN-L.

 

The ABS:BW/WN-L was also administered to 74 members
of the Church of God, 50 from a predominantly Black congre-
gation and 24 from a predominantly White congregation. The
scale was administered after church services on Sunday,
June 28, 1970, to adult members of a predominantly Black
congregation in Toledo, Ohio. Adult members of the pre—
dominantly White congregation in Lansing, Michigan, were
asked to take c0pies of the scale home on Wednesday night,
June 24, 1970, and on Sunday, July 28, 1970, and return
them as soon as possible. About 50 per cent of those who
took the questionnaire returned them.

The author selected this church group because of its
favorable record toward integration. Both congregations
are integrated. However, only the White members of the
predominantly White Lansing congregation and only the
Black members of the predominantly Black Toledo congrega-
tion received the questionnaire. Members of the Church of
God were projected to have more liberal attitudes toward
the opposite race than police would have toward the Opposite

race.

Majgr Research Hypgtheses

 

The hypothesized relationship between the dependent
criterion variables--attitudes toward the opposite race

with regard to law and order--and certain types of predictor

32

variables, e.g., religiosity, efficacy, change orientation,
and contact were examined. In this study independent vari-
ables are looked at as correlates or determinants of atti-

tudes.

In a review of the literature, Jordan (1968) noted
four classes of variables as important determinants, corre-
lates, or predictors of attitudes:

1. Demographic factors such as age, sex and income.

2. Socio-psychological factors such as one's value
orientation.

3. Contact factors such as amount, nature, perceived
voluntariness and enjoyment of the contact.

4. The knowledge factor, i.e., the amount of factual
information one has about the attitude object.

The first three classes stated above will be examined
in this study.

Although most of the hypotheses are general enough
to apply to the samples of both police and church members,

some will be worded specifically to include both samples.

Attitudes and Demographic Variables

 

'H-l.--Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes

 

toward members of the opposite race.

 

Rationale.--Research reports varying results. Allport

 

and Kramer (1946) state prejudice may increase with

age; White and Holtzman (1965) found it may decrease

with age.

33

Instrumentation.—-Age is measured by Question 50.

 

Scores range from 1-5. Attitudes are measured by
the six subscales of the ABS:BW/WN-L.
Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

age and attitude scores.

H-2.--Amount Of education is positively related to
favorable attitudes toward members Of the Opposite race.

Rationale.--Hamersma (1969) found that increased edu-

 

cation frequently results in more positive racial
attitudes.

Instrumentation.--Amount Of education is measured

 

by Question 64. Scores indicating levels Of educa—
tion range from 1-5. Attitudes measured as in H-l.
Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

the amount Of education and attitude scores.

H-3.--Number of years in military service is posi-
tively related to favorable attitudes toward the Opposite

race.

 

Rationale.--Mi1itary discipline and simulated (train-

 

ing) or real (battlefield) conditions increase depen-
dence on others.

Instrumentation.--Number Of years in military service

 

is measured by Question 57. Attitudes measured as
in H-l.
Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

number Of years in the military and attitude scores.

34

Attitudes and Values

 

H-4.--There is a positive relationship between high

efficacy scores andgpositive attitudes toward the opposite

race.

 

Rationale.--Those who feel in control Of their envi-

 

ronment will have more positive attitudes toward
groups regarded as different.

Instrumentation.-—The Life Situations Scale (Wolfe,

 

1967) measures efficacy. Scores are from nine items,
range of scores 9-36, items 85 alternating to 103.
Attitudes measured as in H-l.

Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

efficacy and attitude score.

H-5.--High frequency Of contact with members of the

 

Opposite race will be associated with more positive attitudes

 

toward members Of the Opposite race on each Of the levels

 

of the ABS:BWZWN-L if high frequency is concurrent with (a)

 

alternative rewarding Opportunities, (b) ease of avoidance

Of contact, (c) enjoyment Of the contact! (d) kind Of con-

tact,

and (e) amount Of contact.

 

Rationale.--In recent research BrOphy (1964) and

 

Carter and Mitchell (1955-56) found that contact in-
creases positive racial attitudes. Jordan (1968)
found that amount of contact per se must be con-

current with other factors.

35

Instrumentation.—-Contact is measured by items 80

 

(kind), 81 (amount), 82 (avoidance), 83 (gain), and
84 (enjoyment). Range of scores, 1—5. Attitudes
measured as in H-l.

Analysis.--Multiple correlations between the contact

variables and attitude scores.

Attitudes and Change Proneness

 

score

H-6.—-There is aypositive relationship between a high

 

on change proneness and a high attitude score.

 

Rationale.-—Allport (1954) indicates a relationship

 

between rigidity and prejudice.

Instrumentation.--Change proneness is measured by

 

Questions 68, 69, 70, 71, and 74. Range of scores
1-4, 1—4, 1—4, 1-5, and 1-5. Attitudes measured as

in H-l.

Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

change proneness and attitude scores.

Attitudes and Group Membership

H-7.—-Persons WhO admire more conservative famous

characters will have more negative attitudes toward the

gpposite race.

 

Rationale.--More conservative people will tend to

 

show greater amount of prejudice.

Instrumentation.--Conservatism is measured by Ques-

 

tion 62. Attitudes measured as in H-l.

36

Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between

conservatism and the levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

H—8.--Black members Of the Church Of God will have
higher attitude scores than Black policemen, Black police-
men will have higher attitude scores than White members
Of the Church Of God, White members Of the Church Of God
will have higher attitude scores than White_policemen toward

the Opposite race.

 

Rationale.—-Blacks are found to be more positive to-

 

ward Whites regarding racial attitudes than Whites
toward Blacks (Brink and Harris, 1964, 1967). Similar
results found by Proenza and Strickland (1965).

Instrumentation.--Attitudes measured as in H-l.

 

AnalysiS.--ANOVA will be used.

BC BP wc WP F Sig

 

 

 

 

 

 

Simplex Approximation

 

H-9.--The ABS:BW/WN-L will form a Guttman simplex

for each Of the racial groups.

 

37

Rationale.--Guttman contiguity hypothesis states that

 

levels closer together semantically will be closer
statistically.

Instrumentation.--Correlations between the scores of

 

the six levels Of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Analysis.—-The Kaiser Test (Qz) will be used.

Analyses Procedures

 

The Control Data Corporation Computers (CDC 3600 and
CDC 6500) at Michigan State University were used to analyze

the data.

Descriptive Statistics

 

A Frequency Column Count program (Clark, 1964) was
used to compile the frequency distributions of every item
and variable in the study. This program allows the researcher
to develop a clinical "feel" for the data.

Other types of descriptive statistics are provided
through the first part Of the MDSTAT program (Ruble and
Rafter, 1966). From this program the N's, means, standard
deviations, and adjusted means for all groups of the study
were produced. Because the eight women on the police force
failed to return sufficient data, policewomen are not in-

cluded in the analyses.

Correlational Statistics

 

The CDC MDSTAT program (Ruble and Rafter, 1966) pro-

vided the Pearson Product Moment correlations among all the

38

variables Of the study. The "level-to-level correlation
matrix" is the simplex correlation structure which per-
mitted the examination of whether the hypothesized simplex
was approximated.

Partial and multiple regressions were Obtained from
the general multiple regression model used in the CDC 3600
and the CDC 6500 at Michigan State University (Ruble, Kiel,
and Rafter, 1966). The partial correlations permit the
researcher to determine the degree of predictability that
each variable contributed to the criterion as the effects
Of all but one variable were held constant.

The multiple correlation program provided the follow-
ing statistics: the beta weights Of all predictor variables,
a test of Significance for each beta weight, and the partial
correlations between each predictor and the criterion.

The level Of significance for all hypotheses in the

present study was established as .05.

Analysis of Variance

 

The UNEQl routine (Ruble, Kiel, and Rafter, 1966) was
used to compute the one-way analysis Of variance statistics.
The program deals with unequal frequencies occurring in
various categories.

While a significant overall E leads to non-rejection
Of the hypothesis being tested, we do not know whether every
mean is significantly different from each other. Several

methods have been proposed by statisticians for determining

39

the nature of the differences between treatment means. The
F test for the four group comparisons is the usual one.

The F test used to test for differences between the adjusted
means Of the "pairs-Of—groups" is equal to a two—Sided E
test while also fully accounting for the other experimental
factors. The adjusted mean equalizes or accounts for the
variance in the size Of the group samples as well as the
unequal sex distribution within samples. This procedure

for testing for significance among multiple means is approxi-
mately equal to Duncan's Multiple Means test (Edwards, 1950;
Kramer, 1956, pp. 307-310) up to and including three treat-
ment means. The procedure is somewhat more liberal than
Duncan's when more than three means are included, thus in-
creasing the likelihood Of Type I error. The procedure

also does not account for the non-independence among pairs-

Of-treatment means.

Simplex Approximation Test

 

Kaiser (1962) has formulated a procedure for scaling
the variables Of a Guttman simplex. His procedure orders
the variables and suggests a measure Of the goodness Of fit
of the scale to the Obtained data.

The approach developed by Kaiser may be seen as per—
forming two functions: (a) "sorting" Of virtually all pos-
sible arrangements of data SO as to generate the best em-
pirically possible Simplex approximation; and (b) an assign-

ment of a descriptive statistic, "Q2," to Specified matrices.

4.0

The index g2 is a descriptive one, with a range Of 0.00
tO 1.00.

A computer program has been developed which (a) re-
orders the level Of a semantic path, by Kaiser's procedures,
SO as to generate the best empirically possible simplex
approximation; and (b) calculates g2 for the hypothesized
(theoretical) ordering and for the empirically best ordering
Of members in a semantic path.

There is presently no Significance test available
for the values of the g2 test. Therefore, statistical com-
parisons that involve significance levels will not be made
across matrices-~i.e., from simplex approximation to simplex
approximation.

The simplex approximation test will be used to obtain
data which will enable testing of the hypothesis that the
Q2 Of the theoretical ordering will approximate the g2 of

the empirically best ordering of levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

Summary

In the Instrumentation and in the Theoretical Basis
of Instrumentation sections Of this chapter an analysis of
the Six-level Jordan-Hamersma ABS:BW/WN was presented. The
control and demographic data were also discussed. The
Guttman paradigm of attitude levels was presented as well
as the major hypotheses of the study. The final section of

this chapter dealt with the analyses procedures.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY

In this chapter a statistical analysis Of the data
to confirm or disconfirm the major hypotheses stated in
Chapter III is presented. The Hoyt reliability data are
also presented. Hypotheses l, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 were
analyzed using product-moment correlations. Hypothesis 5
was analyzed using multiple and partial correlations as
discussed in Chapter III. Hypothesis 8 was analyzed using
the analysis of variance technique discussed in the pre-
vious chapter. Kaiser's g2 technique was used to analyze

Hypothesis 9.

Reliability of the ABS:BWZWN-L
The reliability of the ABS:BW/WN-L was assessed by
a variation Of the Hoyt analysis of variance technique.
Hoyt described the technique as follows:
By subtracting the "among students" and the
"among item" sums of squares from the total sum Of
squares, we have left the residual sum Of squares
which is used as the basis of estimating the dis—
crepancy between the Obtained variance and the true
variance (1967, p. 110).
Hoyt (1967) indicates the Split-half method of estimating

reliability may result in deflated or inflated reliability

41

42

coefficients. The Hoyt formula also provides the equiva-
lent to a Kuder—Richardson Formula #20 estimate.

The reliability coefficients for each level of the
ABS:BW/WN-L on the four groups of this study are contained
in Table 6.1 The reliability coefficients for the four
research groups at the moral evaluation level and at the
action level were acceptable. In addition, for the WC2
group reliability coefficients were acceptable at the hypo-
thetical behavior and at the feeling levels. For the BC
group an acceptable reliability was also achieved at the
normative level.

Although mathematical computations were printed out
by the computer for all levels of the ABS, only those levels
that had acceptable reliability coefficients will be con-
sidered in this study. However, mention may be made to

"print out" data at all levels in order to indicate trends

and possibilities for additional research.

Hypotheses

 

As stated earlier, the .05 level of Significance will
be used in this study. Jordan (1969), Hamersma (1969),
Erb (1969), and Morin (1970) suggest that the .05 level of
significance is acceptable for most studies using facet

analyses.

 

lAll tables for this chapter will appear at the end Of
the chapter for the convenience Of the reader.

2WC=White Church Members, BC=Black Church Members, WP:
White Police, BP=Black Police, TP=Tota1 Police, and TG=Total
Group or everyone in study.

43

RelatinglAttitudes and
Demographic Variables

 

 

H-l.—-Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes

 

toward members Of the Opposite race.

 

The hypothesis3 that age is negatively related to

favorable attitudes toward the Opposite race was not con-
firmed. The results Of correlating age with attitudes to-
ward the Opposite race are shown in Table 7.

It seemed that neither the police groups nor the
church groups develOped more negative attitudes toward the
opposite race as they grew older. This appears to agree
with Rokeach, gp_al. (1970) who claimed that age of police-
men was not related to their attitudes toward minorities.
However, it was pointed out in Chapter II that researchers
have Obtained varying and even conflicting results when

age is used as a correlate or determinant Of attitude.

H-2.--Amount of education is positively related to
favorable attitudes toward members Of the opposite race.

Amount of education was not correlated with the atti-
tudes of any Of the research groups at levels Of the
ABS:BW/WN—L that were found to be reliable. Consequently,
H-2 was not confirmed. However, some Observations relating
to the data (Table 8) Obtained from the computer print out
indicating trends which may merit further study will be

discussed in Chapter V.

 

3For purposes of clarity the hypotheses are stated in
the "research" form although the statistical tests of course
employ the usual "null" form.

44

H—3.--Number Of years in military service ispositively_
related to favorable attitudes toward the ppposite race.
Significant results were not Obtained at any level
for any of the four research groups. Hypothesis H-3 was
not confirmed. However, on the stereotypic dimension the
"total" group had a negative correlation Of -.27, Signifi-
cant at the .001 level; and on the action dimension (level 6)
a correlation of .34, significant beyond the .001 level, was
obtained. These results suggest homogeneity within groups
and of a relationship between the two variables on a wider

continuum.

Relating Attitudes and Values

 

H-4.--There is a positive relationship between high
efficacy scores and positive attitudes toward thelgpposite
recs-

The items contributing to the value scores (efficacy)
are found in the Life Situation Scale (Appendix A.l and A.2).
On the variable list (Table 22) the value items are listed
as efficacy content (Variable 8) and efficacy intensity
(Variable 9).

A significant relationship between efficacy, man's
sense of control over his environment, and the moral evalua-
tion level for the WP group was Obtained (see Table 22_for
the variable list). In relation to how certain (intensity,
Variable 9) the TP group was of their answer to this ques-
tion a negative correlation was Obtained. For the TP group

Similar results were Obtained at the same level.

45

A correlation of .44, significant at the .01 level
(Table 10), between the feeling level and efficacy was Ob—
tained for the BP group. Black policemen who felt they
had a sense Of control over their destiny were somewhat
sure that they feel positively about the Opposite race.

Hypothesis H-4 was confirmed at the moral evaluation
level for the WP and TP groups. It was not confirmed at
any level for the other groups.

Relating Attitudes and
Change Proneness

 

 

H—5.--High frequency Of contact with members Of the

 

 

Opposite race will be associated with positive attitudes

toward members Of the Opposite race on each of the levels

 

of the ABS:BW/WN-L if high frequency is concurrent with

 

(a) alternative rewarding Opportunities (gain), (b) ease
of avoidance of contact, (c) enjoyment of the contact,

and (d) kind Of contact.

 

The hypothesis for contact and favorableness Of atti-
tudes toward the Opposite race was well supported by the
data (Tables 11 through 17). The multiple correlation co-
efficients for each group, relating all contact variables
to the ABS:BW/WN-L levels (Tables 11 through 17), indicate
a high positive relationship at most levels.

The multiple R was significant (Table 11) for Black
police at all but the feeling level. At the normative and

moral evaluation levels the multiple R's were .65 and .66.

46

These correlations reached the acceptable level of signifi-
cance.

While a negative .50 partial correlation, significant
at .01, was Obtained between enjoyment and societal norm,
positive partial correlations Of .63 and .43, significant
at the .001 and .03 level, existed between the moral evalua-
tion and the hypothetical behavior and the enjoyment
variable.

The multiple R's (Table 12) for the WP group reached
the .05 level of significance or better on all but the
stereotypic and moral evaluation levels. An acceptable
level Of significance was not reached for the multiple R's
at those levels Of the ABS:BW/WN-L. A significant (.02)
partial correlation (.30) between enjoyment and hypotheti-
cal behavior was found. NO other significant partial cor-
relations were found for the WP group.

A significant (.05 or better) multiple R (Table 13)
was Obtained for the BC group at all six levels of the ABS.
It appears that the Black Church members as well as the
other groups respond favorably to the opposite race when
contact is concurrent with other factors.

Significant multiple R's (Table 14) Of .25 or better
were obtained for the WC group at all six levels Of the
ABS. A significant (.03) partial correlation (.47) was.
obtained between kind of contact and level 6 (action). A
Significant (.0005) partial correlation (.73) was Obtained

with amount Of contact and hypothetical behavior. The

47

independent variable of enjoyment provided the following
interesting data: (a) significant (.01) partial correla-
tion (.56) at the moral evaluation level, (b) negative
partial correlation (—.64) at the hypothetical behavior
level, and (c) negative partial correlation (-.52) at the
action level. The White church members think that morally
they should enjoy contact with the Opposite race but hypo-
thetically they don't think that they would enjoy dealing
with Blacks, and their actions have borne out the negative
beliefs. Implications Of cognitive dissonance exist within
the group.

The multiple R's for BC and WC groups are nearly the
same at all levels of the ABS. But the multiple R for
the BP and WP groups were dissimilar. H-S was, however,
still confirmed for almost all levels Of the ABS:BW/WN-L.

While H-5 was confirmed for the total police (Table 15)
at all but the moral evaluation level, it was confirmed for
the total church (Table 16) at all levels. An analysis of
the data for the entire sample (Table 17) indicates signi-
ficance levels of .05 or better for the multiple R was Ob-

tained at every level except the societal norm.

H-6.--There is a_positive relationshlp between a hlgh
score on change_proneness and high attitude score.

Change proneness is represented by variables 15-19
of Table 22. A series of Pearson product-moment correla-

tions are used to determine the relationship between change

48

proneness and attitudes toward the Opposite race on each of
the six levels of the ABS.

Significant results for the WC group between the child
rearing aspect Of change proneness and the feeling levels
of the ABS were Obtained (Table 18). Significant results
for this group were also Obtained between the prejudice-
component aspect of change proneness and the moral evalua-
tion level of the ABS.

A negative correlation for the BP group was Obtained
between the birth control aspect of change proneness and
the action level Of the ABS.

For the WP group the prejudice-component aspect Of

change orientation are related to: (a) stereotype (.39,
sig.= .002), (b) societal norm (r = .25, Sig. = .04), and
(c) moral evaluation (r = .37, Sig. = .003) levels.

The hypothesis that change orientation is positively
related to favorable attitudes toward the opposite race
was confirmed for several aspects of change orientation
and certain levels Of the ABS for the WC, BP, WP, TP, and
the total group. For the WC group, the best predictor
seems to be the child rearing aspect of change orientation.
For the BP group, the best predictor seems to be the birth
control aspect. For the WP group, the prejudice component
seems to be the best predictor. It appears that for each
group a different aspect of change proneness is the best

correlate or determinant Of attitudes.

49

Relating Attitudes and
Group Membership

 

 

H—7.--Persons who admire more conservative characters.

will have more negative attitudes toward the opposite race.
The statement Of this hypothesis suggests the expec-
tation Of significant negative correlations (Table 19).
The BP group had a significant (.03) correlation (-.67)
with the conservatism variable and the moral evaluation
level of the ABS. The WC group had a significant (.005)
correlation (-.55) with the conservatism variable at the
normative level.

For the total police group significant results were

obtained at the stereotypic (r = .65, sig. = .0005), norma—
tive (r = —.33, Sig. = .002), and the moral evaluation
(r = -.49, Sig. = .0005) levels with the independent vari-

able conservatism.

The greater number of significant results shown in
the total police group than in either the BP group or the
WP group demonstrates the effects Of homogeneous groups
discussed in Chapter V. This effect is even more pro-
nounced in the large number Of significant results found
in the total group. The only level Of the total group
for which the required Significance level Of .05 was not
Obtained was level 2, normative.

Although significance was reached at many levels, as
discussed above, H—7 was confirmed for only one research

group, i.e., the BP group.

50

H-8.-—Black members of the Church of God will haye
higher attitude scores than Black policemen, Black police-
men will have higher attitude scores than White members
Of the Church Of God, White members Of the Church of God
will have higher attitude scores than White_policemen to-

ward the Opposite race.

 

The multiple means test discussed in Chapter III was
used to analyze the difference between the attitudes of
Black Police, White Police, Black Church Members, and White
Church Members of the Opposite race on each of the six
levels of the ABS:BW/WN-L. The hypothesized direction was
not achieved at any level (Table 20 and Figure 2). Conse-
quently the hypothesis was not confirmed. However, for
four levels Of the ABS:BW/WN-L, the groups differed as
follows:

1. Stereotype: The groups differed (Table 20) at
the .0005 level but not in the direction hypothesized. The
direction in which the groups did differ is shown in Figure 2,
and the pairs-of—groups that differed from each other, at
the .05 level as a result of the multiple means test, are
shown in Table 21.

2. Normative: The groups differed (Table 20) at
the .0005 level but not in the direction hypothesized. The
direction in which the groups did differ is shown in Figure 2,
and the pairs-Of-groups that differed from each other, at
the .05 level as a result Of the multiple means test, are

shown in Table 21.

51

3. Moral Evaluation: The groups differed (Table 20)
at the .0005 level but not in the direction hypothesized.
The direction in which the groups did differ is shown in
Figure 2, and the pairs-of—groups that differed from each
other, at the .05 level as a result Of the multiple means
test, are shown in Table 20.

4. Action: The groups differed (Table 20) at the
.0005 level but not in the direction hypothesized. The
direction in which the groups did differ is shown in
Figure 2, and the pairs-of—groups that differed from each
other, at the .05 level as a result Of the multiple means

test, are shown in Table 20.

Simplex Approximation

 

H-9.—-The ABS:BW[WN-L scale levels will form a Guttman
simplex for each Of the research groups.

An approximate Guttman simplex was formed for all
four research groups (Table 21). Examination Of Matrices
21.1 through 21.8 in Table 21 reveals that correlations
between the six levels tend to decrease in relation to the
number of steps that two levels are removed from each other.

The g2 value for the Black Police group's original
matrix (Matrix 21.1) was .74 compared with a best Q? value
of .92. Although the original matrix had an acceptable
value Of .74, there was a rather large difference from

the best order simplex value Of .92. The differ-

ence of .18 indicates a better simplex order than the

52

hypothesized or original simplex was Obtained by the re—
ordering procedure Of Kaiser.

The value for the White Police group's original
matrix (Matrix 21.3) was .90 compared with the best order
matrix's (Matrix 32.4) value of .92. The difference Of
.02 between the g2 value for original matrix and best
order matrix was very small. The difference Of .02 indi-
cates a better simplex order than the hypothesized one was
obtained by the reordering procedure of Kaiser.

The Q2 value of .73 for the original Black Church
group matrix (Matrix 21.5) was .22 less than the best
ordered matrix 92 value (Matrix 21.6) of .95. This in-
crease Of .22 indicates a better Simplex order than the
hypothesized one was Obtained by the reordering procedure
Of Kaiser.

The 92 for the best ordered matrix Of the White
Church group (Matrix 21.8) value was .85, an increase of
.02 over the original matrix's (Matrix 21.7) value Of .83.
This increase Of .02 indicates a better order than the
hypothesized one was Obtained by the reordering procedure
Of Kaiser.

Hypothesis H-9 was confirmed for all four groups.

Summary

A variation Of the Hoyt procedure for determining
reliability was used to determine the reliability of the

ABS:BW/WN-L for the four research groups. The reliability

53

was acceptable at the moral evaluation and action levels
for all groups. In addition, reliabilities were acceptable
at the hypothetical behavior and the feeling levels for the
WC group and at the normative level for the BC group.

While hypotheses l, 2, 3, and 8 were not confirmed,
hypotheses 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9 were confirmed at different
levels for some or all groups. Hypothesis 4 was confirmed
at the moral evaluation level for the WP and TP groups.

H—S was confirmed at most levels for all groups. Although
the results for the Black and White church groups were
similar, the results for the Black and White police groups
were dissimilar for H-5. For H-6 the child rearing com-
ponent was confirmed at level 5 (feeling) for the WC group.
The prejudice component Of H-6 was confirmed for the WP
group at the moral evaluation level. H-7 was confirmed for
the BP group at the moral evaluation level. H-9 was con-

firmed for all four research groups.

54

TABLE 6.—-Hoyt reliability coefficients1
of the ABS:BW/WN-L and the four research groups.

for the six levels

 

 

Levels of ABS BP2 WP BC WC
1. Societal Stereotype 18 56 33 26
2. Societal Norm 37 44 70 2O
3. Personal Moral Evaluation 80 71 57 83
4. Personal Hypothetical 21 36 30 89
Behavior
5. Personal Feeling 15 45 15 80
6. Personal Action 68 65 75 7O

 

lDecimals omitted.

2BP = Black Police
WP = White Police
BC = Black Church Members
WC = White Church Members

55

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mcoHueHoHHOOII.OH msmde

60

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66

 

 

 

 

 

 

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67

 

 

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one

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68

 

 

 

 

 

 

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(39

 

 

 

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND IMPLICATIONS

In the summary section of this chapter, a review of
the research purpose, instrumentation, and design and
analysis will be presented. Next, a discussion Of the
results of the study as they relate to each of the sub-
stanstive hypotheses will be presented. Recommendations
for further research will be presented, and finally,

implication of the study will be presented.

Summary Of the Study

Mejor Purpose

 

The major aim of this study was to investigate re-
lationships between constructs such as contact and the
obtained attitudinal scores of four racial groups: Black
Police, White Police, Black Church Members, and White
Church Members. Another purpose was to assess the predic-
tive validity of hypothesized determinants Of attitudes
including demographic factors, socio-psychological factors,
and contact factors. A comparison of the attitudes of
church members with those Of police was another aim of the

study.

70

71

Instrumentation

 

The criterion instrument used in this study--the
ABS:BW/WN—-was constructed according to Guttman's facet
theory which Specifies that an attitude universe can be
substructured into components which are systematically
related according to the number of identical conceptual
elements they hold in common. Facet design permits the
construction Of a scale by a semantic, logical, a priori
technique and the prediction of the order structure re-
sulting from empirical application.

Guttman defined attitude as "a delimited totality
of behavior with reSpect to something" (1950a, p. 51) and
proposed that three semantic facets, each containing two
elements, could account for an eight permutation attitude
universe. Only four permutations were semantically consis-
tent however, and these four permutations or attitude
levels adequately accounted for the item content used in
an earlier research effort. Guttman named these levels:
(a) Stereotype, (b) Norm, (c) Hypothetical Interaction,
and (d) Personal Interaction. Each of the three facets
contained a weak and a strong element and the four levels
showed a progression from a weak to a strong form of be-
havior with one additional strong element appearing on
each level.

Thus, no strong elements appeared on the Stereotype

level and each succeeding level contained one more strong

72

element than its predecessor until the Personal Interaction
level contained all strong elements. Guttman's Contiguity
Hypothesis states that attitude item levels close to each
other in the semantic scale of their definitions will also
be close statistically and the resulting matrix of attitude
level correlations will assume a simplex ordering. If the
four levels defined above were plotted from left to right
and from tOp to bottom in a correlation matrix, a perfect
simplex would exhibit descending absolute values of coeffi-
cients moving down the column and ascending values moving
from left to right in the rows. When Guttman rearranged
the earlier data according to the semantic structural con-
nicerations of facet theory, the predicted simplex rela-
tionship was essentially maintained, with only one order
reversal occurring.

Jordan accepted Guttman's three facets but included
two others to form a six level paradigm of attitude struc-
ture. Again, each facet contained a weak and a strong
element and each level contained one more strong element
than its predecessor. Jordan's six levels were (a) Societal
Stereotype, (b) Societal Interactive Norm, (c) Personal
Moral Evaluation, (d) Personal Hypothetical Behavior, (e)
Personal Feelings, and (f) Personal Action. This struc—
tural model of attitudes is termed joint struction while
additional facets accounting for specific item content is

termed lateral struction. A six level attitude scale

73

measuring attitudes toward the Opposite race--the ABS:BW/WN——
was constructed from a mapping sentence. The final scale
contained a total of eight items on each level.

Hamersma (1969), one of the scale develOpers, claimed
that extreme care was taken in relation to validity and
reliability of the ABS. Simplex ordering was obtained by
Hamersma (1969), Erb (1969), and Dell Orto (1970) as pre-
dicted by facet theory and it was felt that this theory
and the mapping sentences which follow from it particularly
enhance content validity. The ABS:BW/WN differentiated
between the groups and this was interpreted as providing

concurrent validity.

Eeliability

 

The results Of Hoyt's technique for determining re-
liability showed wide variance in the present study for
both the BC and BP groups between the levels of the ABS.
The variance may be indicative Of the total Black community
being in the throes of an "identity-crisis." The Black
man, it appears, wants to determine his own identity.

While on the surface this suggests a collective Black iden—
tity, the net effect is just the opposite of a collective
identity. Each person determines whether he likes members
Of the Opposite race and the intensity of his likes or dis—
likes.

White policemen with a reliability coefficient of .45

(Table 7) at the feeling level demonstrate relative

74

uncertainty of their feelings about Blacks. In comparing
the WP group and WC groups to the BP and BC groups, the
former groups have much higher reliability coefficients.

Considering the reliability by levels of the ABS, the
Moral Evaluation and the Action levels were the most reli-
able for this study. This means that all four groups are
reliable in what they say they "should" do and what they
”actually" do. High reliability for the White Church group
exists at levels 3 through 6. The behavior end of the con-
tinuum at which these levels fall is the more important end.

The findings of this study are therefore acceptably
reliable at the Moral Evaluation and Action levels for
all groups; and at levels 4 through 6 for the White Church
group.

A questionnaire containing measures Of the independent
variables of the study was also described. Among the items
in this questionnaire were measures of (a) demographic
variables, (b) change proneness--a series of questions used
in an earlier study, (c) opinions on educational aid and
planning, (d) contact with members Of the Opposite race,
and (e) Efficacy--a scale designed to measure attitudes
toward man's effectiveness in the face of his natural envi-

ronment.

Design and Analysis

 

The ABS:BW/WN-L was administered to samples from a

major midwestern police department and the results were

75

compared tO church members from two Church Of God congre-
gations. Sixty-one of 100 randomly selected White police-
men returned the questionnaire and were used in the study.
Twenty-seven Black policemen from a total of 47 in the
department returned the questionnaire and were used in the
study. Fifty members of a Black congregation Of the Church
Of God were administered the questionnaire after church
services on Sunday, June 28, 1970. The questionnaire was
passed out to members of a White congregation. Twenty-
four, approximately 50 per cent of those who received the
questionnaire, returned it.

The police samples appear adequate for making in-
ferences to this particular police department. Because
the church groups were surveyed based on those members
present at a given service, generalizability is limited
to persons who attend those services.

A total of seven major hypotheses were formulated
which were based on previous research. Two additional
hypotheses were developed based on police as a particular
pOpulation. The nine hypotheses will be listed later in
the chapter along with the results Of the analysis.

The data obtained were analyzed by computer at
Michigan State University. Product-moment, partial, and
multiple correlations procedures were used to test the.
various hypotheses, as were one—way analysis of variance

and a multiple mean test. A variation of the Hoyt analysis

76

of variance technique for testing reliability was also

used. In addition, a Simplex approximation test was used
which produces a descriptive statistic (g2) for obtained
attitude level matrices and matrices‘reordered into a "best"
simplex order, deSpite some Obvious limitations because no
better alternative procedure was available. The .05 level
of significance was accepted with awareness of the danger

of Type I errors due to problems of the initial stages of

the facet theory development in the study Of attitudes.

Discussion

 

A discussion of the testing of each hypothesis follows.
On several of the correlational hypotheses the individual
sample groups were relatively homogeneous with respect to
the predictor variables, while at the same time differ-
ences between the groups on these variables Showed up in
the correlations for the total sample.

Relating Attitudes and
Demographic Variables

 

 

H-l.--Age is negetively related to unfavorable atti-

 

tudes toward the dpposite race.

 

Significant correlations were Obtained for both the
BC and the TG groups. However, the correlations were posi-
tive rather than negative. Significant correlations were
not Obtained for any other groups.

A possible interpretation Of this finding is that

older Blacks have more favorable attitudes toward the

77

Opposite race. However, the low reliability of the BC
group at this level does not permit us to accept any inter-

pretation with much certainty.

H-2.--Amount of education is positively related to_

favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race.

 

Amount of education was negatively and significantly
related to the moral evaluation level of the ABS for the
TP group. This suggests that the more education policemen
have, the less they think Should be done for the Opposite
race.

A Significant correlation was achieved at the feeling
level for the BC and TG groups. Negative correlations were
obtained at the stereotypic and normative levels for the
BC group which was in direct Opposition to the positive
correlation obtained at the feeling level. This may sug-
gest that more educated Black church members think that
other Blacks (levels 1 and 2) have negative attitudes to-
ward the Opposite race. At the same time these Black church
members have more positive feelings (level 5) toward the
Opposite race as they become more educated.

The BC group had negative relationships between age
and attitudes at the stereotypic and normative levels and
positive relationships at the feeling level. The strength
of the relationship at the stereotypic and feeling levels
was quite low, while at the normative level for the BC

group it was within the acceptable range.

78

H—3.--Number of years in military service is posi-

tively related to favorable attitudes toward the opposite

 

£22-

The belief that military discipline and simulated
(training) or real (battlefield) conditions increase de-
pendence on others appears to be erroneous when the others
are members of the Opposite race. The number Of years in
military service did not relate to the ABS at any level.

The present racial problems existing within police
departments as well as those which presently exist within
the military service may be the cause of the failure to

find significance for this variable.

Relating Attitudes and Values

 

H—4.-—There is a positive relationship between high

 

efficacy scores andgpositive attitudes toward the Opposite

 

race.

 

For the TP group there was a significant relationship
between efficacy and the moral evaluation level of the ABS.
This suggests that policemen who feel a sense Of control
over their environment think that they ought to feel posi-
tively about the Opposite race.

Although the Black policemen who felt a sense of
control of their environment indicated that they felt posi—
tively toward Whites, the low reliability for the BP group
at the feeling level does not permit much faith in this

finding.

79

H-5.--High frequency_of contact with members of the
Opposite race will be associated with positive attitudes
toward members of the Opposite race on each of the levels
of the ABS:BW/WN if high frequency is concurrent with (a)
alternative rewarding Opportunities (gain), (b) ease of
avoidance of contact, (c) enjoyment Of the contact, and (d)

kind of contact.

 

The contact variable was confirmed as a predictor of
attitudes for all groups at almost every level of the
ABS:BW/WN-L. The findings of BrOphy (1954) and Carter and
Mitchell (1955-56) are supported by these findings. Even
more important is the support given to studies using facet
analysis in studying attitudes toward the mentally retarded
(Morin, 1970; Harrelson, 1970; Jordan, 1968). In these
studies it was emphasized that contact per se must be con-
current with other factors in order to predict attitudes.
Erb (1969), Hamersma (1969) and Dell Orto (1970) found that
contact, when associated with certain concurrent factors,
was a determinant of positive attitudes.

An experimental study using the four concurrent fac-
tors which enabled us to Obtain significant partial corre-
lations as independent variables could shed some light on
the real importance of these factors. The concurrent fac-
tors are (a) alternative rewarding Opportunities (gain),

(b) ease of avoidance, (c) enjoyment of the contact, and

 

 

(d) kind Of contact.

80

Relating_Attitudes and

. '_ .—_— ”—

Ehange Proneness

 

 

H—6.--There is a positive relationship between a

 

high schore on change orientation and high attitude score.

 

Although significant relationships were Obtained for
the WC group between the child rearing aspect of change
orientation and the stereotypic normative and feeling
levels, only the relationship at the feeling level was
reliable. This indicates that White Church Members who
believe in trying new methods of child rearing reliably
report positive feelings toward Blacks.

The question arises whether methods Of child rearing
ar~ related to racial feelings or whether persons with
th-se feelings rear their children in a less rigid manner.
The assumption is that a person who can be conditioned to
change to more liberal child rearing practices can also be
changed to more liberal or positive feelings toward the
opposite race. A study could be conducted on the effects
of liberalizing child rearing practices and attitudes
toward the opposite race.

Relating Attitudes and
Group Membership

 

 

H-7.-—Persons who admire more conservative characters
will have more negative attitudes toward the Opposite race.

The conservatism variable displayed the effects of
homogeneity within groups discussed earlier. This was

demonstrated in that expected negative correlations were

81

obtained only at the moral evaluation level with the BP
group and at the normative level with the WC group but, for
the total police group, significant results were Obtained
at the stereotypic, normative, and moral evaluation level.
For the total group, significant correlations were ob-
tained at all except the normative level. The correlation

(-.l4) at the normative level approached significance (.08).

H—8.--Black members of the Church Of God will have

 

higher attitude scores than Black policemen; Blackypolice—

men will have higher attitude scores than White members Of

 

the Church of God; White members of the Church of God will

have higher attitude scores than White Policemen.

 

The hypothesized direction for the multiple means test
used to test this hypothesis was not confirmed at any level.
The direction of this hypothesis was based primarily on the
report by Hamersma (1969, p. 45) that:
. . . the Negro is generally more flexible and favor-
able in his attitudes toward Whites than Whites are
toward Negroes (Brink & Harris, 1964, Proenza &
Strickland, 1965; Brink & Harris, 1967; CBS News
Public Opinion Survey, 1968; National Advisory Com-
mission on Civil Disorders, 1968; et al.).

However, the results of this study did not support the

findings cited by Hamersma.

Very significant results were found for four levels
of the ABS (Table 20 and Figure 2). The moral evaluation

level which was found to be reliable for all groups had

means ordered significantly (<.0005) as follows: WC > WP >

82

 

Hypothesized Levels Obtained

Direction Direction

BC>BP>WC>WP l. Societal BP>BC>WC>WP
Stereotype

BC>BP>WC>WP 2. Societal Norm WC>WP>BC>BP

BC>BP>WC>WP 3. Personal Moral WC>WP>BC>BP
Evaluative

BC>BP>WC>WP 4. Personal WC>WP>BP>BC
Hypothetical
Behavior

BC>BP>WC>WP 5. Personal WC>BP>WP>BC
Feeling

BC>BP>WC>WP 6. Personal Action WP>BP>BC>WC

Fig. 2.--Hypothesized and obtained directions of means
for the research groups at each Of the six levels Of the
ABS:BW/WN-L.

BC > BP (Figure 2). Replications of the study using the
above order as the predicted direction of means is suggested.

White church members tend to be more favorable toward
the other three research groups (Table 21, Figure 2) at the
normative, moral evaluation, hypothetical behavior, and
feeling levels. Black police tend to be more favorable
toward each of the other three research groups at the
stereotypic level; and White police tend to be more favor-

able toward each Of the other three groups at the action

level.

Simplex Approximation Test
H-9.--The ABS:BW/WN-L scale levels will form a Guttman

simplex for each of the racial groups.

83

The Guttman simplex was approximated for the four re-
search groups. An interpretation based on the Jordan-
Guttman paradigm of the nature of attitudes is that the
object-subject relationship between each of the levels of
the ABS:BW/WN-L is ordered on a continuum of increasing
strength. The simplex approximation indicates that the
structure of the ABS:BW/WN-L is as postulated and presents

data for the construct validity Of the scale.

Recommendations for Further Research

 

Attitude Change Experiment

 

The ABS:BW/WN-L should be used as a criterion in a
study designed to determine if some experimentally manipu~
lated treatment is able to change attitudes of a randomly
selected sample of policemen toward members of the Opposite
race. Emphasis at this time would be placed on the moral
evaluation and action levels of the ABS. Such a study
could use a posttest-only control group design:

R X 01

R 02

Scale Validation

 

A survey of random samples of policemen, military
personnel, church groups (donominations), and other groups
need to be conducted. The Hoyt and Kuder-Richardson 20
reliability determining procedures should be used. The
Kaiser test and other appropriate measures may be used

to determine construct validity.

84

Replications

 

The present study could be replicated using other
police departments and church groups. This could test the

credibility of the finding in the present study.

Implications Of the Study

 

The following factors should be considered in pro-
grams designed to change attitudes of policemen:

1. More attention should be given to concurrent
factors involved in contact of policemen with the opposite
race. The concurrent factors involved in contact are (a)
alternative rewarding Opportunities (gaig), (b) ease Of

avoidance of the contact, (c) enjoyment of contact, and

 

 

(d) kind of contact.

2. Training of policemen should include the develop-
ment of a strong self-concept. This would assist police
in feeling a sense of control over his environment.

While the following observations do not necessarily
flow from the data, they were judged to be important by
the researcher.

Aside from the statistical findings which were dis-
cussed in this thesis, the scale elicited unusual statements
in answer to some questions. For example, one White police-
man gave the following answers to certain questions:

Question: I would respect law and order if main-
tained by Negroes.

Foils: 1. No
2. Undecided
3. Yes

Answer
Question:

Foils:

Answer

Question:

85

added by policeman: "Most Negro policemen

are a laZy lot."

When Negro policemen treat Whites worse
than Negroes, I feel:

1. Bad
2. Indifferent
3. Good

added by policeman: "The nigger is pre—

judiced."

How have'you generally felt about your
experiences with Negroes?

Foils: 1. No experience
2. I definitely dislike it
3. I did not like it very much
4. I like it somewhat
5. I definitely enjoyed it
Answer added by policeman: "If I never saw

another Negro the rest of my life, it

would be too soon."

Another White officer in answer to the question said:

Question:

Foils:

Whites are victims of "police brutality":

1. Less than Negroes
2. About the same as Negroes
3. More than Negroes

Answer added by policeman: "Feel question to be

in error and will not acknowledge it with
an answer.“

It seems that added comments tell us something about

the racial attitude of the respondent, especially in cases

where strongly positive or derogatory statements about the

Opposite race are made.

An elderly lady from the White Church Group had this

to say about the questionnaire:

86

I am sorry I took this questionnaire. I am
an elderly person and I cannot think it through so
as to answer it intelligently.

I can and will tell however, how I have always,
and still do feel about the Negro race. I feel
they have been underprivileged and looked down on in
many locations far too much and too long. I have
Often said, and for many years, had we, the white
race, been treated as the Negroes have, I think most
of us would have rebelled long ago more than they
have. I feel that as we are all a part of God's
creation, we are equal in His sight and we should
feel that equality toward one another.

I have met and conversed with quite a number
Of their race through the years and found them to
be wonderful neighbors and friends. God made flowers
of many colors to beautify this world of his, and
to me a dark, dark rose is as beautiful as a white
one, so let us all strive to live peacefully, showing
due respect for one another.

REFERENCES

87

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88

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90

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Guttman, L. The Cornell technique for scale and intensity
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Guttman, L. An outline of some new methodology for social
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Guttman, L. What lies ahead for factor analysis. Educa-
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Likert, R. A technique for the measurement of attitudes.
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APPENDICES

96

APPENDIX A.l

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE: B/W-L

97

98

 

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE - BW-L

DIRECTIONS

This booklet contains statements of how people behave in certain situations
or feel about certain things. You yourself or other Black persons often
behave in the same way toward Whites. You also have some general ideas
about yourself, about other Black persons like you, and about Whites. Some-
times you feel or behave the same way toward everyone, and sometimes you
feel or behave differently toward Whites.

 

This questionnaire has statements about ideas and about behavior. Each state-
ment of this questionnaire is different from every other section, although
some of the statements in each section are similar. Your answers in one
section, therefore, may be the same as answers in another section, or your
answers may differ from section to section. Here is a sample statement:

Sample 1
1. Chance of Whites being taller

SE) less chance than Blacks
about the same
3. more chance than Blacks

If other Blacks believe that Whites have less chance than Blacks tO be
taller, you should circle the number 1 as shown above or if you are using
an IBM answer sheet make a heavy dark line on the answer sheet between the
two lines after the number as follows:

 

1- 1 - 2 ::::: 3 ::::: 4 ::::: 5 :::::

***************** DO NOT pUT YOUR NAN-1E ON THE BOOKLET ******************

by: John E. Jordan
Richard J. Hamersma
College of Education
Michigan State University

112270

Directions:

This section contains statements about ideas which mostfother Blgpks have
Circle or fill in the answer sheet number that indicates
how other Blacks compare themselves with Blacks .

about Whites .

OtheriBLacks‘believe the following things about Blacks as compared to

Whites :

1.

3.

ABS-I-BW‘L

Section I

Blacks believe in law and order

1. more than Whites

2. about the

same as Whites

3. less than Whites

Blacks believe that White policemen treat them

1. fairer than they treat Whites

2. about the
3. less fair

same as they treat Whites
than they treat Whites

Black policemen are prejudiced

1. less thanWhite policemen

2. about the

same as White policemen

3. more than White policemen

Blacks believe that the police are their enemies

1. less often than Whites believe this

2. about as often as Whites

3. more Often than Whites believe this

Blacks resist

1. less than
2. about the
3. more than

Blacks ignore
1. less than

2. about the
3. more than

arrest

Whites

same as Whites
Whites

the rights of others

Whites

same as Whites
Whites

Blacks drink when driving

1. less than
2. about the
3. more than

Whites
same as Whites
Whites

Blacks are victims of "police brutality"

1. less than

Whites

2. about the same as Whites

3. more than

1 1 oovn

Whites

Please answer all questions.

believe this

Directions:

-3-

ABS-II-Bfl-L

Section II

This section contains statements about things which other Blacks like
you may believe about Whites. Please choose the answer that indicates
what you think others believe about Whites.

 

Most Blacks generally believe the following about Whites:

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Blacks believe

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Blacks believe
treat Whites

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Blacks believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Blacks believe
of Whites

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Blacks believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Blacks believe

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Blacks believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

BlaCkS believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

that Whites believe in law and order

that White policemen treat them less fairly than they

that White policemen are more prejudiced than Black ones

that the police are their enemies more than they are

in resisting arrest from White officials

they ignore the rights of Whites

Whites drink when driving more than Blacks do

they are victims of "police brutality" from Whites

-4-
ABS-III-BW-L
Directions: Section III

This section contains statements about ways in which you yourself should act
toward Whites. Please choose the answer that indicates how ygu feel you
should act or believe.

In respect to ‘Whites, do you yourself believe that it is usually right or
usually wrong:

17. To expect: Whites to believe in law and order is

1. usually wrong
2. undecided
3. usually right

18. To expect Blacks to believe that White policemen treat them less fairly
. than they treat Whites is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

19. To expect Blacks to believe that White Policemen are prejudiced is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

20. To expect Blacks to believe that police are their enemies more than they
are of Whites is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

21. To expect Blacks to resist arrest from White officials is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

22. To expect Blacks to ignore the right of Whit-as is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

23. To expect Whites to drink more than Blacks do when driving is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

24. To expect Blacks to be the victims of "police brutality" from Whites is

1. usually right
2. undecided

3!. “snarlv mono

-5-

ABS-IV-BW-L

Directions: Section IV

This section contains statements about how you think_you would act toward

 

”Whites Choose the answer that indicates how you think you would act.
In respect to a.White person would you yourself:
25. I would respect law and order if maintained by' Whites?
1. no
2. undecided
3. yes
26. I would want White policemen to treat me the same as they treat Whites ?
1. no
2. undecided
3. yes
27. I would feel as safe with a White policeman as a Black policeman?
1. no
2. undecided
3. yes
28. I would believe that the police were my enemies if they were White‘?
1. no
2. undecided
3. yes
29. I would resist arrest if arrested by Whites?
1. yes
2. undecided
3. no
30. I would ignore the rights of Whites‘?
1. yes
2. undecided
3. no
31. I would drink when driving more than Whites do?
1. yes
2. undecided
3. no
32. I would expect "police brutality" from WhiteS?

1. yes
2. undecided
3.

no

1 1flfl'ln

~6-
ABS -V- BW-L
Directions: Section V

This section concerns actual feelings that Black peOple may have about Whites.
You are asked to indicate how you feel about the following statements.

 

How do you actually feel toward Whites:

33. When Whites believe in law and order with Blacks I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

34. When White policemen treat Blacks worse than they treat Whites I feel
1. satisfied
2. indifferent
3. dissatisfied

35. When Blacks believe that Whitepolicemen are prejudiced I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

36. lfluni Whites believe that the police are their enemies less than they
are of Blacksl feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

37. When Whites resist arrest the same as Blacks I feel
1. discontent
2. indifferent

3. content

38. When the rights Of Whites are ignored by Blacks I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

39. When Whites drink more than Blacks do when driving I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

40. When Whites use ”police brutality" the same as Blacks do I feel

1. bad

2. indifferent
3. good

-6-
ABS -V- BW-L
Directions: Section V

This section concerns actual feelings that Black people may have about Whites.
You are asked to indicate how you feel about the following statements.

 

How do you actually feel toward Whites:

33. When Whites believe in law and order with Blacks I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

34. When White policemen treat Blacks worse than they treat Whites I feel
1. satisfied
2. indifferent
3. dissatisfied

35. When Blacks believe that Whitepolicemen are prejudiced I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

36. lflun: Whites believe that the police are their enemies less than they
are of BlacksI feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

37. When Whites resist arrest the same as Blacks I feel
1. discontent
2. indifferent

3. content

38. When the rights of Whites are ignored by Blacks I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

39. When Whites drink more than Blacks do when driving I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

40. When Whites use "police brutality" the same as Blacks do I feel

1. bad

2. indifferent
3. good

-6-
ABS -V- BW-L
Directions: Section V

This section concerns actual feelings that Black people may have about Whites.
You are asked to indicate how ypu feel about the following statements.

How do you actually feel toward Whites:

33. When Whites believe in law and order with Blacks I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

34. When White policemen treat Blacks worse than they treat Whites I feel
1. satisfied
2. indifferent
3. dissatisfied

35. When Blacks believe that Whitepolicemen are prejudiced I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

36. lflunl Whites believe that the police are their enemies less than they
are of BlacksI feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

37. When Whites resist arrest the same as BlacksI feel
1. discontent
2. indifferent

3. content

38. When the rights of Whites are ignored by Blacks I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

39. When Whites drink more than Blacks do when driving I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

40. When Whites use "police brutality" the same as Blacks do I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

Directions:

-7-

ABS-VI-BW-L

 

Section VI

 

This section concerns actual experiences you have had with Whites.

 

Try to

answer the following questions from the knowledge of your experiences.

Experiences 2; contacts with Whites:

 

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

 

I have obeyed laws that were main— 47.

tained by Whites

no eXperience
no

uncertain

yes

DWNH

I have received unfair treatment 48.

from White policemen

1. no eXperience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

I have seen that White policemen
are prejudiced

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

From my experiences I believe that
police are my enemy more than they
are of Whites

1 no experience
2 yes

3. uncertain

4 no

I have resisted arrest by Whites

1. no eXperience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

I have seen that Blacks ignore the
rights of Whites

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4.

no

1 1007A

 

I have been drinking while driving
more than I think Whites do

1. no eXperience
2. no

3. uncertain

4. yes

I have been the victim of "police
brutality" from Whites

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

ABS: BW

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE - ABS-BW

This part of the questionnaire deals with many things. For the purpose of

this study, the answers of all persons are important.

Part of the questionnaire has to do with personal information about you.
Since the questionnaire is completely anonymous or confidential, you may
answer all of the questions freely without any concern about being indenti-

fied. It is important to the study to obtain your answer to every question.

Please read each question carefully and do not omit any questions. Please
answer by circling the answer or marking the space on the IBM answer sheet.
49. Please indicate your sex.
1. Female
2. Male

50. Please indicate your age as follows:

1. Under 25
2. 26-30
3. 31-40
4. 41-50

5. 51 - over
51. What is your marital status?
1. Married
2. Single
3. Divorced
4. Widowed

5. Separated

112270

ABS:

52. Police work is

l. exciting

2. rewarding

3. a job

4. unrewarding

5. dull

53. To which racial group do you belong?

l. Prefer not to answer

2. Black

3. Oriental

4. White

5. Other

54. When attempting to control riots, police should

1. use
2. use
3. use
4. use

5. use

more force

nonlethal chemical agents
reason

community leaders

whatever means appropriate at the time

55. Place of birth

1. Cincinnati

2. Ohio other than Cincinnati

3. Kentucky

4. Southern.United States

5. Northern United States

112270

CABS:
-3-
56. In what social class do you believe you belong
1. Lower
2. Lower middle
3. Middle
4. Upper middle
5. Upper
57. Number of years in military service
1. None
2. Less than 21 months
3. 21 to 36 months
4. 37 to 48 months
5. more than 48 months
58. Most time in military service was during which period
1. None
2. Before 1941
3. 1941-1949
4. 1950-1964
5. Since 1964
59. The factor contributing most to civil disorders are:
1. police patrol practices (misconduct)
2. breakdown in law and order
3. lack of communications
4. some people trying to get too much too fast

5. outside agitators

12270

_4_ ABS: BW

60. Most of your childhood was spent in
l. The inner city
2. The suburbs
3. A farming district
4. Integrated section of city
5. Segregated section of city
61. How Old were you when you got your first job?

1. 12 or under,

2. 13-15
3. 15-18
4. 19-21

5. 22 or older
62. Which would you admire the most?
1. Barry Goldwater
2. Richard Nixon
3. Nelson Rockefeller
4. Hubert Humphrey
5. Martin Luther King
63. What political affiliation do you hold?
1. Republican
2. Democrat
3. Independent

4. Other

112270

-5- ABS: BW

64. About how much education do you have?
1. 8 years of school or less
2. Between 9 and 12 years of school but did not graduate
3. Graduated from high school
4. Some college or university
5. A college or university degree
65. What is your religion?
1. I prefer not to answer
2. Catholic
3. Protestant
4. Jewish
5. Other
66. About how important is your religion to you in your daily life?
1. I prefer not to answer
2. I have no religion
3. Not very important
4. Fairly important
5. Very important

67. In respect to your religion, to what extent do you observe
the rules and regulations of your religion?

1. I prefer not to answer
2. I have no religion

3. Sometimes

4. Usually

5. Almost always

112270

68.

69.

70.

71.

-5- A33: BW

Some people feel that in bringing up children, new ways and
methods should be tried whenever possible. Others feel that
trying out new methods is dangerous. What is your feeling
about the following statement?

"New methods of raising children should be tried whenever
possible”

1. Strongly disagree

2. Slightly disagree

3. Slightly agree

4. Strongly agree

Family planning on birth control has been discussed by many
people. What is your feeling about a married couple practicing
birth control? DO you think they are doing something good or
bad? If you had to decide, would you say they are doing wrong,
or that they are doing right?

1. It is always wrong

2. It is usually wrong

3. It is probably right

4. It is always right

I find it easier to follow rules than to do things on my own.
1. Agree strongly

2. Agree slightly

3. Disagree slightly

4. Disagree strongly

How would you rate your own racial attitudes as compared to
the average person?

1. Very much more prejudiced
2. Somewhat more prejudiced
3. About the same

4. Somewhat less prejudiced

5. Very much less prejudiced

-7- ABS: BW

72. A policeman's best friend is his
1. Pistol
2. Night stick
3. Neighbor
4. Supervisor
5. Partner
73. What is the highest level you expect to attain on the force?
1. Patrolman
2. Specialist
3. Sergeant
4. Lieutenant or Captain
5. Assistant Chief or Chief

74. Only Black policemen should patrol black communities and only White
policemen should patrol white communities

1. All the time
2. Most of the time
3. Some of the time
4. Rarely
5. Never
75. The biggest reason for committing crime is
l. Heredity
2. Lack of fear 0f being punished
3. Poor home training
4. Poverty

5. Ignorance of the law

76. The
1.

2.

77. The

-3- ABS: BW

most important problem facing our nation today is
Riots

Student unrest

Taxation

Poverty

Education

rising rate of crime is due to
Lack of law enforcement
Inefficiency of courts
Coddling of criminals

Tying of hands of law officers

Lack of adequate training of policemen

78. Which of the following do you think would have the effect of
reducing racial prejudice in America?

79. The

Integration of schools

Publicity campaigns to promote integration
Fair employment legislation

Open housing legislation

Direct, personal contact between members of various
racial groups

best White policeman I know I would place in the

following percent of all good policemen I know:

1.

2.

112270

Lowest 20%
2nd 20%
3rd 20%
4th 20%

highest 20%

-9- ABS: BW

80. The following questions have to do with the kinds of experiences
you have had with Whites. If more than one experience applies,
please choose the answer with the highest number.

5.

I have read or studied about Whites through reading, movies,
lecture, or Observation.

A friend or relative is a White person

I have personally worked with Whites as a policemen,
a partner, etc.

Close friend or relative is married to a White

I am married to a White

81. Considering all of the times you have talked, worked, or in some
other way had personal contact with Whites, about how much has it
been altogether?

I.

5.

Only a few casual contacts
Between one and three months
Between three and six months
Between six months and one year

More than one year of contact

82. When you have been in contact with Whites, how easy for you, in
general, would you say it would have been to have avoided being

 

with them?

1. I have had no contact

2. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only at
great cost or difficulty

3. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only with
Considerable difficulty

4. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts but with
some inconvenience

5. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts without

112270

any difficulty or inconvenience.

-10- A38: BW

83. If you have ever worked with Whites for personal gain (for example,
for money or some other gain) what Opportunities did you have (or
do you have) to work at something else instead; that is, something
else that was (is) acceptable to you as a job?

1. No such experience

2. No other job available

3. Other jobs available not at all acceptable to me

4. Other jobs available were not guite acceptable to me
5. Other jobs available were fglly.acceptable to me

84. How have you generally felt about your experiences with Whites?
1. NO experience
2. I definitely dislike it
3. I did not like it very much

4. I like it somewhat

5. I definitely enjoyed it

112270

_11- ADD; DH

LIFE SITUATIONS

This section of the booklet deals with how people feel about several aspects
of life or life situations. Please indicate how you feel about each situation
by circling the answer you choose or marking on the IBM answer sheet.

85. It should be possible to eliminate 86. How sure do you feel about your

war once and for all answer?
1. strongly disagree 1. not sure at all
2. disagree 2. not very sure
3. agree 3. fairly sure
4. strongly agree 4. very sure
87. Success depends to a large part 88. How sure do you feel about your
on luck and fate answer?

1. strongly agree 1. not sure at all
2. agree 2. not very sure
3. disagree 3. fairly sure
4. strongly disagree 4. very sure
89. Someday most of the mysteries of 90. How sure do you feel about your
the world will be revealed by answer?
science
1. strongly disagree 1. not sure at all
2. disagree 2. not very sure
3. agree 3. fairly sure
4. strongly agree 4. very sure
91. By improving industrial and 92. How sure do you feel about your
agricultural methods, poverty can answer?
be eliminated in the world
1. strongly disagree 1. not very sure at all
2. disagree 2. not very sure
3. agree 3. fairly sure
4. strongly agree 4. very sure
93. With increased medical know- 94. How sure do you feel about your
ledge, it should be possible to answer?

lengthen the average life span
to 100 years or more

strongly disagree
. disagree

agree

. strongly agree

not very sure at all
not very sure

fairly sure

. very sure

war-l
wan—I
O.

95.

97.

99.

101.

103.

-12-

Someday the deserts will be con- 96.
verted into good farming land

by the application of engineering

and science

1. strongly disagree
2. disagree

3. agree

4.

strongly agree

Education can only help people 98.
develop their natural abilities;

it cannot change peOple in any
fundamental way.

strongly agree
agree

disagree

strongly disagree

bush):-
.0.

With hard work anyone can succeed. 100.

1. strongly disagree

2. disagree

3. agree

4. strongly agree

Almost every present human 102.
problem will be solved in the
future.

1. strongly disagree

2. disagree

3. agree

4. strongly agree

The racial problems of our 104.
large cities will be solved

since peOple are now work-

ing on them.

1. strongly disagree
2. disagree

3. agree

4.

strongly agree

112270

ABS: BW

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

kwNI—I

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

wav—I

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

«PWNH

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

J-‘LONH

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

not sure at all
not very sure,
fairly sure
very sure

waH
0..

APPENDIX A.2

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE: W/N-L

117

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE - WN-L
W

This booklet contains statements of how people behave in certain situations
or feel about certain things. You yourself or other White pegsogg Often
behave in the same way toward Negroes. You also have some general ideas
about yourself, about other White persons like you, and about Negroes. Some-
times you feel or behave the same way toward everyone, and sometimes you
feel or behave differently toward Negroes.

This questionnaire has statements about ideas and about behavior. Each state-
ment of this questionnaire is different from every other section, although
some of the statements in each section are similar. Your answers in one
section, therefore, may be the same as answers in another section, or your
answers may differ from section to section. Here is a sample statement:

Sample 1

l. Chance of Negroes being taller

9 less chance than Whites
. about the same

3. more chance than Whites

If other Whites believe that Negroes have less chance than Whites to be
taller, you should circle the number 1 as shown above or if you are using
an IBM answer sheet make a heavy dark line on the answer sheet between the
two lines after the number as follows:

1° 1 — 2 22:2: 3 2:22: 4 ----- 5 -----

*Mfiwtm. DO NOT PUT YOUR NAME ON THE BmKLET W

by: John E. Jordan
Richard J. Hamersma
College of Education
Michigan State University

112270

ABS-I-WN-L
Directions: Section I

This section contains statements about ideas which most other Whites have
about Negroes. Circle or fill in the answer sheet number that indicates
how other Whites compare themselves with Whites. Please answer all questions.

Other Whites believe the following things about Whites as compared to
Negroes:

1. Whites believe in law and order

1. more than Negroes
2. about the same as Negroes
3. less than Negroes

2. Whites believe that Negro policemen treat them

1. fairer than they treat Negroes
2. about the same as they treat Negroes
3. less fair than they treat Negroes

3. White policemen are prejudiced

1. less than Negro policemen
2. about the same as Negro policemen
3. more than Negro policemen

4. Whites believe that the police are their enemies

1. less often than Negroes believe this
2. about as often as Negroes believe this
3. more often than Negroes believe this

5. Whites resist arrest
1. less than Negroes

2. about the same as Negroes
3. more than Negroes

6. Whites ignore the rights of others
1. less than Negroes
2. about the same as Negroes
3. more than Negroes
7. Whites drink when driving
1. less than Negroes
2. about the same as Negroes

3. more than Negroes

8. Whites are victims of "police brutality"

. less than Negroes
about the same as Negroes
more than Negroes

wNv—i

[-a
1—0
'9
'N’
o

Directions:

-3-

ABS-II-WN-L

Section II

This section contains statements about things which other Whites like)
you may believe about Negroes. Please choose the answer that indicates
what you think others believe about Negroes.

Most Whites generally believe the following about Negroes:

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Whites believe

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Whites believe
treat Negroes

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Whites believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Whites believe
of Negroes

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Whites believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

Whites believe

1. disagree
2. undecided
3. agree

Whites believe

1. agree
2. Undecided
3. disagree

Whites believe

1. agree
2. undecided
3. disagree

112270

that Negroes believe in law and order

that Negro policemen treat them less fairly than they

that Negro policemen are more prejudiced than.White ones

that the police are their enemies more than they are

in resisting arrest from Negros officials

they ignore the rights of Negroes

Negroes drink when driving more than Whites do

they are victims of "police brutality" from Negroes

-4-

ABS-III-WN-L

Directions: Section III

This section contains statements about ways in which you yourself should act
toward Negroes. Please choose the answer that indicates how you feel you
should act or believe.

In respect to Negroes, do you yourself believe that it is usually right or
usually wrong:

17. To eXpect Negroes to believe in law and order is

1. usually wrong
2. undecided
3. usually right

18. To expect Whites to believe that Negro policemen treat them less fairly
than they treat Negroes is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

19. To expect Whites to believe that Negro policemen are prejudiced is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

20. To expect Whites to believe that police are their enemies more than they
are of Negroes is

1. usually right
2. undecided

3. usually wrong

21. To expect Whites to resist arrest from Negro officials is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

22. To expect Whites to ignore the right of Negroes is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

23. To expect Negroes to drink more than.Whites do when driving is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

24. To expect Whites to be the victims of "police brutality" from.Negroes is

1. usually right
2. undecided
3. usually wrong

-5-
ABS-IV-WN-L
Directions: Section IV

This section contains statements about how you thingyyog;would act toward
Negroes. Choose the answer that indicates how you think you would act.

In respect to a Negro person would you yourself:

25. I would respect law and order if maintained by Negroes?

1. no
2. undecided
3. yes

26. I would want Negro policemen to treat me the same as they treat Negroes?

1. no
2. undecided
3. yes

27. I would feel as safe with a Negro policeman as a White policeman?

1. no
2. undecided
3. yes

28. I would believe that the police were my enemies if they were Negroes?

1. no
2. undecided
3. yes

29. I would resist arrest if arrested by Negroes?

1. yes
2. undecided
3. no

30. I would ignore the rights of Negroes?

1. yes
2. undecided
3. no

31. I would drink when driving more than Negroes do?

1. yes
2. undecided
3. no

32. I would expect "police brutality" from Negroes?

1. yes
2. undecided
3. no

112270

~6-
ABS-V-WN-L
Directions: Section V

This section concerns actual feelings that White people may have about Negroes.
You are asked to indicate how you feel about the following statements.

How do you actually feel toward Negroes:

33. When Negroes believe in law and order with Whites I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

34. When Negro policemen treat Whites worse than they treat Negroes I feel
1. satisfied

2. indifferent
3. dissatisfied

35. When Whites believe that Negro policemen are prejudiced I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

36. When Negroes believe that the police are their enemies less than they
are of Whites I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

37. When Negroes resist arrest the same as Whites I feel
1. discontent
2. indifferent
3. content

38. When the rights of Negroes are ignored by Whites I feel

1. good
2. 'indifferent
3. bad

39. When Negroes drink more than Whites do when driving I feel

1. good
2. indifferent
3. bad

40. When Negroes use "police brutality" the same as Whites do I feel

1. bad
2. indifferent
3. good

112270

-7-

ABS-VI-WN-L

 

Directions: Section VI

This section concerns actual experiences you have had with Negroes. Try to
answer the following questions from the knowledge of your experiences.

 

Experience 2£_contacts with Negroes:

 

 

41. I have obeyed laws that were main- 47.

tained by Negroes

no experience
no

uncertain

yes

DWNH

42. I have received unfair treatment 48.

from Negro policemen

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

43. I have seen that Negro policemen
are prejudiced

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

44. From my experiences I believe that
police are my enemy more than they
are of Negroes

1. no eXperience
2. no

3. uncertain

4. yes

45. I have resisted arrest by Negroes

1. no experience
2. yes

3. uncertain

4. no

46. I have seen that Whites ignore the
rights of Negroes

1. no eXperience
2. yes
3. uncertain
4. no
112270

 

I have been drinking while driving
more than I think Negroes do

1. no experience
2. no

3. uncertain

4. yes

I have been the victim of "police
brutality" from Negroes

no experience
yes

uncertain

no

bWNH

Abb3IflJ

ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR scaly; - ABS-WN

This part of the questionnaire deals with many things. For the purpose of

this study, the answers of allypersons are important.

Part of the questionnaire has to do with personal information about you.
Since the questionnaire is completely anonymous or confidential, you may
answer all of the questions freely without any concern about being indenti-

fied. It is important to the study to obtain your answer to every question.

Please read each question carefully and do not omit any questions. Please
answer by circling the answer or marking the space on the IBM answer sheet.
49. Please indicate your sex.

1. Female

2. Male

50. Please indicate your age as follows:

1. Under 25
2. 26-30
3. 31-40
4. 41-50

S. 51 - over
51. What is your marital status?
1. Married
2. Single
3. Divorced
4. Widowed

S. Separated

112270

52. Police work is

S.

exciting
rewarding

a job
unrewarding

dull

53. To which racial group do you belong?

Prefer not to answer

Black

Oriental

White

Other

54. When attempting to control riots, police should

1.

use more force

use nonlethal chemical agents
use reason

use community leaders

use whatever means appropriate at the time

55. Place of birth

112270

Cincinnati

Ohio other than Cincinnati
Kentucky

Southern United States

Northern United States

BW

56.

57.

58.

59.

-3-

In what social class do you believe you belong
1. Lower

2. Lower middle

3. Middle

4. Upper middle

5. Upper

Number of years in military service
1. None

2. Less than 21 months

3. 21 to 36 months

4. 37 to 48 months

5. more than 48 months

Most time in military service was during which period

1. None

2. Before 1941
3. 1941-1949
4. 1950-1964

5. Since 1964

The factor contributing most to civil disorders are:

1. police patrol practices (misconduct)
2. breakdown in law and order

3. lack of communications

4. some people trying to get too much too fast

5. outside agitators

12270

60.

61.

62.

63.

Most of your childhood was spent in

1. The inner city

2. The suburbs

3. A farming district

4. Integrated section of city

5. Segregated section of city

How old were you when you got your first job?

1. 12 or under

2. 13-15
3. 15-18
4. 19-21

5. 22 or older

Which would you admire the most?
1. Barry Goldwater

2. Richard Nixon

3. Nelson Rockefeller

4. Hubert Humphrey

5. Martin Luther King

What political affiliation do you hold?
1. Republican

2. Democrat

3. Independent

4. Other

112270

nus.) a "L‘

b4.

65.

66.

67.

-5- ABS: WN

About how much education do you have?

1. 8 years of school or less

2. Between 9 and 12 years of school but did not graduate
3. Graduated from high school

4. Some college or university

5. A college or university degree

What is your religion?

1. I prefer not to answer

2. Catholic

3. Protestant

4. Jewish

5. Other

About how important is your religion to you in your daily life?
1. I prefer not to answer

2. I have no religion

3. Not very important

4. Fairly important

5. Very important

In reSpect to your religion, to what extent do you observe
the rules and regulations of your religion?

1. I prefer not to answer
2. I have no religion

3. Sometimes

4. Usually

5. Almost always

112270

68.

69.

70.

71.

Some people feel that in bringing up children, new ways and
methods should be tried whenever possible. Others feel that
trying out new methods is dangerous. What is your feeling
about the following statement?

"New methods of raising children should be tried whenever
possible"

1. Strongly disagree

2. Slightly disagree

3. Slightly agree

4. Strongly agree

Family planning on birth control has been discussed by many
peeple. What is your feeling about a married couple practicing
birth control? Do you think they are doing something good or
bad? If you had to decide, would you say they are doing wrong,
or that they are doing right?

1. It is always wrong

2. It is usually wrong

3. It is probably right

4. It is always right

I find it easier to follow rules than to do things on my own.
1. Agree strongly

2. Agree slightly

3. Disagree slightly

4. Disagree strongly

How would you rate your own racial attitudes as compared to
the average person?

1. Very much more prejudiced
2. Somewhat more prejudiced
3. About the same

4. Somewhat less prejudiced

5. Very much less prejudiced

72.

73.

74.

75.

A policeman's best friend is his

1.

20

3.

4.

5.

What is the highest level you expect to attain on the force?

5.

Pistol
Night stick
Neighbor
Supervisor

Partner

Patrolman

Specialist

Sergeant

Lieutenant or Captain

Assistant Chief or Chief

Only White policemen should patrol white communities and only Black

policemen should patrol black communities

1.

2.

All the time
Most of the time
Some of the time
Rarely

Never

biggest reason for committing crime is

Heredity

Lack of fear 0f being punished
Poor home training

Poverty

Ignorance of the law

76. The most important problem facing our nation today is

1.

2.

77. The

Riots

Student unrest

Taxation

Poverty

Education

rising rate of crime is due to
Lack of law enforcement
Inefficiency of courts
Coddling of criminals

Tying of hands of law officers

Lack of adequate training of policemen

78. Which of the following do you think would have the effect of
reducing racial prejudice in America?

la

79. The

Integration of schools

Publicity campaigns to promote integration
Fair employment legislation

Open housing legislation

Direct, personal contact between members of various
racial groups

best Negro policeman I know I would place in the

following percent of all good policemen I know:

1.

2.

112270

Lowest 20%

2nd 20%
3rd 20%
4th 20%

highest 20%

80.

81.

82.

The following questions have to do with the kinds of experiences
you have had with Negroes. If more than one experience applies,
please choose the answer with the highest number.

1. I have read or studied aboutNegroes through reading, movies,
lecture, or observation.

2. A friend or relative is a Negro

3. I have personally worked with Negroes as a policemen,
a partner, etc.

4. Close friend or relative is married to a Negro

5. I am married to a Negro

Considering all of the times you have talked, worked, or in some
other way had personal contact withNegroes, about how much has it
been altogether?

I. Only a few casual contacts

2. Between one and three months

3. Between three and six months

4. Between six months and one year

5. More than one year of contact

When you have been in contact with Negroes, how easy for you, in
general, would you say it would have been to have avoided being
with them?

1. I have had no contact

2. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only at
great cost or difficulty

3. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only with
considerable difficulty

4. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts but with
some inconvenience

5. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts without
any difficulty or inconvenience.

112270

-10- ABS: WN

83. If you have ever worked with Negroes for personal gain (for example,
for money or some other gain) what Opportunities did you have (or
do you have) to work at something else instead; that is, something
else that was (is) acceptable to you as a job?

1. No such experience

2. No other job available

3. Other jobs available not at all acceptable to me

4. Other jobs available were not guite acceptable to me
5. Other jobs available were fglly_acceptable to me

84. How have you generally felt about your experiences with Negroes?
1. No experience
2. I definitely dislike it
3. I did not like it very much

4. I like it somewhat

S. I definitely enjoyed it

112270

-11-

LIFE SITUATIONS

“DU 0 N L‘

This section of the booklet deals with how people feel about several aspects
of life or life situations. Please indicate how you feel about each situation
by circling the answer you choose or marking on the IBM answer sheet.

85. It should be possible to eliminate 86.
war once and for all

1. strongly disagree
2. disagree
3. agree
4. strongly agree
87. Success depends to a large part 88.

on luck and fate

1. strongly agree
2. agree
3. disagree
4. strongly disagree
89. Someday most of the mysteries of 90.
the world will be revealed by
science
1. strongly disagree
2. disagree
3. agree
4. strongly agree

91. By improving industrial and 92.
agricultural methods, poverty can
be eliminated in the world

1. strongly disagree
2. disagree

3. agree

4

. strongly agree

93. With increased medical know- 94.
ledge, it should be possible to
lengthen the average life span
to 100 years or more

strongly disagree
disagree

agree

. strongly agree

bump-i

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

not sure at all
not very sure
fairly sure

. very sure

4‘me

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answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

DwNv-o

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answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

S-‘ri—t

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answer?

. not very sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

4. very sure

‘95qu-

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answer?

. not very sure at all
not very sure

fairly sure

very sure

L‘th-I
O.

95.

97.

99.

101.

103.

-12-

Someday the deserts will be con- 96.
verted into good farming land

by the application of engineering

and science

1. strongly disagree

2. disagree

3. agree

4. strongly agree

Education can only help people 98.

develop their natural abilities;
it cannot change peOple in any
fundamental way.

1. strongly agree

2. agree

3. disagree

4. strongly disagree

With hard work anyone can succeed. 100.
1. strongly disagree

2. disagree

3. agree

4. strongly agree

Almost every present human 102.
problem will be solved in the

future.

1. strongly disagree

2. disagree

3. agree

4. strongly agree

The racial problems of our 104.

large cities will be solved
since peeple are now work-
ing on them.

strongly disagree
. disagree

agree

strongly agree

Dri—t
I. 0

112270

ABS: WN

How sure do you feel about your
answer?

not sure at all
not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

war—I

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answer?

not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

«Dubai-I

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answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

4‘th-

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answer?

. not sure at all
. not very sure

. fairly sure

. very sure

bUNP‘

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answer?

not sure at all
not very sure
fairly sure '
very sure

«L‘UNH
.0.

APPENDIX B

BASIC VARIABLES BY IBM CARD AND COLUMN

137

1138

TABLE 22.—-ABS:BW/WN-L. Basic variables by IBM card and column.

 

_._._.. ur— W-. 1 u...»

Variables1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Range of Card Column Page Item
scores
mfij 1. Stereotype 8-24 1 62-69 2 1-8
3 g 2. Normative 8-24 2 62—69 3 9-16
+Ju 3. Moral Eval. 8-24 3 62-69 4 17-24
;;g 4. Hypothetical 8-24 4 62-69 5 25-32
th 5. Feeling 8-24 5 62-69 6 33-40
6. Action 8-32 6 62-69 7 41-48
g s. Efficacy-Cont. 10-40 1-6 42.44 alter. to 60 D-11,12 85,87 alter. to 103
S 9 Efficacy-Int. 10-40 1-6 43,45 alter. to 61 D-ll,12 86,88 alter. to 104
u no. Kind 1—5 1-6 37 n-9 80
o 11. Amount 1-5 1-6 38 D-9 81
3 l2. Avoidance 1-5 1-6 39 D-9 82
8 l3. Gain 1-5 1-6 40 D-1O 83
U 14. Enjoyment 1-5 1-6 41 D-lO 84
o 15. Child Rear 1-4 1—6 25 D-6 68
o 16. Birth Control 1-4 1-6 26 D-6 69
g 17. Follow Rules 1-4 1-6 27 D-6 70
5 18. Prejudice-Comp. 1-5 1-6 28 D-6 71
A 19. Community Patrol 1-5 1-6 31 D-7 74
rpm
:jfi 20. Religion Imp. 1-5 1-6 23 D—S 66
Egg 21. Religion Adher. 1-5 1-6 24 D-S 67
U
E @2. Age 1-5 1-6 7 D-l 50
Q 23. Education Amt. 1-5 1-6 21 D-S 64
S 24. Place of Birth 1-5 1-6 12 0-2 55
g 25. Years-Military 1—5 1-6 14 D-3 57
E 26. Period-Military 1—5 1—6 15 D—3 58
g 27. Age First Job 1-5 1-6 18 D-4 61
i 28. Riot Control 1-5 1-6 11 D-2 54
2 29. Friend 1-5 1-6 29 0—7 72
_S 30. Community Patrol 1-5 1-6 31 D-7 74
u 31. Committing Crime 1-5 1-6 32 D-7 75
8 32. National Problems 1-5 1-6 33 D-8 76
g 33. Crime Rate 1-5 1-6 34 D—8 77
E 34. Good Policemen 1-5 1-6 36 D-8 79
35. Sex 1-2 1-6 6 D—l 49
36. Marital Status 1-5 1-6 8 D-1 51
H 37. Prejudice-Reduc. 1-5 1-6 35 D-8 78
8 38. Work 1-5 1-6 9 D-2 52
-:"$ 39. Racial Group 1-5 1-6 10 D-2 53
ota40. Religious Affil. 1-5 1-6 22 D-7 65
ETg 41. Social Class 1-5 1-6 13 D-3 56
g 42. Urbanity 1-5 1-6 17 D-4 60
U 43. Polit. View 1-5 1-6 19 D-4 62
44. Polit. Affil. 1-4 1-6 20 D-4 63
B S 45. Expected Attain. 1-5 1-6 30 D-7 73
fig] 46. Civil Disorders 1-5 1-6 16 D-3 59

 

 

lBased on 112270 edition.

2Totals omitted but numbering system retained since computer program written.

3Not used in r analysis.

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