MAGOSCOPIC EDENTIFICATEON 0F MOST EMFORTANT ERANIAN WGODY SPECiES Thesis {or “N Dogma of M. 5. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Parviz Niloofari 1958 MACROSCOPIC IDENTIFICATION OF MOST IMPORTANT IRANIAN WOODY SPECIES By Parviz Niloofari A THESIS submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in.partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Forest Products 1958 ACKNOWLEDGMENT A special word of appreciation and grateful acknowledgment must be given to Dr. A. J. Panshin, Head of the Department of Forest Products, Michigan State University, and to Dr. R. Hejazi, Head of the Forest Products Laboratory, University of Tehran, for the facilities and the generous assistance provided. In presenting this paper the writer also wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. M. Leloup, Director of the Forestry Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and to Mr. J. Maser, Regional Forestry Officer for Latin-Axnerica and former Regional Forestry Officer for the Middle East. My deepest appreciation I would like to extend to Drs. L. W.- Mericle, H. Beeskow, J. E. Cantlon, F. C. Strong, A.'E. Wylie, H. J.. Raphael, H. D. Higgins, W. C. Handel, and to Professor Lloyd and to Dr. Alan Sliker,'Dr. J. D. Sullivan, Dr. Suchsland, Mr. D. F. Luobs, Dr. L. M. James, Dr. P. W. Robbins, Mr. J. W. Goff, with all of whom, as staff members of Michigan State University, .I enjoyed many months of collaboration. Also, I would like to thank Miss R. Sharon Weihe and Mrs. S. M. Goodwin for correction and typing. Finally, I wish to thank my mother, brothers and sister for their sympathetic help and for the way they have encouraged and stimlated me to pursue further the quest for knowledge. HeeW-xseew-xw CONTENTS Page .Acknowledgment.................................................. ii INTRODUCTION.................................................... 1 CHAPTER I FOREST COMMUNITIES IN IRAN I. General.................................................... II. Distribution of Forest Communities in Iran................. A. uwmsa Coastal RegionOOCOIOOOOOOOOOOOOI0...... O‘JT'J-TU’ B. Other Provinces of Iran............................ CHAPTER II IRANIAN‘WOODY‘PLANT SPECIES I. The Caspian.Forest Belt.................................... 8 II. Juniper Forests............................................ 9 III. The'Western Oak Forest..................................... 10 IV. The Pistacio Forest........................................ 10 V. The Subtropical Forests.................................... 10 VI. Inaniaanoo y Plant Species................................ 12 Acemceleoo00000000000coco-00.000.000.00.-ooooooooouoo 12 mWeOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO... l2 AmceanOOOOCOO0.0.0.0000....0000......0..00...... 12 AqlleOIj‘ceanOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO0.0.000000000000000000000 12 Arolj-ace‘eOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 12 AgelepmacanOOCOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOIOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOO 12 BerberidaceaQOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0....0000......30.0.0000... l2 BetuJ-acanOOOO05.00.0000...0.....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 13 BomgimcueOOOOODOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOO0.00.0.0.0... 13 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ~ Continued Page mesa-e000.0000000.000000000000000to900.000.000.00... 13 Capparidaceae..uunnuu........................... 13 Caprifoliaceae........................................ 13 Celastmcue..................~.....C................. 13 ChalOPOdiaceaeoooococoocoo-coco...coo-coo...ooooouooooo 13 COIHbretaceaeoooooooooooooo0.000000000900000...0.0.0... 13 Comceae...o.nnu"nun"..............”no...” l3 DioscomceanOOOOOOO0.00000000IQOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOO 11‘» RemceanOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOO 11‘- EJ-aegmceanOOOOIOOOOOOIOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO‘JOOOOOO. 11* mphorbmceanOOOO00.000.000.000...0.0000.000.001.000. Fagcea-eOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOQOOQDOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOO Hamamelidaceae........................................ .lh lb Jug1m1da-ceanOOOOOOCOOC0.0.0.0....OOOIOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOO m 11; 11; E‘— Ly-thmceaGCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOCOIIOOOOOOCC000...... HelmceaelOOOOOOOO0.00QICOOOOOOOOOOOOCO0.0.00.00.00.00 MimoaceanOCOIOOIOCCOOO0......00.0.00...CO0.0.0.0.... 1-14 HoracweOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOIOCIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOI.0... 15 mmeanOOOIOO00.09.000.000...0.0.0.0000....0000...O 1; OleaceanOOOOIOOIOOOOOOI00.000.000.000...0....O...I... 1; PwiliomcanOOOOOOOOOOOO‘OOOCCOI00......0.00.00.00.00 15 mmceanOCO000......COIOCOCOOOOOOCOCO0.00.0.0...O. ls P01ygomcanOCOOOCOOOOOOO00.000.00.00.0.0...I.0...... 15 mcaceanO.0......OOOOCOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCIOOOOOOO... 16 mcuhcaeloOIOOCOOOOCOOOOOOOOO0.0000...0.00.0.0... l6 ResedacaeIOQCCDOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOO000.000.000.000... 16 WcanOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOC0.000000...OOOOOOOCOOOOOOO 16 RomcmeOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOODOOOCO 16 RomeanOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00COOOIIOOOOOOOODOOOOOO 17 wioacweOOOOOOO.DCQCOOCOOIOOOIOOO-OOOO0......OOOOOIO'. 1? Salicaceae.......uo.u”nun..................n... 18 Salvadgraceae......u...unoon.......“nun"n... 18 mmceaeoooooooooooooooooooooooocococo-coo...cocoon 18 sufimgaceaeooooccoocoo000.00.00.00.00000000000000... 18 Simubaceaeoo0.000000000000000oooooocooooooooooooooco 18 Somaceae...u...no................................. 1-8 wwcmeooooooooooooooooooocooooocooooooooocoo-coo 18 Tilitceae...u..no."no..."”nun”..."nun... 18 melaceaGOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO00.0.0.0...OOOOOUOOOOOOOOO 19 UlmceaetOOOOOIOOOOOOCOO0.0.0.0....0.00.00.00.00.0.... 19 verbmcaGIOOOOCIOOOO‘.OOCOOOOCOOOOQOOOOOOOOOO00...... 19 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Page VitaceanOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000000000000000.00.0.0 19 zygopl‘qllacae.............O.......C.......0......C... l9 AbietacanOOOOO00.000.00.00.0.00.00000000000000000000 l9 Cllpre’ssaceaeooo0000000009..cone-000000000.oooooooooooo l9 TmceanOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.00000000000000000000000000... l9 Ephedraceae..u....u"nun”....................... 19 CHAPTER III KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATEQK.OF THE MOST IMPORTANT IRANIAN WOODY SPECIES A. Species in the Key Pinus halepensis var: eldarica Medw................... 20 S cm . LOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOIOOO0.00.00.00.00... 21 perus poncarpos. C. Kock......................... 21 Thulifa- gigtAgg-ii11:00.0000000000OOOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOOOO. 21 Cupressus gemervirens var: horizontalis. Mill........ 21 ercus e'r—STica (T, e? Spooooooooooooooco0000000000000. 22 GI‘C’uS 08.8 Bfom COAOMCOOOOOOOOOOOOOO900000000000 22 fiuercus iEerica Stev.................................. 22 iOEEYrOS IOEES Loco.coco.0.0000000000000000...coco... 23 JUElanS resiaLoooooooooovotcoooc0.0009000000000000... 23 Ptero fMinj-fom WOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 23 Prunus i]. varicat-a' Nag-bunuuu..................... 23 Gama —e?:iosaWard.............o................o.. 23 Ca. Ecordifo i3. mmhooooooooooooooocooooo900000. 23 GEE 'llS nisza fir: mm. ROZOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOIOO. 21‘ 022113111 Var: mesaemo Loco-oooouoooooocoooooao 23 0B!» 3 a.L......uonu.u......u...”nun"... 2 $3.le aegEEiacaLu”................n...nun...” 211 33:13: 811813 ___I_'o And.”nun..."95................. 214 F IHSV—éuiahrzt‘icao Olj-VierOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.00.00... 2h Pisuci-a mtim F. M........‘..........0.............. 25 ZeEOVB. (Brena-ta Deafooooooooc00.0000000000000000000000 25 S171011138113.fildthoooooooo00000000000000...oocoooooco 2; mmsgris Loo...coco.oocoooaoooooooooocoo-coo.o 25 RObinia Sveudoacada.L......”an..................... 25 fiaCIura. all-ranting”. ttooocooocoocoooooocooocooocoocc 26 AIEIZZRWWilldocoocoo-00000000000000cocoon 26 mel3 exggggiorT................n................ 26 ms 952$:gw. Moooocotoooooo00000000000000... 26 flea. 5 an at 0118. Looooooooo0000000000000...cocoa. 26 I 115 038. afoocooooooooooocooococoa-coco. 27 GladitrShia CEEEiCO. Desfoooocoooccooooooooo00.000000... 27 SEES Sfivatica Loooooooooo'oooooooooooococo-0000.00.00 27 V TABLE OF CONTENTS -.- Continued Puma Orienm-j-S LOOOOOOQOOCCOOIIOOOOOOOOOOOOODO... 28 inn-S 585115115 Ecocooooocoooacoooooocoooooooooooocoo 28 S Efiioa. wmeOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOt0.000.000.0000. 28 RES—acordatfi CAM................................ 29 2121 Ifilsfigifl-EhristiL. (Willd)............nun... 29 Be " baToooooooTooocooooooooooooooooooooooocoooco 3O Aescuiu'i 8 Hi ocastamm. Linn................v.......... 30 W orien_ SMil-100.0000ooooooooooooooocoooo 30 ms. 500.0?000':00000000000000000000000000.0000... 30 831E aeflEtiflca LoolooooooooooOocooooooccoo0000000000 31 sallx wStmlj-OrAndOOOOOOOOOOOC.0.0.0.000...000...... 31 Po Iusfi Ivar:pyrwnidalisRoz.................... 31 Popqus a LOOOOOCOCCOOCOOOOOOO0.00000000000000COOOO 31 ngglus THEEB. m3 Wbescens Locoooooooccooooooooooooo 31 2921113 WEhratim. oufierooooooooooooocooo;o09.000000 31 Ficus Carica cocoa-00000000000000...9090000...coco... 31 0188. 91122293.Looooocooococoo-000000.00...cocoon-coo... 31 ms sanpewiregg‘Looooooooooooooooooooccoo-00000000. 32 ParrOtia. Ber—€168. DOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0....000. 32 15:18 corda. Wooooooooooooooooooocoocoo-00.0000... 32 iamEm Deacon-cocooocoooooooooooooooooooooooon... 32 BetUE-m.Looooooocoooooooooooccooo00000000000000... 33 Acer EmCvoMoOooooooooocoooooooooooooooooooooeooo 33 Acer 1113i e30133000000000coo-0.0.00.0coco...oooooooo 33, 001311135313th GAO“...coo-00000000000000...ooooooo- 33 Acer‘EaeuaggfimsIL...00000000000000000000000000coco 3h Icer ms rfls 00.0000000000000000000000000000000000 31-]. B. ”flies Identified mmromic Key................... 35 CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTIONS 0F WOODS BY SPECIES l..Pim1shal ensisvarx eldaricaMedw..................... 38 ems oI 20 We 2 §£:EOS'CO Kmkcooocococoocooooooooocooccoc 39 3.» .a orien ié ..........'.........‘................. ho he 5 bac'éfata.Looooooooooooooooooococo-00000090000000... )4]- 5. Cu ressus s ervirens L. var: horizontalis. Mill....... ’43 6. arms casme O CAauoodoocooo00000000000000.0000. M‘- 7. §ercus per§fca J EB sp................................ R6 8. ercus iber GO.S‘EGV..H..........[¢..o......-........... fig 90 eggs an SE 011,3.Loooococoooc00000000000000.0000... 1—00 iZZj-a n a)wmdooooooocoocooooocooooo... ’49 11. m8 081. Desfooooooooo.cocoocouoo-oooooocooo 50 120 J'JEEE wLcooocooceoooococoocccocoa-cococococoon-co 51 vi P‘ TABLE OF CONTENTS ~ Continued 13. Pterocarya fraxinifolia.Lam............................. 53 1’40 $222305 thEfoocoiooocoooooooooo-ooocooooooooooooocoo 5h 15.. runuS givaricata Ledebooooo0000600000000...000.000.0000 55 16. Prunus mahalEB L........................................ 56 17. Prunus'armenica.Linn.................................... S? 18. Prunus avium‘Moench..................................... S? 19. Prunus mcemsus L 58 20. CaEEITa coFHIToIia Moench............................... 58 21.5512" eEfosaWard S9 22. Ulmus montana Smith..................................... 60 23.fi53n'1‘§"'""‘rocemsnlsb 62 2h. ZeEEova crenata Desf.................................... 63 25. MacTura aurantiaca Nutt................................. 65. 26. RoEiniaAp§eudoacacia.L.................................. 66 27. Eraxffifis exceISior L}................................... 67 28. Fraxinus ‘ Willd................................. 69 29. Gleditschia cagpica Desf................................ 7O 30. Drug COO...IOOOSOCOOOOOOOOOOOIOOOO0......0.00.... 71 31.:0nlcem fierica MoBooooooocooo-ooooooooounce-cocoon...o 73 320 PiStaCj—a Mica. F. et Moo00009000000000.0000.00000000900 73 33. Cercis siliquastrum L................................... 7b 3b. iaEOWTlia 3917181113033. KOCKOOOOIOOOOOOOOO0000.000.0000000.. 75 35. Sambucus Nifiraif............................... ..... .... 76 36. Liaistrum vu are L..................................... 77 37. us coriariaL...” oooooo oooaoocoooooooccooocoo-coco... 78 380 ?la:E8.InlS orifientalis Loocoo0000000000000000.000.00.000... 79 39. Fa s sylvatica L....................................... 80 1400 mus betulusL...........oo..o......”unnuuou. 82 hi. A! 831112? Eitinosau-Willd 83 NZ. Alnus suggordata C.A.M.................................. 85 h..EfifiMmmw?gflamwisLn.u.u.u.u.n.n.u.u.u.u 85 Ml. Aescu1uSmEEOthLim............................. 87 I45. Castaneasaiva. i ooo.oooocooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 88 146. BefilfilbaLoo...ococo-0000.00.00.0.0000000000000000...o 89 RY. TiIia ruBra D.C......................................... 9O ’48. ms cat'hart'ica 11.000000.000000000000.000000000000000 92 h . 503331118 nigrg LTvar: pymmidalis Roz................... 93 50. P0 ulus ni ra L. var: pubescens L....................... 9h Ius a-LOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 9h 51. P022 52. 1 OEElHS matica Oliv........o..uuo............u... 95 1x aegzema Lo0000000000000000000000000000000.0000. 9S Shoma'UStr ior AIldoooo9.0000000060000000coco-cocoon... 96 550 m Emgfi. is Loco.oooooocooooocooooooooooocoo-cocoa... 97 S6. Salix EEEEErea‘L0.00....00.00.0000...OIOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 97 ix ILX S70 facmgehlgll. BOiSSo00000000000000.00000000000.coo... 97 580 E'— aUStm ior Andoooccocoa-0.0.0.0000.00000000000000. 97 Vii TAEE OF CONTENTS - Continued Page S9:$261.81“30130000000000.0000.oocooooooocoooooooooo 97 micanScaAndoo00.00.000.00...cocoa-0.0000000oooooooo 97 61. mm B0183.........'......."..O............. 97 62. m ERIC nicaLuauno"...o.....................o. 97 63. 3111113 Sew;rv ensLoco.00000000000000.0000...oooooooooo 98 61‘ofa-rr0tia cafiOcOOOOOOOOOOOOO.IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO-OO 99 65. FE:ES 00rderi “00000000000000.ooooooooooooooooocooooo 100 66. C Unis. OEEOIE Mmooooooooooooooooooocoo...ooooooooooo 102 67. %S SmogLooooooooooooogooooooooooooooooopoooo 103 68. %323W(Wflldo) JBLGQ......................n 103 69. Ziszhus fling-Christi (L.)W1.l1d 101; 70.. 212321111: ergnaris Moooooooooocoooococoa-coco...noooooo 105 71. 235113 18- m<3urnfl Mecca-no.0.coo-00000000000 106 720 O ’3 CO ope-0.00.0.0...ooooooooooooooooooooo 106 730 0 ea. euroeea.Luuouuuun.nun”.........”nu... 107 7h. Ficus mic LOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOODOOO00000000000.0.0000000 108 75. iiws‘ E $13L..’.....................0..‘C......... 109 76. Acer QEEEBeSEVmS LOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.00...0.00.... 110 77. Acer andge SLOOOIOOOOO...OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 111 78. Acer GLUECo-A. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0.0000...00.0.00... 113 79. Acer mszfie 30138. aBhOOOOOCOOOOOOIOOOQODO9.0....0'.‘ 11-14 80. AcerE Cid-esLOOOCOCOOOOOCOOOOOOO0.0000000DOOOOOOOOO 115 81. coma Era-Silas"COACMOOOOIOOO00.000.000.00.90.0.0000... 11-6 GHAPTERV FORET PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTEIZATION IN IRAN I. Timber Resources and Their Importance in Economr of Iran... 118 A. Timber Resources in Iran in Comrison with the Other Middle fiat G‘OuntriGSoo0.000000000000000...no 118 B. Forest Resources of Iran and Their Products........ 123 C. Important Species.................................. 123 . Wood Industries in m............................ 127 II. Export of Wood andWood Products 128 III. Samnfll Industries......................................... 128 IV .6 Use of Head in Construction and in Production of Poles, Min-3 Timers and CI‘OSSt'ieaooooooo0000000000000000000000000. 129 A. Use of Wood in Constmction........................ 129 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Page B. Poles...................n.......................... 130 c. Mine Timbers 130 D. Railroad Ties 131 V. Wood-Match Endllstries...................................... 132 VI. Furni’mre Industries....................................... 132 VII. Veneer and Plywood Industry................................ 133 VIII. Use of Wood in Textile Industries.......................... 13h IX. Wood Seasoning Industry.................................... 131). 1:. Wood Preservation Industry 135 XI. Wood Container Industry.................................... 136 XII. Pulp and Paper Industry.................................... 137 XIII. WOOd waSte mduStWOOOOOOIOOOOOOQIOO......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 138 APPENDIX A (Tables) I. Distribution of [Hectarage of Forests by Regions.... ... . . . .. lhO II. Amount of Precipitation in Caspian Region as a Guise of flotation in Forest commitiBSooooooc00000000000000.0000 1,4,]- III. Estimated Average Annual Timber Utilization in Iran...... 112 N. W” and mp0”! or WOOd by maOOC‘OOOOOOCO......OOODOOOO 1143 V. Amount and Value of mports and Imports of Wood and Wood Pmdll0t3.(1937"1938)no0.00000000000000000.000000000000000o. 1,4,4 VI. Amount and Value of Exports and Imports of Wood and Wood PrOduCts (191114“19’45)o0000000000060cocoa-coco...coo-o...coo. 11.15 VII. Amount and Value of Exports and Imports of Wood and Wood Pmducta (19h6..19h7)0.0.00.0..0000000000000000.009.00.000... 1’46 . it'bf TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued Page mm B (Fianna) 1. Distribution of Forests in Dan............................ 1’49 2. Distribution of Damian Forests............................ 150 3. A Profile of Lower Elevation Near Caspian Sea Shore Showing the Major Natural Plant Commities................ 150 1;. Profiles of the Elburz Mountains Showing the Two Main ' Forest Zonnations at the Higher Elevation in the Caspian Region Of Iranoooooooooooooooooooooocoooooooooooooooooo‘oooo 151 5. Distribution of Remamfacturing Mills in Iran.............. 152 6. Distribution 0f thh Facmries in IMOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI0.0000 153 INTRODUCTION The last one hundred years have witnessed the evolution of agri- cultural science from largely empirical arts into the realm of applied science. The science of forestry has also evolved as a result of great advances in our knowledge. Man's first conscious interests in the forest and trees are recorded in the history of old nations, such as China, India, Asia Minor, Greece and Persia. The interest in choosing suitable woods for different uses has been a highly developed art for thousands of years especially in cabinetmaking. Certain uses of species of wood in ancient palaces testify to the height to Which this art was developed. Since forests affect the general welfare and prosperity of a nation, they have always been regarded as an important natural resource. They are, in fact, the only replenishable resource, Which adds to their importance. The great role in our lives played by the products of the forest tends to stimulate research in order to bring about more practical usages in this field. Forestry has been regarded as a science in Iran ever since the first agricultural college was established 3h years ago, but a real scientific approach to forestry problems dates back only 15 to 20 years. Progressive improvement in the handling of Iranian forests is largely due to the activities of Professor Saii, late professor of forestry at the University of Tehran. Research in the field of forestry and forest products in Iran is directed by the Forest Products Laboratory, University of Tehran, and by the Research Department of the Iranian Forest Service. Iran has one of the highest per capita consumptions of forest products in Asia. Future requirements of Iran and economic advantages should stimulate better management, utilization and export trade in forest products. The first step to establishing better practice in forestry and forest products utilization in Iran is to define present deficiencies and to recommend remedies. The writer has tried to describe the problems confronting the wood using industries in Iran and he hopes that this analysis may serve as a guide to Iranian foresters and private wood industries to stimulate acceptance of better forestry practice and to introduce more intensive forest products utilization methods. CHAPTER I FOLEVT COLLULITILS IN IRAN FOREST COMMUNITIES IN IRAN 1. General The earth's surface may'be divided into areas which support regional biogeographic units. Such units are climatically controlled for the most part and are more extensive regional groupings of somewhat smaller but rather more definite communities of organisms. Vegetation dominates the biotic scene and.these regional biogeographic units often carry the name of the dominant plant life form, e.g. forest, grassland, or shrub. In a region of environmental.variation, such as Iran, these large vegetation categories, such as forest, occupy widely scattered areas of suitable environment, and since the environments of the areas differ, the forests occupying them also differ. A resume of the distribution and composition of the main.forest communities of Iran follows. The community nomenclature used in this paper follows that of the ZhrichéMontpillier school of geobotany. Since ecological studies of Iran are not as yet extensive, the treatment must remain general. It should be also pointed out that natural vegetation is more or' less lacking in.some parts in Iran, as it is in all regions long occupied by man. The vegetation available for study thus reflects man’s long and continuous impact. Cultivation, gathering of firewood, grazing, disease and fire all exert drastic effects. Mbre recently plantings and the introduction of exotic species have further altered the composition of the vegetation. 2. Distribution of Forest Communities in Iran A. Caspian Sea Coastal Region If we examine with inquiring eyes every tree in the Caspian zone, especially near the sea coast, we may be able to read the story of the forest communities which in certain cases no longer exist. Although it is not advisable to wit for regrowth of new forest comnmities, it is possible to reconstruct a picture of plant communi- ties as they once existed by examining different places with the same climatic and geological conditions . Before their destruction for fuelwood and cultivation there were oak communities in a plain along the Caspian seashore. These were almost a pure type (Quercetum), composed of Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M. There are still in existence some remnants of this oak forest, but most of it has been destroyed and replaced by agricultural lands. At moderate elevation (less than 1000M) a short distance inland from the coast, there is another commlnity of oak and hornbeam, which is composed of Quercus castanfiefiaefolia C. A. M. and aims betulus L .3 this community is designated as Querceto-Carpinetum. In some instances where oak has been destroyed, gagimls betulus L. dominates. 3 resulting community is designated Carpinetum. On some coastal slopes we find a pure community of Parrotia persica D. C. in place of the oak type, while further from the sea shore but at the same altitude is situated .a mixed comrmmity of Parrotia persica D. C. and 0332111118 betulus L., known as Parrotieto-Carpineimm. It appears that there is a great deal of similarity in ecological requirements for Quercus caitaneaefolfia C. A. M. and Parrotia persica D. C. At higher altitudes than the preceding there occur pure stands of beech Ms sylvatica L., forming a beach commity, designated Fagetum. Locally, flinus betulus L.’ occurs with beech in mixed stands of Fageto-Carpinetum. In addition to these more widely ranging forest communities in the Caspian province there exist locally other stands of special interest. Some of these are the Cupressetum, in which dominant species is (hipressus sempervirens var: lyrizontalis Targ. and the Buxetum, which exists in coastal areas and produces very dense forests. The dominant species of this community is M semp'evrvirewnva. Beside these prominent forest types there are other plant communi- ties which in many cases do not prochice an abundance of timber. 0n the slopes of the Elburz mountain chain in the coastal region there are shrub comnninities of the pomegranate shrub M gganatum L., designated punicetum, of pomegranate and Rhamnus (Pumcetmn-Rhamnetum) , and of Paliurus spina-christi Mill. (Paliuretmm) . Some conmmnities of the silk tree Alibizziav Elgarissg Willd., designated Albizzietum, and planted communities of Gleditschiaw cgflica vv—v v—v— Desf., designated Gleditschietum, are other cormnunities of interest in the Caspian forests. In the latter Species both pods and branches are cut for live- stock feeding. The increasing importance of these may be the result of their growing use as livestock feed. Besides these there exist communities of Alnus, designated.A1netum, and Alnus and Pterocagya fraxinifolia'Willd. (Alneto-Pterocaryetum) on sites with Special microclimates and soil. Stands of Populus hyprida M. B(Popu1etum hydridae) and a mixture Algug with.poplar (Alnetoepopuletum hybridae) are of interest in the Caspian region. It seems clear that certain communities are a result of destruction of the forest by cultivation. For instance, that of Paliurus §EE£§?' christi Mill. (Paliuretum) is a local community and may be the result of disturbance of the forest in the coastal area. Diagrams 213 show the various zones of the Caspian forests in the Elburz mountains. The native vegetation associated with different altitudes and other environmental conditions is indicated in these diagrams. B. Other Provinces of Iran .Since the main forest resources of Iran are located in the Caspian region these forest communities are better known and more frequently . studied. 'Except for western Iran in which there exists a xerophytic forest composed mostly of oak (Quercus persica.J. et. sp.), and certain other small areas in the northwestern, south~ and northeastern.parts of the country, the other sections of the country are noneforested. In.the northeastern Juniper forests is another community of interest, the dominant species in which is guniperus polycarpos E. Kock (Plate 1 -. limestone mountain forest). In the pistacio forests the dominant species are Pistacia khgg' juk Stocks and Pistacia unitica F. et. M. (Plate l- pistacio tree forest). In the subtropical forest the species of interest is Ziziphus spine-Christi (b) Willd . CHAPTER II IRANIAN WOQDY PLANT SPECIES Iranian4Woody Plant Species ‘Wettstein's botanical classification is used in classifying the Iranian woody species. The species are divided into different types, chiefly dependent on the quality of the site, and the amount of precipitation the sites receive. I. The Caspian forests belt is composed of: A£g£.insig2e. Boiss Agar; campestris L. Albizzia julibrissin.‘Willd. Alngg subcordata C. A. M. Cginus belutus L . Cercis siliguastrum L. Cydonia oblongg. Mill. Crataegus monogyng (Willd.) Diospyros lgtug L. Evonymus velutina.‘Eet. M. Fraxinus coriarifolia. S. Gleditschia caspica Desf. Juglans 32522 L. Jasminum officinalis L. Megpilus germanica L. 31.9.1.9; azadrach L . Paliurus spins-Christi. Mill. Pirus cordata. Desv. Acer laetum C. A. M. Acer gpulifolium.‘Willd. Alnus glutinosa. Willd. Byxus sempervirens. L. Cagpinus orientalis. Mill. Crataegis ambigla C. A. M. Crataegus melanocarpa M. B. Danag_racemosa.L. Evonymus latifolia Scop. Egg2§_sylvatica L. Ilex amigolium L . Jasminum fruoticans L. Ligustrum vulgaris L. Olea europea L. Morus alba L. Parrotia persica D. C. Pirus communis L. Populus hybrids 1 Pagans mahaleb L. Prunus laurocerasus. L. Pgnig§_gganatum‘L. Quercus iberica Stev. Quercus atrgpatena 1. Rhamnus frangula. L. EEEE cotinus L. slamsL Sorbus gucupgria L. Ulmus campestris L. Prunus divaricata Ledeb Prunus avium Moench. Ptergcary§_fraxinifoliajLam. Quercus gataneaefolia C. A. M. Quercus macranthera F. et. M. Rhamnus grandifolia F. et.M. Rhamnus cathartica_L. Salix fragilis L. Sorbus aria Cranz Tilia rubra D. C. Ulmus montana S. M. II. Juniper forests are composed of: ‘é£g£_monspessulanumiL. Angdalus reuteri. B. et. Bh Ellis caucasica. Willd . Crataegus ambigga. C. A. M. guniperus communis Var: depressa. Boiss. Lgnicera caucasica. Pall. 1w ruthenicxfl. Murr. Pistacia Mica F. et. M. Populus hybrids! Pterooyzgm aucheri Jet Sp. Rhu§_coriaria L. Salix purpgrea L. Acer gpglifoliumeilld. Agyggalus spartioides Sp. Cotggoeaster numularia F. et M. Fraxinus 2xyggrpg£Wfl End. Juniperus sabina L. Lonicera iberica. M. B. Paliurus spins-Christi. Mill. Pistacia Egg Lu} Prggu§_divaricata Ledeb. Ribs§_grossularia L. Salix acmophylla. Boiss. Salix australior.And. III. 10 Salix zygostemon. Boiss. _S_orbus aria Cranz Viburnum opglus L . Viburnum lantana L . The Western Oak Forests are composed of: Acer cinerascens. Boiss. Amygdilus reuteri B. et, Bh. Celtis caucasica. Willd. Crataeggs sp. Daphne ingustifolia C..Kock.. Ficus carica var. Johannis. Boiss. Fraxinus Sp. Lonicera arborea. Boiss. w barbarum L . mi communis L. Pirus gl_a_b_I_'_a; Pirus sygiaca. Boiss. Pistacia khinljuk. Stochs. Pistacia m F. et. M. Platanus orientalis L. m Sp. Quercus persica J. et Sp. Tm communis. L. The Pistacio forests are composed of: Pistacia khinjuk. Stocks. Pistacia mutica F. et. M. Amggalus reuteri. B et Bh Amgdalus scoparia. Sp. Tamarix Ell/sail. Desv. Tanarix mannifera. Ehrenb. Acer guerascens. Boiss. Ficus carica L. Fraxinus w. W. End. Fraxinus Sp. The Subtropical forests are composed of: Acacia arabica Willd. Acacia nubica. Bth. Acacia sgyal Del. CalotrOpg procera (Willd) R. Br. Cam; is decidua (Forsk. Edgew) Dodonaea viscosa L. Euphorbia larica. Boiss. Grewia asiatica L. Grewia populifolia Vahl. Haloglon apmllum (Minkw) Iljin ll llannorhgls ritchieana Wendl., Nerium odorum Soland Var: Kotschyi. Boiss Ochradenus baceata Del. Peniploca aphylla DC. Phoenix dactylifera L. Prosopis specigera L. Salvadora persica Garcin Stochsia brahuica Bth. Tamarix stricta Boiss Zataria multiflora Boiss. Ziziphus Spins-Christi (L.) Willd. IRANIAN WOODY PLANT SPECIES 12 W Family Genus Species Aceraceae Acer " campestris L. " cinerascens Boiss. " insigne Boiss, Bh. " " Velutinum Boiss. l! laetum C.A.M. " lobelii Ten. " monspessulanum L. " opulifolium Willd. " platanoides L. " tataricum ? L, Anacardiaceae Cotinus coggygria Soap. ZMangifera indica L. Pistacia L. " khinjuk Stocks. " mutica F.M. " vera L. Rhus coriaria L. Apocynaceae Nerium. odorum Soland Kotschyi Boiss. Rhazya stricta Dcm. Aquifoliaceae Ilex aquifolium L. Aroliaceae Hedera L. " colchica C. Koch. " helix L. Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera (Willd)R.Br. Daemia cordata R.Br. Periploca L. N aphylh Decm . " graeca L- Berberidaceae Berberis L. I! crataegina D.C. integerrima Bge. " Macranthera Boiss. Serratifolia, Boiss. vulgaris L. " Brachybotrys Boiss. Continued Iranian Woody Plant Species - Continued 13 f v Family Genus Species Betulaceae Borrag'inac eae Buxac eae Capparidaceae Caprifoliac eae Celastrac eae Chenopodiaceae Conbretac eae Cornaceae '_. Alrms " " Betula Carpinus I! H Corylus Cordia I! Buxus Capparis Lonicera I! " Haloxylon H H Seidlitzia Terminalia H N glutinosa Willd . subcordata C.A.M. alba L . Tourn. betulus L. orientalis Mill . avellana. L. crenata mixa L. sempervirens L. decidua(Forsk.) Edgcw. L O arborea Boiss .Persica( Jet .Sp .) caucasica Pall . Rheadcr floribunda Boiss . , Bh. iberica M .B . L O lantana L . opulus L - LO europaeus L. japonica latifolius Scop. velutinum Fich., M. Bge. ammodendron C.A.M. aphyllum (Minkw.)Ujin. rosmarinus Ehrenb L O belerica Roxb . catappa L . chebula Resz citrina Roxb . -L. australis C.A.M. mas L. sanginea L. Contirmed Iranian Woody Plant Species - Continued w V v—v' v v—v— v i fif 114 Family Genus Species Dioscoraceae Tamus communis L . Ebenaceae Diospyros L. " kaki L. Fil. " lotus L. Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Hippophae rhamnoides L. Euphorbiaceae Andrachne colchica F. M. Euphorbia L. " larica Boiss . " tirucalli L. Fagaceae Fagus sylvatica L . Gastanea Sativa Mill. Quercus Tourn. " atropatana ? " castaneaefolia C.A.M. " iberica Stev. " macranthera F.,M. " persica J. et., Sp. Hannamelidaceae Parrotia persica D.C. Juglandaceae Juglahs regia L. Pterocarya fraxinifolia Lam. Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis L . Meliaceae Melia az edarach L . H 31). Mimosaceae Acacia Willd. " arabica Willd. nilotica. " nubica Bth.? " seyal Del. Albizzia Durazz. N N H julibrissin (130.) Willd. lebbek Benth. 8p. Continued Iranian Woody Plant Species - Continued 15 Family Genus Species Moraceae Ficus L- " bengalensis L a " carica L . " " Genuina Boiss. " " L. Johannis Boiss. " " L. rupestris Housskn. Morus L. " alba L. n nigra L. Myrtaceae Myrtus communis L . Oleaceae Fraxinus 1- . " coriariaefolia Scheele " excelsior L. " oxycarpa Willd. Jasunmun Tourn. " fruticans L. " officinale L. Ligustrum vulgare L. Papilionaceae Cercis siliguastrum L. Catatonia siliguaL, Coloutea L. " arborescens L. " persica Boiss . " uniflora Gleditschia caspica Desf. Halimod endron halodendron (L .Fi .L . )Villm . Parkinsonia aculeata L . Prosopis spicigera L . Robinia pseudoaeacia L. Tamarindus indica L. Platanaceae Pistanus orientalis L . Polygonaceae Atraphaxis spinosa Boiss. Calligomm L. " comosum L. Herit. " persicum Boiss.,Bh. Pteropyrum aucheri J . ,s'p. Vfi—V Continued Iranian Woody Plant Species - Continued l6 — w f fi fi Family Genus Species Punicaceae leica granatum L. Rammculaceae Clematis L. " ispahanica Boiss. " orientalis L. Resedaceae Ochradenus baccatus, Del . Rhamnaceae Paliurus spina—christi Mill. Rharms L. " cathartica L. " fragula L. " grandifolia F. ,M. " iranica Bornm. " pallasii F.M. Zizyphus Juss. " numlmilaria(Burm.) " spina-christi L.Willd. " vulgaris Lam. Rosaceae Amygdalus L. " ~ eburnea Sp. " reuteri Boiss.,Bh. " salicifolia Boiss. " scoparia Spach. " spartioides Spach. Cerasus Juss. Cotoneaster Med , " nummularia F.M. " " Ovalifolia Boiss. " vulgaris Lindl. Crataegus L. " ambigua C.A.M. " lagenaria F.,M. " melanocarpa M.B. " monogna (Willd) Jacq. " " hirsutior Boiss. Cydonia oblonga Mill. Hultemia persica (Michx.)Bornm. Malus pumila Mill. Mespilus germanica L . Pirus L. " communis L. H " cordata Desv . glabra Boiss . Continued 17 Iranian Woody Plant Species - Contirmed Family Genus Species Rosaceae Pirus salicifolia L . " syriaca Boiss. " " abreviata Borrun. Prunus Tourn. " .avium Moench . " divaricata Ledeb - " laurocerasus L . " mahaleb L. " microcarpa, C .A .M . N prostrata Labill. fl Sp. " tortuosa Boiss. , Haussk. Rosa L . " anserinifolia Boiss. " glutinosa Sibth.Sm. " hemisphaerica Herrm. " iberica Stev. " lutea Mill. " n Punicea. ? " orientalis I11P- Rubus L . " caesius L. " ulmifolius Schott.Anslolicus Sorbus L . Focke . " aria Crantz . " aucuparia L. " torminalis ,G. Spiraea crenata L . Salicaceae Populug Tourn. " alba L . " euphratica Oliv . " hybrids " nigra L. " " L. Pyramidalis Roz. Salix Tourn. " acmopylla Boiss. " aegptiaca L. " augustifolia Willd . " australior And . " babylonica L . " caprea L. " carmanica Bornm. " fragilis L . v v—v v v v V—v fir W Contirmed v1.4 Iranian Woody Plant Species - Continued v—vv Family Salicaceae Salvadoraceae Sapindac eae Saxifragaceae Simarubac eae Solanaceae Tamarioaceae Tiliac eae —'_v fi— Genus Salix I! fl " Salvadora fl Dodonaea Stochsia Ribes Aflanthns Solanum Datura H Lycium H fl " My-ricaria Tamarix Grewia Tilia Species micans And. persica Boiss. purpurea L. zygostemon Boiss. persica Gare. oleoides Dcne. viscosa. bralruica. Bth , grossularia L . glandulosa Desi' . dulcamara L. ' L. fastuosa L. Alba. L. ' barbarum L. ruthenicum Murr. tprcomnicmn Turcz. germanica; Desv. L. articulate. vahl. bachtiarica Bge . bungei florida Bge. laxa Willd. mannifera. Ehrenb. meyeri Boiss. octandra Bge. pallasii Desv. rosea Bge. aerotina. L . atricta Bge. szowitsiana Boiss. ispahanica Bge. L. populifolia Vahl. mbra D. C. Continued ll Iranian.Wbody Plant Species — Concluded l9 WSW Family Genus Species Thymeleaceae Daphne L. " angustifolium C. Koch. " gnidium];. N mezereum 1;. Ulmaceae Celtis L. " australis.L. " caucasica‘Willd~ " tournefortii Lam. glabrata. Ulmus densa L. " montana S?“- " procera, Salish. Zelkova " crenata Desf. Verbenaceae Vitex agnus castus L- Vitaceae Vitis vinifera L. Zygqphyllaceae Zngphyllum atriplicoides F.M. ‘ Nitraria schoberi L. Family' Genus Species . Abietaceae ' * Pinus eldarica Medw. Cupressaceae Cupressus Teurn. " sempervirens L. fastigiata n var. horizontalis Juniperus L. Mill " communis L. depressa Boiss " polycarpos C. Koch. " sdbina L. Thuja orientalis L. Thxaceae Taxus baccata L. Ephedraceae Ephedra L. " distachya L. major. Host. prosera. F.et M. —v v C} IAPTISR II I KEY FOR THE IDEL‘FITIFICATION OF THE. 1.10m: Ilvh’OliT mm madam mossy SPECIES. 20 KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE MOST IMPORTANT IRANIAN'WOODY SPECIES Based on Macroscopic Features (Features discernible with the naked eye and the 10X hand lens.) 1. Wood without vessels; tissue between rays consists wholly of tracheids arranged in theradial rows; rays fine, and not visible to the naked eye (Figs. l-S). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1. wood with vessels; tissue between the rays consisting wholly or largely of fibers (mechanical tissue) and parenchymatous (storage tissue); rays indistinct or distinct to the naked eye (Figs. 6-6h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . °" . . . . . . . . .6 2. Longitudinal and transverse resin canals normally absent (Figs. 2-5). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Longitudinal and transverse resin canal present; longitudinal resin canals appearing as small openings, transverse resin canals appear as small radial streaks. Growth rings distinct, not homogeneous, consisting of alternate layers of lighter springwood and darker summerwood; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual. Rays fine. ‘Wood light, yellowish— brown to creamy light4brown; without any odor, moderately hard and even-grained. Pinus halqpensis var: eldarica Medw. (Fig. l) 3. WOOd fmgmnt. O O O O O . C O O O O O I I O O O O O O I O O I 0 0h 21 3. Wood not fragrant, ill—scented,-reddish-brown, hard and heavy and close-grained. Growth rings distinct; delineated by a band of darker summerwood, excentric and frequently wavy and irregular E§§E§_baccata L. (Fig. h) h. Growth rings distinct, wavy. Rays fine and form small flecks on the quarter surface. ‘Wood light yellowish4brown, even— ‘grained and fairly heavy. guniperus pglyparpos C. Kock. (Fig. 2) h. Growth rings distinct, usually not wavy. . . . . . . . . . . S 5. Growth rings conspicuous, summerwood considerably harder than springwood; transition from Springwood to summerwood, gradual to more or less abrupt. Rays fine and forming a fine conspicuous fleck on the quarter surface. 'Wood white to pinkishebrown, rather coarse-textured and soft. gfigjayorientalis L. (Fig. 3) 5. Growth rings distinct; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual. wood white to whitishfiyellOW'and reddish, medium-coarse textured and close-grained. Rays fine. Cupressus sempervirens: var. horizontalis. Mill (Fig. 5) 6. Wood ring porous, springwood zone sharply defined; springwood pores conspicuously larger than the summerwood (Fig. 6). . . . . . . . .7 6. Wood diffuse porous, springwood zone not sharply defined, pores exhibit little or no variation in size indicative of seasonal growth. Pores in Springwood not conspicuously larger than those in the summerwood. (Fig 3h). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3h . W 7. Broad rays present,conspicuous, forming a broad ray fleck on the radial section (Fig. 6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7. Broad rays absent (Fig. 18). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lO 8. Sapwood narrow. Growth rings moderately wide, summerwood pores embedded in conspicuous flame-shaped patches of parenchyma. . . . 9 8. Sapwood wide. Growth rings,narrowx 'Wood softer than other oak species, close—grained. Summerwood pores in flame-shaped patches of parenchyma. _ Quercus persica J. et sp. (Fig. 7) 9. Large vessels in springwood are usually in two rows; summer- ‘wood pores, thickfwalled; in very conspicuous flame-shaped patches; summerwood pores easy to count. Rays wide. Heartwood reddish-brown to brown. Quercus castaneaefolia C.A.M. (Fig. 6) 9. Large vessels in springwood are usually in 2-3 rows. Summer- wood pores in flame-shaped patches, summerwood pores relatively difficult to count. Rays wide. ‘Wood light-brown. Quercus iberica Stev. (Fig. 8) 10. Springwood pores conspicuously larger than the summerwoOd; transition in size of pores from springwood to summerwood abrupt (ring porous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 10. Springwood pores not conspicuously larger than the summerwood pores; transition in size of pores from springwood to summerwood gradual (semi-ring porous). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ll 11. Parenchyma evident under the lens as a broken tangential line or punctate (Fig. 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 12. 12. 13. 13. 15. 23 ll. Parenchyma not evident. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lh Growth rings distinct and conspicuous. . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Growth rings visible, but usually not conspicuous. . . .. . . . Heartwood-gray to dark purplish—brown. 'Wood relatively hard, heavy, strong and close-grained, with storied rays forming ripple marks on tangential surface. Pores in short radial groups. Diogpyros lg£2§.L. (Fig. lb) Heartwood lightebrown to brown. 'Wood moderately heavy, irregular or straight-grained, generally beautifully mottled. Juglans LegiiL. (Fig. 12) Heartwood pinkishawhite. ‘Wood light, not mottled. Pte'r'ocarya fraxinifolia Lam. (Fig. 13) 1h. Heartwood ranging in color from grayish-brown to light-brown, or light reddish brown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 1h. Heartwood light gray to light-brown. Growth rings clearly marked by dark colored zones of summerwood; delineated by narrow, inconspicuous bands of porous tissue. Pores small, pores at the beginning of the ring, somewhat larger than pores in the summerwood, but not visible with the naked eye. Prunus divaricata ledeb. (Fig. 15) Heartwood grayishebrown to lightébrown. 'Wbod with a faint aromatic odor, soft, light, straight and coarse-grained. Pores scattered, never occupying approximately half the area between the rays. Rays plainly visible with a.hand lens. catala Speciosa Ward (Fig. 17) Catalp§.cardifolia Moench (Fig. 16) v... I 0 ." .... ‘ 0' ..o' , .. . .‘Q.fi“‘;.“".fi p..'. .1f-‘ fl ' » ' ‘NJ'E’QIRHS 1:" n..- .n, ‘fl‘h'\9~'o~,$‘5 NH} "V to 0 ’ ¢ ¢ '0'?“ hu‘ ’,t!. E.) .:...;.‘..:..::: . 0 “J '"0 It 302%. :99”: v, C“ ’ e 2h 15. Heartwood grayish white or reddishawhite. Pores numerous, usually occupying approximately half the area between the rays. Rays scarcely visible with a hand lens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 16. Heartwood grayishdwhite to whitish—yellow or light gray. “Wood moderately soft, medium-textured and straight-grained. Populus nig§§_var: pyramidalis. Roz. (Fig.-hh) Populos nigrgyvar:'pubescens L. (Fig. h5) Pomnus i123. L. (Fig. h?) Salix aegyptiaca L. (Fig. h?) Salix australior. .And (Fig. DB) 16. Heartwood light reddish-brown in color, more or less inter- locked. Populus euphratica Olivier l7. Pores in the summerwood form continuous or interrupted wavy tangential bands, separated by bands of mechanical tissue. (Fig. 18). . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 17. Pores in the summerwood not in continuous wavy tangential bands (Fig. 23). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 18. Summerwood pores form-continuous or interrupted,wavy pattern consisting of concentric light colored bands. . . . . . . .19 18. Summerwood pores tend to be arranged in interrupted, wavy bands. Annual rings marked by lines of more numerous and larger Springwood pores; summerwood pores small, surrounded by parenchyma. 1 Rays fine and numerous. Heartwood grayish- brown to yellowish-brown, beautifully mottled with darker 25 yellow and gray-veins. 'Wood very hard and finely grained. Pistacia m F. M. (Fig. 28) 19. Pores in springwood completely occluded with tyloses (Fig. 22). 22 19. Pores in springwood not completely occluded with tyloses (Fig. 18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O 20. Heartwood brown, or brownish-gray. 'Wood straightograined, moderately heavy and fairly hard. Rays indistinct to the naked eye in cross section, strongly defined on the radial section in pronounced flecks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 20. Heartwood reddish-brown, wood hard and tough. Zelkova crenata Desf. 21. Summerwood bands wide. Elmg§_montana Smith (Fig. 18) 21. Summerwood bands narrow. glmg§_campestris L. (Fig. 19) 22. Heartwood grayish—yellow to yellowish brown. 'Nood lustrous, ' hard, exceedingly strong and tough. Springwood pores, comprise ing a light-colored band, 2-3 pores in width; summerwood pores small, forming interrupted concentric bands. Vessels all plugged with tyloses and appear as clear yellow spots; color- ing substance not readily soluble in water. Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fig. 22) 22. Heartwood light orange to golden yellow darkening upon exposure. Springwood pores appear as light colored bands, 2-3 pores in width; summerwood pores small, forming interrupted "m . w“ *‘n 3 win“: if“. *V '30:" , 1.. $. .hn'd cfivt '10 3. ....g)’ .‘ ..Q V - . 3.. ‘ ... 1 u‘ ' o. .‘L. ... I. .' 1.5}... : A ‘5 :- C " | "-‘~ . ....‘A‘ Q -'O£ I f 3'16? u' 93"“! n... , fl.- «1mci5fi‘fia'h 4L: :": Tait. t‘ V H .~-' A, ' I 23. Rays 23. Rays 2b. 2b. 26 concentric bands. Coloring substance in vessels readily soluble in water. Maclura aurantiaca. Nutt (Fig. 21) fine, not distinct in cross section with the naked eye. . .2h broader, visible to the naked eye in cross section. . . . .26 Springwood pores are large and open, irregular in distribution, often surrounded by a patch of parenchyma. Parenchyma not visible. Rays exceedingly fine, wide apart, not visible to the naked eye, sometimes hardly visible with a lens. Heartwood brown, or golden-yellow marked with lighter and darker streaks. 'Wood lustrous, shallowly interlocked-grained or straight— grained, heavy and hard. Albizzia julibrissin. ‘Willd. (Fig. 10) Springwood pores forming a band 2—h pores in width; summer- wood pores, small, solitary and in 2-3 multiples, forming a ripple-pattern in the late summerwood. Heartwood grayish- white to lightébrown. ‘Wood hard, heavy and somewhat lustrous. Fraxinus excelsior L. (Fig. 23) Fraxinus Egygarpayw. Erd. (Fig. 2h) 25. Heartwood, rose to light brownish-red, or grayish-orange. . . . 26 25. Heartwood brown to orangeébrown. Growth rings distinctly marked by a belt of large pores; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual to more or less abrupt. Rays visible to the naked eye, sometimes showing as a silver fleck on radial surface. 'Wood soft to moderately hard and generally straight-grained. Eleagggs anggstifolia E. (Fig. 9) 27 26. Heartwood grayish-orange. 'Wood moderately heavy, hard, with a beautiful satin-like lustre. Growth rings distinct. Pores in the springwood large, in the summerwood small or moderately sized. Rays visible to the naked eye, with a satiny lustre, few and moderately broad. Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. (Fig. 11) 26. Hllrtwood, rose, or light brownish-red. ‘Wood moderately heavy and hard. Pores in the springwood, forming a band 3-5 pores in‘width3 summerwood pores small, solitary or in short radial groups. Gleditshia cagpica Desf. (Fig. 25) 2?. Rays wholly or partly broad, conspicuous or relatively incon- spicuous. (Figs. 3h, 35, 36, 37, and 38). . . . . . . . . . . .28 27. Rays mostly narrow, nearly uniform in width. If composed of broad and narrow type narrow rays scarcely visible with the aid of a hand lens. (Figs. 39, 1.1, 1.2.31.3, nu, us, 60, 61, 62, 63, and 6h). .32 28. Large rays conspicuous and clearly marked, numerous and spaced at fairly close intervals. Pores half as wide as the ‘widest rays (Figs. 3b, 35). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 28. Large rays relatively inconspicuous'and not clearly de- lineated, often widely spaced. Pores half as wide as the widest rays. (Figs. 36, 37, and 38). . . . . . . . . . . .30 29. Rays not uniform in.width, close, of two kinds, broad and narrow, forming pronounced fleck on radial face. Heartwood light yellowish- white to reddishébrown. Wbod moderately hard and heavy, close and even-grained. Faggs silvatica.L. (Fig. 35) 0v Q I . , . 0. onooto #6 00 0 ..ul 5" o 2 . ’3. ‘. - . mr‘.lh.1uw0lo 0.. . O. *. . p .. ...VM. n... - .. u. .. 15- Q i‘. II. .' Q . . . - . w. .\ . I.‘ ' Q ”(I . ..tfl':‘._‘, \ 28 29. Rays nearly uniform in width forming a reddish—brown or silvery fleck on the radial surface, and a characteristic pattern on the tangential surface. Heartwood variable in color from a very pale yellow to a light reddish—brown or a grayish—blue. ‘Wood moderately hard (resembles beech but is softer) and even-grained. Platanus orientalis L. (Fig. 3b) 30. Heartwood reddishdwhite. Parenchyma in the summerwood not visible with a hand lens. . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 30. Heartwood yellowish to brownishswhite. Parenchyma in the summerwood in fine, light tangential lines, visible with a hand lens. Growth rings sometimes not clearly marked in - cross section, on tangential face marked by uneven dark lines, delineated by a narrow, whitish band at the outer margin. Rays irregularly distributed. 'Wood hard, tough, close-grained and somewhat lustrous. Cam” in... betulus L. (Fig. 36) 31. Wood white when out, becoming reddisthhite (subject to oxidative sap stain), soft, light, smooth-grained and lustrous. Growth rings distinct in cross section, delineated by a whitish or brownish line at the outer margin. Rays are clearly defined. The summer- wood delineation line tends to show small curvature in contact with broad rays. ginnigiutmosa. Willd (Fig. 37) 31. WOod white to reddishawhite. Growth rings distinct in cross section. The summerwood delineation line tends to show a a 1. so"... 000 III-III) .. e... «u, 29 conspicuous curvature (Ueshaped) in contact with broad rays. ElEEE subcordata C.A.M. (Fig. 38) 32. Pores small, approximately uniform in size, exhibit no, or little,variation in size indicative of seasonal growth, less than half as wide as the broadest rays. . . . . . . . . . . 33 32. Pores moderate to large, not uniform in size; variation in size indicative of seasonal growth, round to oval. ‘Wood dif- fuse to semi-diffuse, porous; pores more numerous and larger in springwood than summerwood. Heartwood reddish—gray, hard, close—grained and slightly brittle. Ziziphus Spina-christi L. Willd. (Fig. 56) 33. Rays fine and indistinct to the naked eye in cross section . . . 3h 33. Rays, distinct to the naked eye. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h5 -3h. Pores small, numerous, generally visible with the aid of a hand lens; pores in springwood slightly larger than summer- wood.Rays generally indistinct to the naked eye. . . . . . .35 3h. Pores exceedingly small, fine and numerous, or rather scanty, generally visible with the naked eye, or hardly discernible even with the aid of a hand lens. Rays very fine, numerous and indistinct to the naked eye ..... . . . . . . . . . .h3 35. Growth rings not distinct to the naked eye and lens, or wood characterized by alternate bands of soft and hard tissue. Heartwood dirty gray or yellowishébrown. . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . h? 35.Growthringsdistinct.......................36 36. Heartwood gray to grayishébrown, light reddishawhite to light brown or slightly yellowish or reddish. . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 ik- (“D Ical’f‘t’fl 1.. ' I; . ' H "21”"??? ' 31 3a.“ 26,53“ 1 $.10“ ~37 ;\~1-\ $.31 3’3'3‘1’ " 60:331.: H?- ‘ ‘v‘ ‘ 3O 36. Heartwood creamy white to whitish yellow, light grayish, brown or orange red. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 3?. Rays very fine and scarcely visible, occupying half of the area on the transverse section. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 37. Ray fine, not distinct to the naked eye, narrower than larger pores, occupying less than half of the area on the transverse section. Pores small, quite evenly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Heartwood light reddishawhite to light brown, moderately hard, straight and even-grained. 212.12.11.12.er L. (Fig. 1.1) 38. Heartwood slightly yellowish or reddish. 'Wood light,soft and fine- grained. Rays very fine and scarcely visible with a hand lens. ’ Aesculus hippocastanum. Linn. (Fig. ED) 38. Heartwood gray to grayish-brown or light reddishdwhite, to light- brown. Pores small, uniform in size, solitary under 10X magnifi- cation. Rays not distinct to the naked eye, very close wood moderately heavy and fairly hard. Liquidambar orientalis. Mill (Fig. 39) 39. Growth rings distinct, delineated by'a zone of pores in the spring- Hood and flamboyant groups of vessels in the summerwood. Individual pores indistinct without a hand lens. Heartwood orange-red, hard and.heavy. Rhamnus sp. (Fig. h3) 39. Growth rings distinct, not conspicuous, not delineated by distinct :Eunfiboyant groups of vessels in the summerwood. . . . . . . . ._.hO 31 ho. Heartwood creamy white, whitish-yellow, to light grayishebrown. ‘Wood medium textured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hl ho. Heartwood light brown to grayish-brown. 'Wood light to moderately soft, weak and straight-grained. & aegyptiaca L. (Fig. 147) §_al__i_x_ australior. And. (Fig. 148) ll. Sapwood white. Heartwood whitish yellow to light grayish-brown. Pores small, numerous. Rays very fine scarcely visible with a hand lens. Wood moderately soft and weak. Populus nigra var: pyramidalis Poz. (Fig. 141;) Populus alba L. (Fig. 15) Populus nigra var: pubesans. L. (Fig. L15) bl. Heartwood light reddish-brown to light reddish. 'Wood straight or interlocked grained, medium fine, uneven-textured, rather lustrous. Pom lus euphratica. Olivier 1.2. Pores often oval, and subdivided. Wood characterized by alternate concentric bands of soft and hard tissue, dirty gray, soft, slightly lustrous. 1122222122 L. (Fig. 59) [(2. Pores evenly distributed, single or subdivided, or in small groups, in patches of parenolmna. Rays fine, wavy, numerous and short. Parenchyma not visible. Heartwood yellowish-brown with irregularly wavy dark-brown streaks and mottled. Wood rather brittle. fl ea europea L. (Fig- 58) --..,1 of. .......... ... . 1.. - {ALI ...»... Shh. {09.1.1ku .w. . 0v\:.0‘o.*1-Ib\.0 1‘! .10. ..1 ' .MRnfiJJW-Ln. 1 max... . . \.. 6 .I10 1 I v.0 I . 0 0 1 1.. t O Q. 1\' ‘l. . 1 0 .Iv- ‘ I‘m ‘ 4. . ...]. 1" d t..- U.*. ‘3“ V C le’. O ...Oclf ..."-.. .‘L'l. . hmafixaa ..~.. 11.8 1 . - .t ... ‘ 81-, . I 1.... ”.0. '31.... . ...... . l cvoiruv . ’ . . V .. OI ‘ ' ."J o... I 0 fig (1.. 5 -.. c '1‘ . t & . $ u 32 h3. Heartwood light reddishebrown or light pinkishewhite. . . . . . uh h3. Heartwood yellow to whitish—yellow in color. Growth rings narrow, delineated by a line of denser summerwood. Growth rings, rays and 'vessels are indistinct with the naked eye. Parenchyma not visible. ‘Wood very close, hard, heavy, dense, strong and even-grained. Ml. hh. §252§_sempervirens L. (Fig. 50) Heartwood light pinkishdwhite in color. Pores exceedingly small, rather scant, indistinct without a hand lens. Rays very fine numerous and regular. 'Wbod hard, moderately heavy and even—grained. Parrotia persica D. C. (Fig. 51) Heartwood light, reddishebrown (sometimes no true heart present). Growth rings recognizable. Pores exceedingly small and numerous. Rays indistinct to the naked eye. ‘Wood hard, tough,moderately heavy, fine, close-grained, with extraordinary evenness of texture. Pirus cordata Desv. (Fig. 52) h5.Raysunifominwidth......................h6 h5.immy3'variable in width, composed of broad and narrow types (but narrow rays scarcely visible with the aid of a hand lens). . . . h7 h6. Broadest rays about the same width as the largest pores. Heartwood brownishdwhite to paleebrown, distinct, delineated by difference in size of pores in the springwood and summer- 'wood. Pores small. Rays not distinct without a hand lens. 'Wood soft, close-grained and slightly lustrous. Tilia rubra. D.C. (Fig. 1.2) 33 [46. Broadest rays narrower than the largest pore. Heartwood light reddishowhite to light-brown. Growth rings distinct with a lens, delineated by a fine line of denser librous tissue. Pores are small. Wood moderately hard, heavy, moderately strong, straight and even-grained. 921.311.13— 9.221 L. (Fig. ill) 14?. Wider rays stand out against the background of pores and fibrous tissue. Pores are small, uniform in size and regularly distributed. Broader rays visible to the naked eye, forming a gray fleck. Conspicuous on the quarter surface. Heartwood grayish-white to light brown, moderately hard and heavy, fine-textured, even and straight-grained . Acer laetum. C.A.M. (Fig. 62) flinsigne Boiss (Fig. 63) 1L7. Wider rays do not stand out against the background of pores and fibroustissue..........................h8 h8. Heartwood pale-brown. Growth rings distinct, not sharply delineated. Pores small and indistinct without a hand lens. Parenchyma not distinct. Broader rays visible with the naked eye. Wood hard to very hard, heavy and fine—grained. §_o_r_1_1_u_s_australis C.A.H. (Fig. 61;) 1'18- Heartwood, white to pinkish yellow, or light grayish—brown, orgrayish-whitetopalebrown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 [‘9' Growth rings distinct. Pores smll and evenly distributed. Rays fine but distinct, with a satiny lustre on radial surface. Pores Stand out against the background of fibrous tissue. Rays not as numerous and well defined. Heartwood white to pinkish yellow, becoming yellowish to slightly brown with age, often beautifully figured. Wood hard, medium heavy, tough, fine and straight— grained. Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Fig. 61) [19. Growth rings fairly distinct, slightly wavy. Pores small, not stand out well against the background of fibrous tissue. Rays fine and distinct with a hand lens (more numerous and well-defined than in i. pseudoplatanus L.) ray flecks inconspicuous. Heartwood light— brown, or reddish-white. Wood moderately hard, tough with a beautiful satin lustre . Acer (33.-HE estris L. (Fig. 60) l. 2. 3 . )4- S- 6. 7. 8- 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. 15. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22, 23. gpecies Identified in Macroscopic Key Pinus halepensis Var: eldarica Medw. Juniperus polycarpos C. Kock. Thuja orientalis L. Taxus baccata L. Cupressus sempervirens Var. horizontalis Mill Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M. Quercus persica J. sp. Quercus iberica Stev. Eleagnus angustifolia L. Albizzia julibrissin Willd . Ailanthus glandulosa Desf . Ju glans regia L. Pterocarya fraxinifolia Lam. Diospyros lotus L. .. Prunus divaricata Ledeb. Catalpa cordifolia Moench. (C. bignonioides Walt.) Catalpa speciosa Ward. Ulmus montana S. M. Ulmus campestris L. Zelkova crenata Desf. Maclura aurantiaca Nutt (M. pomifera (Raf) Schneid) Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fraxinus excelsior L. 35 2h. Fraxinus oxycarpa W. End . 25 . Gleditschia caspica Desf. 26. Moms alba L. 27 . Lonicera iberica M. B. 28 . Pistacia mutica F. M. 29 - Cercis siliquastrum L. 30 - Paulownia imperialis Siebold and Zuccarini 31 . Sambucus nigra L. 32 - Ligustrum vulgare L. 33 1. Rhus coriaria L . 3h. Platanus orientalis L. 35. Fagus sylvatica L. 36. Carpinus betulus L. 37 . Alnus glutinosa Willd. 38. Alnus subcordata C. A. M. 39. Liquidambar orientalis Mill 140 . Aesculus Hyppocastanum L. 141- Betula alba L. 142. Tilia rubra D. c. 3 143- Rhamnus sp. M4- POpulus nigra Var: Pyramidalis. Rozier. 145- Populus nigra Var: Pubescens. L. 046- Populus alba L. ’47- Salix aegyptiaca. L. ’48 ~ Salix australior And . 36 b9. Salix babylonica L. 50. 51. 52. 53. Sh. SS- 56- 57. 58. S9. 60. 61. 62. 63. 6h. Buxus sempervirens. L. Parrotia persica D. C. Pirus cordata. Desv. Cydonia oblonga Mill. Mespilus germanica L. Crataegus monogina Willd . Zizyphus spina~christi (L.) Willd. Rhus cotinus L. Olea europea L. Ficus carica L. Acer campestris L. Acer psefidoplatanus L. Acer laetum C. A. M. Acer insigne. Boiss. Cornus australis C. A. M. 37 )4 o. CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION OF WOODS BY SPECIES 38 l. Pinus hal§ensis var: eldarica Medw. Fam . Pinaceae E . Pine-tree F . Pin G. Kiefer, Fohre 2r_i_.g_in and Distribution Not native in Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white, heartwood light yellowish~brown to creamy light- brown. Annual rings marked by the denser autumn wood consisting of compressed tracheids with smaller lundna. Wood resinous, without any odor, moderately hard, medium-coarse textured, and even-grained, moderately weak in static and impact bending properties. 2. horoscopic features. Growth rings distinct, not homogeneous, consisting of alternate layers 0f lighter springwood and darker summerwood. Transition from SpringWDod to summerwood gradual. Rays fine and not visible with the naked eye. 3. Resin canals present . MicroecoEic features. Tracheids up to 50 microns in diameter, transition in diameter between summerwood and springwood tracheids gradual, bordered pits in one row on the radial wall of tracheids, pits are large. Par enchyma not visible, Resin canals present both longitudinal and transverse. Rays - uniseriate and fusiform, average height of rays 250 microns, 39 average width of rays 10 microns, average number of rays per square millimeter 10 . h . Uses . It is used for poles, building construction, posts, mine timbers, boxes, crates and pulpwood. 2. Juniperus polycaos C. Kock. = J. excelsa, M. B. = J. sabina, var. Taurica, Pall. :1 J. foetida var. exoelsa, Spaoh == Sabina excelsa, Antoine Fam. Cupressaceae E. Greek juniper F. Génévrier en arbre G . Hoher Wacholder Origin and Distribution North-eastern and northern Iran, from 500 up to 2000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. sapwood white—yellowish; heartwood light yellowish-brown. Wood even-grained and fine-textured, resistant to decay, weak in some mechanical properties (bending), usually fragrant, light, fairly heavy, 933.? to work. 2° I’taeoroscgic features. Growth rings distinct, sumerwood reddish—brown and darker than Springwood, wavy. Springwood usually occupies most of the ring, transition from spring to summerwood abrupt or gradual. Parenchyma to Present, visible with hand lens. Resin canals absent. Rays fine and form small flakes on the quarter surface. 3. Aggrpggopic features. Tracheids 30 microns in diameter, the difference in diameter of summerwood and springwood tracheids is noticeable; often with inter- cellular spaces at the corners; bordered pits in one row on radial walls of tracheids, tangential pitting is present in the few rows of Sumnerwood tracheids. Parenchyma present, in tangential rows. Rays uniseriate; the average height of rays 100 microns, average width 10 microns, average nunber of rays per square millimeter 12. b. y_s__e_s_. For millwork, closets, boxes and small articles. 3, Ma Orientalis L. = Biota orientalis (Endl.) L. Fem. Cupressaceae E. Arbor vitae, Chinese arbor vitae F. Tnuia d'orient, Arbre de paradis, Arbrede vie G. Lebensbaum, Orientalische— Lebensbaum, Echter Facherleb ensbaum ___gOri a and Distribution Northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwoodv white, heartwood white to pinkish-brown. Wood fragrant, rather coarse-grained, soft, weak in mechanical properties, but highly durable and resistant to decay, especially in contact with the soil, d oes not mrp readily. 2. gcroscqpic feaflres. Growth rings distinct and very conspicuous, delineated by a derker band of summerwood, a high proportion of the ring is occupied by Springwood, parenchyma barely visible or not. Resin canals absent. Ray-s very fine, forming a fine inconspicuous fleck on the quarter _- 5'57 surface. 3. Micgscopic features. Tracheids up to 35 microns in diameter, transition in diameter of summerwood and springwood tracheids gradual. Bordered pits in one Ll row on the radial walls, visible also in some summerwood tracheids. Lines of metatracheal parenchyma variable in distribution. Rays unis eriate, occasionally bi-seriate, average height of rays 100 microns, average width of rays 9 microns, average number of rays in millimeter 15. 1;. Uses. 3 This wood is used mostly for purposes in which durability is an important factor, canoes, indoor fittings, boxes, crates, and shingles. h. Taxus baccata L. Fam. Taxaoeae E. Yew-tree, Common yew, Chinwood, Globe-berry F . If, If commm G. Eibe, Echte Eibe, Ifenbaum, Eichenbaum 12 21351;: and Distribution In Europe at up to 6000 ft. altitude, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia including Iran, at up to 11,000 ft.altitude. l _ ’ .General characteristics and figrpperties. Sapwood yellowish-white; heartwood reddish brown. Wood hard and iv ‘11:: -71531 4 heavy, close-grained and irregular in its growth, resistant to insect _'T.—-'TiT if; damage, and very durable, untreated fence posts have shown long arr—1‘ ‘- I serviceability, without characteristic odor or taste, takes very good polish . 2. lilacroscgpic features. Growth rings distinct, excentric and wavy, delineated by a band of darker summerwood, narrow to medium wide. Transition from springwood to surrmlerwood gradual. Resin canals absent. Parenchyma not visible. Rays very fine, not distinct to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Tracheids up to 25 microns in diameter; bordered pits in one row on radial walls of tracheids, tangential pitting present in the last few rows of summerwood tracheids; close bands of spiral thickenings Present. Resin canals wanting. Rays uniseriate (l to 25 cells in height) . 1‘0 Uses . ...—— For bows, carvings, canoes and poles. 1|! 143 S. Cupressus sempervirens L. var: horizontalis Mill. = Cupressus horizontalis, TMillJ— Fam . Cupressaceae E. Cypress-tree ‘ F . Cyprés G . Gemein Zypresse , Millelmeerzypresse Md Distribution Cupressus sempervirens L. is reported in the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor, and Persia, up to 1000 meters altitudes. l. Geilgrgl 'characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood white to whitish-yellow and reddish. Hood medium coarse-textured, very fine and close-grained, fragrant, moderately hard, and durable. 2. Macroscopic features. Growth rings distinct, transition from springwood :to summerwood gradual. Parenchyma present, and visible. Rays fine, and visible. 3. gorgscwggc features. Transition in diameter of tracheids from springwood to summerwood gradual . Bordered pits on radial walls of tracheids. Tangential pitting present in the last few rows of summerwood tracheids. Parenchyma, in tangential rows. Rays mostly uniseriate; average height of rays 320 microns; average width of rays 18 microns, average number of rays per one millimeter 7. he U383 . This wood was used by the ancient Egptians for mummy cases, in E13 ' _ h-.." VH‘" . i! hLL Crete for shipbuilding and in Assyria for coffins of the Porpes. It was used by Alexander the Great for his Babylonian fleet and Semiramis bridge over the Euphrate. In the past it was used for harps and organ- .DipeS, and also for vineprops, but now seldom so employed. Owing to its durability it is used for clothe-chests, because of its resistance to moths. Certonia work, or inlaying of this wood with ivory is still famous as a Persian art. 7-" 2" ‘ J "“j. ‘99 are. ..1 .C O 6. Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M. ‘10 ”'17-“ Fan . Fagaceae E . Oak-tree F . Ch’éne , G. Eiche, Kastanienbfatterige Aférez w and Distribution Northern Iran 1. General characteristics andwprpperties. Sapwood narrow, whitish to grayish; heartwood reddish-brown to brown, darkening on exposure. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, has average strength properties, young oak is tougher than older wood . Sapwood is subject to insect attacks, heartwood is durable, untreated ties of this species last at least 10 years in service. 2. Macroscopic features. W00d ring porous. Growth rings very distinct and well-marked. Springwood pores large, visible to the naked eye; large vessels in springWOod are usually in two rows; transition from springwood to ncu .14 ”—i m It. 1:5 summerwood gradual to more or less abrupt. Summerwood pores are thick— "alled, sometimes in flame-shaped groups. Rays of two types, broad and r"arrow, broad rays are visible to the naked eye; narrow rays are indiatinct without magnification. Parenchyma forms part of the conjunctive tissue between springwood vessels and rays and is visible 'P‘T " TY-Wf‘fifmnz . I .. with a hand lens. 3. geroscopic features. Vessels round to slightly oval; in the summerwood 10 per square millimeter, in the springwood 6 per square millimeter; average diameter of springwood vessels is 300 microns, average diameter of summerwood vessels is 80 microns, average length of vessel segments 300 microns; perforation plates simple; pits are small and mostly orbicular to oval; tyloses abundant. Fibers thick-walled, regularly arranged in radial rows . Rays unstoried, homogeneous; broad rays average 3200 microns in height; narrow rays 1140 microns in height, average width of broad rays 200 microns; broad (compound) rays lS—20 plus seriate; the average lumber of rays per one millimeter is 9. Parenchyma abundant, meta- tracheal diffuse, restricted mostly to the outer margins of wide rings. “-12.952- Largely for mine timbers, tight-cooperage, railroad ties, fence posts, constructional purposes, furniture, firewood, boxes and crates and agricultural implements. Owing to its hardness and durability it is Widely used for railroad ties, and because of its impermeability to 1i‘Illids , durability and strength, it is used for tight-c00perate, mainly for export. 146 7. Quercus persica J. et sp. Fam. Fagaceae E. Oak-tree F. Chene G. Eiche E“ Orignii’ and Distribution Western Iran 1. G_e_ner£ characteristics andvprope'rtiefs. Sapwood very wide, whitish to light grayish; heartwood light brown to pinkish-brown. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, close- grained, firm in texture and fairly hard, but softer than other species of oak, of average durability. Owing to large proportion of sapwood, wood is not extensively used. It is slow growing species, mostly due to climatic conditions and poor site on which it grows. The ancient Persimls are said to have used this wood in construction of palaces. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct and narrow. Springwood Pores are large, visible to the naked eye, usually in two to three rows; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual to more or less abrupt; summerwood pores in flame-shaped groups. Rays of two types broad and narrow, broad rays are visible to the naked eye; narrow rays are indaiStinct without magnification. Parenchyma forms part of the “motive tissue between springwood vessels and rays. Rays are Visible Without a hand lens. h? 3. Micrpsgopic features. Vessels round to slightly oval; perforation plates simple; pits are small and are mostly orbicular to oval. Fibers thick-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous, 10-18 seriate. Parenchyma abundant, metetrachael diffuse . ‘ ”1.4mm -«..~‘ A. Uses. Locally for fuel; excellent for charcoal; occasionally used for :27 i l- f‘urniture and mine timbers. 8. Quercus iberica Stev. = Quercus sessiliflora, Sm. Fam. Fagaceae W and Distribution Northern Iran, from 850-1600 to 2000 meters altitude. l. genderel characteristics and properties. Sapwood whitish; heartwood whitish-ybrown. Wood without character- istic odor or taste, has average strength properties, finely grained and. moderately hard. Owing to growth at higher elevations, this Species is slow-growing and produces fine-grained wood with narrower rings than those of Quercus castraneraefolia C. A. M. 2. Macroscflic features Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct, narrow. Springwood Pores are large, usually in 2-h rows, visible to the naked eye, ‘ tranSition from springwood to summerwood gradual to more or less abrupt; summerwood pores are thick-walled, in flame-shaped groups. Rays of two types, broad and narrow. Parenchyma forms part of the co Inn-Ilctive tissue between springwood vessels and rays. LLB 3. Miproscopic featureg. Vessels round to slightly oval; perforation plates simple; pits are small and are mostly orbicular to oval. Fibers thick-walled. Rays 15—20 seriate. r Parenchyma abundant, metatracheal-diffuse. 2.. L, For constructional purposes, fuel and charcoal. 9. Elaea us anggstifolia L. = E. hortensis M. B. = . incanus Lam. = E. Orientalis L. Fam. Elaeagnaceae E. Oiltree, oleaster, Russian olive, Bohemian oleaster F. Olivier de Boheme, Chalef, Chalef a feuilles étroites, Eléagne, Olinet, Arbre de paradis, Arbre d'argent G. Oleaster, Olweide, silberbaum, Schmale 'olweide B3hmischer °Olbaum, Paradisbaum Distribution In dry regions of Iran, wild in eastern Iran. 1. Gen_ eral characteristics and prgperties. Sapwood white; heartwood brown to orange-brown. Wood with-out Characteristic odor or taste (sometimes with a very slight odor), generally straight—grained, soft to moderately hard . 2- Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinctly mrked by a belt of large Pores. Springwood pores moderately-sized, and numerous; transition f '1 mm Sprj ngwood to summerwood (gradual to more or less abrupt. The au tum W'Ood contains fewer and smaller pores. Pores often oval. 119 Rays, short and fine, sometimes showing as silver grain on radial surface. 3. Uses. The wood is used for fuel. lO..Albizziegiulibrissin (DC.) Willd. = Acacia julibrissin. DC. Fam. Mimosaceae E. Bastard tamarind, Silk-tree; Silk rose F3 Arbre a la soie, Arbre de Constantinopole, G . Orientalische Akazie , Schirmakazie 031%]. and Distributiop Africa, Asia (from Iran, to China and Japan), Northern Iran up to too meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood whitish-brown; heartwood brown, almost yellow golden, tinged with yellow and marked with lighter and darker streaks. Wood shallowly interlocked-grained, straight-grained, heavy and hard, high in toughness; heartwood said to be very durable, lustrous, even and medium to coarse-textured, moderately strong; seasons well, capable of a EOOd polish, when polished it is extremely attractive. 2. Macroscopic features . W00¢] ring porous. Growth rings distinct, springwood pores are large and open, irregular in distribution, often surrounded by a patch of loose tissue; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt to mor e or less gradual. Parenchyma not visible. Rays exceedingly 4W ~ . ("Wu—:11" — new: .v' «1.1 1 . P 50 fine, wide apart and irregular, not visible to the naked eye in cross section, visible on radial. 3. ficroscopic features. Vessels more or less oval, average 6 per square millimeter, average diameter of vessels 160 microns, average length of vessel segments 250 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits oval to angular. Parenchyma, present, paratracheal and scarce. Fibers, thin-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous to heterogeneous; average length of rays 220 microns; average width of rays (l-2 seriate) 20 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 6. h. U333. A. very attractive wood, suitable for decorative wood-work, furniture, building, scaffold, and axles of carts, rafters, scantlings, cabine‘tmaking and chairmaking . ll. Ailanthus glandulosa Desf = Ailantus altissima. Swingle. Fam. Simarubaceae. E. Tree of Heaven, Tree of the Gods, Chinese Ash, Japan Varnish Tree, False Varnish Tree, Chinese Sumach, Tallow Tree. F. Arbre de ciel, Varnish du Japan, Frene puant, Ailante glanduleux G. Gotterbaum, Echter Gotterbaum, Japanischer Firnissbaum wdbistribution Grows wild in the mountains of Chili, Northern China, Japan; lntrochleed into India, Iran, England, France, Germany, Italy and the es Stern United States of America. 51 1. general characteristics and properties. Sapwood yellowish and broad; heartwood, grayish orange. Wood Without characteristic odor, moderately heavy, moderately hard, high in elasticity and resistance to crushing, difficult to split, with a beautiful satin-like luster, moderately durable, susceptible of a high polish, makes handsome furniture, easy to work. 2. _M_a_croscg>pic features. W'ood ring porous. Growth rings distinct because of rows of large Springwood, open pores. Pores in the springwood large, in the summer- wood small or moderately-sized; transition from springwood to summerwood gradual to more or less abrupt. Rays distinctly visible to the naked eyes, with a satin-like luster, few and moderately broad. This wood is easily distinguished from that of ash by the greater width of annual rings, and by the rays which are clearly visible in cross section with the naked eye. 3. Uses. _—-’ In” cabinet-making, general carpentry and for fuel. 12. Juglans regia L. Fam. Juglandaceae E. Walnut-tree, Circassian Walnut, Jupiter's Nut, Maderia Nut, French Nut F. Noyer, Noyer royal, Calottier, “~G0guier, Noguier F. Walnussbaum, Walnusse, Echte Walnuss, Nussbaum, Welcher Nussbaum .l’ 3.3“ an .1... iii A... Rut 52 Qpigin and Distribution A native tree of northern China and Persia, introduced into Greece and Italy in early times from Persia (Iran), and thence into the rest Of Europe. Up to 1500 meters in north of Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood broad, grayish to yellowish-brown, subject to insect attack; heartwood, light-brown to brown, moderately heavy, takes a beautiful polish. Wood moderately heavy, tasteless, irregular or straight-grained, generally beautifully mottled, shrinks moderately. 2. Macroscppic picture. Wood semi-diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated through an abrupt difference in size between pores of the late summer— wood and those in the Springwood of succeeding rings; tyloses present. Parenchyma present, visible in broken tangential lines. Rays fine, indistinct without a land lens. 3. Microscopic features . Vessels average 8 per square millimeter; the average diameter of vessels 130 microns, the average length of vessel segments 300 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits mostly angular. Parenchyma metatracheal, fairly abundant. Fibers thin to moderately thick-walled. Rays, 1~S seriate, homogeneous to heterogeneous; average length of rays 20° Microns; average width of rays 50 microns; average number of rays Per square millimeter 6. be USES . Mostly veneer, largely sliced; railway ties, fence posts, millwork 53 and furniture. The color, general appearance, and carving qualities of this wood appeal particularly to decorative artists, in cabinet making and furniture. 13. Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Lam. = Juglans pterocarya Willd JP. caucasica C.A.M. Fam. Juglandaceae E. Winged fruited walnut-tree, Caucasian walnut, False walnut, Wing-nut F. Pterocaryer a feuille de fr'éne, Noyer de caucase G . Flu gelnus s Eigipn and Distribution The Caucasus, Armenia, Persia (Iran), Northern Iran up to 1000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood; heartwood pinkish-white. Wood light and moderately weak, without characteristic odor or taste, not very durable. 2° @roscppic features. Wood semi-diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, mostly due to the abrupt transition in size of pores in the late summerwood and those in the springwood, of the succeeding ring. Parenchyma present, visible in bI‘Oken tangential lines. Rays fine, indistinct without a hand lens. 3' .Micimscopic featupes. Vessels average 7 per square millimeter; average length of vessel segments [50 microns; average diameter of vessels lhO microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits mostly angular. A... 4'. Parenchyma metatracheal, medium abundant. Fibers, thin to moderately thick-walled. Rays, unstoried, l-h seriate, homogeneous to heterogeneous; average length of rays hOO microns; average width of rays 25 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 7. u. [333. Chiefly used for making boxes and packaging cases, furniture, cabinet work, and millwork. lb. Diospyzos lotus L. Fam . Ebenaceae E. False lots-tree, Date plum, Sour jujube, Persimmon-tree F . Faux lotier G. Dattelpflaum, Italienische Dattelpflaum, Afrikanische Lotusbaum. 91353131 and Distribution Iran, Afghanistan, extending to Kashmir and Himalaya to southern Europe, northern Iran up to 1100 meters , altitude . 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood broad and cream-white; heartwood, gray to dark-brown; some with black, brown and light yellow streaks. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, close-grained, strong, tough, heavy, hard, high in nail holding ability, susceptible to high polish, wears ”0°13le with use, difficult to season, not very durable. 2' wpopic features. "00d semi-ring porous. Growth rings distinct but not conspicuous. SS Springwood pores visible to the naked eyes; summerwood pores small, in short radial groups, somewhat irregular in size. Parenchyma visible with a hand lens, appearing evenly punctate. Rays fine, distinct with a hand lens, parallel, numerous, and almost equidistantly spaced. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels slightly oval, in short radial groups; perforation plates Simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval. Parenchyma paratracheal, and terminal. Fibers relatively thin-walled to thick-walled. Rays homogeneous to heterogeneous. )4. Uses. It is suitable for shuttles in textile industries, because it is tough, of proper weight, and wears smoothly. Used for sport articles, such as golf heads, wood has a great value for veneer (it resembles narrotg-striped ebony), is used also for shoe-lasts, plane-stocks, boxes and crates . lS. LIFE-1.13 divaricata Ledeb .- Prunus cerasifera,Ehrh., Fam. Rosaceae E. Sloe-tree, Black-thorns, Bullace F. Prunellier, Prunier épineux G . Schlehenpflaum 211% Northern Iran. 1' get-Legal characteristics and irppertigs. Sapwood whitish to light reddish-brown; heartwood light blackish- b ram- Wood close and even grained, hard, heavy, not very durable, 56 moderately strong, finishes smoothly, free from checking and warp, seasons well, capable of a very smooth surface. 2 . geroscgpic features . Wood semi-ring porous. Growth rings are clearly marked by dark- colored zones, delineated by a narrow inconspicuous bands of porous tissue in the early springwood. Pores, very numerous, small, somewhat plugged, at the beginning of the ring somewhat larger, but not visible with the naked eye, evenly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Rays visible, forming numerous small flecks on radial surface. 3. flicroscOPic features. Perforation plates simple. Parenchyma very sparse. Fibers thin to thick-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous to heterogeneous. 11.. Uses. For decorative purposes, pipes, valued by turners for inlaying, usedfor walking sticks and cabinet work. w mahaleb L. = Cerasus mahaleb. (1). Mill = Padus mahaleb Borkh. E. Perfumed cherry, Rock cherry F. Cerisier odorant, Cerisier mahaleb F. Weichsel, Mahalebkirsche Wood perfumed, brown or green-streaked, moderately hard. Growth layers are marked by thin dark lines, pores are very small, hardly discernible under the lens. Rays defined. Used for pipe-stems and W8 sticks . 57 Prunus agneniaca Linn Sapwood white; heartwood grayish-brown to light-brown. Wood moderately hard, close-grained. Pores very numerous and small, uniformly distributed. Rays numerous and regular. Wood is used chiefly for firewood, mottled with streaks and handsome. Prunus avium Moench = Cerasus avium Moench = C. dulcis Gaertn = C. nigra Mill. Fam. Rosaceae E. Cherry tree, Head cherry, Merry-tree, Wild gean, Bird cherry, Gean, Gean Cherry, Sour cherry, Gaskins, Wild cherry tree, Hedgeberry, Sweet cherry, Hazards F. Guigner sauvage, Cerisier, Merisier, Cerisier de bois, Cerisier des oiseaux G. Bach-kirsche, vogelkirsche, sfisskirsche, Wilder kirschbaum 21331:: and Distribution . Northern Iran, up to 2600 meters altitude. _Ma_croScopic features Sapwood yellowish-white to reddish; heartwood light yellowish- brown to light-yellowish red. Wood close, even-grained, hard, heavy, firm, Wood not durable. Annual rings distinct, delineated by a narrow inconspicuous band of porous tisme in the early springwood. Rays diatinc't and fine. The wood is valued and used by turners and for inimg . 58 ~ Prunus laurocerasus L. = Cerasus laurocerasus Lois - Padus laurocerasus Mill. = laurocerasus officinalis Roem Fam. Rosaceae E. Cherry-Laurel F . Laurier-c erise G. Lorbeerkirsche, Kirschelorbeer Native of southern Europe, A318, and Caspian forest belt. Heartwood is pinkish-‘vdiite; wood rough-grained, hard and moderately heavy. Annual rings distinct. Pores small and numerous. Rays very fine. Wood used by turners and fordnlayimg. 16. CatalE cordifolia. Moench = Catalpa biggonioides Walt. Fam. Bignoniaceae E. Catalpa F. 13013 shavanon 92-9-31 and Distrlialtia South Central America, the origin of the name is Catawba, the name of Indian tribes of Georgia and the Carolinas. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood pale gray and narrow; heartwood brown to grayish-brown, somehow lustrous. Wood without characteristic taste, but with a faint 31‘ ORB-tic odor, straight and coarse-grained, light, soft, weak, brittle, durable, expecially in contact with the soil. 2' @oscrmic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large and Visible to naked eye; summerwood pores smll; transition from S9 springwood to summerwood more or less gradual to abrupt. Parenchyma not distinct. Rays visible with a hand lens, usually indistinct to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round to slightly oval, 8-20 per square millimeter; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in the summerwood vessels; intervessel pits orbicular to oval. Parenchyma, paratracheal and paratracheal—zonate. Fibers, thin-walled. Rays, unstoried (l-6 seriate), homogeneous to heterogeneous. 1.. E5193. For posts, railroad ties; fences, cabinets, fuel, and construction purposes . l7. Catalgg fleciosa. Ward. Fam . Bignoniaceae E . Catalpa F. Bois shavanon m and Distribution South Central United States. The origin of the name is Catawba, the name of Indian tribes of Georgia and the Carolinas. This tree was introduced to European and Asian countries (Iran) as an ornamental tree. 1. General characteristicsgd pgoperties. Sapwood grayish-white; heartwood brown. Wood with a faint aromatic odor, light, soft, not strong, straight and coarse-grained, brittle, durable especially in contact with the soil. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large 60 and visible to the naked eye; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt, or more or less gradual; summerwood vessels Shall. Parenchyma not distinct. Rays visible with a hand lens, usually indistinct to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round to oval, 8-20 per square millimeter; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present inthe summerwood vessels; intervessel pits orbicular to oval. Parenchyma. paratracheal and para- tracheal-zonate. Fibers thin-walled. Rays unstoried (1-6 seriate), homogeneous to heterogeneous. 11.31393. For posts and fencing, fuel and cabinet-work. 18. Ulmus montana Sm. = U. glabra, Huds. (non Mill) = mjmth =- U . Scabra, Mill = U. latifolia Moench. = U. corylifolia, Boreau Fam. Ulmaceae E. Wych elm, Broadleaved elm, Wych-hazel, Scotch elm, Mountain elm F. Orme de montagne, Orme blanc G. Bergruster, Bergulme 22351.3 and Distribution Europe, western Asia (Iran), northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood narrow, whitish-yellow; heartwood brown or brownish-red. Wood usually without characteristic taste and odor, sometimes sapwood with a faint characteristic odor; wood straight-grained, moderately heavy, fairly hard, easier to Split than 1;. mestris L., high in 61 static and impact bending, shrinks considerably, has tendency to warp in seasoning, moderately durable. 2. Macrosc0pic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, distinctly visible with naked eye; transition from springwood to summer- wood abrupt; summerwood pores are small and numerous, arranged in more or less contimious, wavy, concentric bands. Parenchyma not visible. Rays strongly defined on the radial section, in pronounced flecks, indistinct to the naked eye in the cross section. 3. Morospopig features. Vessels average 120 per square millimeters; average diameter of springwood vessels 250 microns; average length of vessel segments 200 microns; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in the smller vessels; intervessel pits orbicular to angular; tyloses present. Parenchyma, paratracheal and metatracheal; paratracheal parenchyma abundant, contiguous, metatracheal parenchyma sparse. Fibers medium thick to thick-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous; average width of rays to microns; average length of rays 280 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter )4. 1.. 95135 . For panelling, staircases or other joinery, furniture and chair linking (although it is not really satisfactory, because it is attacked by beetles), boat building, millwork, cart building, boxes and crates. Because of its attractive color and grain it is used for sporting and athletic goods. 62 19. Ulmus procera, Salish. a U. nnda Ehrh U. campestris, L. = U. tetrandra Schk. = U. vulgaris Pall. U. glabra, Mill (non Hunds = U. suberosa Ehrh. = U. elliptica, C. Koch II N Fam . Ulnaceae E. Common elm, Red elm, English elm, Alm, Aulm-tree, Small leaved elm, European elm. F. Orme, Orme rouge, Ormeau, Orme champéte Ipreau G. Riister, Feldulme, Feldriister, Rotriister, Schwarze Ruster Wfiaf‘d Distribution Europe (United Kingdom), western Asia (Iran), northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood narrow, yellowish-white; heartwood dark-brown to brownish- red; usually without characteristic odor or taste. Wood, heard, heavy, tough, very difficult to split, apt to warp and twist, susceptible to high polish. 2. lacrosp‘opic features . . Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, distinctly visible to the naked eye, transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt; springwood consists of single interrupted row of pores; pores in the summerwood in wavy bands, which are conspicuous enough to be visible without the aid of a hand lens. Parenchyma not visible. Rays not distinguishable with the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in the smaller vessels; intervessel pits orbicular to angular; tyloses present. Parenchym paratracheal and metatracheal, paratracheal parenchyma 63 tflmndant, metatracheal parenchyma sparse. Fibers medium—thick to 'Hfink-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous. u. U333. As this wood is very durable under water, and fairly so under- ground, it is very useful for different constructional purposes. It was used formerly for waterpipes and ship keels in England. This elm and U. montana Smith are largely used for panelling, furniture, nullwork and chair-making. Complete bands of pores of summerwood are narrower inquEEE mestris L. than in lei montana Smith. 20. Zelkova crenata, Desf. = Planera Richardi, Michaux = Ulmus polygama Rich - Rhamnus carpinifolia, Pall = Planera crenata Desf. Fam. Ulmaceae E. Elm of Siberia, Siberian elm, Planer tree F. Orme de Siberia, Zelkova a feuille crénelée, Planere G. Zelkowe, msserulme 9_r_i_.gi_.n and Distribution Southern Russia (Caucasus), northern Iran, besides above species, two other species are known, the largest of which is. g. acuminata in Japan and China, and g. cretica, a shrub of Crete and Cypress. Zelkova crenata was introduced into England and EurOpe in 1770. In northern Iran from 900 to 1300 meters altitude. 6h 14 Gengnal characteristics and_properties. Sapwood broad, whitishiyellow; heartwood reddishebrown. 'Wood vdthout characteristic taste and odor, hard, heavy, tough, much like American or Canadian elm, moderately durable, does not crack and warp, takes a good polish. 2. Macroscopic features. 'Wbod ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, visible with naked eye; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt; ammmrwood pores are small and numerous, forming more or less continuous ‘mnmg concentric bands, marked by light-colored lines. Parenchyma not visible. Rays not distinct to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round, average 110 per square millimeter; average diameter of springwood vessels lhO microns; average diameter of summerwood vessels 80 microns; average height of vessel segments 300 microns. Parenchyma, paratracheal and metatracheal; paratracheal parenchyma abundant. Fibers medium thick to thick-walled, length of fibers short. Rays, unstoried, homogeneous to heterogenous, average length of rays 270 microns; average width of rays 50 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 6. 1.43.33. Furniture, boat building and millwork. As it is a strong and durable wood it was used as pillars to the temples in the past. The likeness of this species to that of'glmgg is so marked, that it is possible to confuse this wood with Ulmus spp. 65 21. Maclura aurantiaca Nutt = Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid Fam. Moraceae E. Osage-orange, bow-wood F. Bois d'arc 25E§n.and Distribution Arkansas and Texas, North America, tree was introduced to European and Asian countries (Iran). 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood, light yellow, and narrow; heartwood, bright orange to golden yellow longitudinally, brown transversely; darkens with exposure to air and light and turns greyish. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, very heavy, hard, strong, not tough, straight-grained, coarse textured, lustrous, shrinks moderately, very durable especially in contact with the soil. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous, Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores, large, occluded with tyloses, springwood zone appears as a light colored band, 2-3 pores in width; summerwood pores small, forming interrupted concentric bands. Parenchyma not distinct. Rays visible without a hand lens, rather irregular. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round, 10-60 per square millimeter; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present inthe small vessels of summerwood; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma, paratracheal, paratracheal-c onfluent , and terminal, abundant . Fibers 10-16 microns 66 in diameter and moderately thick-to thick-walled. Rays unstoried, and homogeneous for the most part. 1.. £93. In southern United States it is largely used for post and agri- cultural implements and wagons. It was used in the past by the Osage and other Indian tribes, west of the Mississippiriver, for bows and war clubs (name of bow-wood). Suitable for carving, turnery, railway ties, and mchinery parts . 22. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fam. Papilionaceae E. Locust-tree, Black locust, Yellow locust, American locust, False acacia F. Robinier Faux-Acacia, Acacia, Faux acacia G. Schotendorn, Gemeiner Schot-endorn, Falsche Akazie, Gemeine Robinie, Courbarill Origin and Distributign A native of southern United States, it is believed that Cobbett introduced this tree into England, in 1812 from North America. It is now widely grown in Europe and Asia, especially in Japan, Himalayas and Iran. 1- General characteristics and properties. Sapwood yellowish-white, very narrow; heartwood greenish-yellow to fillowish-brown; when fresh light greenish yellow, with a glossy lustre, but darkens to a dull greenish brown. Wood without character- iStic odor or taste, very heavy, hard, exceedingly strong, tough, Strong in compression parallel to grain, very durable, shrinks 67 mnwiderably in seasoning, high in nail holding ability, difficult to work with tools. 2.!ggroscopic‘features. Wbod ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, cmqnising a light colored band, 2-3 pores in width; summerwood pores small, forming interrupted concentric bands. Vessels all plugged with tyloses and appear as clear yellow spots. Parenchyma indistinct. Rays visible to the naked eye. 3. Microsc0pic features. Vessels are oval, solitary, or in radial groups of two to ten together, 3-35 Per square millimeter; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in the small vessels in sumerwood; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma, paratracheal paratracheal-confluent, and terminal. Fibers moderately thick to thick- 'Hflled. iRays 1-7 seriate, unstoried homogeneous to somewhat hetero- gmwous. h- lies Used for sleepers, piles, railway-ties, turnery and cabinet work. As the wood is very elastic and strong, it is used for wheel spokes and inVehicle construction, machine parts, wagon hubs, mine equipment and Flirting-mill products . 23. Fraxinus excelsior L. Fam. Oleaceae E. Ash tree, Taller, Bird's Toungue F. Frsne G . Esche 68 Maud Distribution Europe (England, France, and Hungry), Turkey and northern Iran, a native of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood, very broad, yellowish—white to greyish-white; heartwood grayish-white to light-brown somewhat lustrous. Wood without character- istic odor or taste; moderately hard and heavy, even- textured, straight- grained, easily worked, tough, elastic, highly flexible, susceptible of a good polish, moderately durable, high in withstanding sudden shock, and impact bending, warps little, slower-grown wood is apt to become black-hearted which lessens the strength properties of wood. 2 . Macroscopic features . Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, visible to the naked eye, forming a band 24.; pores in width; summerwood pores small, visiblelto the naked eye, solitary and in 2-3 multiples; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt; summerwood pores form a ripple‘pattern on tangential surface. Parenchyma visible with a hand lens in summerwood. Rays are fine and numerous, not distinct Without a hand lens. 3- Microscopic features. Vessels round, very slightly oval; vessels average 12 per square millimeter; average diameter of springwood vessels 160 microns; average diameter of summerwood vessels 50, microns, average length of vessel Segments 220 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma, irregularly distributed, s" 69 paratracheal, paratracheal-confluent. Fibers thin to medium thick- walled. Rays 14.; seriate, homogeneous occasionally heterogeneous, average length of rays 50 microns, average width of rays 25 microns. 1.. 31393. Used in violin manufacturing(backs of violins), for gymnasium poles, athletic appliances, tennis-racquets, hockey sticks, for construction of motor vehicles, handles, furniture, agricultural implements, ship and boatbuilding, cooperage, sewing machines, cabinet work. For veneer and decorative panel—work, the wood is selected chiefly in the form of burrs which give curly, wavy, and handsome figures. 21;. Fraxinus wWilld. = F. oxyphylla M. B. = F. rostrata juss. = F. ornus Pall. (non L.) Fam. Oleaceae E. Ash—tree, Taller, Bird's Tongue F. Frame G. Esche Mandi Distribution . Planted on the southern slopes of Elburz mountain chain - Iran. 1- general Eharacteristics and properties. Sapwood yellowish-white; heartwood light greyish-brown. Wood Without characteristic odor or taste, hard, close—grained, somewhat lustrous, easily worked . 2 . Macroscopic features . Wood ring porous, Growth rings distinct. Spring wood pores large form-11g a band with 2-3 pores in width; summerwood pores snall, solitary 70 or in 2-3 multiples; summerwood pores form a ripple pattern less conspicuous than in E. excelsior L. Parenchyma visible with a hand lens in the summerwood. Rays fine, not distinct to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round, very slightly oval; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma, paratracheal-— confluent and terminal. Fibers thin to medium thick-walled. Rays 1—3 seriate, homogeneous. 1.. Ease- For cabinet work, sporting goods, boxes, baskets, crates and agricultural implements . 25. Gleditschia caflica Desf. Fam. Papilionaceae E. Honey—locust, Sweet locust-tree, Thorny locust F. Fevier, caroug a. miel G. Christusdorn, Honigdorn, Dornbaum, Dornige christusakazie 0.11311; and Distribution Northern Iran up to 500 meters altitude. 1- Gfleml characteristics and properties. Sapwood yellowish to greenish-white, broad; heartwood, rose or light brownish-red. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, fine and close—grained, moderately heavy, hard, strong, high in compression Parallel to grain, impact and static bending, difficult to work with 71 tools, moderately durable, especially in contact with the soil, similar to Robinia pseudoacacia L. in general properties and use, but without tyloses in vessels. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, visible‘to the naked eye, forming a band 3-5 pores in width; summerwood pores small, solitary or in short radial rows and groups; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt. Parenchyma, in tangential bands in summerwood, the whitish band visible with a hand lens. Rays visible to the naked eye. 3. Microscopic. features . Vessels round; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in summerwood; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma abundant, paratracheal, paratracheal-confluent, and terminal. Fibers moderately thick to thick-walled. Rays 6-10 seriate, homo- geneous. h. Uses. For sleepers, posts, fences and furniture. 26. MEEQEI“ = M. indica, L. = M. candida, Dod. Fam. Moraceae E. Mulberry, White mulberry, Sycamine F. Mfirier blanc G . Maulbeerbaum , Wei ssmaulb eerbaum .rLl ...... ..fllilu‘. . 6x :0 w. ....i 72 9515;? and Distribution It is believed to be a native of Asia (China), introduced into Europe in the fifteenth century, north of Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood, yellowishdwhite, narrow; heartwood yellowishrbrown to a brilliant gamboge yellow, turning reddish and russetsbrown on exposure. Wbod without characteristic odor or taste, hard, heavy, straight— grained and lustrous, durable, especially in contact with the soil, difficult to split. 2. Macroscopic features. ‘Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood pores large, forming a broad and recognizable band 2-8 pores in width; most of the pores are open, occasionally a few filled with white deposits; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt, summerwood pores small, with.a tendency to arrangement in.wavy interrupted bands. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine, but very distinct. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round to oval; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present in summerwood vessels; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular; springwood vessels mostly open, occasionally occluded with white deposits. Parenchyma paratracheal and metatracheal-diffuse. Fibers thin to thickdwalled. Rays 5—8 seriate, homogeneous to hetero- geneous. 1:. E215.- Chiefly for furniture, veneer and inlaying; also used for fence , posts, cooperage and agricultural implements. a...) 73 27. Lonicera iberica M. B. = L. chlamydophora C. Koch. Fam. Caprifoliaceae E. Honeysuckle F. Chevrefeuille G. Heckenkirsche, Geissblatt gEiginand Distribution A large genus (Lonicera, Linn) containing more than 28 species, mwfll.shrubs,or climbers growing for the most part in western.Asia andlfimalayas. 1“ General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood yellowish to grayishébrown, with darker Mneaks. ‘Wood close and even-grained, soft to moderately hard. 2..Macroscopic'features. ‘Wbod ring porus. Growth rings distinct; marked by a narrow mnflflnmous belt of small pores. Pores in the rest of the wood very small; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt to more or less gradual. Reys fine and numerous. 3.13333. The wood is handsome. It might be used for carving, turning and other ornamental purposes. 28. Pistacia mutica F. et M. a P. terebinthus L. = . at’Ei‘El‘Ea Var. Latifolia D. c. Fam..Anacardiaceae E. Pistachio-tree F. Pistachier G. Pistazienbaum 7h 932531 and Distribution A tree of western Asia, southern and eastern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white to yellowish-white; heartwood grayish-brown, to yellowish-brown, beautifully mottled with yellow and gray—dark veins. Wood is very hard, and finely grained. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Annual rings marked by lines of more numerous and larger pores. Springwood pores large; summerwood pores small, surrounded by loose tissue, tend to be arranged in interrupted, wavy bands. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine and numerous. 3. Eggs. Wood of no commercial importance, suitable for carving, furniture, inlaying and ornamental work. 29. Cercis siliquastrum L. = Cercic. siliquosa St. lager. Fam. Papilionaceae E. Love Tree, Red bud, Judas tree F. Arbre de Judée, Gainier, Arbre d'amour siliquastre, Bouton rouge, Arbre de feu G. Griffelbaum, Judasbaum, Echter Judasbaum Fruher salatbaum. Origip and Distribution Southern Europe and warmer temperate Asia, northern Iran, from 180 to 900 meters altitude. ‘5} ., 7S 1- Esperal characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood yellowish-brown to brownish-yellow. Wood handsome, with black veins, moderately heavy, hard, capable of taking an excellent polish, straight-grained. 2. keroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Springwood vessels large, forming a band, with h—6 pores in width; transition from spring- wood to summerwood abrupt to more or less gradual; summerwood pores small (1-8), forming wavy, interrupted bands. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine and numerous. 3. Uses. Wood of no commercial importance, suitable for ornamental work. 30. Paulownia tom‘entosa Koch. m fieriall's Siebold and Zuccarini Fam . Sc rophulariac eae E . Paulownia 0.13.82: and Distribution Native of central and western China, introduced into Europe, America, Japan and Western Asia (Iran). 1" geral characteristics and properties. Heartvmod reddish—brown to light nut-brown. Wood extremely light and low in density (1/2 of poplar), very soft, very fine-grained and 1u3trou3 . 76 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous to semi-ring porous. Growth rings marked by a springwood zone of numerous large pores; summerwood pores are small and grouped in short, peripheral lines, producing a conspicuous pattern reminiscent of plum. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine, form light shallow bands in radial surfaces. 3. Eggs. It is largely cut and sliced into very fine veneers, used for visiting cards, solid wood work for clock cases and ink-stands, musical instruments, lacquer ware, and cabinetmaking, sandals, boxes, clogs, furniture. In Japan it produces good charcoal used for polishing, and gmpowder. 31. Sambucus nigra L. Fam. Caprifoliaceae E. Elder F. Sureau noir G. Schwarze Holder W Distribution Europe , north Africa and west Asia. 1' Winmcteristics and properties. SaPWOod white, heartwood yellowish to straw-yellow. Wood when dried, exCSedingly hard and attractive; close-grained, difficult to dry, war-p3 in seasoning. 2' Wm features. W 00d diffuse porous. Annual rings marked by a circle of moderately 77 sized pores. Vessels more numerous in springwood, usually less numerous in sunnnerwood, minute and plugged. Rays well defined, not parallel, clearly visible on radial surface. 3. Uses. Wood when dried very attractive. It would make an attractive wood for ornamental purposes, inlay, carving, and cabinetwork. It is used for turnery . 32. Ligustrum vulgare L. Fam. Oleaceae E. Prim, Privy, Privet, Primwort F. Trestle, Pruéne, Bois noir G. Rainweide, Gewbhnliche Rainweide, Beinholz, Dintenbeere, Gemeiner Liguster, Liguster Origin and Distribution Europe, western Asia. 1. General characteristics and properties. Heartwood white, close and even—grained, moderately hard, with a satiny lustre. Annual rings marked by a continuous belt of small pores of sunnnerwood and continuous line of larger pores of springwood pores. Summerwood pores are small, often in radial lines, or groups of three, regularly distributed and scanty. Rays fine and numerous. 2. Eggs. Wood of no commercial importance. . 78 33. Rhus coriaria L. Fam..Anacardiaceae E. Sumach, Tanner‘s sumach, Redoul F. Corroyer, Corroyere, Rouvre-des- corroyeurs sumac des corroyeurs, Sumac des provences, sumac de tanneurs, Rhou, Change G. Sumach, Gerbersumach, Hirschbaum, Hirschkofenbaum 9.11.521 and Distribution Northern Iran 1” General characteristics and properties. Sapwood, white, heartwood yellowish—green, to greyish-green, nwttled with yellow color, streaked with.brownish-grey. ‘Wood moderately light, hard, medium-textured, with a lustrous sheen. 2. Macroscopic features. wood ring porous. Growth rings distinct, transition from spring- wood to summerwood abrupt to more or less gradual. Springwood pores moderatelybsized, and numerous; summerwood with fewer and smaller pores; pores round to oval. Rays fine and numerous. 3. Microscopic features. Perforation.plates simple; parenchyma, paratracheal, metatracheal and terminal. Fibers thinewalled. Rays unstoried and heterogeneous. 1.41333. For carving, inlay and ornamental works. A“ 79 3h. Platanus orientalis L. =3 P. acerifolia. Willd. = P. cuneata Willd. = P. digitatata, Hort = P. laciniata. Hort. = P. elongata, Steud =- P. Vulgaris. Spach. Fam. Platanaceae E. Sycamore, Button-wood, Plane-tree, Oriental Plane tree F. Platane G. Platane, Orientalische Platane Origin and Distribution From Kashmir to Greece, Plateau of Iran. 1- ereral characteristics and properties. Sapwood yellowish-white; heartwood variable in color from a very .- pale yellow to a light reddish-brown or a grayish-blue, and of a mixture Of all these tints, in very old trees becoming brown and then resembling beech. The color is affected by the time of year when the tree is cut, and by the type of soil from which the tree is taken. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, resembles beech, but is softer, moderately hard: close and smooth—grained, has tendency to warp and split, subject to inSect attack, and not durable, intermediate in nail holding. 2' 2‘59‘1‘Oscopic features . W<>od diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a dark line or band of denser summerwood. Pores small, indistinct or barely Visible to the naked eye. Parenchyma not visible. Rays numerous and broad, occupying nearly half the surface in cross section, forming a I'eddl'LSh-brown or silvery fleck on the radial surface, which produce a ehlal‘erteristic pattern on the tangential surface. 3' m-croscopic features . Vessels more or less round; average 110 per square millimeter; 80 average diameter of vessels 65 microns; average length of vessel Segments 1:00 microns; perforation plates simple or occasionally scalariform; intervessel pits oval to orbicular. Parenchyma, para- tracheal-diffuse, abundant. Fibers medium to moderately thick-walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous, average height of broad rays 2000 microns; average width of rays (1—9 seriate) 100 microns; average number of rays per Square millimeter h. h.Uses. In Iran it is used for‘furniture, doors, windows, and cabinet work, turnery, carpentry, veneer, slack cooperage, boxes and crates. 35. Fagus sylvatica L. = F. echinata Gilibert = F. silvestris. Gaertn. = Castanea Fagus Scop. Fam. Fagaceae E. Beech, Buck, European White Beech, White Beech. F. Hétre, Foyard, Fayard, Fauce, Fouteau, Favinier, Fau, Fouillard G. Buche, Rothbuch, Bucheboom, Echte Buche Orig. and Distribution This species is widely distributed in Europe, Asia minor, and Iran from 650 to 2000 meters altitude. 1' Gileral characteristics and properties. Sapwood whitish; heartwood light yellowish—white to reddish—brown. Wow cloae and even-grained, without characteristic odor or taste, mod Grately hard and heavy, lacking in durability when exposed to P ... a: 35" 13"; 81 alternate dryness and wetness, high in nail holding, has tendency to split along the rays, strong in static and impact bending, takes good polish. 2. Macroscopic features. 'Hbod diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a dark 3 line or band of denser summerwood. Vessels small and numerous, E indistinct without a hand lens. Parenchyma not visible with a hand lens. Rays of two types, broad and narrow, former group visible with the naked eye, latter with a hand lens magnification, forming pronounced l fleck on radial face. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels average 130 per square millimeter; average diameter of vessels 60 microns; average length of vessel segments 500 microns; tyloses present in the heartwood; perforation plates simple or occasion- ally scalariform; intervessel pits oval to long-elliptical, with horizontal or nearly horizontal orifice. Parenchyma abundant, meta- tracheal and metatracheal-diffuse. Fibers thick-walled, medium in height. Rays, unstoried, homogeneous; narrow rays much more numerous than broad ray; average height of broad rays 3000 microns; average height of simple rays 150 microns; average width of broad rays 180 microns; average width of simple rays 15 microns; broad (oak—type) rays 15-25 plus seriate; simple rays uniseriate to l—S seriate; average number of rays per square millimeter 6. u. ypgs. Railroad ties, slack cooperate, widely used in chair making, boat 82 building, for veneer, boxes, crates, excellent for firewood, and char- coal for gunpowder. 36. Cagpinus betulus L. = C. vulgaris Mill. = C. sepium Lam. = C. ulmifolia, Salish. Fam. Betulaceae E. Hornebeam, Hardbeam, White beech, Yoke elm, Hornbeech. F. Charme, Charmille, Charme-faux bouleau G. Hornbaum, Hainbuche,'Weissbuche, Hagebuche, (Heckenbuche) Origin and Distribution Central Europe, western Asia, including Iran, from 200 to 1000 meters altitude in northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and prgperties. Sapwood white, merging gradually'into heartwood, sometimes not distinguishable from heartwood,when distinguishable,heartwood pale yellowish. 'Wbod without characteristic odor or taste, close-grained, hard, tough, moderately strong in static and impact bending, somewhat lustrous, difficult to split. 2. Hacroscgpic features. ‘Wbod diffuse porous. Growth rings usually distinct, sometimes not clearly marked in cross section, but on tangential face marked by uneven dark lines, very sinuous, delineated by’a narrow, whitish band at the outer margin. Pores are very small and rather obscure and indistinct without a hand lens. Parenchyma, present, sometimes distinct with a hand lens.. Rays, of two types; aggregate rays visible to the naked eye; p... 83 narrow (simple) rays are visible with a hand lens; rays are numerous, more or less irregularly distributed. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels oval; average number of vessels per square millimeter 80; awnage diameter of vessels 55 microns; average length of vessel segments [:60 microns; perforation plates simple, intervessel pits or bumlar to oval or angular. Parenchyma, metatracheal, metatracheal- (fiffuse, and terminal; metatracheal parenchyma very abundant, the others :nmrse. Fiber thin- to moderately thick-walled. Rays heterogeneous; average length of rays 200 microns; average width of rays 20 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 150. Rays of two types, aggregate and simple, aggregate rays consist of simple rays, fibers and vessels. b.1533. Excellent for mine timbers, fuel, handles, mallets, lasts and skittles. 37. £15113 glutinosa, Willd. .. Betula Alnus glutinosa L. = A. denticu ta C. A. M. = A. barbata C. A. M. = A. nitens C. Kock. = A. rotundfclia Mill. = A. communis, Desf. = A. nigra, Gilibert Fam. Betulaceae E. Howler, Owler, Black alder, Aller, Eller, European alder F . Vergne , Verne G. Eller, Bach Erle, Schwarz Erle \ N ... 8b. 9311.91 and Distribution This species is widely distributed in temperate Europe, north Africa, Asia, including Japan and Iran, up to 1000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and_properties. Heartwood indistinct without characteristic odor. Wood is white, when out, becoming reddish—white, subject to oxidative sap stain, soft, light, smooth—grained, fine-textured, and lustrous, not durable, easy to work with tools, takes paint well and easily Splits. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct in cross section, delineated by a whitish or brownish line at the outer margin. Pores mmerous and small, but distinct with a hand lens. Parenchyma indistinct. Rays are clearly defined, of two types broad (aggregate), and narrow (simple); simple rays not visible without a hand lens; aggregate rays not sharply delineated . 3. Hicroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Vessels oval, average 70—110 (100) per square millimeter; average diameter of vessels 55 microns; average height of vessels 800 microns; perforation plates scalariform with 25 plus thin bars; intervessel pits orbicular to oval (perforation plates simple in Populus and §_ali_x_). Parenchyma, paratracheal, metatracheal- diffuse, fairly abundant. Fibers thin to moderately thickwalled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous; simple rays uniseriate; aggregate rays consist of simple rays and of included fibers and vessels; average length of rays 250 microns; average width of rays 18 microns; average 85 number of rays per square millimeter 16. 1:. Uses. It. is used mainly for charcoal production, furniture, millwork, canoe raking, small articles, cabinet-making and plywood manufacturing. 38. Alnus subcordata C. A. M. = A. cordifolia Ten. Var. subcordata Regel Fam. Betulaceae E . Ald er F . Aune G Erle Distribution Northern Iran, up to 1600-2000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Wood white to reddish-white, similar in general characteristics to Llngs glutinosa Willd.; except in some minor macroscopic and micro- scopic features. The naxinmm of thin bars in scalariform perforation plates of Alrrus glutinosa Willd.is 25, and 20 for Alnus subcordata C. A. M. The summerwood delineation tends to show small curvature in contact with broad rays, in {132113 glutinosa Willd . Delineation line tends to show a conspicuous curvature (U-shaped) in contact with broad rays in £1113 subcordata C. A. M. This species has the same principal uses as Alnus glutinosa Willd . 39. Liquidambar orientalis L. Fam . Hamamelidaceae 86 Orign and Distribution A genus of about four species in central and western.Asia and northern and central America and China. 1” General characteristics andproperties. Sapwood white; heartwood gray to grayish4brown. wood without (unracteristic odor or taste, heavy, fairly hard, moderately strong in compression parallel to the grain, static and impact bending, fre- quently interlocked but mostly straight-grained, average in nail holding ability, has a tendency to warp and twist, shrinks considerably and nnderately durable, takes a satiny polish. 2. Macroecopic features. ‘Wbod diffuse porous. Growth ring inconspicuous. Pores small, uniform in size, solitary or in multiples of 2-3, numerous and not visible to the naked eye. Parenchyma not visible. Rays not distinct to the naked eye, very close, occupying half of the area on the transverse surface of the wood. 3. Microscopicgfeatures. Vessels round to oval; perforation plates scalariform; spiral thickenings present,restricted to the tapering ends of vessel segments; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or linear. Parenchyma paratracheal and metatracheal-diffuse; and sparse. Fiber tracheids moderately thick- walled. Rays of two types and unstoried. 1.. 1.2.33.9.- Liquid storax, a grayebrown resin, is obtained from L, prientalis, used in the orient for medicine, perfumery and for the preparation of 87 incense. Wood is used for furniture, veneer, turnery, slack, cooperage, railroad ties, cabinet work, boxes and crates. hO. Ae‘sculus Ifippocastanum, Linn. Fam. Sapinaceae E. Horse-chestnut F. Marronier d'Inde G. Roszkastanie Origin and Distribution Indigenous to Turkey and Greece, and commonly distributed through- out Europe and completely naturalized there. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white to grayish—white; heartwood slightly yellowish or reddish. Wood without characteristic taste, odorless or with a slight characteristic odor, soft, fine-grained, weak in compression parallel to the grain, static and impact bending properties, shrinks moderately, low in durability . 2. Ligcroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct and delinated by a line of darker summerwood. Pores numerous, minute, not visible without a hand lens. Parenchyma visible or indistinct without a hand lens. Rays very fine, scarcely visible with a hand lens, occupying half of the area on the transverse section. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round or mostly oval; perforation plates simple; inter- Ve35631 pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma terminal and 88 paratracheal. Fibers thin—walled. Rays storied to unstoried, homo— geneous to heterogeneous. 14. 1.393. For cart linings, packing cases, boxes and crates. (Wood similar in character to Willow and Poplar.) hl. Castanea 33331.3. Mill. s castanea vesca Gaert. = C. vulgaris Lam. = Fagus castanea L. Fam. Fagaceae E. Chestnut, Sweet Chestnut tree, Meat-nut, Spanish chestnut. F . Chataignier, Castagné G. Kastanienbaum, Echte Kastanie, Edel Kastanie, Gottereichel 93-3531 and Distribution About 10 species known in Europe, North America, north Africa and Asia. Gas.tanea m Mill. has been ascribed to northern Iran, but is not a native of this country; indegenous to the continental Europe. 1. General characteristics andjrgaerties. Sapwood yellowish—white or light—brown; heartwood darker brown. Wood without characteristic odor, with a slight tannin taste, moderately light, hard, weak in compression parallel to the grain, static and impact bending, straight and coarse-grained, tendency to warp, subject to ring-shakes, shrinks moderately, average in nail holding ability, and durable. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood ring porous. Growth rings. distinct. Springwood pores large, 89 visible to the naked eye; forming a broad circle in the springwood and bifurcating lines beyond; transition from springwood to summerwood abrupt; summerwood pores small. Parenchyma indistinct. Rays fine hardly distinguishable with a lens. 3. Microscopic features. Perforation plates simple, occasionally scalariform in the smnmerwood vessels. Parenchyna paratracheal to metatracheal—diffuse. Fibers thin—walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous. t. 11393 . For fenceposts, rails, staves, cabinet-work and charcoal. hl. WQEL. = B. verrucosa, Ehrh = B. alba Ssp. verrucosa, Regel =- B. ovata, C. Kock. Fam. Betulaceae E. Birch, Silver birch, Silver white birch, Lady birch tree, American white birch, Paper birch, European birch, Black birch, White birch. F. Bouleau, Bouillard, Bois a balais, Arbre de la sagesse G. Birke, Weissbirke, Warzige Birke, Hexenbesen 931.9 and Distribution Northern Europe and Asia, in extreme boarder of northern forest of Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white to yellowish pale; heartxmod light, reddish-white to light brown. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, straight and even-grained, moderately hard and heavy, difficult to split, easily 9O worked, not strong, capable of finishing very smoothly, possess good rail-holding ability, not durable liable to the attack of insects. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct (with a lens), delineated by'a fine line of denser fibrous tissue and by smaller pores of the summerwood. Pores are exceedingly small, plugged. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine, generally'not distinct to the naked eye, narrower than the larger pores. 3. Microscopic features. ‘Vessels oval, 50-100 per square millimeter; perforation.plates scalariform; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular. Parenchyma nstatracheal—diffuse, paratracheal and terminal. Fibers thin- to thickdwalled. Rays unstoried, l-S seriate, homogeneous. u. 1.1332 . ‘Wood valued by turners for cups and bowls; and for felloes of wheels, cooperage, fuel, broom handles, hoops, crates, boxes, baskets, boats, building, furniture, agricultural implements and general'wood- work, valued for veneer; produces excellent crayon charcoal. h2. Tilia rubra D. C. a Tilia begonifolia Stev. Fam. Tiliaceae E. Lime—tree, Linden, Teil-tree, Basswood F. Tilleul, Tillot G. Lindenbaum, Linde 91 9513111 and Distribution Northern Iran, up to 2300 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood whitish, merging gradually into heartwood; heartwood brownish-white to pale brown. Wood tasteless with a faint odor on fresh—cut wet surface, slightly lustrous, soft, tough, close-grained, easily worked, but not strong, finishes smoothly, has poor nail-holding ability, shrinks considerably, not durable. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by dif- ference in the size of pores in the springwood and summerwood. Pores snail, numerous, visible with a hand lens. Rays not distinct without a hand lens. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round, average 75 Per square millimetemaverage diameter of vessels 65 microns; average length of vessel segments 320 microns; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present; intervessel pits polygonal through crowding, orbicular to oval. Parenchyma abundant, terminal and metatracheal. Fibers thin-walled, medium short to medium long. Rays unstoried, or somewhat storied, homogeneous, average hzight of rays 250 microns, average width of rays (l-S) seriate 25 microns, average number of rays persquare millimeter 7. n. 1332. For cheap furniture, chair—seats, carpentry, turnery, charcoal, cooperage, boxes, crates, millwork. Veneer used in mmfacture of plywood. Can be used to some extent for pulp. a cu 92 h3. Rhamnus cathartip§_L. Fam. Rhamnaceae E. Buckthorn F. Nerprun, Bourdaine G. Faulbaum, Kreuzdorn QEEEEF and Distribution Europe, north.Africa,.Asia (Rhamnus cathartica L.), Northern Iran from 800 to ZhOO meters altitude. 1, General characteristics and properties. Sapwood greenish-yellow, narrow; heartwood orange—red. 'Wood without characteristic odor or taste, hard and heavy, shrinks little. 2. Macroscopic features. wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct delineated by distinct zone of pores in the springwood, and remarkably flamboyant groups of vessels in the summerwood. Pores small, indistinct without a hand lens, numerous; pores in springwood larger than.summerwood forming a con- tinuous uniseriate row at the beginning of the ring. Parenchyma not visible. Rays indistinguishable. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round to oval; perforation plates simple; spiral thickenings present; intervessel pits orbicular to oval. Parenchyma, paratracheal and metatracheal—diffuse. Fibers thinewalled. Rays homogeneous. u. M. Wbod used as firewood and turnery'articles. 93 14.14. Popglus 21331, L. var. pyramidalis Roz. = P. pyramidalis, Rozier = P. dilatata. Ait. =- P. Italica, Auct. =2 P. fastigiata, Poir. Fam. Salicaceae E. Lombardy poplar F. Peuplier pyramidale, P. d'Italie G. Pyramidenpappel g_1_i‘gin and Distribution Pepulus nigra L. is widely distributed in Europe, northern Asia, including Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white, nearly white to whitish—yellow merging gradually into heartwood; heartwood whitish yellow to light grayish-brown. Wood without characteristic odor ortaste, not strong, not durable, easy to work with tools, moderately soft, high in resistance to spliting, has tendency to warp when seasoned. 2. Macrosgppic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings not conspicuous. Pores small, Immerous, not visible without lO-X magnification. Parenchyma terminal indistinct. Rays very fine, scarcely visible with a hand lens. 3 . Microscopic features . Vessels round and oval; average 80 per square millimeter; average diameter of vessels 70 microns; average length of vessels segments 300 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval, mostly angular. Parenchyma. terminal, forming a narrow, continuous or interrupted line. Fibers, thin-walled, 20-35 microns in diameter. 9h Rays, unstoried, uniseriate, homogeneous; average length of rays 220 microns; average width of rays 15 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 12 . n. 1335 . . Because it does not Split readily it is useful for the bottoms of waggons; it is used for tool handles, furniture, agricultural implements, roof construction and fuel in dry region of Iran. 145. Pom lus nigra L., Var. p12 escens L. Fam. Salicaceae E. Italian poplar, Black poplar, Willow poplar, Water poplar F. Peuplier noir, P. franc, P. suisse, Liard, Liardier G. Schwarzpappel, pappel Weide, Deutsch Pappel, Wollenbaum Wood whitish to light grayish-brown, similar in general moro- scopic features to that of Pomlus nigLa L., Var. W152 L. M). PoElus alba L. = P. nivea, Willd. Fam. Salicaceae E. Aspen-tree, White asp, Abele—tree, White poplar F. Peuplier blanc, P. grisard, P. de Hollande, Bouillard, Blane de Hollande, Ypreau, Franc picard G. Silberpappel, Abele, Weisspappel, Weisseaspe, Albe drag"... do, 95 Origin and Distribution E Northern Africa, northern and western Asia, including nan. North ! and other parts of plateau of Iran. ‘1 1. General characteristics and properties. "! Sapwood white, heartwwd whitish—yellow to light—brown. Wood moderately soft, similar in general macroscopic features to that of Popglus nigra, var. pyramidalis L., used extensively in match manu- facturing, boxes, crates and etc. Popplus euphratica Oliv. = P. diversifolia, Shrenk. Fam. Salicaceae E. Sind poplar F. Peuplier G. Pappel, pappelbaum m and Distribution Southern Asia, including Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Heartw00d light-reddish to reddish—brown in color. Wood straight to more or less interlocked grained, moderately durable in contact with water, subject to insect attack, medium fine to uneven-textured, rather lustrous. It seems to be suitable for plywood mnufaci uring. ’47. w aemtiaca L. = S. nitida Gmel =- S. phlomoides M. B. =2 S. Medemii. Boiss. - S. cinerea L. Var. Medefdi Boiss. Fam. Salicaceae E. Egyptian Willow (Calaf, Ban) F. Saule d'Egypte, Saule d'orient G. lgyptischer Weide ~ —~...- 4—— 96 951g? and Distribution Northern and western Iran, up to 200 meters altitude . 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood whitish; heartwood light brown to grayish-brown. Wood without characteristic odor, light, moderately soft, and weak, straight-— grained, not durable. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse-porous. Growth rings distinct, but not conspicuous. Pores numerous and uniformly distributed. Parenchyma terminal, indistinct. Rays very fine, scarcely visible at low magnification. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round to oval; average 90 per square millimeter; average diameter of vessels 60 microns; average length of vessel segments 300 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits mostly angular. Parenchyma, teminal, forming a narrow, continuous interrupted line. Fibers, thin to moderately thick-walled, 16.32 microns in diameter. Rays unstoried, uniseriate, and heterogeneous, average length of rays 200 microns, average number per square millimeter l2. 1;. Uge . Used for fuel, charcoal, boxes, boomerangs and furniture. 1,8. $30.13;. australipr And. Fam. Salicaceae E. Willow, Withy, Sally F. Saule G . Weide k 9'? Distribution Dry region of Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Wood light grayish-brown, similar in general macroscopic features to that of 3a___l_i_x_ aegptiaca L. m: The most important E3; species as timber-trees are §_a_l_i£ aemtiaca L. and §_a_l_._i_._x_ fragilis L. Species of _Sa__l_ix__ pugpurea L. with red or purple bark; Salix acmophyll. Boiss, or golden willow, with yellow bark, and Sa___l__i;_x_ australior: And (Black-willow), §a_l_i_x_ persica Boiss, §§_.l_ix_ @229. And, and §_a_l_i_:g carnanica Boiss, are steppic and mere prostrate of no important value as timber-tree. In all these species numerous pores are smll, and the rays cannot be distinguished with lens . 119 . Salix babylonica. L: Fam. Salicaceae E. Weeping willow, Mourning willow (Garb) F. Saule pleureur, S. de Babylone, S. parasole, S. du Levant, Paradis des Jerdiniers G. Hangeweide, Traverweide, Babylonische Weide This species is an ornamental tree; wood is similar in general macroscopic features to that of Salix aemtiaca L. 98 SO. Buxus sempervirens L. Fam. Buxaceae E. Box, Box‘tree, Garden Edging Box F. Buis, Buis toujours vert G. Bux, Buchsbaum, Buxbaum, Echter Buxbaum 9313 and Distribution Northern and western Asia, including Iran, Japan, Himalayas (India), Africa, and southern Europe, from Norway to the Mediterranean, is known under the commercial name of "boxwood" (Persian, Abasian, Mediterranean, - Turkish and Himalayan). 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood light yellow, to whitish—yellow in color. Wood very close and even-grained, hard and heavy, firm, free from heart shakes, possessing what might be termed "bOxwood" qualities, difficult to split, but very apt to split in drying, works smoothly, durable, slightly lustrous, dense and very. strong. Wood very homogeneous in texture, compared for closeness and evenness of grain to Ebony. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings narrow, more or less distinct, delineated by a line of denser summerwood. Pores are exceedingly small and are not distinct without a hand lens. Rays very fine and numerous. Growth rings, rays and vessels are indistinct with the naked eye. Parenchym. not visible. 3. Microscppic features. Vessels round, average 130 per square millimeter; average diameter 99 of vessels 35 microns; average length of vessel segments 300 microns; perforation plates scalariform; intervessel pits very small, average h.microns in diameter. Parenchyma present, fairly abundant. Rays homogeneous to heterogeneous; average length of rays 200 microns; average'width of rays 18 microns (1-2 seriate); average number of rays per square millimeter lO. 2.. Eggs. Chief use of this wood is for engravings, chiefly exported from Iran and Abasia in Circassia to European countries. Is also turned into spoons, forks, small boxes and boards. For most delicate articles, wood is soaked for 214 hours in water, and then boiled. It is then wiped perfectly dry and buried until wanted for use. The manner in which wood is harvested has effect on its glalityu It should be cut in.month of January only, then it should be placed in a dry pit below level of ground, and covered with dry straw, remaining in such a position for two years, and then.steamed; Boxwood is demanded for engraving blocks, for printing in cheap papers, woodcuts for printing and.fine engraving, rulers, mathematical instruments, shuttles, combs, inlay work and tool handles. 51. Parrotia persica D. C. Fam . . Hamamelidaceae E. Iron-wood, Moroco Iron-wood, Iron-tree F. Parrotie de la perse G. Parrotie, Eisenholz, Transkaukasiches Eisenholz, Umb'urtel 100 932% and Distribution. From 11400 up to more than 2000 meters altitude in northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Heartwood light pinkish-white, very close and even-grained, without characteristic odor or taste, hard, moderately heavy, durable. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a dark line of denser summerwood. Pores extremely small, rather scanty, indistinct without a hand lens. Parenchyma not visible. Rays very fine, numerous and regular. 3. Microscopic features. Vessels round and slightly oval, average 120 per square milli— meter; average diameter of vessels 140 microns, average length of vessel segments 360 microns; perforation plates scalariform with 8-18 plus thin bars; intervessel pits orbicular to oval. Parenchyma present, forming uniseriate lines, fairly abundant. Fibers, moderately thick- walled. Rays unstoried, homogeneous; average length of rays 160 microns; average number of rays per square millimeter 12. h. 'I_I§_e_s_. For millwork, charcoal, handles, sleepers, fences, turnery, agricultural implements, wagon-frames and building. 52. Pirus cordata Desv. = P. Boissieriana Bh. Fam. Rosaceae E. Pear—tree F. Poirier ' G. Birne, Beers, Echter Birnbaum 101 931g}? and Distribution Northern Iran up to 2000 meters altitudes. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood reddish—white; heartwood light, reddish brown, sometimes no true heart present, but wood is darker, light chocolate-brown in the center. Wood remarkable for its extraordinary evenness of texture, which makes it desirable for carving, moderately heavy, hard, tough, difficult to split, fine and close-grained, takes good polish, very durable if kept dry, without characteristic odor or taste, easily cut in any direction. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings recognizable, delineated by a dark line of denser summerwood. Pores exceedingly fine and m1merous, indistinct to the naked eye. Parenchyma not visible. Rays indistinct to the naked eye, and are hardly discernible with the aid of a lens, rays uniform, very fine, and numerous and spread more or less equi- distantly. 3- Microscopic features. Vessels average 220 per square millimeter; average diameter of vessels 30 microns; average length of vessel segments 280 microns; Perforation plates simple. Parenchym metatracheal, and abundant. Fibers, thick-walled, medium short to medium long. Average height of rays 200 microns; average width of rays (1-2 seriate) 15 microns; aVerage number of rays per square millimeter l7- t. I_I_s_e_s_. Owing to its extraordinary smoothness, it is used for mathematical and drawing instruments and rulers, calico—printing blocks, cabinet work, carving and wood engraving, turnery, picture frames, T-squares and set squares. S3. gzgonia oblong Mill. = Pyrus cydonia L. = Cydonia cydonia. Pers. =- Cydonia Vulgaris. Pers. Fam. Rosaceae ‘ E. Quince tree, Golden Apple F . Cognassier, Coignassier , Coignier, Coigl G. Quitte, Echte Quitte, Birnquitte, Chuttenbaum Distribution Northern Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood light brown. Wood fine and close-grained, without characteristic odor or taste, medium hard and heavy, warps and cracks in seasoning, similar in its properties to that of m L. 2. Microscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a dark line of denser summerwood. Pores exceedingly small, numerous and evenly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Rays uniform, regularly sPaced, fine and numerous . 3. 113.32, No important uses. 103 S14. Mespilusgermanica L. = M. vulgaris Rchb. = M. communis GuldEnst. = Ostinia mespilus Clairv. Fam. Rosaceae E. Medlar-tree, Dutch medlar, English medlar, Hosedoup F. Néflier, Nsle Melier, Nesplier G. Mispel, Deutsche Mimel, Mespelboom, Nispel Distribution Northern Iran up to 2000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwwd, light brown. Wood moderately close- grained, hard and heavy, without characteristic odor or taste, warps and cracks. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a dark line of denser summerwood. Pores exceedingly fine and numerous. Parenchyna not visible. Rays uniform, very fine and munerous . 3. moroccopic features. Perforation plates simple. Parenchyma metatracheal and. abundant. Fibers thin-walled . 1.. 19,93. Turnery, fuel, and walking-sticks. 55. Grataogus monom (Willd.) Jacq. = C. Azarella Griseb =- C. heterophylla Stev. ... Mespilus oxyacantha D. C. =- Mespilus monogyna. Willd. Fam. Rosaceae lo‘d E. May tree, Hawthorn, Thornapple—tree, Quickest White Thorne F. Aubépine, Noble épine, Aubespine, Bois de Mais, Poire d'oiseau, Mais G. Spitzdorn, Weissdorn, Rotdorn, Christdorn Heckdorn Distribution Northern Iran up to 2200 meters altitudes. 1- G_e_neral characteristics and properties. Heartmod pale reddish-brown to yellowish-white. Wood moderately hard, close and even-grained. Wood without characteristic odor or taste . 2 . Ihcroscopic features. Wood {ring porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by darker-— con-Grad wood on the outer edge of each ring. Pores small and munerous, and fairly evenly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Rays very fine and mlmerous . 3. USeS. Good for walking-sticks. 56. Zizyp' hus spinaechristi (L.) Willd. - Rhamnus spina—christi L.=- Rimmmls heterogenea Burm. =- R. nabeca Forsk. Fam. Rhamnaceae E. Nabca-tree, Lots—tree, Christ's thorn F. Jujubier épine du christe, Guindallier, Nab.ca, Chicourlier, Epine du Christe G . Christdorn, Christdornbrustbeere ' .' ”...! 105 GEES: and Distribution South of Iran (Baluchistan) (Lace) 3 a tree characteristic of the arid regions of Iran. 1- General characteristics and properties. Heartwood reddish-grey. Wood hard and close-grained, slightly brittle . 2. Ecroscopic features. Wood semi—ring porous. Growth rings distinct. Pores moderate in size, larger in springwood, pores more numerous in springwood than summerwood, round to oval. Rays fine. 3' Uses. It. coppices well and produces good charcoal, it might be used for Sfiddletrees, oil-mills, agricultural implements, branches used for fences . Zizyp' ‘ ‘hus vulga‘ ris Lam. - Rhamms zizyphus L. Fam. Blmnnaceae % apd Distribution India, Kashmir, Baluchistan, plateau of Iran, northern Iran and Europe _ 1' ..General characteristics and properties. Sapwood pale yellow to yellowish-brown; heart‘mod dark brown. wood mOderately hard, and even~grained . 2 ' M~a.&35‘0kscopic features . Growth rings distinct, marked by a zone of numerous springwood pores ‘ Rays are fine and short. 106 Zimhus nummularia (Burm) Walk. = Z. microphyla Roxb. = Rhamnus numrmllaria Burm. a Z. rotundifolia Lam. Fam. Rhamnaceae Originéand Distribution A gergarious species of arid region of south of Iran, Baluchistan and central India. 1. General characteristics and properties. Wbod yellow to yellowish-gray, no heartwood evident, evensgrained, moderately'hard. 2. Macroscgpic features. Growth rings distinct, indistinct in specimens from the warmer regions. Pores moderately-sized, often round to oval and subdivided. Rays fine. 3. Eggs, Fuel. 57. Cotinus ggggyg£i% Scop. a Rhus cotinus L. = Cotinus cocqygea 0. K00 . - Cotinus coriaria du Hamel a Cotinus cotinus (L.) Sarg. Fam..Anacardiaceae E. Wig tree, Smoke tree, Zantewood, Purple fringe Young Fustic, Feather tree, Aaron's Beard, Poison.Ash, Venetian.sumach, False fringe tree, Venice sumach, Smoke plant. F. Arbra a perruque, Fustet, Sumac fustet, Pompon, Sumac des tinturiers,Barbre de Jupiter, Coquecigrue. G. Peruckenstrauch, Echter Peruckenstrauch, Gemeiner Perfickenstrauch, Ungarisches Gelbholz, Junger Fustik 107 Origin and Distribution Southern Europe, western Asia, west Himalaya, northern Iran. 1. Gwefral characteristics and prpperties. Sapwood narrow, and white; heartwood olive green, greenish to golden-yellow, mottled, with a rich dark yellow color, streaked with brownish-grey or greenish-grey, with a lustrous sheen. Wood moderately light, hard, medium—textured, and straight-grained. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood semi-ring porous. Annual rings distinct, defined by denser memood and moderate-sized and large pores of springwood, summerwood pores very small, arranged in radial irregqu groups. Rays fine and short, poorly visible with the naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Perforation plates simple; intervessel pits round. Parenchyma, paratracheal metatracheal and terminal. Fibers thin-walled. Rays unstoried and heterogeneous. 1.. Eggs. Since it has a beautiful color, it can be used for inlay, carving, picture frames and fine cabinet work; it produces yellow dye for leather and wool; the bark and leaves are used for tanning. 58. 91:31 europea L. =- Olea. oleaster Hoffm. Fam. Oleaceae E. Olive-tree F. Olivier G. .Olbaum, Echter Blbaum. 108 Origin and Distribution Mediterranean regions, introduced into India, California, and other countries. It is indigenous in Syria, probably in northern Iran and southern Europe. 1. General characteristics and jroperties. Sapwood whitish; heartwood yellowish-brown, with irregularly wavy drak—brown streaks and mottling, especially near the root. Wood rather brittle, not hard, takes excellent polish, resembling Bt___1x_L_1_s_ sempervirens L. in texture. 2. Macroscopic features. Without wood diffuse porous. Growth. rings distinct by a hand lens, delineated by a dark line of denser summerwood. Vessels small, evenly distributed, single or subdivided, or in. snall groups in patches of loose tissue. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine, wavy, numerous and short. 3. 1.1.3.53. The wood is valuable in Iran, and. used in turnings, for carving small articles, ink-stands, paper-knives, pots, fancy boxes, and for inlay and other small work of decorative nature. 59. Ficus carica L. Fam. Moraceae Ficus carica Var. genuine. Boiss. E. Fig-tree, Common fig-tree F. Figuier sauvage, Gaprifiglier, Arbre a cariques G . Feigenbaum, Zahnfeigenbaum 109 Origin and Distribution Fig germs contains some of the giants of the vegetable kingdom, E. ML. is cultivated in western Asia, from India to Kashmir, Afghanistan and Iran. 1. General characteristics and properties. Wood dirty grey, soft, in regular concentric bands of soft tissues, light, and slightly lustrous. 2. Macroscgpic features. Growth rings not recognizable. Vessels moderately-sized and small, often oval and subdivided. Parenchyma, not visible. Rays fine. Wood characterized by alternate bands of soft and hard tissue. 3. 1833. Wood is not suitable for general use; it might be employed for secondary cabinet . w bengalensis L. =- Urostigma bengalense, Ga8p. Fam. Moraceae E. Banyan, Bantam-tree F. Figuier des Indes G. Banyan 931%]; and Distribution A tree of south and sub—Himalayanforest of India, Ceylon, and southern Iran, growing near the Gombroon (Bandar, Abbas in the Persian Gulf), a large tree, throwing down aerial roots from the branches, banayan, is the name which was given to the tree growing near Gombroon . 110 1. General characteristics and pgperties. Wood grey, no heartwood, moderately hard, consisting of narrow, wavy, concentric bands of soft tissue, alternating with broader bands of darker and firm tissue; on radial section has a characteristic grain not unlike W mlabaricum. 2. Macroscopic features. Pores range from moderately—sized to large, scattered irregularly, often scanty and subdivided, transverse section shows narrow, and wavy concentric bands. Rays fine, equidistant, very distinct, not mlmerous. 3. 1333 . Used for well-curbs, as it has attractive grain. Can be made into furniture, cabinet work, and door panels. 60. Acer oarpestris L. Fam. Aceraceae E. Maple—tree, Bird's tongue, Dog Oak, Master tree, Maple-field, Field-maple, common maple F. Erable champétre, Petiterable, Auzerole, Aceraille G. Feldahorn, Angerbinbaum, Massholder, Masseller Peitschenholz Origin and Distribution Central Europe, northern Asia, including Iran, northern Iran from 1100 to 2600 meters altitude. 1. General ycharacteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood light-brown, or reddish-white. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, usually fine-grained, tough and 111 moderately hard, with a beautiful satiny lustre, shrinks moderately, moderately high in nail-holding ability, curly and mottled specimen present. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings fairly distinct, delineated by a narrow, darker line of denser fibrous tissue, slightly wavy. Pores are small, minute and indistinct without a hand lens. Parenchyna not visible. Rays fine and distinct with a naked eye. 3. Microscopic features. Microscopic features similar to those of M insiee Boiss, Vessels numerous; perforation plates simple; intervessels pits orbicular to oval or angular; spiral thickenings present. Parenchyma sparse, terminal, paratracheal, and metatracheal diffuse. Fibers thin to moderately thick-walled. Reys unstoried and homogeneous, 24.; seriate. 2.. Eggs. Turnery, cabinet making, excellent for fuel and charcoal, furniture, crates and boxes . 61. Acer p'sefidoplatanus L. Fam. Aceraceae E. Maple—tree F. Erable G. Ahorn 932.9 and Distribution Central Europe and western Asia. 112 1. General characteristics aniproperties. Sapwood, white; heartwood, white to pale whitish—yellow when green, becoming yellowish with age. Wood fine and straight-grained, tough, medium heavy and hard, easily worked, spliting evenly, susceptible to cracking and warping in seasoning, without characteristic odor or taste, very durable if kept dry, taking a very smooth polish. Rays with a satiny lustre. 2 . Macroscopic features . Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings fairly marked by fine lines of denser figrous tissue. Pores small and indistinct, evenly dis- tributed and irregularly spaced. Rays visible with a naked eye, with a satiny lustre on radial surface. 3. Microscopic features. Microscopic features similar to those of £225. insigge Boiss. Vessels numerous; perforation plates simple; intervessels pits orbicular to oval or angular; spiral thickenings present. Parenchyma, sparse, terminal, paratracheal and metatracheal diffuse. Fibers thin to moderately thick-walled. Rays unstoried and homogeneous. )4. Uses. For violin backs, table-tops, platters and spoons, cabinet work, reels, coach-panels, panels, railway cars, millwork, crates and boxes, charcoal (superior to beech). 113 62. MW C. A. M. = A. hederaefolia Tourn. Fam. Aceraceae E. Maple-tree F. Erable G. Ahorn Distribution Northern Iran from 150 to 2600 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and prcmertifis. Sapwood white; heartwood light-brown, to light grayish-brown. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, usually straight and fine- grained, taking smooth polish, shrinks moderately, slightly lustrous, with handsome ray flecks. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a narrow, darker line of denser fibrous tissue. Pores are small and indistinct to the naked eye, uniform in size and regularly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Rays of two widths, broader rays visible with a naked eye, forming a ray fleck on the quarter surface, narrow rays scarcely visible with a hand lens. 3. _M_i_croscopic features. Microscopic features similar to those of Acer insifle Boiss. Vessels numerous; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular; spiral thickenings present. Parenchyma, sparse, terminal, paratracheal, and metatracheal diffuse. Fibers thin to moderately thick-walled, length of fibers short. Rays unstoried and homogeneous, 1-3 seriate. 111; 1;. Uses. For charcoal, fuel, millwork, turnery, crates, boxes, cheap furniture . 63. £235 insiae Boiss. et Bh. Fam. Aceraceae E. Maple-tree F. Erable G. Ahorn M31 and Distribution Northern Iran, up to 2000 meters altitude. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white; heartwood grayish-white. Wood without character- istic odor or taste, usually straight-grained, fine-textured, moderately heavy and elastic, not very strong nor durable, takes a very smooth polish, shrinks moderately, works well with tools, moderately high in nail-holding ability, with a satiny lustre. 2. Macroscopic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings fairly distinct, delineated by a narrow, darker line of denser fibrous tissue. Pores are small and indistinct without a hand lens, uniform in size and regularly distributed. Parenchyma not visible. Rays of two widths, broader rays visible to the naked eye, forming a ray fleck on the quarter surface, narrow rays scarcely visible with a hand lens. 3. Ecroscopic features. Vessels average 60 per square millimeter; the average diameter of 115 vessels 50 microns; average length of vessel segment 250 microns; perforation plates simple; intervessels pits orbicular to oval, or angular; spiral thickening present. Parenchyma sparse, terminal, paratracheal, and metatracheal—diffuse. Fibers, thin to moderately thick-walled. Rays, unstoried and homogeneous; average height of rays hOO microns; average width of rays (l—lO seriate) 80 microns; average rmmber of rays per square millimeter h. 1;. Uses). Cabinet making, cheap furniture, broom-handles, turnery, wooden dishes, shovels, house-frame, wooden bowls, shoe lasts, crates, boxes, millwork, wooden ware and novelties, musical instruments, charcoal and fuel . m platanoides L. 01-ng and Distribution -. Norway to central Europe. 1. General characteristics and properties. Heartwood white, but inclining to gray, when mature. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, hard, moderately heavy, tough, takes good polish, lacking in durability when exposed to wetness, has a tendency to warp and crack, close-grained, easy to work with tools. 2. Macroscopic feapures. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct, delineated by a denser summerwood, slightly wavy. Vessels small and indistinct. Parenchyma not visible. Rays fine with a satiny luster on radial surface . 116 3. Microscgic features. Microscopic features similar to those of 13933 insigpe. Boiss. Vessels numerous; perforation plates simple; intervessel pits orbicular to oval or angular; spiral thickenings present. Parenchyma sparse, terminal, paratracheal, and metatracheal diffuse. Fibers thin to moderately thick-walled, length of fibers short. Rays unstoried and homogeneous, 6-9 seriate. 1.. 1113. For musical instruments, turnery. 6h. Cornus australis C. A. M. a C. sanguinea Ledeb = C. citrifolia Wahl. Fam. Cornaceae E. Dog-wood, Dog4berry, Cornel-tree F. Cornouiller G.) Hartriegel Origin. and Distribution Northern Iran up to 1000 meters altitudes. 1. General characteristics and properties. Sapwood white to light reddish—brown; heartwood very pale brown. Wood without characteristic odor or taste, heavy, hard to very hard, fine-grained, strong in compression parallel to the grain, static and impact bending, difficult to work with tools. 2. Macroscgic features. Wood diffuse porous. Growth rings distinct but not sharply delineated. Pores small, not distinct without a hand lens, solitary 117 and in multiples of two to several. Parenchyma. not distinct, or distinct with a hand lens. Rays of two widths, broader rays visible, but not sharply delineated against the background of pores and fibrous tissue; narrow rays scarcely visible with a hand lens. 3. Microscopic features . Vessels round to oval; perforation plates scalariform; intervessel pits oval to linear. Parenchyma paratracheal, metatracheal-diffuse. Fibers moderately thick to thick-walled. Rays unstoried, heterogeneous. 1.. Eggs. Used for wood—engraving, turnery, cogs, tool-handles, mallets and shuttles and formerly for charcoal. CHAPTER V FORI‘BT PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION INIRAN 118 FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION IN IRAN Timber Resources and Their Importance in Economy of Iran lflmberiResources in Iran in Compgrison with the Other Middle East Udfififiies ’I’ 'T '1 II" ‘II Forest resources constitute one of the most important and valuable assets of any nation. Iran is fortunate in having productive forests. According to the Iranian Forest Service, 136,883 cubic meters of round— wood were produced.in 1951-52. The home grown lumber and wood products Ibr domestic use and for export trade are of great importance in the national economy of Iran. Comparative data of accessible forest areas of Asia indicate that Indonesia, India, China, Burma, Japan, Iran, Philippines, Thailand and Turkey, have large forest areas. In the Middle East, however, except for Iran, with nearly 20 million hectares, and Turkey, with 10 million hectares, the other countries do not have adequate forest resources to be self sufficient. A better management of Iranian forests can help the middle east countries with the necessary forest products. The total amount of hardwoods harvested annually in Iran is 22 million cubic meters, of which lh million are wasted and only 8 million utilized. According to available data for.Asian countries, Japan produces the highest quantity equalling 25 million cubic meters. More than h million cubic meters of roundwood in Iran are used for production of charcoal. This places Iran in the second place among the Asian countries in 1952, after Japan, where litnullion cubic 119 nwters were utilized for charcoal production, and in third place, after Argmflflma.and Japan, among all of the countries of the world. Land and Forest Area of Asian Countries Comparative Data on.Accessible Forests (1000 hectares) m Accessible Inaccessible Total Land Area Indonesia 63,38h 16,h10 79,79h 1h8,329 India h8,930 22,0h9 70,979 328,12h China 28,100 52,h20 80,520 9h0,830 Burma 25,278 13,70h 38,982 67,691 Japan 21,780 837 22,617 36,615 .2331 16,000 3,000 19,000 163,600 fflndland 15,715 16,hlh 32,129 h1,629 Philippines 10,738 5,580 16,318 29,7h1 Turkey 10,28h 300 10,58h 76,781 _ Forest Area of Middle East Asia Comparative Data on Total Forest Areas III-Ill====t::+' :7 +1 :_ - w,:§======a:::: wvv:=f“ a , :11 :: 1000 Hectares #fi v _I_r_a_n 19,000 Turkey 10,58h Pakistan 2,700 Iraq 1,5h0 Afghanistan 1,000 Syria hh9 Israel 89 Jordon 78 Lebanon 7h fi—f—vfiv _—vv 7 f 120 Total Harvest of Broadleaved wood Asia 1955 1000 1113 Solid Volume of Roundwood Japan 26,910 . Iran 8,000 Philippines h,236 Turkey 3 ,628 Total Harvest of Coniferous and Broadleaved Wood Asia 1955 v—fiv—v—v' v— —v T f 7* v v—vv—f v #7 vfi _ fr“— — vfiv r f r v—vv—v W 7—. 1000 m3 Solid Volume of Roundwood ——v r—v—v’ #71 fi fi Japan 58 , 63 8 _I_r_a_n_ 8 ,000 Turkey 5,771 Philippines h,3 79 —v v ——__—v'7 7—__v v v fi Charcoal Production in the World I: v v r fi—v— r v—7 fi w—fi W .— __ wiv—f vi r f v Wf f f f 1000 m3 1952 Argentina 21,600 Japan 12 ,109 Iran 1; ,000 Italy 2 ,508 121 Total Utilization of Homegrown.Roundwood (Coniferous and Broadleaved) Asia 1958 ====a=I==============================================: v~:l ri:::::nr::::: wood for Charcoal 1000 m3 of Solid Volume of Roundwood 7 fi ___7 7—, fi W Japan 1h,5h5 gag 14,000 Indonesia 300 Burma 257 Turkey 205 v— ._—v w —v— fifi—v .— mv—F. Utilization of Broadleaved Homegrown.Roundwood--195h V w—v—v fi—vvw ' r rw—fv—r—v w—v—v n fi f wv—Vv—w ' WV v—v—w v—v— v. vv—V 1000 m3 of;Solid Volume of Roundwood Wood for afiarcsai' If TotaI UtiIizafion -—~a__, A 1,11 __1 _vv Vf_v _*T 11, v 111__ Japan 13,096 26,3 72 Iran h,000 h,2h5 Indonesia 300 3,6hh Burna 2 57 2,279 Turkey 205 h,267 v—fi w—i—ffiv—v v v—v "7 = ‘5 .I'Tfl“ ., 122 Total Forest Products Balances (In.Roundwood Equivalents) Asia 19Sh vvfivv v—vf WV ~——v v—v—v—v—r '7 r—vv—v—w ' f _'_v_' __v 'fiv w v—vfi rvw f w w v—v—ffi V f—v—fi 1000 m3 (r) Roundwood Felling Import Export Balance W #7— v—v—v i WWW—f W fififfi Japan 56,210 2,530 1,200 57,570 India 15,830 550 50 16,330 gap 8,150 --- --- 8,150 Turkey 5,690 890 15 6,570 Indonesia 3,710 270 280 3 ,700 v—f Total Forest Products Balances (Ih.Roundwood Equivalents) Asia 1955 1000 m3 (r) Roundwood Felling Import Export Balance Japan _: 58,6h0 2,580 1,600 59,620 Iran 8,000 12 13 8,000 Turkey 5,770 510 20 6,260 Philippines 11,380 90 1,800 2,670 m3”) Per \ooo Cdp'u’rd Per Capita Consumption.of Forest Products Roundwood - Fuelwood 19511-1955 W Average Fuelwood Industrial'wood Consumption of Fuelwood Iran 380 10 260 Japan 310 360 220 Hong-Kong 210 190 150 Turkey 200 80 1h0 vfi— v—v WV—fi fifi v—f fi fl '7 123 Iprest‘Resources of Iran and Their Products 0f the total of 163 million hectares in Iran, forests cover 19,500,000 hectares, or 12% of the total land area. Caspian forests, with 3,600,000 hectares, are composed of useful species similar to European (Meditteranian) species. Of these Persian.wa1nut, oak, beech, ash, boxwood, elm, elder, are the most valuable. Parrotia persica D. C. and Zelkova crenata Desf. are also valuable for special purposes. Iran's most important timber resources are located in the Caspian area. It has been.estimated that of 3,600,000 hectares of Caspian forests, 1,500,000 hectares support stands of high density, 1,200,000 of medium density, and 900,000 hectares are understocked. The first group supports 150 cubic meter of wood per hectare, the latter 75. The value of these forests is estimated at more than h00 million dollars. ' The western forests with 11,300,000 hectares, scattered throughout the Zagros Range, comprise the largest forest area in Iran. These forests could be more productive with better protection and management. Pistacio-forests in the region of low rainfall, composed mostly of Pistacio trees, are in.poor condition. Limestone forests of the north- eastern.part and forests of subtropical regions do not produce commer- cial timber. Igportant Species A discussion of the most important Iranian timber species for domestic industries and export trade follows. Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. Ml, Oak. This species yields an excellent wood for veneer, plywood, general construction and barrel 12).; staves. Large quantities of staves are exported. Oak growing near the sea coast is characterized by wide growth rings. This is probably due to the effects of favorable climate and soil of high productivity. ' The rate of growth tends to decrease progressively at the higher elevation. The fast growing wood is best suited for construction purposes, while fine grained wood, because of the more uniform texture and lighter color, is considered more suitable for export trade. There are other species of oak in the Caspian forest region, but quality of their wood for veneer and wood containers is not well known. It appears that the rate of growth of these oaks is generally slower than that of g. castaneaefolia; C. A. M. germs persica Jetsp., Persian oak. This species is distributed widely through Zagros mountains in the western Iran. The wood of this species is not of the same quality as that of g. castaneaefolia C. A. M. Since this species grows in drier regions than g. cavstaneaefolia its wood is characterized by narrower growth rings and finer texture. However, it generally has wide sapwood which reduces its commercial value. Extensive use of Persian oak in the palaces of Persepolis testi- fies to the fact, that in the past better quality of this timber was arailable. Better management of the western forests should improve the growth and the quality of this species. At present average diameter growth of Persian oak is 2 t0 3 centimeters a year, with trees 100 years of age reaching a diameter of about one-half meter. 125 Other valuable species of Iran are boxwood (533293.. sempervirens; L.), Pgotia persica D. C., dogwood (Cw australis C. A. M.), persimmonv WW L., birch (Walbg L.), mple A331; spp. and beech (m silvatica L.) 3 some of these are useful in shuttle and spindle mking for textile industries. Percentage of Important Species in the Caspian Region mi' WV '1 v f '— ___v_' iffi v ' w—V v—V Species Percentage inus betulus L. 28 3 Ms Mill w silvatica L. 16 Coniferous and Fruit Species 9 Parrotia persica D. c. 8 Diomos 13313 L . 7 Quercus spp. 7 A3233 SPP- 6 £221; spp- 5 PW francimifolia Lamb. 3 w sempervirens L. 2 Ems 8PP-. 2 Zelkova crenata Desf. 1 Shrubs . 6 fifi—v V—v '— v—v—V vvw—v—vv— r The Caspian forest belt is 1000 kilometers long and 20-30 kilometers wide. The average yield of wood per hectare is 150 cubic meters or a 126 total of 315,000,000 cubic meters. This should produce an income of 300,000,000,000 rials annually. Based on the importance and value of different species to wood industries and to export trade they can be divided into three groups of species: I - First Grade Species 1‘.§E§E§ 53EE??Z§F99§,L' 2. Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M. 3. Juglans Eggia L. h. Zelkova crenata Desf. II - Second Grade Species 1. filings montana S. M. 2. Mg procera solisb . Tilia rubra D. c. 3 h. Alnus glutinosa Willd. 5. Alnus 59999?d922,L' III - Third Grade Species 1. Parrotia.persica D. C. 2. C__a_rpinus betulus L. . ngglus spp. 3 )4. Diomros }_c_>_t_u_s L. 5. Pterocarya fraggnifolia Lam. 6 . Acer spp. 127 WOOD INDUSTRIES IN IRAN Iranian wood industries convert a large amount of raw material to useful commodities, however, there still exist many opportunities for further expansion in utilization of wood for domestic and export purposes. Wood using industries in Iran could be separated into three categories. 1. Wood using industries which convert raw material to rough or semi-mamIfactured commodities. These include sawmills, box and crate factories, barrel stave mills, and wood fuel, cross tie and mine timber producers. 2. Wood using industries, engaged in car construction, wood buildings, furniture factories, veneer and plywood, plants, and house and harbor construction. 3. Wood using industries which operate dry kilns, wood preserva- tion plants, and cardboard and pulp and paper plants. Modernization of these three groups of industries can increase produc- tion 2—5 times, with corresponding beneficial effect on the national economy. Some industries, such as pulp and paper, are in their primary stage of development. Further development of this industry, installa- tion of wood briquetting plants, and increased use of wood in textile industries can increase considerably utilization of forest products in Iran. Introduction of new techniques in wood lamination, particle boards, mfacture and wood distillation industries, development and 128 modernization of plywood, pulp and paper, and other already existing industries, prevention of deterioration in wooden constructions, and use of better drying techniques, can all promote better utilization of wood products in Iran. Export, of Wood and Wood Producgtp; There is annually a certain amount of wood export to European countries such as Ireland, Spain, Belgium, France, Italy and Holland. The major export products are oak, in the form of veneer logs and barrel staves, and walnut for veneer manufacture. The main method of trans- portation is the Trans-Iranian Railway connecting the forest area of the Caspian Zone to the harbor Khoramshahr in the Persian gulf coast. Sawmill Industries The wood requirements by other industries have stimulated private industry in establishing sawmills. The best equipped sawmill is at Tamishan in the Caspian Zone, but there are other well equipped sawmills Operated by the government agencies and private industries. The instal- lation of more sawmills is now under consideration by private enter- prises. Besides sawmills there is a group of lumber remanufacturing plants scattered throughout the country. The largest concentration center of these, with 36 mills, is in the capital of Iran. The sawmilling industry is one of the best developed wood industries in Iran. Improved mechanization should increase the production capacity and the quality of product. Map No. 5 shows distribution of samuills inIran. 129 Use of‘Wood in Construction and in.Production.of’Poles, Mine Timbers ssties 1. '1 - 1.1 II ’1‘ F‘ VII 1- 1126-: ii sodas conscien- ‘Wood is used for construction.purposes mostly in home building in the forest regions. Even in the regions where buildings are not com- pletely built of wood, considerable quantities of wood are consumed in construction. It has been estimated that more than 300,000 cubic meters of wood are used in.Iran for construction purposes annually. Use of wood in construction in the small cities is greater than in the large cities. In the latter, wood is usually used as round or square girders in the buildings. The main use of wood in the southern states, where there are no wood buildings, is for doors, frames, window sash, and similar items. Except for the northern provinces, where wood is used extensively in a11.parts of the house the use of wood in other provinces is mostly confined to framing. I The species which are used most, especially in.non-forested provinces, are poplars, mostly .13: gigs var. pyramidafeis‘ Roz. The growth of this species is admirable, but its wood is not as durable as that of other Caspian forest tree species, such as oak, beech, and hornbeam. Introduction of the Caspian Species into door and sash manufacture is reasonable and improvement of the manufacturing facilities should have a beneficial effect on the entire homebuilding industry. 130 2. 29199 There are more than 180,000 telephone and telegraph poles in use in Iran. Replacement needs for poles in the existing communication lines require a production of some 15,000 annually. A considerable number of poles is also required in the construction of new lines. Since cost of replacement is high more attention should be paid to the selection of Species and preservation of poles to improve their durability. At the present time some relatively weak Species, Such as Poplar, are used in pole production, a practice which results in heavy Ciel-rages to the communication lines, especially in the areas with high Wthud. velocity and heavy snow. There is also need for establishing tecl’lnical standards and specifications for the species, the diameter and length and the straightness of poles for the various uses. 3. Mine timbers. The production of mine stulls, especially for coal mines in north of Iran, is carried on in the Caspian forest region. Production of mine timbers in 1952 required more than 10,000 cubic me‘tiers of timber. The species used most are Caginus betulus L. and Piarrotia persica D. C. Though square timbers have some advantages in framing, round timbers are used almost exclusively in ,all mines. Strength properties, and the type of failure of the above mentioned aPetites when used for mine timbers were determined by the Forest I"Pociucts Laboratory, in Karaj, Iran. These two species were found to be the best suited for this purpose. No data on their durability, 131 however, are available. The decay problems are very critical, especially in the warm and damp air in certain mines and some attempts have been made to preserve these timbers. Preservation Treatment. Even though for the semi—permanent construction some species possess sufficient durability, in some cases preservation is to be recommended. The average life of untreated timber is about 2-3 years, but treated timbers last 10-20 years. Therefore use of preserved timber is to be recommended. For treatment of the Standing telegraph and telephone poles Cobra process has been recom— mended, in which a preservative is injected into the poles by a flat needle. The open tank system using hot and cold creoante, is adopted for preserving new poles. This system can be installed in different pr OVinces with ease . h. Railroad ties. Nearly 11,600,000 railroad ties are in use in Iran, of which 600 ,000 are metal sleepers and the rest are wood ties. According to the new plans of expansion for the railways 300 ,000 crossties will be necessary annually for constructional purpose, and 200,000 for Inmaintenance . The railway administration endeavors to prolong the service of ties by more efficient preservation. An attempted change from creosote to Tanalith for this purpose was found unsatisfactory. Deterioration of ties before preserving in storage can be remedied by better piling, in which there will be less wood-to-wood contact. The species used most for ties are: oak, Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M., Ill ...,7 - 4 132 beech, Fags sulvatica L. and elm, Ulmus montana S. M. Oak produces the most satisfactory ties. It is also possible to use untreated ties of such Species as black locust Robinia pseudoacacia L., walnut Juglans regia L., and Catalpa §peciosa Ward and Catalpa cordifolia. 5. Wood-match Industries . Present day matches manufactured in Iran are safety type having either a wood or cardboard splint. The production of the first kind of mtches is sufficient for domestic and export purposes. There are more than 80 match factories in Iran, scattered in different provinces, according to distribution of poplar plantations, Since this industry uses mostly poplar wood. The study of growth and PrOperties of different species of poplar are continuing in the Forest Product Laboratory, Karaj, Iran. Publication No. 3 of this laboratory on growth and properties of one of the Species of poplar may help owners of these factories with the necessary data. The availability of poplar Species in many provinces of Iran, except southern states andBahrain, stimulated the use of these species in the match industry. Wood blocks for match boxes are usually produced by the sawmills. These blocks are cut into veneer and shaped into boxes. Some of these 1m-:L'l.s are not wholly mechanized. More extensive mechanization should. result in a better quality of the product. 6 . Furniture Industry . This industry consisting of about 300 plants is widely scattered t'h-I'oughout most provinces of Iran. Wood is used as solid lumber, as core stock in panels, and as plywood and veneer. Wood consumption e(1118.13 approximately 50,000 cubic meters annually. 133 Veneers of Persian walnut and oak are available, and principally used as face veneers. Stumps of Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) produce highly figured veneer, for decorative furniture. Technical assistance is required for further growth of this industry. In some parts of the country wood for parts is boiled in water and then dried in an oven. Recommendations of the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin, for production of curved wood could be useful for private industry in Iran. The furniture industry in Iran is growing rapidly. Elimination of Seasoning defects in the raw materials, such as Splitting and checking, and reduction of glue joint failures should improve quality. 7. Veneer 331d Plywood Industry. As a decorative art manufacturing of veneers existed in Iran for many years. No doubt these veneers were hand—sewn from beautiful domestic and foreign species. Many Species of hardwoods produce good veneer and plywood. The Out-put of the Iranian veneer and plywood mills is almost adequate to meet the domestic needs. Only small amounts of plywood are imported. The main product of this industry is three—ply plywood panels. Panels with a higher nunber of plies are seldom seen on the market. Some hand-sewn veneer is still available and is used by the £111Tuiture industry. Establishment of well-equipped veneer cutting plants is a necessity. The glue used in Iran for edge-gluing and splicing is casein, while for the panel assembly blood-albumen is generally employed. 13h Suggestions and Recommendations. As there is no production of curved plywood in Iran for use in furniture manufacture, installation of a low pressure moulding plant is desirable. Further improvements in this industry can be achieved by selection of better logs without split, spiral grain and other wood defects, by removing knots in veneer sheets and by introduction of the water- resistant glue, all of which should bring about improvement in quality of the final products. To eliminate importation of plywood new veneer and plywood plants should be established. 8. Use of Wood in Textile Industries. A great number of wood products are in use in textile industries in Iran, therefore, establishment of plants for production of shuttles, PiCking-Sticks and bobbins would be of great benefit to this industry. species such as: Acer laetum C. A. M., Acer insigne Boiss, Bh, Fagus EZIVatica L., and Betula alba L., could be used for bobbins. Fraxinus Wh, .F_‘_rax___i_n_u§_ Wm End, and Zelkova crenata Desf. could be used for picking—sticks, and Buxus sempervirens L., Parrotia persica. D, c ., Cornus australis C. A. M., and Diospyzos lotus L. for Shuttles. 9 . Wood Seasoning. There are several dry-kiln installations in Tehran, but further meion of kiln drying capacity is thought to be essential. Installation of locally made kilns which can be built cheaper than imPOrted kinds has been recommended. In many cases proper drying techniques are not practiced and as a result lumber is Split and checked. 135 A practice of putting green-sawed wood in the direct sunlight should be discouraged. The use of stickers between layers of lumber and covering woodpiles against sunlight, will result in a better quality of lumber. The choice of a particular kind of a kiln should be determined by the requirement of different industries, such as textile, furniture, etc . Building a large kiln would be cheaper than construction of several small kilns. An economical seasoning method for drying cross- ties in Iran has been recommended. By this method, crossties can be dPied to 140 per cent moisture content in 12 hours, while air drying takes 15 months. 10. Wood Preservation Industry. Crossties. This industry is engaged in helping the railway adI'linistration and the P. T. T. to preserve railroad ties and poles. A medern installation in Chirgah, in northern Iran, provides facilities for this purpose. In this plant crossties are preserved with creosote. TaIlolith was tried as a preservative for crossties but was found to be unsatisfactory . Usually the life of untreated ties is nearly five years; creosote trsated ties last nearly 30 years. The ratio shows the effect of creosote treatment. 'The cost of preservative is much lower than the coat of several untreated ties. The data on the percentage of treated ties in the tracks are not available, but it is certain that a very high percentage are preserved. Some of the species which do not need any preservation, such as black locust and catalpa, have not yet been tried. 136 The most commonly used species are: oak, Quercus castaneaefolia C. A. M., elm, Ulmus montana, S. M., ash, Fraxinus excelsoir L., and beech, Fag-s sylvatica L. Beech and oak are more durable than other species, however, some difficulties have been encountered in preserving beech ties. This may be due to the insufficient previous drying or the ”“3 presence of red-heart in this species. As preservation is of a great concern to the government agencies, the Forest Products Laboratory at Karaj tries its best to solve the problems of: 1) choice of preservatives, 2) choice of treating methods, and 3) evaluation of durability of different species. Creosote produces best results in treating crossties in Iran. O't'aher preservatives, such as Tanolith, and other water-soluble preserv- atitres could be used for indoor items and dinitrophenol, copper naphthenate and pentachlorophenol could be used for other outdoor uses. Telephone and Telegraph Pples. Open-tank immersion in hot and c301d creosote is adopted for preserving poles by the P. T. T. The e3‘1'Illzi.jpment is simple and such plants can be established in all the states and provinces of Iran. For standing poles the Cobra process has been I'eeommended, and for mine-timber hot and cold creosote application in an Open barrel is used. ll. Wood Container Industg: Wooden barrels were in use for holding such liquids as vinegar and alcoholic beverages since 500 B. C. This industry, however, has re“Mined in a primitive state and barrel staves are still produced by halld-hewing. 13? Barrel staves are made of oak, Q__uercus castaneaefolia C. A. M. in the Caspian region. A large number of these staves are exported to different European countries, especially Ireland. There are also several plants in the capital which produce 1,000 barrels a month for domestic use. The development of this industry has been very slow. Though there exists some stave-cutting machinery, many are still made by hand, a process in which more than 70 per cent of raw material is destroyed. Changing hand-operated cooperage industry to a mechanical one, can increase the productivity as high as three times. 12. Pulp and Paper Industry. Present Situation. The pulp and paper industry is not highly developed in Iran. It is necessary to import annually, for domestic requirements, a great amount of paper from the European countries, especially Sweden. There are four paper mills in the country, two in the capital, one in the west and the other in the southeast. Plants located in the capital produce white wrapping paper and cardboard. The plant in the West of the capital produces cardboard, mostly for pastry boxes, trunks, etc The southeastern plant is the largest paper mill in Iran. It Produces writing paper. The raw material used in these mills is old-paper stock and straw. There are no papermaking facilities that use wood as a source of pulp. Since Iran is not self-supporting in pulp and paper products, there is always a shortage of these products on the market, esPecially 138 because domestic use is rapidly increasing. Imports of paper prevent development of the Iranian paper industry. Suggestions and RecoMendations for Future Development of the Pulp and Paper Industry. All the necessary factors for establishing pulp and paper plants, such as availability of raw material and power exist in the accessible forest areas of Iran. Quantities of old paper at a low cost are also available for conversion. The best grade of old paper should be used in production of writing paper, poorer grades for wrapping paper. Expansion of the pulp industry for manufacture of container boxes, Wallboard, wrapping paper and newsprint is highly desirable. 13. Wood Waste Industry. Wood waste and wood residues can be utilized by numerous production units. Wood residue can be converted to useful products such as fuel briquettes, hooged wood, etc. Wood residue and waste utilization plants do not exist in Iran. However, the availability of this raw material suggests the desir- ability of developing progressive plans for its utilization. Sources of the waste and residual wood are numerous. Some of these are: wood 19ft in the forest after logging, and residues left in the manufacture of primary products such as lumber and veneer. Hogged wood can be obtained by chipping coarse materials in saw- mills. This type of material can be. used for production of tars, acetic acid, methanol, and other chemicals. 139 Hydrolysis of wood cellulose, for production of industrial ethyl alcohol, and molasses for stock feeding, is another possibility. Installation of several wood-briquetting plants, and of facilities for edge—gluing of sawmill residues for furniture is also desirable for development of wood using industries in Iran. Much wood now used as fuel, could be used in the box and crate industry and in the production of fiber products. These proposals are aimed at bringing all forest lands in Iran into the highest possible state of productivity. APPEI‘JD LLX A DISTRIBUTION OF HECTARAGE OF FORESTS BY REGIONS, IRAN 1327 (l9h8-l9h9) A Rough Estimate lho Region Area Hectares l. Caspian Forests (Quercus-Fagus) 3,600,000 2. Oak Tree Forests 11,300,000 3. Limestone Mountain Forests 1,300,000 L. Pistachio Tree Forests 2,800,000 S. Subtropical Forests 500,000 Total 19,500,000 Approximately 20,000,000 AMOUNT OF'PRECIPITATION IN CASPIAN REGION FOR SPECIFIED STATIONS (in millimeteres) lhl A reliable estimate showing increase in precipitation from eastern to western part of Caspian forests. This variation in precipitation may be a cause of fluctuation in forest communities. Station. From East to WEgt of Caspian.Region _fig Gorgan ‘*§Ebo1" Ramsar—fi' Lahiian *'KstEa' Total 12 months 533 516 796 1,106 1,120 1326(19h7-h8) Total not 12 months 597 770 937 1,152 available 1325(19h6~h7) Total not 12 months h63 735 1,3h0 1,1h2 available 132h(l9hS-h6) 0n the northern slopes of the Elburz mountains where there are rather typical.forest communities of hardwoods, the increasing precipitation from east to west on the one hand, and the dr0pping of temperature and increasing rainfall in the Elburz mountains profile on the other have a great effect in creating many types of climax communities of trees, and in increasing the density of forests in the dominant commuties . 1&2 ESTIMATED AVERAGE.ANNUAL TIMBER UTILIZATION IN IRAN 1321-1325 (l9h2-l9h5 to 19b?) (In Metric Tons) A Rough Estimate Use Domestic Utilization O‘Tbtal ProportionUTgmeFarm_—- 'Woodlands Fuelwood h,500,000 1,500,000 Construction 300,000 200,000 Railroad ties 2h,000 None Matches 70,000 - 70,000 Boxes 60,000 h8,000 Furniture 50,000 30,000 Veneer h,000 None Mining Timber 22,000 2,000 Minor Products 170,000 120,000 Total 5,200,000 1,970,000 lh3. .wmwsma ommqmm. Hmfldoa ammogmwhm>o mpMObMMTMo-mmooMH ‘Hmsmwm amaqso, [immeqam mosses, .maas. «aw. . fiswoa mssas osmqm mmaam. mm: Hm: Hmm a 0 ml! assoa ,lur u. tn“...- sass H m m avenue as as HNH Assomszvssso e0: «mm.H mam sashes oaa m m amends :I It 3: magnum oss.m aHH.H mom assess, nu -- u: oopssm noses: -- -u .. mosesH smaasam 0 ma ma mosesH saspssm m a N ossasm sasssam a as a osaasm sassaam In In It danpms< .It II II dflhpmdd a m m assoasssmms . m :n .: assssoo moaofisw> one muspfinpsm_nmnp umnpo nommmwumweowmsndz osm.m mam.m mso.m aNH.oH o:m.aa Ham.m aspos «ma mmw m, - sass v , mas as ea aosase mas.m oem.m mmm.m assess .. eon «Hm . assasssw as be oma museum Hmm 4m N Andam:2vnmso .. u- z: mangoes mom mom Hm: soaasa .. u- u. asssaos oms.ma Ham.a eon.» saunas mo 4 ems assess smasssm sae.H ems Haw oososH soapsam .. nu H assessssmma omm am as masses sassssm ooo3.sossoss esslmmsoassm.«aoomwa mam.mm oma.mm mma.aa mma.m oma.m smm.m assoa ll rpm .. u. cs: assasssu esH.m mme.H som.m Assooszvssso was was owm Assomszcssso a we as assess mam NHH.H 4am mosses mHN.HH oma.ss aoo.aa assess mes Hoe mom assess .. me a mosesH sassssm a am as mosesH sessasm Hmm.o omm.o omm.m seesaw smsaHsm sad cos mes assess sassssm Hose mssesaosH «oosssmosaams manmama Nauaawa Hanoamfi assssoo maumama NHIHHmH Hauoama Jamessoo Mason oagpmgqlnppomxm masauoaaa .aHmmma .mnzHa am .nooz no message nz<.mamcmzH Mmdop ofiupmsv mpaomsH ll} 43“? fih/\~—— ..N‘.‘ 4‘ ‘W.N.M- ‘ Elwa~ .1‘ \ ..-~ ~ H‘NI <~!“ ..l-II‘ III‘ 1 lhh QHs.N sow smm.m mmH Hssos :. .. am oo .. t- 4H Na sHssss not seem HI -- -- us m a on MH mHHso .. -- 3 so .. .. .. a Hsoosso .. -- ea How -- m mm osm ooosoaHa as mam .. .. as mam .... .. tosses at It It In In t: In it honssa Hohhdm mea gem It nu I: It In I: weep ouchaflwm smH mma sH 4H HQN.H oom.m u- u- moHoa oss smog on.H omo.m mmH mHH was.m Hoa.m as mm soossH gonna end meadom may oooa mnop .90: .mwm coca mqop .90: .11 msfidb mesao> x mppo 1 areas EH shall AmmaHummmH ens mmmHuamaHo eHmH one onH aHa oooH osos .so: mafia me: o mphommm . ldmwanamaHo onH .mwm QOOH osos.poz on m was ob mpho mpoeoonm z 091$ oESHo> 03...; oESHo> on m> 0:3 o> o: m was o> 3.395 818% 3.8951: nil-algal: [Wag-awar- LgnlplmdduflW-l 9260.5 ASmHIoJmC mmma AosaH-msaHv samH I mamHussaHo mmmH AeaaHnosaH op maaHusaaHv mNmHnmmmH ZSHH «whobmomm @003 Qz< 9003 no 955% 924 938an no mbfl; 92¢ 550:4 unfi <1- 4 ~— uulh —4& s a an: ... 1.. lhé OaH.OH smm.a OOa.m mOH.m amm.m mmm.a Oma.H mmO.H oHs OOOH oHa OOOH egos .ww: .osos .soz oHs OOOH oHalmmO amma .soz msos .poz AmarHsmHM Aaauoech menusaaaq AeauosaHM Ams.eame AeaueamHW “mawwasHM “saueawam oposeosa mmmH emmH e003 on.“ e83 . .H man 5 onH . . NmH v ONmHt r mamH ass: [AoHQHS 0.56:3 l m: m> i BEBE manomwm mppommH - AOaaHuaaaH ass sauoasHo ONOH ens mNmH zamH .mmHsHOOzzOO meosnoam OOOz Oze.OOOz 2H sassy stmmOa so mbqas Oza_az=O=4 13. . 1h. 15. 16. lb? BIBLIOGRAPHY Bahrami, T. A icultural Geography'of Iran. Tehran: University of Tehran (23 - 333 19 ). Bahrami, T. History of Agriculture of Iran. Tehran: University of Tehran (129)—1330 (1951). Boulger, C. S. Wood. London: Edward Arnold - 1908. Brown, H. P., Panshin, A. J., Forsaith, G. G., Textbook of Wood Technolog. New York and London: McGraw Hill Book Co. - 19149. Esau, Katherine. lilant Anatomy. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inca. - 1953 0 Foster, A. S. Practical Plant Anatom. New York and London: D. Van Nostrand - I959. Gamble, J. S. A Manual of Indian Timbers. London: Sampson, Low, Guest, S. H., Wright, J. K., Teclaff, E. M. A World WW Forestw Resourges - 1956. fi' Hadary, G., Saii, K. Handbook of Agricultural Statistics of Iran. Tehran: 1919. Harlow, W. M., Harrar, E. S. , Textbook of Dendrolog. New York and London: McGraw Hill Book Co. -- 1930. ' Hejazy, R. Principles of Wopd Anatogy. Tehran: University of Tehran (237)-1333 (19510- Howard, A. L. A Manual of the Timbers of the World. London: McMillan and Co. - I93H. Hunt, G. M., Garrett, C. A. Wood Preservation. New York and London: McGraw Hill Book Co. - 1953. Johanson, D. A. Plant Microtechnigle. New York: McGraw Hill Book Co. - 19140. W Panshin, A. J., Harrar, E. S., Baker, W. J., and Proctor, P. G. Forest Products. New Yorkand London: McGraw Hill Book Co. - 1950. Perry, T. D. Modern Ply-Irood. New York and London: Pitman Publi— cation Corporation - 19148. 17. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. lh8 Sabeti, H. Determination of the Iranian Forest Trees. Tehran: University oE’TEEEEEIT20721326‘Ii9h71. Sabeti, H. Le peuplier en Iran. Tehran: Iranian.Forest Service - 1955. Saebi, H. L'Exploitation des Forets. Tehran: Iranian Forest Service — 1955. Saii, K. Silviculture. Vol. I. Tehran: University of Tehran (32) l9h8. Saii,-K. Silviculture. Vol. II. Tehran: University of Tehran (81) 1950. _~' Snow, C. H. The Principle Species of Wood. New York: John'Wiley and Sons Inc. -II908. Troup, R. 3. Forest Trees in the British Empire. London: Oxford, Clarendon Press 4~l932. fi'fi VI 2h.‘Weaver, J. E., Clements, F. E. Plant Ecolggy, New York and London: McGraw Hill Book Co. - 1938. 25. woon YOung Chun, Chinese EconomicfiTrees. Commercial Press, Ltd. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3h. Zon, R., Sparhawk, W. N. Forest ReSources of the World. Vols. I and II. New Y0rk: McGrawaHiII Book Co. — I923. A Manual_9f_the_gonifers. James Veitch and Sons - 1881. F. A. 0. Forest Products Statistics. Rome, Italy: 1956. F. A. 0. Les peupliers dans la production du bois et lfiutilization des :erres. Rome, Italy. l956 ' ' F. A. 0. Third Conference on'WOod Technology. Rome, Italy: 1955. F. A. 0. Research in Forestry and Forest Products. Rome, Italy: 1953. F. P. Lab., Guide_and Program of Forest Products Laboratory. Karaj—Iran: I335 (1955). F. P. Lab. Stud on Poplar in Iran. Forest Products Laboratory: Karaj—Iran 1333 (I957).fi F. P. Lab. Stud on Rail Sleepers in Iran. Forest Products Laboratory: Karaj-Iran: 958. .1 APPEI‘JD IX B Caspian.Foreets (Quercus-Fagus) 3,600,000 hectare ZLimestone Mbuntain Forest (Juniper Forests) 1,300,000 hectare Oak Tree Forests, 11,300,000 hectare Pistacia Tree Forests, 2,800,000 hectare H Subtropical Forests, 500,000 hectare Shrubs of the central and north-eastern part of the country, 1,000,000 hectare Figure 1. Distribution of Forests in IRAN lh9 150 118° L ) su° Lo : 37° La 36° La --—H---—. ———-_..._. s - Dales Forests 1 E: Sparse Forests Figure 2 . Distribution 9;: Csspdan Forests inWilld. Desf.) ‘Gleditschietum I a \. Ai__o ,- rmnliem. and. -..- leiceto Rimmetum (P. a: v Rharms L.) Pan MW 1..) Albbisfia julibriss (Gleditschia despise - -?-' --—>- Paliuretem (Friiurus spine-christi . M111 . ‘l.."" ' THE; . - a 3‘13" ‘ . -« \ ‘u‘, . .IUUI'II‘kh ‘.- 5 v‘ . . . .... .1“ "‘-r Figure 3. A profile of lower slugging: Caspistles Share . ’ showing the ulnar: "em plant corsair-cities ., ' a .; ff .'.,. J" 150 d - Dense Forests 1 I: Sparse Forests Figure 2 . Distribution 91" Caspian Forests . r-I . H :1 5 a a ‘ z ‘3 53 E3. .3 5 ’ *3 5 a I 3'2 “i 33 .3 so 13.-la e ‘2’: Y t .. :3 e :1 rg a 8 g g a EE is ,3 a e- a A a 8 'J A m I + . 33,-: g ; ‘5 A . '° '8 :1 as, s", e 3 . «as- .. 8“ Figure 3. A profile of lower elevations near Caspian Sea Shore showing the under natural plant commities. 151 z. e. 0 438.335.! Ego gob? Ad osHfios 33.0.3 .gofiea 3.3.8:. A. H osHBos cadence .58 .3055 30m: A.HH.§ oHHSsoHao 359:6 and. 550533 3.0» .. . agenda A as 53.33 gaps. re 8%. A. .H 33.5.? cast A. O. O 5228 «38.3% .sfloHapnsaAlnlew _._ Ad .2433 hang tare Egon—”9H3 soapyfidmlil. A.H 2653 managing £50533 3.....ch 3593s 0 ..MOHV xvii: Profiles of the Elburz maintains showing the two refs}: forest sonnetions at the usher elevation in the Caspian Region of IRAN. Figure )4 . 151 .246 $338530 3833 5500.8 .- A:H 333 «3:98.63 .egofinewo 030.8 . AA uflflmn 2593 3.33 . gofimumo opmwa A. Ha oHHduGofiko 9:3ng +.m. m mum... 5.5.0598 3me 55mm am \ s, e..\.. . C. . ‘.k . I ‘. \. . . .. ._ E OOON \ h \ o .3 Add .833.“ Ssgmv .Egodagm I AJ £333 2.595. tax: 5905.33 39309.3.“ Ad .353 nauseating ..fifibfig ovoudm A. a: add—55.20 m8: Sausage A. A 83.95%» 3&di 5.90m“ ... ...:an \....3 AA... ...... p. . . . . _.’.o . - \. .n’ a. n ...r .. - My». ..E .O.. ...I\ .A ...A n Profiles of the Elburz Mountains showing the two min forest zonmtions at the higher elevation in the Caspian Region of IRAN. Figure )4 . ._‘— #7... #—M A ... Crate Sawmills A... Production Capacity of Various Cities a . Carpenter Sawmills $- Furniture Sawmills Figare 5. Distribution of Wacturing Hills in IRAN. 152 153 q ‘ Figure 6. Distribzzfifsn of batch Factrriee in DEN. (Twenty-raw match factoriefl, with more than 70,000 m‘ '. =2~nsumption of mod ammally.) 153 Figure 6. Distribution of Match Factories in IRAN. (Twenty-nine match factories, with more than 70,000 m3 consumption of wood ammally.) pruls mm“ APPENDIX C TECHNIQUES FOR MICRO-SECTIONING II. Technicues for Vicro-sectionin: Tie following techniques were used by the writer for the soften- sectioning and mounting completed during the research project. Softening The softening method used was adopted from that described by G. L. Franklin, Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Risborough. This method partially delignifies the wood and, as a result, is relatively rapid. The method is not advisable for critical, microchemical investigation of the cell wall but is useful for more general anatomical studies. The softening tech- nique is described in the following steps. 1. Samples were cut into one-half inch cubes. 2. The cubes were placed in a mixture of one part (by volume) of glacial acetic acid (CHBCOCH) and two parts (by volume) of hydrogen peroxide (3202). The mixture was contained in a glass flask fitted with a reflex condenser. 3. The mixture, and cubes, were heated for a period of one to four hours depending on the species of wood. 4. The cubes were removed from the flask and washed in running water several minutes. The blocks were then ready for sec- tioning on the microtome. Sectioning Sectioning was accomplished on a Spencer Lens Company sliding microtome. The mechanics of operating a microtome will not be reviewed in this paper. The section lubricant used was '519 f“‘} l“\.&"'_-‘ A... III. 15 \‘31 twenty percent alcohol. The staining procedure used for the sections is called the Iron Alum Hematoxylin with Safranin process. The process is de- scribed hy Jeffrey (1917) as modified from Heidenhaid (1892). The following steps were used in the staining procedure. 1. The paraffin was removed from the sections by standard meth- ods (unless embeded in celloidin). In case sections are not embeded in paraffin, this step is not necessary to follow. 2. The sections were immersed in a mnrdant ten to thirty minutes in the case of three percent aqueous iron alum (viblet crys- tals) or for fifteen minutes in one percent ferric ammonium sulfate. 7 Phe sections were washed in water three times. 4. The sections were stained in dilute aqueous hematoXylin. The color development was controlled by removing the sec- tions periodically and washing to avoid over-staining. (One drop of 1% aqueous haematoxylin is enough for one minute or less.) 5. The sections were stained in three percent alcoholic safranin (C.C.). An alternative was one percent safranin in fifteen percent alcohol for fifteen minutes or less. 6. The sections were washed with water with two changes. 7. The sections were dehydrated by allowing them to remain for varying periods of time in successive solutions of seventy percent, ninety-five percent and absolute alcdhol. It may IV. be more advisable to differentiate in fifty percent alcohol, ninety-five percent alcohol and two changes of absolute al- cohol. 8. Sections were transferred in xyloi (or benzene). The above staining process is recommended especially for woody tissues of vascular plants and is designed to show un- lignified cell walls and the middle lamella clearly differen- tiated from lignified cell walls. Deeper staining with hema- toxylin will darken the lignified walls and will make the tori of bordered pits and the middle lamella more prominent. Founting After staining, the sections were mounted in "Permount." Permount is a sixty percent solution of synthetic resin mat— erial and is very suitable for covering histological sections mounted on microsc0pe slides. The sections may also be mounted in balsam dissolved in benzene or in Canada balsam, Tammar bal- sam, synthetic clarite or diaphane, but since the woody tissue sections are fairly thick, balsam solution is more satisfactory. I1_ "lllllllllllllliES