_ SELF-CONCEPT AND CERTAEN EDUCATIONAL DIDAolesa Tfiesls for ”:9 Degree of DH. D. MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Raymond F rankiin Bodwin 1957 This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Relationship between Immature Self-Concept and Certain Educational Disabiiities presented by Raymond Franklin Bodwin U. 3 has been accepted towards fulfillment 't V of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Foundations of Education , < “) y/ ,«r’ C E/C / // _ ’ . , .f"; {7‘ '59-. vw-‘fi‘ v4, ~ Reading Disability, Reading disability was defined as a score on a standardized achievement test one or more grade levels below the national norm for the individual in terms of age. Arithmetic Disability. Arithmetic disability was de- fined as a score on a standardized achievement test one or more grade levels below the national norm for the individual in terms of age. Limitations of the Study One of the central features of this study was the em- ployment of rating scales. For some time rating scales have been severely criticized for their inaccuracy. They continue to be used in research studies, however, for the ease for which they measure otherwise inaccessible traits or those which are difficult to measure. It has also been recognized that the more expert the rater in the trait being measured, the more accurate will be his results. It will be seen that the persons rating subjects for self-concept and scoring the Self-Concept Scale of the Draw-A—Person Test were trained in psychological evaluations and therefore qualified as experts. Despite this, however, it is quite possible that inaccuracies did exist and therefore influence the result. Reliability studies of the SCS-DAP would serve to measure the magnitude of these errors. While there is some question that the validating group and the research group actually differed in the trait measured, the fact that the validating group was a clinic population while the research group was a normal population presented a limitation of this study. It can be argued on theoretical grounds that a device that discriminates in a homogeneous population would discriminate even better in a heterogeneous population but still the methodology of the study would be improved if both groups were drawn from a normal population. CHAPTER II REVIEW or RELATED LITERATURE Self-Concept and Emotional Factors in Reading A great amount of literature exists in the field of reading. By far, the bulk of this literature is concerned with non-emotional factors in reading. On segregating the literature relating emotional factors in reading, it quickly became apparent that the field has been traditionally con- cerned with the composite personality organization rather than isolating its component parts. The results are rather general studies in an effort to discover_over-riding prhmctples. These studies, of course, have a bearing on the research being reported but because of their general nature and the treatment of the personality as a composite whole, are distincly removed from the present study. Failure in reading has frequently been associated with emotional problems and, in turn, emotional problems have/been attributed to reading failure or reading difficulty. This which-comes-first-the-chicken-or—the-egg controversy has been battled in the literature from as far back as 1932. At that time Monroe (SuleS), after careful study, concluded thatxflaile negativism or other unfavorable ajtitudes may interfer with 9 " ll lO learning to read, probably the emotional and personality problems develop more frequently as a result of the failure in reading. Four years later Gates (13:205—6) took a more neutral stand pointing out from a Study of one hundred dis- abled readers that most also displayed emotional difficulties, such as nervous tension, defensive behavior, aggressive re- actions, recessive behavior, avoidance reactions, submissive or surrender reactions, and extreme self-consciousness. He cautiously concluded that emotional disturbances often occur together with reading disabilities without attempting to de- fine a cause and effect relationship. I / At about the same time Ferndld (10:31-3) took a posi- tion that is still favorably received today although not without its opposition. Strand (h9zlhl) best summarized thisx position. He first pointed out that the cause and effect relationship is not easy to determine. / Apparently either reading or emotional disturbance ay be cause or effect. In one case a pupil may not progress in reading because of emotional disturbances that have their origin elsewhere, in which case it may be deemed advisable to attempt to secure better emotional adjustment as a condition to teaching reading. In another instance frustration occasioned by failure in reading may lead to emotional disturbance, in which case, learning to read would tend to mitigate the emotion. But failure in reading and emotional disturbance may be both cause and effect in the same pupil, as when failure in reading oc- casions emotional excesses, which, when occasioned, inter— fere with attempts to overcome the deficiency in reading. In this event it seems desirable, and in extreme cases almost necessary, to effect some reduction i emotion before reading instruction can go forward. f> Studies on the personality and emotional stability and problems of children with reading handicaps were numerous by L, I f‘ ’. ’. 7 f ll IQEO when Traxler (51:98) summarized the research of the pre- vious ten years. In this summary concerning the relationship between reading disability and personality maladjustment, he wrote: Many persons have pointed out that pupils who have experienced failure because of poor reading are likely to have personality difficulties. Consequently, there has been considerable interest in noting what effect removal of reading disabilities has on personality ad- justment. Studies in this general area have been re- ported by Blanchard (3z38h-h13), Challman (8:7-11), Gates and Bond (17:205—275), Hosey (23:273-275), Kirk (26zlh0- 162), and Ladd (29:531-535). The conclusion indicated by investigations of this kind is that removal of the reading handicaps does, in fact, relieve emotional ten- sion and help retarded children to attain normal personal and social adjustment. The reverse aspect of this relationship, of course, is also important. Pupils referred for treatment be- cause of severe reading disability not infrequently need psychiatric attention so that they will accept the situa- tion and cooperate in such a way that the reading diffi— culties may be alleviated. Blanchard's study (3) deserved a somewhat fuller treat- ment than provided by Traxler (51). She summarized her paper by pointing out that reading disability often arises from the same sources of difficulties in emotional development, and in much the same manner, as the accompanying personality or behavior problems or neurotic symptoms, such as fears, illnesses without physical basis, infantile regressions, and the like. Personality and behavior patterns ill adapted to real— ity situations and neurotic symptoms originate, in one sense, according to psychoanalytic theory, from an effort to solve ambivalent guilt conflicts. They afford a dis- guised expression of impulses and feelings that have had to be repressed and denied because of conflict, anxiety, and guilt. .At the same time, they often relieve anxiety and guilt through self-punishment--as in the case of fears and illness symptoms--or through insuring disapproval or punishment from others for socially unacceptable behavior. 12 Similarly, in many instances, the reading disability is a disguised expression of hidden motives, satisfying the need for punishment and relieving guilt by exposing the child to a situation of failure in school and to criticism. Blanchard's work is the first clear-cut instance in the research which attempted to tie some types of reading disabil- ity and some types of emotional problems to a common core. Her work seemed to have served as a springboard for further study for emotional factors etiologically significant in reading disability. Gates (lhz82) concluded, from a study of this nature, that three-quarters of the children with reading disabilities also showed emotional problems but for only one-quarter of these was the emotional problems of etio- logical significance.\kRobinson (39:98) summarized from reports of psychiatric studies of children with reading disabilities by saying that they reveal no consistent trends. Missildine (33:370) found all of thirty children with reading disability to be insecure, restless, and emotionally ill, but the reading difficulty was only a small part of the problem behavior. On the other hand, Monroe and Backus (36:1h2) have separated out rather specific conditions which they feel do have etiological significance. Basically, these were general emotional immatur- ity, excessive timidity and shyness, predilection against reading, and predilection against school in general. To these may be added excitability and instability, mentioned by Castner (7:386) and the anxieties attendant on adjusting to school, pointed out by Jameson (2h:l78). 13 A study by Bennett, Sullivan, and Szymanski (2:81) was typical of others in this area. In this study of reading retardation, it was found that two-hundred, or thirty—nine per cent, of the five hundred and seventeen subjects listed showed an emotional disturbance of some kind. Discouragement appeared in twenty~six per cent of the two hundred cases; nervousness was next in frequency, occurring in eighteen per cent of the cases. The only other category which occurred in more than ten per cent of the cases was family trouble. Feelings of inferiority, insecurity, and lack of confidence together accounted for nineteen per cent of the two hundred cases showing emotional instability. Recently, there has been a trend toward emphasis of the multiplicity of factors involved in reading. Robinson (hOzl2l) in collaboration with a psychiatrist, a physician, three ophthalomologists, an otolaryngologist, an endocrino— logist, psychologist, social worker, a reading specialist, and a teacher examined minutely thirty elementary school children with reading disabilities. Careful follow—up studies were made. Help was given in accordance with the major problem or problems—-physical, mental, emotional, or environmental—- disclosed by this many-sided diagnostic approach. Commending on the emotional and personality picture presented by these children, Robinson wrote: Emotional and personality maladjustments in children who failed to learn to read properly seemed to be very common. Emotional maladjustments appeared to be either 1A a cause or a result of reading failure, or each might interact on the other, intensifying both. The data secured indicated that emotionally immature children might fail to learn to read when starting school. It is likewise stressed that neurotic children should be carefully studied before reading training is provided. The incidence of emotional involvement in reading cases has already been mentioned to some extent (2,13,1h). Strong, McCullough, and Traxler (h8z372) pointed out that it has been variously estimated at six to seventy-five per cent or even higher and conclude that the large majority of severe cases of reading disability show some degree of emotional involvement. In a study which they reported of one hundred and fourteen emotionally disturbed inpatient children, seventy- five per cent were from one month to three years below their mental ages in reading. Another distinctly different type—of research to deter— mine causitive factors in reading disability had a flurry of acceptance from 1920 to 1930. Statistical studies comparing groups of children with reading disabilities_to control groups offggggcfégdcLALbecameflpnpular.duringithiaciéEEBEMPQiX to fade because they yielded little of value (5:77, 6:287, lhz77-83, 15:u01, 16:1h7, 19:278, 22:1u2, 3Szh07, uezee). With so much emphasis on emotional factors in reading disability, it was inevitable that studies would be made re- garding descriptions of thewpersonality of_retarded_readers. Some studies in this area have been mentioned above (2:81, 3: 38h-h13, 7:386, iuz82, 2n:178, 33:370, 36:1u2, 39:98). In 15 addition to these studies, Ladd (29:531-535) and Hincks (21: 32-3h) agreed that pupils handicapped by reading disability rate somewhat lower than the average in nervous stability, general control, ambitiousness, alertness, and general drive. Gates and Bond (17:205-206) noted that these children lack persistence, do not concentrate well, are withdrawn, show extreme sensitivity, daydream, and altogether exhibit a lack of aggressiveness necessary for effective adaptation in learn-1 ing to read. Sperry (h6:289-290) concluded from a study of retarded readers that they were distractible, sensitive about failure, dependent, given to temper tantrums, infantile be- havior, disobedience, irritability and social inadequacy. In a more recent study (u3zl30) the personality characteristics most frequently reported were fear, tension, a withdrawal of effort, lack of sustained attention, an antagonism to school, compensatory interests, and a general lack of emotional and social responsiveness. Robinson (hlzl21) contended from her study that the majority of severe reading cases tended to be shy and withdrawn, lacking in interest in reading, in drive, and in initiative. They were often submissive and almost always insecure and apprehensive. Few showed aggressive be- havior. With the development of the projective techniques in clinical psychology, additional measures of personality were brought to bear on the problem of isolating the personality characteristics of the retarded reader. Gann (12:20h-226) 16 studied superior, average, and retarded readers in grades three to six matched as to chronological age, 1.0., mental age, school experience, and sex. Using the Rorschach method as the main measure of personality evaluation, she found in- dications that the retarded readers were less stable than the good readers, not so well adjusted emotionally, less adaptable socially, more fearful and less secure in the face of chal— lenges, less efficient in the use of their potential mental capacity, and more concerned with small detail. In a classical study, Vorhaus (52:78-79) also utilized the projective tests to aid in understanding this problem. On testing over three hundred reading clinic cases with the Rorschach, she found that they fell into four main personality configurations, all of which were of a submissive withdrawing nature: i l. The severely restricted and repressed individual with a consuming interest in conformity. His existing per— sonality impoverishment was too great to allow any genuine interest in either learning or achievement. His ambitions had almost stifled all growth potential. 2. The submissive, emotionally detached individual. Learning to read seemed unimportant to him. He seemed to have no wish either to channel his infantile drives through creative outlets or to relate the satisfactions experienced to values and interests outside himself. 17 3. The individual whose creative energy has no outlet. He showed lack of capacity for rapport and strong feelings, for joyousness and spontaneity. He reacted submissively yet felt strong inner rebellion. u. The person who was in a state of tension which diverted his energy from constructive expression and caused restlessness and preoccupation. This tension arose from strong feelings which were unacceptable. Consequently, he directed his hostility inward against himself. With the growth of the psychoanalytic field, more attention has been given to the theoretical genetic factors in the relationship between emotional disturbance and reading and learning disabilities. The psychoanalytic emphasis has resulted in a shift in methodology from statistical studies and comparisons to theoretical discussions broadly accepted even though not based on scientific experimentation. Typical of this type of study is one reported by Blanchard (u:l70) who wrote: Either tramatic experiences or chronic subjection to excessive emotional strain in the relationship with par— ents may result in unconscious conflicts that interfere with a child's learning. A good example of a traumatic emotional experience is that of a child who has been separated from one or both parents. We have known this for some time . . . in our clinical work with children placed in foster homes or institutions and temporarily or permanently separated from their parents. Such a traumatic experience may be an immediate cause of trouble with learning if the child is emotionally disturbed at the time of school entrance or during early school years. .Again, the emotions surrounding an earlier traumatic oc- currence may be reactivated by some later event of similar nature that revives the memories and feelings associated with the original traumatic situation. 18 (\The child-teacher relationship has been treated in some detail in psychoanalytic theory.- In this vein Pearson (37:329) was "impressed" that one of the primary and most powerful motives to learn was the reward received by the teacher's love. This held, according to Pearson, not only in the primary grades, but for college students as well. He concluded that learning for the sake of learning; i.e., to please the ego ideal of being a learned person (mature self—concept)* ,X actually 13 found only 1n mature people who have really subordinated the pleasure principle to the reality prin- ciple. Anna Freud (11:87) has described how a young child's training (education) is facilitated by his love of adults and his wish to retain their affection and approval. She pointed out that when the child enters school, the attitudes he has previously had toward parents may be transferred into his relationship with his teachers. If his attitude has been positive and he has liked his parents, he will tend to feel the same way toward teachers. Conversely, a hostility colored attitude toward parents will tend to result in a negativistic attitude toward teachers and instruction. in the same vein, Liss (30:106-107) stated that "learning is conditioned by the parent—child relationship. The earlier relationship conditions "i the subsequent teacher-student pattern for good or evil. . . . / / / Later in the same article, he commented "Parenthesis are mine. 19 The graduation, as it were, from parents and parent sur- rogates at home to the educators who function in nursery and kindergarten provides an elaboration of the social structure with which the growing child experiments. Liss attempted to demonstrate that this relationship is not one sided by pointing out how each teacher unconsciously assumed a parental role and how each class represented his "phantom children who gratify a fundamental biological urge inherent in all of us." Other psychoanalysts have concentrated on the relation- ships of reading disabilities and disturbances in the oral-anal phases of psychosexual development. Glover (ldzlhu) pointed out the oral character of reading and Strackly (u7:lOl-lO3) elaborated the concept that reading "is a way of eating an- I! other's words. He differentiated between light easy reading which is like drinking or sucking and reading of difficult works which we must get our teeth into and chew up. He distinguished between two kinds of attitudes in reading, corresponding to the two stages in the oral phase, "a preambivalent one where everything seems to go smoothly and easily, and an ambivalent one where difficulties arise at every step." The inhibitions and difficulties of reading, chiefly arise where gratifications belonging to the second oral phase are predominant in reading and where -the reader's attitude is thus essentially ambivalent. If in such a situation the sublimation is unstable or incomplete, there will be immediate tendency to the release of a number of sadistic and destructive impulses. Each word is then felt to be an enemy that is being bitten up, and further for that very reason as an enemy that may in turn be threatening and dangerous to the reader. WM” 20 L t w Others who have dealt with the same type of problem include Liss (3l:126-131) and Hammill (20:273~275). Blanchard (#:169—170) turned to the psychoanalytic concept of sublimation for an explanation of reading disability. She stated: A well known psychoanalytic contribution to education is the concept that learning offers an opportunity for the sublimation of instinctive drives. In the first years of life, the child tends toward fairly free and open ex- pression of\sexual curiosity and interdSts, and of aggres- sion, with the latter often directed,against animals or people. Dur ng the latter part of hds preschool life, if development h 3 been normal, the chfild begins to control and modify suc instinctive behavior. . . . By the time a child enters school, he should/at least be started on this road of su limation of sezual interest and aggression and his school work offers a g ance for further sublima- tion. If the chitd has acquired very little capacity for sublimation, he ma: not be Able to take advantage of the opportunity for it\ fforded by school tasks. He is apt then to develop int a poor student and a behavior problem as well, but will be one likely to fail in all subjects than to have a disabixity for some one, such as reading. In the reading disabiZKiy cases, more frequently the child will be suffering fro evere unconscious conflicts, with repression of impulses and imperfect capacity to sublimate them, so that much/of hiskenergy is used up in maintaining repression and not/enough is left over for such a complex mental process as/learning to read. I Klein (27:369) in a like fashion commented how a "good" teacher ties in the sublimated energy from the pupil's com- ponent instinctual/drives with the learning process. He ad- vocated directing, stimulating, and gratifying the pupil's curiosity and need to learn. The teacher should rely on his wish to please his parents and his teacher and his desire to learn rather than his fear of their displeasure or punishment. He concluded that the teacher's task becomes an impossible one with the severely disturbed child when because of fixation or regression the child's sublimations are unstable or feeble. 21 In this review of the related literature on the self- concept and emotional factors in reading, one has seen through- out the years the emphasis in the research develop in a certain pattern. After the first studies relating reading disability to emotional disturbance, the emphasis shifted to the causative factors in emotional development which led to reading difficul— ties. This was followed by the comparative studies matching groups of good and poor readers and attempting to evaluate the personality differences. The multidiscipline approach also had its heyday, employing the services of professionals from many different areas in attacking the reading problem. This method was followed by detailed personality studies of retarded readers sometimes including the use of projective techniques. The most recent development was the psychoanalytic studies and their approach to the problem through theory. Of course, all of these forms of research or differences in methodology are still employed today and the pattern described above does not necessarily represent a progressive development. Despite the varied methodology and the myriad of studies in this area, none touched directly on the present study con- cerning the relationship between immature self—concept and reading disability. To be sure, some researchers in discussing the relationship between reading difficulties and personality factors may well have included self-concept in the personality organization but without isolating it or treating it as a separate and distinct concept. The research in this area is 22 marked by its general nature in an attempt to define overall principles. It is therefore understandable that the litera— ture would have only an indirect bearing on a specific study in this area such as the one under consideration. Self-Concept and Emotional Factors in Arithmetic While many studies have been completed relating emo- tional factors to reading, few have been done in arithmetic. Plank and Plank (hhz275) experienced the same difficulty, stating: A number of investigators have dealt with the influ- ence of the functioning of the ego upon the ability to learn to read; few have looked into the inner motivations for learning to deal with numbers, or into the forces that can block the learning of arithmetic in an intelligent child. Literature on this special problem is limited. The unconscious symbolic meaning of certain numbers has been noted . . . and how this symbolic character may interfere with learning has been described in a few case studies. Others have tried to define some of the meanings of mathematical interests as they appear in clinical material from adult analysis. Other relations between personality and arithmetical learning are still awaiting study. Studies on the more general problem of emotional and personality factors in learning difficulties have already been reported in the previous section (hzl70, 11:87, 27, 369, 30: 106-107, 37:329). It is assumed that the implication of these studies to reading disability would equally apply to arithme- tic disability. The psychoanalysts, in particular, have studied the problem of symbolism in mathematics. Pearson (37:330) report— ed a case of a ten year old who was academically successful 23 except in arithmetic. An analysis of his mathematics revealed that he was successful on even difficult problems unless they included the numeral three. On these problems he made con— sistent errors. Pearson traced this problem back to the first grade where, when the student was slow in learning to write a three, he was struck several times by the teacher. As a re- sult, claimed Pearson, he associated the number three with pain and avoided the use of this number whenever possible. Pearson failed to reveal why the student had difficulty in writing the number in the first place. Perhaps the teacher's action served to further negatively condition an already ex— isting condition. Pearson (37:331) reported another case of a fourteen- year-old girl unable to perform long division. This was due, according to Pearson, to the girl wetting herself during an instructional period of long division and thus associating long division with shame and guilt. Wegrocki (53:230), another psychoanalyst, reported the case of a patient with a phobia for even numbers. Wegrocki's explanation was that even numbers, for this patient, were associated with the idea of "couple" and with his unconscious sexual feelings toward his mother and his desire to be coupled with her. Jeffreys (25:1h5) commented on numerical symbolism in general. Numbers in language, folklore and superstition appear to carry effects derived from pre-genital situations, 2h mainly oral and unrethral. The interest in odd numbers, and especially primes, is originally phallic, while even numbers and especially those with a large number of factors are associated with ambivalent attitudes to the mother. Jeffreys offered no research to support his contentions Klein (27:371) pointed out that narcissistic pupils meet their greatest difficulty in mathematics and the sciences where sustained effort and concentration on details is more necessary. He also felt (27:385) that well sublimated obses- sional characters are often excellent mathematicians but he failed to give any evidence or theoretical support. It has been stated in discussing the problem of this study that the first stages of reading are more difficult to grasp than the first stages of arithmetic. Blanchard (u:l7l- 172) commented on this problem as follows: In the primary grades, learning the fundamentals of reading is a more complicated mental process, probably requiring greater expenditure of energy and better sus- tained attention than learning the first steps of arith- metic. Hence, a child may have enough energy left over from maintaining repressions and may be able to sustain attention sufficiently well to learn his number work but not his first reading lessons. As can be seen from the above reviews, little has been published with a direct bearing on the relationship between immature self-concept and arithmetic disability. Much less has been done in this area than in reading and what has been done remains theoretical and almost haphazard and not offering a consistent and complete approach. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE This chapter is devoted to the procedure followed in this study. The sources of the data, the method of procedure, and the treatment of the findings will be described and ex- plained. Adaptation and Validation of the SCS-DAP A primary problem in any correlational study is to obtain objective (quantitative) measurements of the traits under consideration. In this study the two traits to be correlated were scholastic achievement (mainly reading and arithmetic) and self-concept. Achievement test scores were easily obtained from the Flint, Michigan, Public School Sys- tem. However, a comprehensive review of literature failed to unearth any objective measurement of self-concept. Certain projective techniques, such as the Rorschach Ink Blot Test, Thematic Apperception Test, and Children's Apperception Test purport to measure some aspects of self-concept without de- fining it as an entity but the results remain unquantified, with questionable validity. It readily became apparent from this review that a new tool to measure self-concept would have to be developed for this study. Therefore, this study was 25 26 divided into two main parts: a validating procedure to devise a measurement of self-concept and the correlating procedure of relating immature self-concept with certain educational dis- abilities. Certain criteria were employed in the selection of this tool. (I) The technique, ideally, should be non-verbal in nature as some of the subjects to whom it would be administered would possess reading disabilities. (2) It should be projec- tive in nature so the elements it was to measure would not be within the conscious control of the subjects. (3) It should not be perceived as a test by the subjects so as not to pose a conscious or unconscious threat. (h) It should lend itself to quantitative treatment. (5) It should be easily and rapidly administered to a group of subjects with equal ease and facil- ity of scoring. After several false leads, the Machover Draw- A-Person Test (henceforth to be referred to as the DAP) as devised by Karen Machover was selected for having met all the above criteria as well as requiring the subject to perform a task with which he was already familiar. The DAP consists of a freehand drawing of a person, usually a self-portrait. It was felt that the drawing of person, particularly as it in- volves a projection of the body image, provided a natural vehicle of the expression of one's body needs, conflicts, and self-concept. Unfortunately, however, the DAP provided no scoring scheme of any type and therefore it was necessary to develop a quantifying procedure for this technique. 27 An examination of numerous drawings revealed several categories which, if quantified, gave promise to reflect the degree of maturity of the self-concept as defined in Chapter I. These categories, thirteen in number, are listed and de- fined as follows: I. Shading. Light dim, subtle and uncertain lines which furtively accent particular parts of the figure. Patterned or styled shading. Reinforcement. Shading of the boundaries of cloth- ing or the figure. Heavy dark lines or parts of the drawing emphasized through tracing over the same area. Erasures. Any attempt to alter or perfect all or part of the drawing through erasure. Detail in figure. Unessential features or details added to the figure or background. Sketchy lines. Parts of the body, particularly the outline defined by light, broken, blurred, vague, fuzzy lines. Transparency. Body of figure completely transparent or inadequately clothed so that body parts ordinarily covered are shown. Asymmetry. Imbalanced and lopsided arrangement of the body parts in respect to size, shape, or posi— tion on the opposite sides of the center. Distortion. Any unnaturalness or irregularity in 28 form. Any non-human aspects to figure drawn often displayed by size disproportion. 9. Incompleteness. Figure drawn incomplete, lacking in significant body parts or clothing. 10. Mixed age. Disparity in the physiological matura- tion of various body parts, such as breasts empha- sized in an otherwise childish body. ll. Opposite sex identification. Figure drawn is of the opposite sex of the subject or if of the same sex, opposite sex characteristics are displayed. . .' / l2. Primativeness. Overall figure is crudely and roughly drawn. Specific points are confusion of full face and profile view of the head, mouth emphasis, trunk incomplete, omission of the neck, and disorganized body representation. 13. Immaturity. Elaborate treatment of the midline, such as the Adam's apple, tie, buttons, buckle, and fly on trousers. Emphasis on mouth and/or breasts. With these thirteen categories defined, it then became possible to rate each category of a drawing on a five-point rating scale with a score of one indicating a great deal of the characteristic present and a score of five indicating. little or none of the characteristic displayed in the drawing. In this way the quantification of the Self-Concept Scale of the Draw-A-Person Test (henceforth referred to as the SCS—DAP) was established. 29 In order to determine the validity of this instrument, a psychiatric social worker other than the experimenter was asked, following an hour interview, to rate for self-concept a selected group of children on an especially devised rating scale. The clinician rated each subject for self-confidence, freedom to express appropriate feelings, liking for one's self, satisfaction with one's attainments, and the feeling of being appreciated by others on a five-point rating scale with the total score representing the clinician's evaluation of the self—concept of each subject. The subjects for this validity study consisted of forty selected referrals to the Flint Child Guidance Clinic, equally divided among the sexes; twenty between the ages of seven to nine, and twenty between the ages of eleven to thirteen with half of each group pos- sessing one or more educational disabilities. The clinician who was unaware of the presence or absence of educational dis- abilities in each subject, was also requested to administer the SCS-DAP at the conclusion of his interview. This test was then scored by the author without knowledge of the self- concept rating made by the clinician. It was then possible to correlate (Pearson product moment co—efficient of corre- lation) the scores from the rating scale for self-concept obtained by the clinician with the scores from the SCS-DAP to complete the validation study. In addition, the results of the SCS-DAP were correlated (biserial co-efficient of correlation) with the presence or absence of educational 30 disability to provide a pilot study for the main body of research. ’ It appeared likely that some of the thirteen categories of the SCS—DAP contributed more greatly to the total score than did others. Therefore, in order to further revise and refine the SCS-DAP, a discrimination technique to determine which categories more greatly discriminated between mature and immature self-concept was employed. The category scores for those subjects scoring in the upper twenty-seven per cent (mature self-concept) of the SCS—DAP (eleven in number) were compared with the category scores for those individuals scoringr in the lower twenty-seven per cent (immature self-concept). Those categories which yielded the greatest difference, nine» in number, were retained in the revised form of the SCS-DAP. With these steps completed, a technique meeting the criteria listed above, validated on a pilot sample and revised- and refined by a discrimination procedure was now available for the main body of research. The Main Body of Research Description of the Population and Academic Disability Instruments Employed. The SCS—DAP was then administered to the third and sixth grades of the Washington, Durant, and Coolidge Schools of the Flint, Michigan, Public School System. These three elementary schools were chosen after consultation with certain school personnel for being most representative 31 of the general school population. Two different grade levels were included so as to determine age differences, if any, and to demonstrate that the relationships listed in the hypotheses existed on more than one age or grade level. It was felt that this study could not be applied to first and second grade children as educational disabilities of sufficient magnitude would not yet have appeared in these grade children. The third and sixth grades were chosen specifically for having met the above criteria in addition to being the two elementary grades for whom national achievement tests were administered routinely by the school system. These achievement tests, the results of which were used in this study, were the Stanford Achievement Test, Elementary Form L, for the third grade and the Iowa Test of Basic Skills, Advanced Battery for the sixth grade. National norms were employed in deriving the achieve- ment level. A random selection of fifty subjects with reading disability, fifty subjects with arithmetic disability, and fifty subjects with no educational disability were chosen from the third grade and an identical sample from the sixth grade making a grand total of three hundred subjects and constituted the research group for this study. Administration of the SCS-DAP. The SCS-DAP was admin— istered to these subjects in their rooms in small groups ranging from twenty-four to thirty-three children. Eight and one-half by eleven inch white paper was provided along with an adequate supply of pencils. The subjects were reaquested to print their name, grade, and school on this .;>aper and then turn the paper over so that they might have El completely free side of paper for their drawing. The fxollowing instructions were then read: I am interested in finding out some things about children and their drawings. 1 would like you to draw a picture of a person for me. Please draw all of the person. If you like, you'may erase. Be sure to draw all of the person. Tne subjects were allowed to have as much time as they wvi.shed to complete the drawing but all were usually done after i‘i fteen minutes had elapsed. The drawings were scored by the ailtlmn prior to the collection of the achievement test results two prevent contamination. Statistical Treatment of the Data. Inasmuch as one \rairiable of this correlational study was continuous (SCS-DAP) WTli.le the other variable was non-continuous or dichotomous (PDFéasence or absence of educational disability) biserial cor- relation was selected as the appropriate statistical measure tCD 'test the hypotheses under consideration. The standard er‘For of the biserial correlation was calculated to indicate SiSQI‘lificance of the obtained correlations. Two different te’st.s of the significance of the differences of the obtained CC>I‘I‘elations were calculated: the one tailed test to indicate Whether one correlation was significantly higher or lower than anC>t11er (9:258) and the two tailed test to measure the signif- 1Cance of the obtained differences of two correlations (9:30h- 307 ) . CHAPTER IV DATA AND RESULTS This chapter will be devoted to the data and results obtained in the study under consideration. For the purpose of ease in reading and understanding these data and results the chapter will be divided into two main sections, the first dealing with the validating process and the second the main body of research and the testing of the four major hypotheses. Included will be all the pertinent statistics of this research. The Adaptation and Validation of the SCS—DAP Following the selection of the thirteen categories of the SCS-DAP for possessing face validity, the SCS-DAP was administered to forty subjects by another clinician who also completed the Judge's Rating Scale (JRS) for each subject following an hour long psychiatric interview. Machine corre— lation was calculated using the Pearson product moment coeffi- cient of correlation and the results are listed in Table I. In the same pilot study biserial correlation was cal- culated to determine the magnitude of the relationship between SCS-DAP (self—concept) and the presence or absence of educa- tional disability. The statistics for this correlation are shown in Table II. 33 3h TABLE I THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE JUDGE'S RATING SCALE FOR SELF—CONCEPT AND THE SCS-DAP Judge's Rating Scale' SCS—DAP N DO uO Mean 15.9 32.8 Range 9-21; lg-ua S.D. 6.0M I 7.11 r .519:- S.E. of r .169 ' Significant at one per cent level TABLE II THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF—CONCEPT AND THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF EDUCATIONAL DISABILITY -- A PILOT STUDY _______._-.._ ____.____—.-__-— S.E. N Mean S.D. r. of r Educational Disability 20 40.6 7.16 .60-::- . lli Non-educational Disability 20 3h.0 7.05 ' Significant at one per cent level. An item analysis discrimination type technique was em- ployed to revise and refine the original thirteen categories of the SCS—DAP. The mean score for each category for those scoring in the upper twenty-seven per cent was compared the mean score for each category for those scoring in the lower twenty-seven per cent. Those categories yielding the greatest difference in mean scores between the two groups were retained in the final form of the SCS-DAP. The cut-off point was Ht—lh—lt—J 3S arbitrarily set at a mean difference of 2.0 SCS—DAP points. The results of this refinement technique are shown in Table III. TABLE III ITEM ANALYSIS RESULTS OF THE ORIGINAL FORM OF THE SCS-DAP Mean for Mean for Category Upper 27% Lower 27% Difference 1. Opposite sex identification u.2 1.2 3.0 2. Sketchy lines u.2 1.5 2.8 3. Incompleteness u.3 1.7 2.6 h. Transparency 3.7 1.2 2.5 5. Immaturity u.3 1.8 2.5 6. Primativeness u.l 1.7 2.u 7. Reinforcement 3.9 1.9 2.0 8. Erasures 3.6 1.6 2.0 9. Distortion u.0 2.0 2.0 0. Asymmetry 3.h 1.6 1.8 1. Detail in figure 3.7 2.0 1.7 2. Shading 2.3 1.8 0.5 3. Mixed age 1.6 1.9 -0.3 The Testing of the Four Major Hypotheses The emphasis in this study is placed on the relation- ship of immature self-concept as measured by the SCS-DAP and certain educational disabilities in the third and sixth grades as measured by standard achievement tests. Biserial correla— tions were calculated to determine the magnitude of these relationships and the results are summarized in Table IV. Two tailed tests of significance (9:30h—307) employing a probability formula (p) were calculated to measure the sig- nificance of the differences in the obtained correlations. 36 TABLE IV THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMMATURE SELF-CONCEPT AND CERTAIN EDUCATIONAL DISABILITIES __.L ._—_—_. ._-.._ -._.... o..-__‘-.___ Mean . S.D., S.E. N SCS-DAP SCS-DAP r of r 3rd Grade Reading 100 27.6 7.17 .72% .073 3rd Grade Arithmetic 100 27.3 7.1u .78% .06h 3rd Grade Median 80 27.5 7.17 .60% .100 6th Grade Reading 100 30.u 7.23 .62% .090 6th Grade Arithmetic 100 30.0 7.u1 .68% .080 T Significant at one per cent level One tailed tests of significance (9:258) employing Fisher's "t" were also calculated to determine if one correlation was significantly higher or lower than another. The results of these tests of significance are shown in Table V. None of the obtained probabilities were significant. The Fisher's "t's" which were significant at the one per cent level are indicated by an asterisk. TABLE V ONE AND TWO TAILED TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCES OF THE OBTAINED CORRELATIONS (Underlined groups significantly higher than other) .. - —— Probability Fisher's "t" (two tailed (one tailed test) test) Reading and Arithmetic, 3rd grade .33 .97 Reading and Arithmetic, 6th grade .u6 .7u Reading and Median, 3rd grade .13 1.53% Arithmetic and Median, 3rd grade .09 2.50% Reading, 3rd and 6th grades .18 1.32% ArithmetiE:_§£d_and 6th grades .13 1.53% :1 N One significantly higher than other. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION OF RESULTS This chapter will be devoted to a discussion of the results and findings of this study as displayed in Chapter IV. Again the data falls logically into two separate but interrelated divisions, those dealing with the validating study and the results of the main body of research. There- fore, this chapter has been divided into these two major sections. Adaptation and Validation of the SCS-DAP Table I indicates the data obtained in correlating the Judge's Rating Scale and the SCS-DAP.. It will be noted that the mean of the Judge's Rating Scale was less than half the magnitude of the mean of the SCS-DAP but that the stand- ard deviations for these two scales were not as widely sepa— rated (Judge's Rating Scale S.D. = 6.0u, SCS—DAP S.D. = 7.11). An explanation of this is found in the fact that the range of scores for the Judge's Rating Scale (13 points) was again less than half than the range of the SCS-DAP (29 points). If plot- ted on an axis the distribution of the Judge's Rating Scale scores would cover less than half the distance of that covered hy'the SCS-DAP distribution of scores. The greater spread of 37 38 the SCS-DAP scores more nearly approaches a normal distribu— tion of scores with a group of this size. It will be noted that plus and minus two standard deviations of the SCS-DAP scores essentially included the entire range of scores ob- tained in this distribution, a fairly normal distribution for a group of this size. One can only speculate as to the reasons for the lack of dispersion of the Judge's Rating Scale scores. Any rating scale is not completely successful in obtaining objectivity and accuracy. When this device is employed by a clinician keenly sensitive to its limitations, it is quite possible that he then becomes overly cautious in evaluating the ex— treme subjects, overrating those scoring in the lower end of the scale and underrating those scoring in the upper end of the scale. This would result in the extreme subjects being scored closer to the mean and a relatively small dis— persion of scores. It is recognized that this explanation is not testable with the data available and falls outside the scope of this study but is offered as a possible reason for the lack of dispersion in the distribution of scores of the Judge's Rating Scale. The correlation obtained of .51 (Pearson product moment coefficient of correlation by machine) between the Judge's IRating Scale and the SCS-DAP is of sufficient magnitude to be considered very significant (one per cent level of con- fidence). Thus it would appear that even if the clinician .Im 39 did err in being overly cautious and ranking extreme subjects closer to the mean, there was still considerable agreement between his ratings and those obtained by the SCS—DAP. Because of the obtained correlation, the SCS-DAP was considered to be a valid tool for the measurement of the maturity of the self-concept. It was recognized that rating scales have decided limitations in a study of this sort and their application induces error but the magnitude of the correlation was judged to be sufficiently great to warrant the use of the SCS-DAP in the major body of research. The magnitude of the standard error would indicate that there is less than one chance in a hundred that this correlation was not significant. The validating group was also investigated in another fashion. Half of this group of subjects possessed educational disabilities of some sort (retarded one or more grade levels in one or more subject areas) while the other half possessed no educational disabilities. In order to serve as a pilot study for the main body of research, a correlation was cal- Culated between the presence of educational disability and scores on the SCS-DAP. Biserial correlation was the statistic Chosen for this study as one variable was continuous (SCS-DAP) Mfldile the other was dichotomous (presence or absence of educa- tional disability). The results of this study are shown in Téable II. no The correlation obtained for this study, .60, was very significant and could occur by chance less than one time out of a hundred. This would indicate that a positive and signif- icant relationship exists between eduCational disability and immature self—concept as measured by the SCS-DAP. The SCS-DAP consisting of thirteen categories was now considered to be validated. However, it seemed apparent that some of these thirteen categories probably contributed more greatly to the final score that did others. In order to in- vestigate this, the mean score for each category for the upper and lower twenty-seven per cent of the group was calculated. Those categories displaying the greatest discrimination be— tween the upper and lower twenty-seven per cent of the group were retained in the revised SCS-DAP. The results of this investigation are shown in Table 111. V It was arbitrarily decided to exclude from the revised SCS—DAP any categories possessing less than two points dis- crimination between the upper and lower twenty-seven per cent of the group. This then excluded from the revised SCS-DAP the four categories of asymmetry, detail in figure, shading, and mixed age, the latter of which was actually negatively contributing to the final result. With the exclusion of these four categories it is possible that a recalculation of the correlation between the Judge's Rating Scale and the revised SCS—DAP would result in a correlation of greater magnitude although this investigation was not made. The kl result of this item analysis technique was a briefer instru- ment that supposedly was more sensitive in discriminating mature from immature self-concept. The Four Major Hypotheses The Relationship Between Immature Self-Concept and Reading Disability. The results of the main body of research are found in Tables IV and V. Hypothesis one stated that a significant and positive relationship exists between immature self-concept and reading disability. The statistic chosen to test this hypothesis was biserial correlation inasmuch as one variable was dichotomous (presence or absence of reading disability) while the other variable was continuous (SCS-DAP scores). The correlations obtained were .72 on the third grade level and .62 on the sixth grade level both of which are very significant (one per cent level). For this reason hypothesis one was accepted. Therefore, it would seem that disturbances, regressions, or fixations in the development of the self-concept are often associated with reading disability in the elementary school. The Relationship Between Immature Self-Concept and Arithmetic Disability. Hypothesis two stated that a signif- icant and positive relationship exists between immature self- concept and arithmetic disability. Again biserial correlation was calculated to test this hypothesis. The results of corre- lations of .78 on the third grade level and .68 on the sixth A2 grade level are very significant (one per cent level). Thus hypothesis two was accepted. Therefore, it would appear that any interruptions in the development of the self-concept are often associated with arithmetic disability in the elementary school. A Comparison of the Relationship Between Immature Self- Concept and Reading and Arithmetic Disability and the Relation- ship Between Immature Self Concppt and Disability in Other School Subjects. Hypothesis three stated that the relation- ship between immature self—concept and reading and arithmetic disability is greater than the relationship between immature self-concept and disability in other school subjects. The median score of the Standford Achievement Test was selected for this investigation. Therefore, the subjects included Literature (acquaintance) history, geography, language usage, elementary science, and spelling. Biserial correlation was again the statistic chosen to test this hypothesis. The cor- relation obtained between immature self—concept and the median score of the achievement test was .60 on the third grade level. The difference between this correlation and that obtained for the reading group was not significant. Stated in probability terms there are thirteen chances in one hundred that there is actually no difference in these correlations so the null hypo- thesis cannot be rejected. However, the correlation obtained for the reading group was very significantly higher than that obtained for the median group when the one tailed test of significance is employed. The same relationship was found in investigating the differences in the correlations for the median and arithmetic groups. The difference was not signif- icant but the arithmetic correlation was significantly higher than the median correlation (9:258, 30h—307). It should be pointed out that the median scores included reading and arithmetic scores and since the reading and arith- metic groups possessed higher correlations with immature self- concept, this would tend to increase the correlation obtained for the median group. If the reading and arithmetic scores were excluded, the differences should be greater and perhaps significant. However, hypothesis three is best tested by the one tailed test of significance which evaluates if one corre- lation is significantly higher than the other and this test would tend to prove that the relationship between immature self—concept and reading and arithmetic is greater than the relationship between immature self-concept and other school subjects. This would indicate that interruptions in the development of the self-concept are more closely related to reading and arithmetic disability than other academic subfixis. A Comparison of the Relationship Between Immature Self- Concept and Reading_Disability and the Relationship Between Immature Self-Concept and Arithmetic Disability. The fourth hypothesis stated that the relationship between immature self- concept and reading disability is greater than the relation- ship between immature self-concept and arithmetic disability. All On both the third and the sixth grade levels the correlation between immature self-concept and arithmetic disability was greater in magnitude than the correlation between immature self-concept and reading disability which made it necessary to reject the fourth hypothesis. An application of both one_ and two tailed tests of significance failed to yield any sig- nificance in favor of arithmetic, however. One can only speculate as to why the arithmetic group correlations were higher, although not significantly, than the reading group correlations. Perhaps the arithmetic pro— cess is so foreign and not in keeping with the ego needs of the child and in distinct disparity with his self-concept expectations of himself that it is too difficult for him to incorporate and identify with such material. In contrast, reading content is often more akin to life activities and therefore more acceptable and in keeping with the emotional needs of the child. It is suggested that these factors were understressed in the development of this hypothesis. Such a speculation is grounds for further research. At any rate, it appeared that the fourth hypothesis had to be rejected. It will be noted from an inspection of Table IV thatthe correlations obtained between both reading disability and im- mature self-concept and arithmetic disability and self—concept is lower for the sixth grade than the third grade. While the difference was not significant, the third grade correlations were significantly higher than the sixth grade correlations. .llllr. I ”Iii! I“ III .1l.lrl.1.1..| Ill . ll. 115 These differences suggested that the sixth grade child's academic ability in arithmetic and reading is not as highly related to immaturity of the self-concept as that ability of the third grade child. Perhaps this is merely a phenomenon of growth but it is suggestive that personality and intellec- tual components other than self-concept come to bear on academic problems at the sixth grade level more than on the third grade level. It should be pointed out that the sixth grade child has entered into the latency period of psycho- sexual development with its greater emphasis on acceptance of adult standards and values, conformity, sublimation and control over instinctual drives. Such a condition would especially assist the emotionally immature child in the im- provement of academic attainment and would tend to decrease the magnitude of the correlation between academic disabilities and immature self-concept. This speculation, as to the reason for the differences in the correlations obtained on the third and sixth grade levels, falls outside the scope and problem of this study and, therefore, was not tested. Additional research into this problem is indicated. CHAPTER v1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary This study investigated the relationship between immature self-concept (defined in terms of self-confidence, freedom to express appropriate feelings, like for oneself, satisfaction with one's attainments, and feeling of personal appreciation by others) and certain educational disabilities, mainly reading and arithmetic. This study was based on the theory that the self-concept was a developmental phenomenon whose final stages included incorporation and identification, and that any interruption in this developmental processlimited and distorted the subsequent incorporation, identification and therefore learning. A comprehensive review of the literature failed to re- veal any studies directly related to this problem. Most of the studies in reading dealt with the total personality or emotional problems in general in attempts to define general principles. The studies in arithmetic were few in number and not directly related to the problem. The method of measuring self—concept was the Draw—A- Person Test (abbreviated to SCS-DAP) which was validated for A6 L17 self-concept with a pilot group. This rating scale was then revised and refined before being applied to this study. The research group consisted of three-hundred subjects (one hundred with reading disability, one hundred with arith- metic disability, and one hundred with no educational disabil- ity) from the third and sixth grades of three elementary schools in Flint, Michigan. The SCS-DAP was administered to these subjects, achievement test results were obtained, and correlations were calculated between reading and arithmetic disabilities and SCS-DAP scores. The differences and signif- icance of differences between some of correlations was also calculated. Conclusions [The following conclusions were drawn from this study: \ l. A positive and very significant relationship existed between immature self-concept and reading disability. This relationship was very significantly greater on the third grade _‘\ \ than on the sixth grade level.) 2. A positive and very significant relationship existed between immature self-concept and arithmetic disability. This relationship was very significantly greater on the third grade than on the sixth grade level. 3. The relationship between immature self-concept and reading and arithmetic disability was significantly greater than the relationship between immature self-concept and h8 disability in other school subjects. Thus immature self- concept appeared to be more greatly associated with disabil- ity in reading and arithmetic, than in other school subjects. A. The relationship between immature self-concept and reading disability was of essentially the same magnitude as the relationship between immature self-concept and arithmetic disability. Immature self—concept appeared to be as greatly associated with reading disability as arithmetic disabilityz) Additional Research Indicated. It would be highly desirable to accomplish a reliability study of the SCS-DAP. This would serve not only to indicate the size of the error of rating scales but the ability of the SCS-DAP to repeatedly measure with consistency and agreement. Age and sex differences of the relationships measured should also prove to be a fruitful ground. -This study in— dicated that certain age differences do exist between the third and sixth grade for both reading disability and arith— metic disability and immature self-concept. Age differences at the Junior High School, Senior High School, and even college warrant additional study. Sex differences were not all investigated but could prove very fruitful. While the relationship between immature self-concept and reading and arithmetic disability has been demonstrated, other individual subject areas were not investigated. The investigation of these other subject areas, treated individ- ually and following the same methodology seems indicated. M9 It is well known that remedial reading and remedial arithmetic is quite successful with some cases. The effect that these experiences might have on the self-concept as measured by the SCS-DAP represented another area for further investigation. An additional study that warranted investigation is that of individual personality components other than self- concept and their relationship with educational disabilities. It is quite feasible that other personality components might bear a greater relationship to educational disabilities than immature self-concept. Implications This study has served to point out the close associa— tion of immature self-concept with academic disability partic- ularly in reading and arithmetic. The predictive use on a group basis of the SCS-DAP has not been stressed but presented an important implication of this study. It may well be pos- sible to identify to a considerable extent, through applica- tion of the SCS—DAP, students who will later present academic disabilities. The data of this study suggested that {he more mature the self-concept the greater the facility in academic learning. This, in turn, suggested the advisability of delaying complex cademic tasks, such as reading and arithmetic to a later 50 phase of the student's life when he has presumably attained a more mature self—concept. /) / I ,/ / 7 What can be done toward accelerating the rate of ma— turation of the self-concept? It will be recalled, that for the purpose of this study, the self—concept was viewed as resulting from a dynamic interaction between the individual and his environment. The school and the teacher represent an important segment of the environment of the child and can greatly contribute to his maturity of self~concept. The application of mental health principles to an even greater extent may well have a decided effect on maturation of the \ self-concept. / 10. ll. 12. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bellack, Leopold, The Thematic Apperception Test and the Children's Apperception Test in Clinical Use. New York; Greene and Stratton, l95h. pp 282 Bennett, C. A., "A Survey of 517 Cases of Reading Retarda- tion," Supplementapy Educational Monographs, 52zu7-82, July, 19H2. Blanchard, Phyllis, "Reading Disabilities in Relation to Difficulties of Personality and Emotional Development, Mental Hygiene, 20: 38h— hl3, 1936. "Psychoanalytic Contributions to the Problems of Reading Disabilities," The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. New York: International Universities Press, 195:6. pp 105-187. Bronner, A., The Psychology of Special Abilities and Dis- abilities. New York: Little Brown, 1936. pp 28L. Burt, C., Mental and Scholastic Tests. London: King and Son, 1921. pp 322. Castner, B. M., "Prediction of Reading Disability Prior to First Grade Entrance," American Journal of Ortho- psychiatry, 5:375-387, October, 1955. Challman, R. C., "Personality Maladjustment and Remedial Reading," Journal of Exceptional Children, 6:7—11, October, 1939. Edwards, Allen L., Statistical Methods for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Rinehart and Company, 1955} pp 2- Fernald, G. M., Remedial Techniques in Basic School Sub- jects. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, l9h3. pp 11- Freud, Anna, "Psychoanalysis and the Training of the Young Child," Psychoanalytic Quarterly, uz72-l87, 1935. Gaun, Edith, Reading_Difficulty and Personality Organiza— tion. New York: King's Crown Press, l9h5. pp 508. 51 13. lb. l5. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2h. 25. 52 Gates, Arthur, "Failure in Reading and School Maladjust— ment," Journal of the National Education Association, 15:205-6, October, 1956: , "The Role of Personality Maladjustment in Reading Disability," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 59:78-83, September, 19Hl. - , The Improvement of Reading. New York: Macmillan Company, 1955. pp 668. , The Psychology of Reading and Spellingp_With Special References to Disabilities. New York: Mac- millan Company, 1922. pp 38E. , and Guy L. Bond, "Failure in Reading and Social Maladjustment," Journal of the National Education Association, 25:205:275, 1936. ! Glover, E., "Notes on Oral Character Formation,’ Inter— national Journal of Ppychoanalysis, h:lu2-lh8, 1925. Gray, Clarence, Deficiencies in Reading Ability; Their Diagnosis and Remedies. Boston: Little Brown, 1922, pp MO9- Hammill, R. C., "Emotional Factors in Mental Retardation, A Reading Problem," Archives of Neurology and Psy- chiatry, 23:273-275, 1937. Hincks, E. M., "Disability in Reading and its Relation to Personality," Harvard Monographs in Education, 7:32—3u, August, 1926. Hollingworth, Leta, Special Talents and Defects. New York: Macmillan Company, 1923. pp A72. Hosey, G., "Personality Maladjustment Resulting from Retardation in Reading," School and Community, 23: 273-275, 1937. Jameson, Augusta, "Methods and Devices for Remedial Reading," Supplementary Educational Monographs, u9:170-178, 1939. Jeffreys, A., "The Unconscious Significance of Numbers," International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 17:1u2—lu8, 1936. 1 (l'b. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 3h. 35. 36. 37. Kirk, Samuach., "The Effects of Remedial Reading on the Educational Progress and Personality Adjustment of High Grade Mentally Deficient Problem Children: Ten Case Studies," Journal of Juvenile Research, 28:1h0- 162, 193h. Klein, Emanuel, "Psychoanalytic ASpects of School Prob- lems," The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. New York: International Universities Press, 19h9. pp 369—390. Klopfer, Bruno and Douglas Kelley, The Rorschach Techni- qu . New York: World Book Company, 19H2. pp A36. Ladd, Margaret, "The Relation of Social Economic, and Personal Characteristics to Reading Ability," Teach- er's College Contributions to Education, 582:531-535, 1933. Liss, Edward, "Motivations in Learning," The Psychoana- lytic Study of the Child. New York: International Press, 1955. pp 100-116. , "Libidinal Fixation as Pedagogic Determinants, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 5:126-131, 1936. Machover, Karen, Personality Projection in the Drawing of the Human Figure. Springfield, Illinois: Bannerstone House, 1950. pp 181. Missildine, W. H., "The Emotional Background of Thirty Children with Reading Disabilities with Emphasis on ,Coercive Elements," Nervous Child, 5:263-272, July, l9u6. Monroe, Marion, Children Who Cannot Read. University of Chicago Press, 1932. pp 206. , Methods for Diagnosis and Treatment of Cases of Reading Disability. *Clark University Press, 1928. pp 1182- , and Bertie Backas, Remedial Reading: A Monograph in Character Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1937. pp 227. Pearson, Gerahi,"A Snvey of Learning Difficulties," The Psychoanalytic Studypof the Child. New York: Inter- national Universities Press, 1952. pp 322-386. 38. 39. A0. A1. A2. A3. A5. A6. A7. A8. A9. 50. 51. SA Plank, Emma and Robert Plank, "Emotional Components in Arithmetical Learning as Seen Through Autobiographies," The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. International Universities Press, 195A. New Yo rk: pp 27A-293. Robinson, Helen, "Personality and Reading," Modern Educa- tional Problems, 22:87-99, October, 1952. , WhylPupils Fail hiReading. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19A6. pp A29. , "Manifestations of Emotional Maladjustments," Supplementary_Educational Monographs, 68:11A-l22, June, 19A9. Russell, David H., "Reading Disabilities and Mental Health," Understanding the Child, 19A7. 16:2A- 32, January, Sherman, Mandil, "Emotional Disturbances and Reading '7 Disability, Supplementapy_Educational Monographs, A9zl26-13A, November, 1939. Shilder, Paul, "The Image and Appearance of the Human Body," Psyche Monograph, 6:22, September, 1935 Snygg, Donald and A. W. Combs, Individual Behavior. New York: Harper and Brothers, 19A8._ 6:289—290, 1936. pp7fi2677 Sperry, M. E., "A Comparison of Typical Cases and Evalua- tion of Treatment of Problem Children with Reading Disability," Smith College Studies in Social Work, Strachey, V., "Some Unconscious Factors in Reading," International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 9282-108, 1930. Strong, Ruth, Constance McCullough, and Arthur Traxler, New York: Problems in the Improvement of Reading. pp‘h26- Stroud, James B., Psychology in Education. Longmans, Green and Company, 19A6. McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1955. New York: pp 66A- Tomkins, Silvan, The Thematic Apperception Test. pp 297. York: Grune and Shatton, 19A7. New Traxler, Arthur E., "Ten Years of Research in Reading," Educational Research Bulletin, 32, July, 19u1. 55 52. Vorhaus, Pauline, A Manual on the Use of Selected Psy- chological Tests in Certain Aspects of the Diagnosis of Reading Problems. New York: Columbia University Press, 1950. pp 32A. 53. Wyrocki, H. J., "A Case of Number Phobia," International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 21:226-23A. 1938f APPENDIX APPENDIX A JUDGE'S RATING SCALE FOR SELF—CONCEPT The Judge's Rating Scale that was employed in the val- idating study was the typical rating scale consisting of five categories. This rating scale is reproduced below. JUDGE'S RATING SCALE FOR SELF-CONCEPT l 2 3 A 5 Immature Mature Self-Concept Self-Concept The middle three categories were not labled. The ex- treme categories were labled only to assure that a high score represented mature self-concept. The five components of self- concept as defined for this study were rated on the above scale resulting five ratings for each subject. APPENDIX B INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCS—DAP The usual precautions of adequate ventilation, light, materials, rest, et cetera that are taken before the adminis- tration of any test were assured prior to the administration of the SCS-DAP. The teacher was purposely not instructed as to the nature of the research so as to not bias the group in any way, being merely informed by the school administrator that her pupils would be employed at a certain hour as sub- jects for research. The subjects were supplied with one sheet of 8% by 11 inch white paper and pencils. They were requested to print their name, grade, and school on this paper and then turn the paper over so that they might have a completely free side of paper for their drawing. The following instructions were then read: I am interested in finding out some things about children and their drawings. I would like you to draw a picture of a person for me. Please draw all of the person. If you like, you may erase. Be sure to draw all of the person. The subjects were allowed to draw for as long as they wished but usually fifteen minutes was sufficient. Occasion- ally a subject would ask questions regarding clarification or direction. Most of the time these questions could be answered by repeating all or part of the instructions. An occasional question could not be satisfactorily answered in this fashion and extreme caution was exercised so that the answer in no way effected the drawing that was subsequently produced. ROOM USE em ‘ mm usr 922.1: ' 7 . "Simulation dept; . :» ass algr-u_-v ,‘O a TY. ‘lICHIGQN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES I ll lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll lllllllllllll lllllll 1293101958985